Autolab Application Note COR02

A/C
Interference
Guideline
Final Report
JUNE 2014
PREPARED BY:
R.A. GUMMOW, P.ENG, NACE CORROSION SPECIALIST NO.17
CORRENG CONSULTING SERVICE INC.
2-498 MARKLAND STREET
MARKHAM, ONTARIO,
L6C 1Z6, CANADA
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 AC Interference Modes and their Harmful Effects
2.1 AC Fault Conditions
2.1.1
General
2.1.2
Risk of Arcing 3
2.1.3
Coating Stress
2.1.4
Personnel Safety
2.2 Safety During Construction - Capacitive Coupling (Electrostatic Induction)
2.3 Steady-State Conditions
2.3.1
General
2.3.2
Personnel Shock Hazard
2.3.3
AC Corrosion 10
10
2.4 Other Harmful Effects of Steady-State Induced AC
13
3.0 Determining the Risk of AC Interference Effects
16
3.1 Risks Under Fault Conditions
16
3.1.1
Risk of Pipe Wall Damage
16
3.1.2
Risk of Coating Voltage Stress Damage
18
3.1.3
Risk of Shock Hazard on the Pipeline
Due to a Faulted Powerline Structure 18
3.1.4
Prediction of AC Voltages Under Fault Conditions 19
3.2 Risk of Shock Hazard from Steady-State AC Induction
19
3.3 Risk of AC Corrosion
23
3.4 Summary
24
4.0 Methods of Mitigating AC Interference
24
4.1 General
24
4.2 Mitigating Harmful Effects from a Powerline Fault
25
4.3 Mitigation of Electrostatically Induced Voltages
29
4.4 Mitigation of Electromagnetically Induced Voltages
30
4.4.1
General
30
4.4.2
For a New Pipeline on a Powerline ROW or a
New Powerline on a Pipeline ROW
31
4.4.3
DC Decouplers and Surge Protectors
33
4.5 Cathodic Protection Effectiveness in Mitigating AC Corrosion

4.5.1
Corrosion Control Criteria
37
37
4.5.2
Type of Cathodic Protection System 39
5.0 Monitoring Considerations
40
6.0 Summary
41
6.1 General
41
6.2 AC Interference Procedures
42
6.2.1
Preliminary
42
7.0 References
APPENDICES
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
A Recommended Pipeline & Powerline Information

B AC Interference Flow Chart
C Glossary of Terms
D List of Equations
Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Introduction
The location of steel pipelines in the vicinity of AC power transmission facilities has resulted in mutual
electrical interference problems that can produce damaging effects on both utilities and an electrical
hazard to pipeline personnel. The pervasive use of the utility corridor concept necessitates that the
electrical interference aspects be clearly defined and guidelines to minimize the harmful effects be
incorporated into pipeline and powerline specifications, designs, and operating procedures.
This document provides guidelines for identifying, mitigating, and monitoring AC interference on:
a pipeline located on a powerline right-of-way (ROW) and vice versa;

a pipeline ROW located parallel to a powerline ROW and vice versa;
laterals or extensions to any of the foregoing pipeline-powerline situations
pipelines crossing any pipeline subject to AC electrical interference
There are three modes of AC interference that can cause damage to pipeline systems and present an
electrical shock hazard to pipeline personnel, namely; inductive coupling resistive (conductive) coupling
and capacitive (electrostatic) coupling.
Inductive coupling occurs both under steady-state (normal operation) and fault conditions and the
magnitude of the induced AC voltage depends on the phase current, on the length of co-location, on the
distance between pipeline and powerline and on the pipeline-powerline configuration. The induced voltages
reach maximum values at discontinuities and gradually attenuate along the pipeline.
The second mode of AC interference on the pipelines, defined as resistive (conductive) coupling, only
appears under powerline fault conditions. The fault current flowing through the grounding of the high
voltage structure (i.e. pole or tower) produces a potential rise in the neighbouring soil defined as ground
potential rise (i.e. GPR). Part of this rise is transferred to the pipe and would be added to the AC induced
voltage.
The third mode of interference defined as capacitive (electrostatic) coupling is only a concern during
construction when the pipe is elevated on skids and not in contact with the ground.
Under steady-state conditions, the AC interference could result in safety problems for people coming in
contact with the metallic pipe or its appurtenances and in accelerated corrosion on the underground
section of the pipe (i.e. AC corrosion).
Under fault conditions, the AC interference could result in damage to the pipe itself (i.e. electrical arc
between the structure grounding and the pipe), in safety concerns for pipeline personnel and in damage
to pipeline coating, isolation flanges and CP equipment.
Powerline metallic tower footings, grounding systems, and guy wires are also susceptible to electrical
interference from impressed current cathodic protection systems when the powerline is in proximity to
the impressed current groundbed or where the powerline system is in close proximity to the impressed
current protected pipeline. The identification, mitigation, and monitoring of electrical interference between
electrical powerlines and pipelines should be considered a mutual concern that requires the cooperation of
both parties to optimize the effectiveness of any corrective measures. Mitigation measures typically
require the design of AC electrical grounding systems for safety in accordance with industry electrical
standards.[i,ii]
A/C Interference Guideline
Page 1
2. AC Interference Modes and their Harmful

Effects
AC FAULT CONDITIONS
General
Under fault conditions, AC interference on buried pipelines is due to both the resistive and inductive
coupling modes.
A phase to ground fault on a powerline, usually initiated by lightning, results in the conduction of
electrical power indirectly from one or more AC powerline phase conductors via the metallic tower to
ground, as illustrated in Figure 1, or directly to ground as a result of an overhead conductor falling to
ground.
Figure 1 Illustration of a Powerline Fault to Ground at a Tower near a Buried Pipeline

Powerline faults typically occur during inclement weather such as high winds, ice storms, or electrical
storms wherein, for the latter case, the fault is initiated by a lightning strike in the vicinity of the
powerline phase conductors and the pipeline. The probability of a lightning strike is relatively small,
especially in Canada, where the lightning ground flash density is relatively low (less than 10/km 2/yr).[iii]
However, the resulting nature of the damage to a nearby pipeline can be particularly severe under some
conditions and the electrical transmission of the fault current and voltage along the pipeline can produce
a voltage hazard to personnel.
If a pipeline is in proximity to the foundation or grounding of a faulted powerline structure, there is a risk
of an arc developing from the powerline grounding to the pipeline (resistive coupling), which could result
in damage to the pipe wall and/or the coating.
Even when the separation distance between the pipeline and the powerline structure exceeds the safe
distance and arcing is prevented, significant hazards can exist for pipeline personnel and to coating
integrity of the pipeline under fault conditions. When the fault current is discharged to the ground via the
tower foundation or via grounding electrodes (i.e. on wooden poles), the potential of the ground rises to
Page 2
several thousand volts (ground potential rise or GPR), which can result in a large potential differential
between the pipeline and the ground, most of which appears across the coating. However, some AC fault
current transfers through the coating and coating holidays, resulting in a portion of this GPR voltage
being transferred to the pipe (resistive coupling). Furthermore, if the powerline and the pipeline are
parallel, significant voltages can be induced in the pipeline by the fault current (inductive coupling).
Since the fault current, which is typically more than an order of magnitude higher than steady-state load
currents, is carried by only one phase conductor, the induced voltage can reach thousands of volts for the
duration of the fault. This voltage is typically opposite in phase to the GPR and therefore, vectorially
additive in terms of voltage differential.
Due to this voltage differential, personnel can be exposed to a shock hazard at above grade pipeline
appurtenances and there is a risk of coating damage close to the faulted tower, where the GPR is high
and the pipeline potential is close to zero or in opposite phase, if there is induction. A safety hazard can
also exist at above grade pipeline appurtenances or stations remote from the faulted tower, where the
GPR is close to zero, due to high voltages induced or transferred to the pipeline under fault conditions.
The presence of shield wires on a powerline also affects the GPR of the faulted tower and the electromagnetically induced voltages on the pipeline. The purpose of these wires is to protect the phase
conductors from lightning strikes but they can also affect the steady-state induced voltage and the
induced fault voltage. When a fault occurs on a tower a significant portion of the fault current goes to
towers upstream and downstream of the faulted tower resulting in less fault current at the faulted tower
(typically less than 20% of the total fault current) than would otherwise be expected. This means that the
GPR produced by a fault will be less at the faulted tower than if the entire fault current passed to ground
at a single tower. If there are no shield wires then all of the fault current enters the earth at the faulted
tower which produces a larger GPR, and generally represents the worst case.
Risk of Arcing
If an arc develops between the faulted structure and the pipeline (sometimes called a flashover) or a
lightning initiated arc to the pipe is sustained through the ionized soil path by the powerline voltage, then
substantial damage can be done to the pipeline coating, pipe wall (through melting), and to pipeline
facilities such as isolation fittings, bonding cables, transformer rectifiers, and monitoring equipment.
There are a number of reported cases of pipeline rupture during powerline faults caused by melting of the
pipe wall.[iv,v,vi,vii]
Besides the possible localized damage to the pipeline coating and pipe wall during a flashover, the fault
current and its associated voltage crest will be transmitted along the pipeline away from the fault location
and can produce a hazardous voltage to anyone that happens to be touching a pipeline appurtenance, such
as a valve or pipe riser, or a pipeline metallic connection, such as a cathodic protection test lead or
bonding cable. In addition to this, there is a risk of flashover at crossings with foreign pipelines and
watermains, and at isolation flanges, as well as, the potential for damage to pipeline equipment, such as
monitoring facilities and rectifiers.
Even though the probability of an individual being electrocuted during a fault is small, a powerline fault to
ground that results in an arc to the pipeline can transmit enough power to melt the wall of the pipe, if
sufficient fault current enters the pipe over the fault duration. Webster et al[viii] found that, for a 6 cycle
duration fault, perforation of steel pipe having wall thicknesses between 5.6 mm and 9.54 mm resulted
from fault currents ranging from 15.1 - 44 kA. In another study, Drakos[ix] conducted field fault tests on
35 mm diameter coated steel pipe placed near a 230 kV line. The maximum test fault current was 7.8 kA
in 100 Ohm-m clay. It was found that there was a linear relationship between the fault current magnitude
and both the depth and diameter of the melted area as shown in Figure 2.
Page 3
20
Melted Zone, mm
Diameter Depth
Data obtained from test pipe on which
only one electrically damaged region
occurred. Ip is a measured value.
10
Data obtained from test pipe on which

several electrically damaged regions
occurred. Ip is an estimated value only.
Thickness of Pipe Wall
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
Current Entering Pipe, kA (Peak)

Figure 2 Diameter and Depth of Melted Area vs. AC Current
A melted spot on a pipe wall can be a problem even in the absence of a perforation, since there will be a
heat affected zone and rapid cooling after the fault can create a hardened surface that is susceptible to
cracking and hydrogen embrittlement.
In simulated fault tests carried out by Webster et al[x] arc damage on coated pipes was determined to be
a function of the coating type and thickness. Coal tar enamel coated pipe suffered the most pipe wall
damage and the least coating damage. Often the wall melt area was the same size as the coating damage
area. However, the coating damage areas on the polyethylene and fusion bonded coated pipe were
Page 4
several times larger than the wall melt areas. On the other hand, arc damage caused by small fault
currents (< 1 kA) over a fault duration of 12 cycles was independent of the coating type.
Electrical components connected to the pipeline such as transformer rectifiers, operating electronics, and
monitoring equipment can be damaged as a result of a flashover at a tower, since the fault voltage crest
can extend for considerable distance along the pipeline from the fault location. Silicon diodes are
particularly susceptible to failure when subjected to a sudden voltage crest. The fault current can also burn
out pipeline bonds, resistance bonds, and insulating flanges.
Just as pipeline crossings with foreign metallic structures are critical locations for DC interference, the
same applies with respect to AC interference. The close proximity of two metallic structures creates a low
resistance current path between them, and under fault conditions could result in flashover or transfer of
the AC fault current at a crossing and cause damage to the pipeline(s) or coatings.
Coating Stress
A fault condition that does not melt the pipe wall can still cause coating damage depending on the fault
voltage appearing across the coating and the dielectric strength of the coating material. Typical dielectric
strengths of various insulating materials are shown in Table 1.
Table 1 Dielectric Strength as a Function of Coating Material
Coating Type
Dielectric Strength
Polyethylene
18.9 kV/mm
Epoxy Resin
19.7 kV/mm
Polyurethanes
~25.0 kV/mm
Enamels
47.4 kV/mm
[xi]
The ability of the coating to withstand a voltage stress is also a function of the duration of the fault.
Dabkowski[xii] conducted high voltage tests on a variety of holiday free pipeline coatings by applying
voltage pulses in 500 V increments until a coating puncture occurred. The diameter of the coating
penetrations was found to be about 1 mm. The pulse period varied from about 50 ms to 1 second. A
typical fault clearing time is about 100 ms. The results of these tests are given in Table 2.
Table 2 Coating Puncture Voltage Levels
[xiii]
Coating Type
Voltage Level
Fusion Bonded Epoxy
1000 v/mil
Coal Tar Epoxy
3500 v
Coal Tar
4500 v
Coal Tar Enamel
5000 v
Personnel Safety
The probability of personnel being fatally exposed to a fault current is small because the fault duration is
small, normally less than 10 cycles and the likelihood of someone being
in contact with the pipe during inclement weather is also small. For example, there are usually no barriers
around powerline towers to prevent a person from touching the tower, because the probability of
someone being exposed to a fatal voltage during a fault is very small (~10-6).[xiv]
Page 5
However, because a flashover fault current or transferred fault current can be transmitted along a pipeline
for some distance from the faulted tower location, the safety of pipeline personnel should remain an
important consideration. For short duration faults, the touch voltage tolerance of an individual is directly
dependent on the weight of the person and the soil resistivity and inversely to the square root of the
exposure time as shown in the following equation[xv] for a 50 kg person.
Vtouch-tolerance = (1000 + 1.5) 0.116/t
[Eqn 1]
where:
= soil resistivity (-m)
t = time (s)
During a short duration fault, the metal-to-metal touch voltage tolerance is also given for a 50 kg person
in IEEE Std 80-2000 as follows.
V metal-metal = 116/t
[Eqn 1a]
Fault voltage values, transferred to the pipeline, need to be calculated using computer modelling
software. When calculating the maximum touch voltage, the decrement factor described in IEEE Std 802000 Section 15.10, is not usually considered because the asymmetrical current is generally taken into
account when the power utility calculates the fault current as an RMS value.
A metal-to-metal touch voltage hazard can also exist across an isolating fitting during faults and in some
cases during steady-state conditions, but is eliminated if a DC decoupler is connected across the fitting. If
not, the AC voltage to ground on each side of the insulator might not be at a hazardous voltage, but
because these voltages are typically 180 out of phase, for an inline isolator, they are additive and
therefore can present a metal-to-metal touch voltage hazard.
For an isolating fitting to a lateral or one that is not on a co-located section of the pipeline, the steadystate voltage across the isolator will not be 180 out of phase, so the AC voltage will not be greater than
the pipeline voltage to ground at that point, although a metal-to-metal touch voltage hazard would still
exist during a fault.
SAFETY DURING CONSTRUCTION - CAPACITIVE COUPLING (ELECTROSTATIC INDUCTION)
For electrostatic coupling, AC electrical energy is transferred through the electrical capacitance that exists
between the overhead phase conductors and a pipeline, which is insulated from the ground, and the
capacitance between the pipeline and earth. This situation is illustrated in Figure 3.
Page 6
Conducting
Plates
Air
Dielectric
Figure 3 Electrostatic (Capacitive) Coupling between Powerline Overhead Conductor and

Pipeline Sections Sitting on Insulating Skids
The overhead AC phase conductors and the pipeline supported on wooden skids form a capacitor with an
air dielectric. Similarly, the pipeline and the ground, acting as a conductive medium also form a capacitor.
The voltage difference between the overhead phase conductor and ground divides across these capacitors
in inverse proportion to the faradic value of the two capacitors. The pipeline voltage to ground is a direct
function of the overhead phase conductor voltage to earth, inversely proportional to the distance between
the pipe and overhead conductor, and independent of the length of the pipeline. Voltages as high as 1000
V have been measured on skidded up pipe located on a 120 kV powerline right-of-way. Although this
would be considered a hazardous voltage because it exceeds the 15 V touch potential limit stipulated in
the NACE SP0177-2007 standard,[xvi] the AC current is in the microampere range and therefore does not
constitute a shock hazard because it is below a current of 5 mA. However, it is considered a safety
hazard to refuel vehicles, that are located on an AC powerline right-of-way, because of the possibility of
fuel ignition. This hazard can be avoided by bonding the vehicles prior to refueling.
The electrostatic induced voltage on a pipeline is negligible on a buried pipeline, because the charge leaks
to earth through the coating, which reduces the voltage.
STEADY-STATE CONDITIONS
General
Under steady-state (normal) powerline operation, the only significant mode of AC interference on buried
pipelines is due to electromagnetic coupling.
Electrical energy can be transferred from an overhead powerline due to electromagnetic coupling wherein
an alternating current in a phase conductor causes a current to be induced in the pipeline because of the
changing magnetic flux produced by the overhead conductor phase current as illustrated in Figure 4.
Page 7
I1
I2
Figure 4 - Electromagnetically Induced Current in a Pipeline
Every phase conductor of every circuit on one or more powerlines, which parallel the pipeline, produces a
magnetic field, the strength of which is directly dependent on the magnitude of the individual phase
current and inversely proportional to the distance between phase conductor and the pipeline. Phase
conductor currents can range from several hundred amperes to 2000 A. The resulting current in the pipe
appears as a result of only the net magnetic field produced by all the phase conductors. AC powerline circuits
consist of three phases separated by 120, such that if a conductor is located equidistant from each phase
and if each phase was transmitting the same current there would be no net magnetic field and therefore,
no net current induced in this conductor. Of course, it is impractical to locate a pipeline equidistant from
each phase and in addition to this the phase currents in each circuit are not exactly the same (i.e. phase
imbalance). Therefore, there is inevitably a steady-state induced current in a pipeline that parallels a
powerline and that is within the influence of the magnetic field produced by the individual phase currents.
The induced alternating current in the pipeline produces a longitudinally induced voltage (Vind) along the
length of the pipeline, such that the voltage at each end of the pipe is 180 out of phase, as shown in
Figure 5.
Page 8
Vind
+++ + +++ +
++ ++ ++++
Vind
Figure 5 - Illustration of Electric Charge Separation Toward the Ends of a Pipe Section
due to Electromagnetic Induction
At any instant in time the voltage between the pipeline and earth (Vg) at the end of the illustrated
pipeline will be one half the induced voltage (i.e. Vg = Vind/2) and the voltage to ground along the
pipeline between the ends will be less than Vg. The magnitude of the induced voltage is directly
proportional to the phase current, the length of parallelism, the resistance of the pipe coating, the
resistivity of the earth, the relative difference in operating magnitude of the phase currents (phase current
imbalance), and inversely proportional to the distance between the pipe and the phase conductor.
For a coated pipeline, the pipeline electrical circuit and the AC pipeline voltage profile (V g vs. distance) is
illustrated in Figure 6 for a simple case of a single pipeline paralleling a single AC powerline. The
powerline net magnetic field induces an electric field in the pipeline which produces the AC current.
Page 9
Figure 6 Illustrating the Pipeline Electrical Circuit with Induced Voltage Generators and the
Resulting Linear Induced Voltage Profile on a Well Coated Pipeline
In the illustration there are five pipeline segments, each containing an electric field generator that is
connected in series and that results in a linearly increasing magnitude of AC voltage towards the ends,
where a voltage peak develops at the point of powerline-pipeline separation. Similar voltage peaks occur
at any location where there is an electromagnetic discontinuity between the powerline and pipeline such
as, when the pipeline crosses back and forth across the right-of-way, at powerline feeds into a substation, at insulating fittings in the pipeline, and at phase transpositions on the powerline.
For a well coated pipeline closely paralleling a high voltage powerline, that is operating at high current
capacity, the induced voltage peaks can be up to hundreds of volts. As this is a steady-state voltage, it
presents three significant areas of concern, namely a shock hazard to pipeline personnel, an AC corrosion
threat to pipeline integrity, and depolarization of the pipe-to-soil potentials or cathodic protection levels.
Personnel Shock Hazard
The shock hazard arising from induced AC has been widely recognized for many years in North America,
where the NACE SP0177 Standard[xvii] stipulates that an AC voltage of 15 V or greater between a pipeline
appurtenance and ground, which could expose a person to a touch voltage, is considered a shock hazard.
This requires that the touch voltage be reduced to a safe level or the pipeline be treated as a live electrical
conductor. The 15 V limit was determined by multiplying 15 mA (considered the current limit below which a
person could let go when grasping an electrified conductor) and 1000 Ohm (conservatively considered the
human body resistance assuming a contact resistances of zero ohms).
In Europe[xviii] the touch voltage limit is typically 50 V before remedial action is required.
AC Corrosion
Although AC was known to cause corrosion of carbon steel since a 1916 report by the US National Bureau
of Standards[xix] it was not considered to be serious[xx] as long as the pipeline was cathodically polarized
to industry standards (e.g. equal to or more electronegative than -850mVCSE). However, observations of
AC corrosion on cathodically protected pipelines were reported in the early 1990s in Europe, which
prompted research investigations confirming that at certain AC current densities, AC corrosion could be
expected to occur on cathodically protected pipelines.[xxi,xxii,xxiii]
Page 10
Despite numerous research studies, the AC corrosion mechanism is still not well understood, and empirical
results must be used to assess the AC corrosion risk for cathodically protected pipelines. From these early
studies, guidelines relating the probability of AC corrosion to AC current density and also the ratio of AC
current density to CP current density were derived as shown in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3 - AC Corrosion Probability on a Cathodically Protected
[xxiv]
Steel Pipeline based on AC Current Density (iac)
AC Current Density
AC Corrosion Probability
iac 20A/m
2
Low
2
20A/m < iac < 100A/m

2
iac > 100A/m
Unpredictable
Expected
The European standard on evaluating AC corrosion probability stipulates an AC current density 30A/m2
as the low probability corrosion threshold.[xxv] In the unpredictable range, one source states only current
densities above 50A/m2 are serious.[xxvi]
Cathodic protection can mitigate AC corrosion depending on the DC current density (idc). A recent
laboratory study[xxvii] suggests that as iac increases, even greater than 100A/m2, corrosion control can still
be maintained by increasing idc as long as overprotection is avoided (i.e. Ep,off < -1200mVCSE).
The European Standard EN 12954 classifies the AC corrosion likelihood on the i ac/idc ratio as shown in
Table 4.
Table 4 AC Corrosion Probability on Cathodically Protected
[xxviii]
Steel Pipelines based on iac/idc Ratio
Iac/idc Ratio
AC Corrosion Probability
iac / idc < 5
Low Likelihood
5 iac / idc 10
Moderate Likelihood
iac / idc > 10
High Likelihood
There is a limit to the DC current density compared to the AC, since the AC mitigated voltage is typically
several times greater than the applied cathodic protection potential.
A NACE standard is being prepared on AC corrosion that will provide more detailed information on these
current density relationships and other aspects of AC corrosion susceptibility.
Recent research[xxix] has indicated that applying a highly negative potential can actually accelerate the AC
corrosion under some conditions. This is attributed to reduction of the spread resistance at a holiday due
to concentration of hydroxyl ions generated in the reduction reaction for high cathodic protection current
densities.
Ormellese et al[xxx] conducted AC corrosion testing on cathodically protected steel coupons in simulated soil
conditions by varying the amount of both the AC and DC current densities. The AC corrosion rates as a
function of both the AC and DC current densities are illustrated in Figure 7. They concluded that the 850mVCSE criterion does not ensure protection in the presence of AC interference similar to previous
studies but also found that the CP level may be considered effective if the protection potential is in the
range -1.0 to -1.2VCSE, provided iac / idc ratio is lower than 20 and no overprotection conditions were
established.
Page 11
Figure 7 Residual Corrosion Rate of Carbon Steel Specimens

as a Function of AC and CP Current Density
The results also illustrate that the AC corrosion rate increased when the cathodic protection current
density was 10 A/m2. It should be noted that the foregoing two studies were not carried out in soil where
a calcareous deposit would be likely to form on the steel at the higher cathodic protection current
densities. Calcareous deposits would increase the spread resistance and lower the AC current density.
Therefore, it is questionable whether similar results would be observed in the field, since most soils contain
carbonate and bicarbonate ions that promote the formation of calcareous deposits at the pipe-earth
interface when the pH is raised by the application of cathodic protection.
Besides AC current density, there are other factors that affect the AC corrosion rate as summarized in
Table 5.[xxxi]
Table 5 - Table of Factors Other than AC Current Density
Affecting the AC Corrosion Rate of Steel
Factor
Effect on AC Corrosion Rate
Time
Decreases with increasing time
AC Frequency
Decreases with increasing frequency
Environment
Increases in deaerated environments
Coating Defect Size
Increases with decreasing surface area but peaks at 1cm
Page 12
OTHER HARMFUL EFFECTS OF STEADY-STATE INDUCED AC

The presence of a steady-state induced voltage on the pipeline can have harmful effects other than AC
corrosion, such as problems with the accurate measurement of pipeline polarized potentials.
Superimposed AC can cause depolarization of a pipeline, as shown in Figure 8, for steel coupon probes
attached to a polyethylene coated gas transmission pipeline.[xxxii]
Figure 8 Off-Potential of the Probe at Test Stations

with and without Induced AC Voltage
The instant-off potentials of the steel probes for this test station survey were all shifted in the
electropositive direction when the AC was on. The largest potential differential occurred in the T40 - T45, and
T20 areas, where the AC current density was greater than 50 A/m2. The dc current density provided by
magnesium anodes also increased when the AC was on.
The increase in cathodic protection from the magnesium anodes is counter to the findings of several
researchers who have reported that the potential of the magnesium shifts electropositively as the AC
current density increases. Bruckner[xxxiii] demonstrated the magnesium anode positive shift with increasing
anode AC current density, as shown in Figure 9.
Page 13
-1400
1 day
5 days
9 days
-1200
-1000
-800
-600
-400
-200
200
0
0
100
155
200
310
300
465
400
620
500 mA/in2
775 A/m2
AC Current Density
Figure 9 - Single Electrode Potential of Mg vs. AC Density in a Fe-Mg Cell
Furthermore, he found that magnesium reversed its potential and became a cathode to a steel electrode
at AC anode current densities greater than 150 A/m2. Hamlin,[xxxiv] also found that the magnesium anode
potential shifted electropositively at an AC anode current density of 100 A/m 2 after 1 hour. Miura et
al[xxxv] found that the magnesium anode potential shifted to electropositive potentials vs SCE immediately
upon the application of 100 A/m2 AC current density, although the magnesium anode potential drifted
back in the electronegative direction over a 240 hour period as shown in Figure 10.
Page 14
+0.4
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
100 A/m 2, Idc = 10 A/m 2
-1.2
100 A/m 2, Idc = 0

0.0, 0.1, 1, 10 A/m 2, Idc = 0
-1.6
0
60
120
180
240
Time (hr.)
Figure 10 - Potential of Magnesium Anode vs. Time for Different AC Current
Densities and DC Current Density (redrawn from Miura, C. et al, pp. 436-437)
These AC current densities are typically an order of magnitude higher than is likely to be experienced in
actual practice. If the anode potential in the long term is unaffected by the AC current density, which
tends to depolarize the pipeline, then the anode dc current output will increase thus increasing anode
consumption and decreasing anode life.
Cathodic protection potential measurements can be in error if the voltmeter does not have a satisfactory
AC filter on the input. This is especially important when conducting close interval potential surveys, since
the trailing wire from the voltmeter to the test station will be subject to induced AC from the overhead
powerlines. The induced voltage at the voltmeter can be in-phase with the pipe induced voltage at the
test station or out of phase depending on the survey direction.
Some current interrupters have a diode connected across their output terminals which can introduce a
pipe-to-soil potential measurement error. When the cathodic protection system is interrupted, an error
appears due to the half wave rectification of the pipe AC potential by the interrupter diode. In addition,
induced AC will also be rectified at transformer-rectifier (TR) locations. If the TR is interrupted in the AC
circuit, then it will still rectify induced AC on the pipeline, such that, a true instant-off potential will not be
measured.
Page 15
3. Determining the Risk of AC Interference

Effects
RISKS UNDER FAULT CONDITIONS
Risk of Pipe Wall Damage
A powerline phase to ground fault at a tower that results in an arc (flashover) to a nearby pipeline can
melt the pipeline wall if it is close enough to the tower footings or powerline grounding system. This has
been considered the most serious of the AC effects on pipelines in an international survey.[xxxvi] Resistance
coupling is not only a risk when the pipeline parallels a powerline but also when a pipeline crosses a
powerline close to a tower. The risk can be assessed on the basis of the limiting ionization distance to
avoid a sustained arc which is considered the safe separation distance. This distance is a function of the
fault current magnitude and the soil resistivity. The fault current magnitude, which can be in tens of kA,
is usually calculated by the powerline utility and the value used to calculate a safe separation distance.
Sunde[xxxvii] has produced equations to calculate the safe separation distance (r) based on the lightning
fault current and soil resistivity as follows.
For < 100 -m
r = 0.08 If x
[Eqn 2]
For > 1000 -m
r = 0.047 If x
[Eqn 3]
where:
r = distance over which arcing can occur (m)
If = lightning fault current (kA)
The Sunde equations are related to arcing due to lightning, hence the current in the formula is the
lightning current. For the vast majority of lightning strikes (95%), the lightning current is less than 100
kA. Considering this as a worse case, the calculated safe separation distance for 100 -m and 1000 -m
soil is 8 m and 14.8 m respectively. Where the soil resistivity is between 100 and 1000 -m, then
Equation 2 will produce the largest r value which should be considered the safe separation distance.
The Canadian Electricity Association (CEA) report 239T817 Powerline Ground Fault Effects on Pipelines
describes the tests that were conducted to determine the voltages required to sustain a lightning initiated
arc to a pipeline through various soil types over a range of distances. The test results were used to
develop a regression formula giving the critical voltage to sustain an arc as a function of the separation
distance in native soil:
Vcrit = 5.801 + 0.0703 D
[Eqn 4]
where:
D = separation distance (cm)
Vcrit = tower voltage rise (kV)
Page 16
The CEA performed similar testing to determine the flashover distance assuming that there is no lightning
initiated arc. The test results were used to develop a regression formula giving the critical flashover
voltage to initiate and sustain an arc in native soil as a function of the separation distance in cm:
Vcrit = 18.01 + 0.1082 D
[Eqn 5]
where:
D = separation distance (cm)
Vcrit = tower voltage rise (kV)
If the fault current is known, the voltage rise of the tower can be calculated. The voltage rise of the tower
can then be entered into the above regression formulas to determine the safe separation distance. The
Sunde formula can be used to determine whether there is a risk of initiation of a lightning arc, in which case
Equation 4 is applicable. If there is negligible risk of a lightning arc developing, then the arc flashover
calculation in Equation 5 can be used to calculate the safe distance.
Alternatively, when the fault current is not known, the safe separation distance to avoid a flashover can
be estimated, as a worst case, using the powerline voltage rating and the soil resistivity, as shown in
Figure 11.
40
138 kV
230 kV
500 kV
30
20
10
0
0
6500
15000
30000
45000
Soil Resistivity (ohm-cm)

Figure 11 Flashover Distances (Linearly Extrapolated Data) vs.
Soil Resistivity for Different Transmission Line Voltages [xxxviii]
Page 17
This data shows that, as the soil resistivity increases the safe separation distance decreases exponentially
and, as the power line voltage rating increases, the safe separation distance also increases. Both the
voltage rating and the soil resistivity are parameters that determine the magnitude of the fault current.
Both methods require knowledge of the soil resistivity at each tower-pipeline location and soil layering
conditions, because the fault current magnitude is inversely proportional to the soil resistivity.
When the voltage rise of the tower and the soil resistivity at each tower-pipeline location is not known,
then the maximum sustained arc lengths, listed in Table 6, should be used. These are considered worst
case values, because they are based on native soil having a resistivity of 65 -m and the maximum
possible phase-to-ground voltage as in Equation 4.
Table 6 Predicted Safe Separation Distances from HVAC Towers
System Voltage
(kV)
Predicted Maximum
Sustained Arc Length
(m)
35
2.5
69
5.0
120
9.1
230
18
500
41
Risk of Coating Voltage Stress Damage

Even if a safe separation distance to avoid arcing is achieved, there remains a concern of possible
damage to the coating during a fault. When there is a powerline fault at a tower, there is a ground
potential rise (GPR), which raises the potential of the earth at the pipeline with respect to remote earth. If
the pipeline parallels the powerline, there can also be induced voltage on the pipeline which would be
vectorially additive to the GPR. Any voltage transferred to the pipeline would reduce the voltage across
the coating. The voltage difference between the pipe metal and the local earth is the coating stress.
Under high voltage stress, there can be a dielectric breakdown of the coating, depending on the
magnitude and duration of the applied voltage, and coating type and thickness. The ground potential rise
at a distance from the tower can be calculated, if the tower grounding configuration, fault current, and
soil resistivity is known.
The NACE SP0177-2007 standard contains threshold voltage limits in the range of 2 kV for tape wraps
and coal tar enamels and 3 to 5 kV for fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) and polyethylene coatings for a short
duration fault. There is no reference for these threshold values and they appear overly conservative when
compared to the dielectric strength values listed in Table 1. Unfortunately, use of an overly conservative
coating stress voltage can result in over spending on mitigation measures especially when a powerline fault
is relatively rare. Alternatively, Table 2 lists more pragmatic coating stress voltage thresholds for
evaluating the possibility of coating damage.
Risk of Shock Hazard on the Pipeline Due to a Faulted Powerline Structure

A shock hazard to pipeline personnel and the public can arise under both powerline fault and steady-state
operation. A powerline fault is a relatively rare, short duration event, which tends to lower the risk,
especially if personnel are directed to not engage in any pipe contact work during inclement weather.
Nevertheless, the fault voltage transmitted to the pipeline can be in the range of thousands of volts and
Page 18
can be transferred along the pipeline for tens of kilometers, which increases the exposure risk. As shown
in Equation 1, the voltage tolerance is a function of body weight and inversely related to the square root
of the fault duration in seconds. The probability of a shock hazard risk arising from a pipeline passing a
single tower is extremely small, especially in geographical regions where the lightning rate is low. The fact
that metallic powerline towers are seldom fenced to keep the public away from contacting them,
demonstrates that a shock hazard risk is considered to be small. Furthermore, most powerline faults are
initiated by lightning and the risk of a person being fatally struck by lightning has been estimated to be
10-7 per year.[xxxix] It follows that the shock hazard risk from a single tower-pipeline encounter is also
small.
For a pipeline that parallels a powerline for long distances and passes many towers, the shock hazard risk
increases, especially where the co-located pipeline and powerline are in a high incidence of lightning
region. At the moment there is no probability value that is generally recognized to determine whether or
not remedial action is required.
Prediction of AC Voltages Under Fault Conditions

The AC interference on a pipeline due to fault conditions cannot be measured in the field. A graphical
approach or manual calculations can be used in some simple cases to estimate the pipeline coating stress
and touch potentials due to a powerline phase to ground fault. However, in most cases modeling software
is required as there are multiple modes of AC interference acting on a pipeline due to a fault: GPR of the
ground in proximity to the faulted tower, induced AC voltages and transferred AC voltages.
RISK OF SHOCK HAZARD FROM STEADY-STATE AC INDUCTION

Whereas the probability of a shock hazard is small for fault events because of their rarity, this does not
apply to steady-state induced voltages, which are continually present on a paralleling pipeline. In terms
of a safe steady-state voltage, the magnitude of a possible touch voltage must be 15 V or less. For an
existing pipeline, the AC voltage can be determined at a test station location using a similar procedure as
for pipe-to-soil potential measurements, except with the voltmeter set on the AC voltage scale.
It should be noted however, that the powerline current loading can vary daily, weekly, and seasonally.
Phase conductor currents vary seasonally and typically peak in the summer due to air conditioning loads
and in the winter due to increased heating and lighting loads. If the AC voltage measurements are made
in conjunction with an annual cathodic protection survey, the seasonal variation should be taken into
account when assessing the touch voltage hazard. This can be accomplished by time-stamping the AC
measurements, obtaining the actual powerline loading during the survey period from the utility and
correcting the measured values for annual maximum and average powerline loading. When measured AC
voltages are between 10 to 15 V, the AC voltage should be recorded for at least 24 hours to evaluate
whether or not there is a significant daily change in powerline loading.
For new pipelines, that are to be constructed along a powerline right-of-way, an estimate of the expected
induced voltage level can be determined by field testing, as illustrated in Figure 12. This measurement
involves connecting an insulated cable to a ground rod and laying the cable on the ground along the
intended route of the pipeline for several hundred meters and then measuring the AC voltage to a ground
pin. The measured voltage is an indication of the magnitude of the longitudinal electric field (LEF) to which
the pipeline would be exposed. Multiplying this measured value by the length of parallel co-location will
provide an approximation of the total induced AC voltage on the pipeline. The peak voltage-to-ground
(Vg) would then be one-half of this total. Again, in using this approach, it is important to account for the
Page 19
powerline loading at the time of the test, due to the often large daily and seasonal fluctuations in
powerline loading.
V
LEF
L
Figure 12 - Field Testing Arrangement to Determine the Longitudinal Electric Field (LEF)
Gradient Produced by an Existing Powerline
This method cannot be utilized when a new powerline is to be constructed on an existing pipeline right-ofway and other techniques need to be employed. The longitudinal electric field (LEF) can also be estimated
by graphical means for single pipeline and single powerline arrangements, as shown in Figure 13 for a
horizontal arrangement of phase conductors and Figure 14 for a vertical arrangement of phase
conductors.[xl]
Page 20
Figure 13 - Longitudinal Electric Field for Single Pipeline and Single Powerline Arrangement for
a Horizontal Arrangement of Phase Conductors
These curves relate the longitudinally induced electric field (LEF), expressed as volts per kilometer of
parallelism per ampere of phase current, to the normalized distance ratio (d/s) between the powerline
and the center of the pipeline. For the horizontal case the normalized distance is measured from the
center of the tower, whereas for the vertical powerline phase arrangement the normalized distance is
measured from the vertical conductors, not the center of the tower. The family of curves illustrates the
effect of the ratio of phase spacing (s) and the conductor height (h) on the induced longitudinal electric
field. It is assumed that the phase currents are balanced (i.e. Ia = Ib = Ic) and that the soil resistivity is
10 -m. Higher soil resistivities would result in larger LEF and lower soil resistivities would result in a
smaller LEF.
Values for the tower geometry and operating phase currents need to be obtained from the power utility.
The resulting normalized electric field is multiplied by the length of parallelism to calculate the total
longitudinally induced voltage, half of which is the peak pipeline AC voltage-to-ground (Vg) that would
appear at the end of the paralleling section. These parameters are included in the list of powerline
information, as shown in Appendix A, that is needed to assess the induced voltage magnitude. When the
estimated magnitude of the pipe-to-ground AC voltage, as calculated for the average peak phase current
loading, is in the 10-15 V range, then a more comprehensive investigation is needed using commercially
available computer programs to calculate the induced voltage profile.
Page 21
Figure 14 - Longitudinal Electric Field for Single Pipeline and Single Powerline Arrangement for
a Vertical Arrangement of Phase Conductors
When there are two vertical circuits and the phases are arranged in a center line symmetrical order (i.e. aa, b-b, & c-c) on the tower, then the voltage calculated for a single circuit can, for approximation
purposes, be doubled which will produce a conservative estimate. This assumes that phase currents are
the same in each circuit, that the phase currents are balanced, and that both circuits exist in the
paralleling section.
For the simple horizontal and vertical powerline arrangement, the use of Figures 13 & 14 assumes that
the pipeline and powerline parallel one another at a fixed separation distance and separate from each
other at the end of the parallel run. This will produce a voltage peak (Vg) at each end of the pipeline that
is equal to one half the induced voltage (Vind), if the pipeline is well coated and the paralleling length is
not too long (i.e. where the propagation constant is small and therefore voltage attenuation is negligible).
Page 22
Voltage peaks can also occur at other locations besides the ends, if there is an electromagnetic
discontinuity between the pipeline and powerline, such as where:
the paralleling pipeline crosses back and forth across the powerline or vice versa,
there is an isolating fitting in the pipeline
the powerline feeds an electrical substation
there is a phase transposition (phase positions are rearranged on the powerline)
For monitoring of the AC voltage on a pipeline, it is important to measure pipe-to-ground voltages at any
of the foregoing locations using existing cathodic protection test leads and other appurtenances or after
installing test facilities at these critical locations.
RISK OF AC CORROSION
The risk of AC corrosion is dependent on the AC current density, the cathodic protection current density,
and the soil conditions at a holiday, but the actual corrosion mechanism is not well understood.
Therefore, the AC current density and its ratio to the DC current density, as described in Table 3 and 4
respectively, can be used to evaluate the possibility of AC corrosion. A direct measurement of the AC
current density is not straight forward on a pipeline, unless coupons are installed at locations along a new
or existing pipeline.
A number of German researchers found that the highest corrosion penetration rate was on surface areas
of 1 to 2 cm2.[xli,xlii] Where coupons are not installed, so that the AC current can be measured directly,
then the AC current density can be estimated indirectly by calculation, if the pipeline AC voltage-toground (Vg) and the soil resistivity are measured and this data is used in the following equation.
iac = 8 Vg / d
[Eqn 6]
where:
iac = AC current density (A/m2)
Vg = AC voltage of pipeline with respect to earth (volts)
= soil resistivity at pipe depth (-m)
d = diameter of a circular holiday (m)
For AC corrosion mitigation design purposes where a 1cm2 coupon, having a diameter of
0.0113m, is intended to be used, the forgoing equation can be simplified to the following
equation.
iac = 225 Vg /
[Eqn 6a]
The calculated AC current density values can then be compared to the current density ranges listed in
Table 3 in order to classify the corrosion risk. To use the data in Table 4 requires knowledge of the DC
current density, which again can only be determined using buried coupons, which should have a minimum
surface area of 10 cm2 to provide a value that is within the range of the meter resolution. Both the AC
and DC coupon currents can be recorded, with a data logger or remotely monitored, to determine the
variation in the induced AC with time.
Page 23
Alternatively, the AC corrosion rate can be evaluated directly using corrosion rate probes and special
instrumentation.[xliii] This information can also be obtained by remote monitoring.
For new pipelines, the AC current density can be estimated from the induced voltage profile as calculated
from modeling software before the pipeline is installed, providing that a detailed soil resistivity survey is
conducted, at close intervals, along the intended pipeline route. This information is not only useful for
determining the likelihood of AC corrosion but also for designing AC mitigation systems.
SUMMARY
Assessing the magnitude of the risk of AC interference effects, on new or existing pipelines, requires
comprehensive technical analysis to address both the powerline fault and steady-state induced conditions.
This involves collecting baseline information on both the pipeline and powerline as indicated in Appendix
A1 and A2 and determining powerline fault current effects adjacent to each tower, on the pipe wall, the
pipe coating, the pipeline electrical equipment, and the resulting safety hazard for pipeline personnel.
When a conservative safe separation distance, as indicated in Figure 11 cannot be achieved, then
computer calculations should be utilized to evaluate the risks.
The AC steady-state interference condition must also be evaluated with respect to AC corrosion, and
safety to pipeline personnel and the public. The pipeline steady-state induced voltage level should not
exceed 15 V at locations, where the public or personnel can contact the pipeline, and the AC current
density must be reduced, based on a 1 cm2 holiday, so that the AC corrosion rate is at an acceptable
value, when the cathodic protection system is operating normally. Computer modelling of the AC voltage
and current density profiles are usually required to complete this analysis.
Design and implementation of mitigation methods are often required to minimize the foregoing risks.
4. Methods of Mitigating AC Interference

GENERAL
New projects, involving a pipeline installation on a powerline right-of-way or a new powerline installation on
a pipeline right-of-way, present an opportunity to address the potentially harmful effects before
construction starts. Existing pipelines, which are routinely being monitored for AC voltage, often require
some mitigation measures. AC interference mitigation methodology varies depending on the nature of the
AC interference. There are many mitigation options depending on the AC interference mode, some of
which are as illustrated in Figure 15.
Page 24
Figure 15 Illustration of AC Voltage Mitigation on a Pipeline by Electrical Grounding

and Gradient Control Mats at Pipeline Appurtenances
In general, the primary focus of an AC mitigation design is:
to keep a safe pipe-to-powerline separation distance to minimize the risk of arcing to the pipe
during a powerline fault and,
to install gradient control mats at pipeline appurtenances to protect personnel doing pipeline
contact work during a powerline fault and,
to make the pipe electrically lossy by electrically grounding the pipe to earth to prevent
hazardous voltages under fault and steady-state conditions and to minimize the risk of AC
corrosion.
To accomplish the foregoing, detailed information about the pipeline and powerline, as listed in Appendix
A-1 and A-2 respectively, is required before any harmful effects are identified and any mitigation system
can be designed.
MITIGATING HARMFUL EFFECTS FROM A POWERLINE FAULT

Pipelines paralleling a powerline right-of-way or crossing a powerline right-of-way near a tower or passing
close to an electrical grounding system, could be subjected to the harmful effects caused by a powerline
fault. To avoid possible dielectric stress damage to the coating and possible arc damage to the steel pipe
wall, the general approach for a new pipeline is to locate the pipeline a safe separation distance from the
electrical power system towers and electrical grounds. A conservative distance would be in accordance
with Figure 11 and Table 6 or at a minimum safe separation distance from calculations using Equations 2
and 3. These distances are required to prevent a sustained arc between the powerline grounding system
and the pipeline, but a GPR at a tower could still result in dielectric breakdown of the coating. The
expectant GPR at the pipeline must be calculated and examined with respect to the coating type and
thickness as shown in Table 2. Furthermore, the coating voltage stress can be greater than the GPR,
because of induction in the pipeline due to the imbalanced phase currents at the time of the fault. The
inductive voltage tends to be out of phase with the powerline fault voltage, which produces a voltage
across the coating thickness that is greater than just the GPR voltage.
Page 25
If the coating dielectric strength could be compromised by a GPR plus the inductive voltage component or
the pipeline cannot be located a safe separation distance from a powerline tower or grounding system, then
mitigation should be considered. Although it may be the best technical solution, moving of an existing
pipeline or powerline tower is typically not feasible due to the high costs involved. However, there are some
other types of mitigation that can be considered.
Some of these involve modifications to the powerline, such as moving or removal of a ground electrode
on a wooden pole to increase the separation distance to the pipeline, or improving of the tower
grounding, which would result in a lower resistance to ground and a corresponding reduction in the tower
GPR. Another option could be to shield the portion of the pipeline that is too close to the tower using a
dielectric material, however this would have the negative side-effect of also shielding the pipeline from
cathodic protection current. One shielding approach that could be considered would be to install a
sealed dielectric casing (such as HDPE) around the pipeline in the vicinity of the tower and fill it with gel
to minimize the risk of water entering the casing and causing corrosion. It is unknown how well the seal
and gel would hold up over time, so this section of pipe should be monitored on a regular basis to ensure
that it is not corroding inside the casing.
A third approach is the installation of screening electrodes alongside the pipeline on the tower side of the
pipeline. The purpose of the screening electrodes, as schematically illustrated in Figure 16, is to intercept a
fault current and thereby shield the pipeline and coating.
Pipeline
LS
Separation
Distance(s)
Screening Electrode
= 60 angle
Powerline tower footing
Figure 16 Screening Electrode Arrangement at a Powerline Tower to

Prevent Arc Damage and Coating Damage to the Pipeline
The screening electrode should be centered on the centerline of the tower and about 1 m from the
pipeline and extend a distance (Le) beyond the width of the tower. The distance Le is calculated
assuming that the pipeline would receive the bulk of the fault current within a 120 arc from the
tower.[xliv] The distance Le is therefore calculated using the following equation.
Le = S x tan
[Eqn 7]
where is 60 and S is the pipeline-powerline separation distance.
Page 26
Therefore, Le = S x 1.73 and the total length of screening electrode is
Ls = W + 2 Le
[Eqn 8]
where:
Ls = total length of screening electrode arrangement (m)
Le = length of screening extending 60 beyond the width of the tower
S = separation distance between the pipe and tower or grounding system (m)
W = width of tower footing or grounding system
The screening electrode can be composed of a non-galvanic material, such as copper cable, connected to
the pipe through a DC decoupler or directly, if the screening electrode is composed of packaged zinc
anodes or a zinc ribbon surrounded by sulphate rich backfill. When individual packaged electrodes are
used, the end-to-end spacing between them should not exceed their individual length. The individual
packaged zinc anodes can be connected to an insulated header cable to reduce the number of connection
points to the structure. If the zinc screening electrodes are located where the existing pipe-to-soil onpotential is more electronegative than -1100 mVCSE, then they should be connected through a DC
decoupler, so that the zinc electrodes do not pick-up cathodic protection current.
Unfortunately, under fault conditions, there are downsides to installing screening electrodes. It would increase
the risk of an arc developing, and much more current would be transmitted along the pipeline, upstream and
downstream from the fault location, than would be without the screening electrodes. The resulting concern
about distributing a shock hazard along the pipeline and increasing the risk of an indirect arc to other
crossing structures must be assessed before adopting screening electrodes.
Powerline faults are statistically rare, usually occurring when there are inclement weather conditions,
during which pipeline personnel are directed to avoid any pipe contact work. But there can still be a small
risk of a hazardous voltage appearing at a pipeline appurtenance. These locations include valves, cathodic
protection test stations, risers, and above ground pipe runs and inside stations.
To protect personnel from being exposed to a lethal shock hazard, when in contact with the pipeline at an
appurtenance, gradient control mats can be employed. A gradient control mat is not a grounding mat but
rather a metallic grid that is placed near the surface of the ground and connected to the pipeline so that the
touch and step voltage is reduced during a fault, as shown in Figure 17.
For example, if a powerline fault raises the potential on the pipeline to 5,000 V, then the grounding mat is
also at 5,000 V and the potential difference between the hands and feet is significantly reduced.
Page 27
Clean Crushed Stone

above Gradient
Control Mat
Gradient Control
Mat (Zinc Ribbon
in Sulphate Rich
Backfill)
Figure 17 Illustration of a Gradient Control Mat Composed of Zinc Ribbon

in a Sulphate Rich Backfill Connected Directly to the Pipe
With the gradient control mat connected directly to the pipe it will be more difficult to measure an
accurate polarized potential on the pipeline because of the influence of the zinc. To avoid this problem, the
gradient control mat can be interconnected to the pipeline via a DC decoupler. Moreover, if the zinc ribbon
is not surrounded by sulphate ion rich backfill or if another metal is used, such as copper or galvanized
steel, the gradient control mat must be connected to the pipeline through a DC decoupler.
The placement of crushed stone on the surface also reduces the risk of a shock hazard by increasing the
foot-to-ground contact resistance, thereby lowering the amount of current that would pass through the
body.
For example, the touch voltage tolerance for a 50 kg person is given in Equation 1 as:
Vtouch-tolerance = (1000 + 1.5) 0.116/t

where:
t = time (s)
Given a soil resistivity of 50 -m and a fault time of 0.167 s (for 10 cycles) then the voltage tolerance is
calculated to be 306 V. This voltage tolerance can be increased by simply placing a layer of crushed stone
on grade. The foregoing equation is modified by a de-rating factor Cs which is calculated in the following
equation.
Cs = 1 {0.09 (1- /s) / (2hs +0.09)}
[Eqn 9]
Page 28
where:
Cs = surface layer de-rating factor
= underlying soil resistivity (-m)
s = surface layer resistivity (-m)
hs = thickness of surface layer (m)
the de-rating factor modifies Equation 1 for a 50 kg person as follows:
Vtouch-tolerance = (1000 + 1.5 x Cs ) 0.116/t
[Eqn 10]
Therefore, given a 150 mm thick layer of crushed stone having a resistivity of 3,000 -m (), the
calculated de-rating factor is 0.77, and using Equation 10, the touch voltage tolerance for a 50 kg person is
calculated to be 1, 204 V compared to 306 V without the surface crushed stone layer. In this example,
the use of a crushed stone layer has increased the touch voltage tolerance by about a factor of 4. This
result assumes that the crushed stone layer is well drained and not saturated with water. Frozen ground
would also have a similar effect as the crushed stone.
The combination of a gradient control mat and a 150 mm crushed stone layer is a very effective method of
mitigating a fault voltage hazard to pipeline personnel.
Besides safety considerations for personnel, some pipeline components, such as insulating fittings,
transformer-rectifiers, cathodic protection bonds, interference bonds to foreign pipelines, and monitoring
equipment electronics, need to be protected from fault voltages. Surge protectors or DC decouplers should
be connected across any insulating fitting on the main paralleling pipeline section and at any termination
points at a station. Isolation fittings, at lateral takeoffs from the co-located pipeline, should also be
protected in the same manner provided that, transferring a fault current to a lateral pipeline will not create
a shock hazard or equipment damage on the lateral or if a potential hazard is produced, then it too must
be mitigated.
Cable connections to the pipe and AC grounding facilities can be made in the same manner as used for
cathodic protection purposes. Cables, that are likely to transfer a fault current, should be sized in
accordance with Figure 2 and 3 in NACE SP0177-2007 Standard Practice.[xlv]
MITIGATION OF ELECTROSTATICALLY INDUCED VOLTAGES

As previously indicated, the electrostatically induced voltages on skidded up pipe sections, can be in the
order of 1000 V but do not present a serious shock hazard. Nevertheless, the individual sections of pipe
should be temporarily grounded in accordance with CAN/CSA-C22.3 No. 6-13 Standard.[xlvi] Once the pipe
is buried, there is no electrostatically induced voltage.
Page 29
MITIGATION OF ELECTROMAGNETICALLY INDUCED VOLTAGES

General
As with the mitigation of the harmful effects of powerline faults, electromagnetically induced voltages can be
mitigated by increasing the distance between the powerline and the pipeline. Figures 13 and 14 illustrate
the benefit of increasing the separation distance on the longitudinal electric field per km per ampere.
+Vg
0
Electrically long (lossy)
-Vg
Electrically short (non-lossy)
During a fault, the pipeline also experiences an induced voltage because of the large but momentary
imbalance in the phase currents. This induced voltage often increases the voltage across the coating
because it is out of phase with the ground potential rise (GPR) caused by the fault current discharged at the
faulted tower. Therefore, increasing the powerline-pipeline distance mitigates both the hazards associated
with resistive coupling and electromagnetic induction. The AC shock hazard and AC corrosion concerns
arising from electromagnetically induced voltages must be evaluated for both new pipelines and new
powerlines that parallel each other and for existing pipelines that are paralleling a powerline right-of-way.
Besides the separation distance, mitigation of electromagnetically induced AC is focused primarily on

making the pipeline electrically lossy to AC but not DC, which can dramatically reduce the pipe-to-ground
voltage and current density at holidays as shown in Figure 18. Grounding of the pipeline through various
methods allows the AC current to pass to ground so that the voltage does not build up in the pipeline. The
grounding facilities can be distributed along the paralleling section or located at peak voltage locations. A
combination of both arrangements can be very effective.
Figure 18 Illustration Showing Effect of an Electrically Lossy Pipeline

on the Induced Voltage Profile
Page 30
For a New Pipeline on a Powerline ROW or a New Powerline on a Pipeline ROW
For new pipelines the safety procedures outlined in CAN/CSA-C22.3 No.6-13 Standard need to be
followed. This standard addresses conditions where the powerline voltages are greater than 40 kV, but it
should be noted that AC corrosion can occur when the AC powerline voltage is less than 40 kV. In some
circumstances AC corrosion during pipeline construction can be significant, particularly in the absence of
CP. Thus, the AC corrosion susceptibility of the pipeline during construction must also be addressed and
the AC mitigation system should be predesigned so that it can be installed during pipeline construction.
To design a comprehensive mitigation system usually requires computer modeling, using information
obtained from the information recommended in Appendix A, augmented by a detailed soil resistivity
survey. Installing the permanent AC mitigation system during pipeline construction will complement the
temporary grounding facilities and decrease costs of the temporary grounding facilities as well as lower
the installation costs of the mitigation system.
When a new powerline is being installed on a pipeline right-of-way, the interference effects must be
evaluated before agreeing to the co-location plan, and any AC mitigation systems should be installed prior
to energization of the powerline. For a new powerline on a pipeline ROW, the powerline phase arrangement
on a vertical double circuit tower can be chosen to produce the least electromagnetic induction. A centre
point symmetrical phase arrangement, as shown in Figure 19, produces several times less induced voltage
than the other arrangements. This also applies to an existing powerline, but the electrical power utility is
often reluctant to make phase arrangement changes because of the high cost of doing so.
Figure 19 Different Possible Phase Arrangements on a Vertical Double Circuit Powerline

Tower
The presence of shield wires on a powerline also affects the electromagnetically induced voltages on the
pipeline. The purpose of these wires is to protect the phase conductors from lightning strikes but they can
also affect the induced voltage on the pipeline.
Galvanic anodes, distributed along the pipeline or grouped at induced voltage peaks, are an effective method
of making a pipeline electrically lossy. Zinc anodes, packaged in a sulphate ion rich backfill are preferable
to magnesium anodes, owing to their much higher efficiency and less susceptibility to AC effects on their
operation. When directly connected to the pipeline, the anodes also provide cathodic protection for the
pipeline and do not create any electrical interference on the metallic powerline towers. This avoids using
Page 31
impressed current systems, which can create stray current interference, and also avoids transformerrectifier outages during powerline fault events. The viability of using distributed anodes depends however,
on the soil resistivity, since in high resistivity soils the output of discrete galvanic anodes can be
insufficient to provide satisfactory cathodic protection. Also, with direct connected galvanic anodes, it is
difficult to accurately measure a polarized pipe potential for comparison to industry criteria without
incorporating cathodic protection coupons at test points.
A zinc ribbon anode is also effective, especially where a very low resistance to earth is required, because
of the long length that can be installed horizontally and parallel to the pipeline. If it is intended to use the
zinc ribbon as a galvanic anode then the ribbon should be surrounded by sulphate ion rich backfill to
prevent the anode from passivating. When connected to the pipeline through a DC decoupler, the zinc
ribbon is susceptible to interference from any nearby impressed current cathodic protection systems,
depending on the length of the ribbon and the relative location of the cathodic protection groundbeds. In
some soil conditions, the zinc ribbon will passivate, increasing the AC resistance to earth and reducing the
effectiveness of the mitigation system. When in doubt about the soil conditions, the ribbon should be
surrounded in sulphate ion rich backfill.
The grounding arrangement can also be composed of stranded copper cable installed horizontally
alongside the pipeline and connected to it via a DC decoupler. A long copper cable is also susceptible to
stray current interference from nearby impressed current systems and is also subject to differential
aeration corrosion. To ensure a reasonable service life, the copper cable should be cathodically protected
with sacrificial anodes.
When the near surface soil resistivity is high, a deepwell grounding arrangement can be used to position
the grounding electrode at a depth where the earth resistivity is low. Grounding materials can be the
same as for the horizontal arrangement. However, a deepwell grounding system, being remote, is not as
effective in reducing the AC current density at a coating holiday as a horizontal arrangement placed close
to the pipeline, because the horizontal anode is close to the holiday. Another advantage of the horizontal
grounding arrangement under a fault condition, is that the AC voltage gradient near the pipeline is
reduced, owing to the near surface location of the ribbon grounding electrode compared to a deepwell
grounding electrode.
Failure of the carrier pipe inside a casing from both puncturing[xlvii] and AC corrosion[xlviii] has occurred
and, in both incidents, the casing was isolated from the pipe. The casing, when bare, has a relatively low
impedance to earth compared to the coated carrier pipe. The small separation distance between a carrier
pipe holiday and casing, through water contained in the annulus of the casing, makes the impedance of
the holiday to remote earth lower than if the casing was not present. This interior path can therefore,
transfer more current to earth than a similar sized holiday on the pipe exterior to the casing and result in
an accelerated corrosion rate. Accordingly, any casing on a pipeline, that is influenced by induced AC,
should be bonded through a DC decoupler to the pipeline, regardless of the AC induced voltage levels. A
bare casing when coupled to the pipeline through a DC decoupler, also serves as an AC ground which will
reduce the induced AC voltage as well.
Metallic vent pipes at a casing should not be placed near or against an above ground metallic object, such
as a fence or guy wire, since these objects could become energized during a powerline fault. Moreover, if
the casing is in a built up area, a gradient control mat should be installed at the base of each vent to
protect the public from a potential shock hazard. Otherwise non-metallic vent pipes should be used.
Mitigation of AC voltages and currents at crossings between an AC interfered-with pipeline and a foreign
pipeline may be required, depending on the AC interference circumstances. A foreign pipeline at a
crossing brings remote earth electrically close to the pipeline with induced AC, which can introduce a
touch potential hazard between the two pipelines or facilitate the transfer of fault current and steady-
Page 32
state induced current between the pipelines. Under such conditions pipe and pipe coating damage could
occur or the AC current density could be elevated resulting in an increase of AC corrosion on both
pipelines. If there is also DC interference at the crossing, the polarized potential of the discharging
pipeline could be suppressed such that the effectiveness of the CP system in preventing AC corrosion is
compromised (i.e. the iac/idc ratio is adversely affected). Furthermore, if the DC potential of either pipeline
is elevated at the crossing, due to the stray current pick-up, AC corrosion could be accelerated (e.g.
Figure 7).
This situation presents some mitigation difficulties. If there is a mutual cathodic protection test station at
the crossing, a hazardous AC voltage could be present inside the test station between the pipeline test
leads. Secondly, if galvanic anodes are used to mitigate the DC interference, it may cause a high amount
of AC to transfer at the crossing. Moreover, if there is a resistance bond to mitigate the DC interference,
it will transfer both fault and steady-state AC current. In the case of the former, the bond could be burnt
out, depending on the magnitude of the fault current and current capacity of the bond. Although it may
be considered reasonable to place a DC decoupler between the two pipelines to mitigate the harmful AC
effects and make the pipeline electrically lossy, this should only be done with the mutual permission of
both parties. Regardless as to whether or not AC mitigation is applied, these pipeline crossings should be
considered as critical locations not only in terms of DC interference but also for AC interference.
Using DC decouplers across isolation fittings at stations also serves to make the pipeline electrically lossy, since
the station grounding system provides an alternative parallel path for the induced AC current to pass to
ground. Typically, the station electrical grounding system is also connected to the electric power distribution
grounding system, which further lowers the impedance to earth. When bonding across an isolating fitting at a
station however, it must be recognized that a portion of a powerline fault current will also seek this path and
gradient control facilities might be required inside the station to protect personnel during a fault. In addition,
surge protectors may also be required on electronic equipment inside the station.
An isolation fitting located at a lateral take-off, when bridged by a DC decoupler, provides an additional AC
grounding path depending on the lateral pipeline length and coating quality. Again, consideration must be
given to the effect on the lateral of any fault current that might travel along the lateral through the DC
decoupler.
Motorized valve locations are places where a DC decoupler can be used to shunt induced AC and a portion
of a fault current to the local electrical grounding system. Not only will this provide a steady-state
grounding path but will also aid in lowering any fault voltage gradient, although a gradient control mat
might also be needed depending on the magnitude of the fault voltage at the valve location.
DC Decouplers and Surge Protectors
Isolation fittings are subject to damage by fault currents unless surge protection measures are taken.
Numerous failures of flange isolation from fault currents have been reported.
[xlix,l,li,lii,liii]
AC surge protection devices such as spark gaps, arresters, zinc grounding cells, polarization cells, and
isolation surge protectors (ISP), have been recommended[liv] to be connected across isolating fittings to
provide an alternative fault current path. Although spark gaps and arresters are effective against lightning
and smaller fault currents, they are subject to high maintenance and are not suitable for draining steadystate induced AC, which is very often required for effective AC mitigation. Hence a class of devices called DC
decouplers, which have a low impedance to AC and a high resistance to DC, are normally utilized.
Page 33
Surge protectors to handle lightning and AC fault currents are typically connected across isolating fittings
and the input/output of electronic equipment. There are a wide variety of surge protectors such as gas
filled, surface discharge, varistors and suppressor diodes, all with different AC fault handling capabilities.
The critical feature on pipelines subject to electromagnetic induced AC is the ability of the surge protector
to limit the power follow current after a fault occurrence. Surface discharge or varistors perform this
function whereas gas filled arrestors do not. There is however, a significant performance difference
between a metal oxide varistor (MOV) and silicon carbide varistor. The MOV breakover voltage is much
less than the silicon carbide, hence the MOV is more suitable for protecting electronic components, and in
particular rectifiers. MOVs can be selected
for specific breakover voltages and surge
Isolated
Flange
current ratings.
Zinc grounding cells, as illustrated in Figure
20, have been used as a surge protector at
isolating flanges. They are typically
composed of two lengths of zinc anode
alloy casting, separated lengthwise with
insulating blocks and packaged with
galvanic anode backfill in a cardboard or
cloth container.
Cathodically
protected side
of isolator
The grounding cell provides a low

Two 5 ft. long zinc
impedance path for AC and a higher
anodes separated
by insulating blocks
resistance to DC, but only if sufficient DC
and surrounded with
current passes through the cell to create a
This electrode
low resistivity backfill.
cathodically polarizes
cathodic polarization back voltage. It is
and resists the flow
claimed,[lv] that this back voltage can be in
of direct current.
the order of 0.5 V. To provide a 0.5 V back
voltage by cathodically polarizing the zinc
Figure 20 - Typical Zinc Grounding Cell
more negative than -1.5 VCSE, could require
2
a DC density of 4 A/m which is over 500 mA based on the electrode dimensions for a standard size zinc
Typical Grounding
grounding cell. Moreover, AC will tend to depolarize the zinc grounding
cell, Cell
which lowers its DC
resistance and allows more cathodic protection current to pass through the cell. This can make the
grounding cell ineffective in maintaining a DC step back voltage on galvanic anode protected piping. Even
when the DC drain current can be accommodated, as might be the case with an impressed current
system, the life of a zinc grounding cell will be shortened by the excessive DC current drain, necessitating
the installation of multiple cells or of cells with higher weight castings. The typical failure mode for a zinc
grounding cell is an open circuit, thereby creating a possible safety hazard. From an operational point of
view, zinc grounding cells are less desirable for mitigating AC fault and induced voltages than DC
decouplers.
Polarization cells typically have an AC impedance of about 0.1 milliohm which is dependent on the
number of plates, surface area of the plates, and spacing between plates. The cells are usually
constructed to pass high currents, in the order of tens of kA, without damage to the cell and yet be able
to offer a significant DC back voltage. Polarization cells derive their DC back voltage from both cathodic
and anodic polarization of either stainless steel or nickel plates immersed in a highly alkaline solution.
Back voltages in the order of 1.6 V can be developed with rather modest cathodic protection current
drainage (e.g. 100 mA).[lvi]
As with zinc grounding cells, AC causes depolarization and at 10A - 20A AC, the DC rises to about 400 mA
and lowers the back voltage to less than 1.35 V. Again, for a steady-state AC drain, a 400 mA DC drain may
compromise cathodic protection levels, especially on galvanically protected pipelines. Also, if the 5% KOH
solution inside the cell becomes diluted or the solution level is low due to evaporation, the solution can
Page 34
over heat to the point where it will boil off resulting in an unacceptable open circuit. Moreover, corrosion
of the plates has been known to occur. Under steady-state AC current drain, the cell will continue to pass
DC and hence the possibility of corrosion arises on the anodic plates. Plate corrosion has been reported
for both nickel and stainless steel plates[lvii] under the foregoing circumstances coupled with the
superposition of DC stray current originating from a transit system.
Excessive gassing, produced during faults as the cell is depolarized and as the repolarizing DC generates
oxygen at the anode plate and hydrogen at the cathode[lviii] produces an explosion hazard. A polarization
cell failure can result in a shock hazard because of an open circuit failure mode, especially where the cell
is being relied upon to drain steady-state induced AC currents. Because of these disadvantages, solidstate DC decouplers have generally replaced polarization cells to protect isolating fittings and to drain AC
to grounding systems.
Isolation-surge protectors (ISP) are solid-state devices which were introduced in the late 1980s as a
replacement for the polarization cell. As shown in Figure 21, they consist of three distinct circuit
components, namely; an arrester to pass lightning faults, electrolytic capacitors to drain steady-state AC,
and thyristors to pass AC fault currents.
Enclosure
Electrolytic Capacitor C
Gate
T1
Thyristors
T2
Gate
Inductor L
Surge Protector
_
Pipe
Positive terminal bonded

to enclosure internally
+
Ground
Figure 21 - Isolator/Surge Protector Circuit Diagram(redrawn from Dairyland Electric

Industries Inc., Isolation/Surge Protector Brochure, Fig.1 p.A6)
An ISP presents an open circuit to DC up to a voltage threshold that is adjustable and a short circuit to
voltages greater than the threshold value. These devices require less maintenance than polarization cells
and are claimed[lix] to fail only in short circuit mode. The electrolytic capacitors are rated to pass the
steady-state AC current while the thyristors are rated to pass the fault current. When the electrolytic
capacitors are polarity sensitive, they can fail under AC load (usually open circuit) if the DC polarity is
reversed. This factor may preclude their use in locations subject to fluctuating DC stray currents such as
from a transit system or telluric activity.
Page 35
The DC current loss through an isolation-surge protector (ISP) is typically low (e.g. <100 mA). Only after
the thyristors are triggered between 9.1 V and 12.5 V does the DC current increase, which would only be
for short periods. Even though both polarization cells and ISPs can theoretically pass lightning current,
lightning surges may not find this path advantageous if the cable lengths are too long. All conductors
connected to these devices must be kept short in order to minimize voltage rise caused by the conductor
inductance, if they are intended to mitigate lightning voltage crests. For an ISP connected across a
flange, a total conductor length of 20 m, and a lightning current rise of 1000 A/microsec, a voltage of
2000 V would appear across the ISP, which could be high enough to damage the flange insulation.
Therefore, where the conductors between the AC fault protector and the isolated fitting are long, a surge
protector should still be installed at the flange isolation for lightning protection purposes.
Aluminium electrolytic capacitors are sometimes used for draining steady-state induced currents to AC
grounding systems. These are polarized capacitors and therefore subject to failure under AC load if the
DC polarity reverses, as could be the case if the pipeline is exposed to DC stray currents. The failure mode
80% of the time is to a short circuited condition,[lx] which is a fail-safe condition from an AC hazard point
of view, but a cathodic protection integrity disadvantage. Sealed capacitors have been known to explode
and catch on fire when exposed to a reverse voltage under AC load. Electrolytic capacitors also have a
limited life of about 10 years and require protection from fault currents with a surge protector such as a
varistor.
Polarization cell replacement (PCR)[lxi] decoupling devices are similar to isolation surge protectors except
that the thyristors are replaced with high current capacity diodes. As with isolation surge protectors, they
can pass both AC fault current and steady-state AC providing that they are rated properly for the
intended service. They are fail-safe because they fail in the shorted mode, although the failure rate is
small. For the above reasons and, because they are solid-state, they have become the dominant type of DC
decoupling device used in the pipeline industry. The electrolytic capacitors in the PCR are not polarity sensitive
so they can be used where a pipeline is experiencing DC interference from a transit system.
Under some circumstances decoupling devices with large capacitors can cause errors in measuring an
instant-off potential especially on pipelines with impressed current systems.[lxii] This is because the
electrolytic capacitors store a DC voltage that is developed across its terminals between the pipeline and
the ground by the cathodic protection system. When the transformer-rectifier output is interrupted, the DC
voltage across the electrolytic capacitor might not decay quickly but retain a DC potential between the
earth and the pipeline, which introduces a pipe-to-soil potential measurement error that makes the pipeline appear more electronegative than the true polarized potential. This problem can be identified by
examining the pipe-to-soil potential with time to determine if there is a delay, as illustrated in Figure 22.
Page 36
Figure 22 Pipe Potential versus Time for TR Interruption on a Pipeline with and without a DC
Decoupler.
The decay of the DC potential across the capacitor is a function of the circuit time constant (RC) given by
the circuit resistance (R) times the farad value of the capacitor (C).
This pipe-to-soil potential measurement problem can be addressed by one or more of the following
actions.
interrupt the DC decoupler synchronously with the transformer-rectifier but this could result in a
momentary shock hazard
reduce the circuit resistance between the pipeline and DC decoupler ground
reduce the capacitance of the electrolytic capacitor, although this will increase the decoupler
impedance
install cathodic protection coupons at the pipeline test station and measure their instant-disconnect
potential
CATHODIC PROTECTION EFFECTIVENESS IN MITIGATING AC CORROSION

Corrosion Control Criteria
The application of cathodic protection current can reduce the AC corrosion rate within limits. As indicated
previously, if the AC current density at a holiday is less than 20 A/m2 and the holiday polarized potential
is more electronegative than -850 mVCSE, then the likelihood of AC corrosion is considered to be low. Even
in the absence of cathodic protection, the AC corrosion rate has been shown to be less than 1% of an
equivalent DC current density, and estimated at 0.1 mm/y at an AC current density of 20 A/m2. Furthermore, this has resulted in the claim that only ac current densities above 50 Am-2 are serious[lxiii] on
cathodically protected pipelines.
Industry standards recommend a minimum polarized potential of -850 mVCSE for effective corrosion control
under normal soil conditions. For AC interference conditions, it is empirically evident that, if iac at a holiday
Page 37
is greater than 20A/m2, then corrosion can occur and if iac is greater than 100 A/m2, AC corrosion should
be expected. One study[lxiv] indicates that cathodic protection is effective if the polarized potential is in the
-1000 to -1200 mVCSE range, but only if the iac/idc ratio is less than 20. To satisfy this condition a higher
DC current density would be needed than for the industry standard and coupon facilities for measuring
the AC and DC current density would need to be installed. However, as indicated in Figure 7, there is a
risk of increasing the AC corrosion rate when the cathodic protection current density is in the 2 10 A/m2
range, especially in soil conditions where a calcareous deposit is not likely to form at a holiday.
The effectiveness of the 100 mV cathodic polarization criterion in preventing AC corrosion is a function of
the AC current density as shown in Figure 23.[lxv]
Figure 23 Contour plot of AC density (A/m2, horizontal axis) CP polarization shift (mV,
vertical axis) Depth of penetration relative to control (%). No shading protection achieved;
light shading marginal protection; dark shading no apparent protection. (1 A/m2 0.093
A/ft2)
AC corrosion control at 100 mV of cathodic polarization becomes marginal when the AC current density
approaches 50 A/m2 and a cathodic polarization shift of approximately 300 mV is required to achieve
protection when the current density is greater than 50 A/m2. At AC current densities less than 20 A/m2, the
100 mV cathodic polarization shift criterion was found to be effective.[lxvi] A disadvantage of the cathodic
polarization criterion is that, when measured by the potential decay method, it can take several days to
allow the pipeline to fully depolarize. Over this period of time the AC interference can change and affect
the polarization response. Generally, it is recommended to not use the cathodic polarization shift criterion
when there is electrical interference on the pipeline.[lxvii]
Page 38
Type of Cathodic Protection System

For mitigation of hazardous AC voltages, a galvanic anode system is more effective than an impressed
current system, since the galvanic anodes serve as AC grounding points, which tend to make the pipeline
electrically lossy. Impressed current systems require supplemental grounding systems.
Galvanic anodes, such as magnesium anodes, when passing AC will have a higher consumption rate and
must be sized to accommodate the increased corrosion rate. Alternatively, zinc anodes, surrounded by
sulphate rich backfill are more efficient and have a longer service life than magnesium, especially when the
pipeline is very well coated.
A galvanic anode system, however, may not be feasible in high resistivity soils and, if directly connected
to the pipeline, make the accurate measurement of a polarized potential more difficult. Therefore,
cathodic protection coupons need to be installed at all test stations unless the galvanic anodes are
connected individually or in groups through a DC decoupler.
Impressed current cathodic protection systems assist in mitigating AC interference by making the pipeline
electrically lossy, only because some of the AC current can pass through the rectifying bridge to the
groundbed. This also results in half-wave rectification and a corresponding increase in the pipe-to-soil
potential in the vicinity of the impressed current system drain point. Impressed current systems have the
advantage over galvanic systems in that they can provide a higher current output in high resistivity soils.
They can also be operated in constant potential mode to ensure that the potential at the drain point does
not become too highly negative (> -1200 mVCSE), thus minimizing the risk of an increase in AC corrosion.
The DC output current can also be more easily monitored than for galvanic anode systems. Pipelines with
impressed current protection typically require additional AC grounding using DC decouplers between the
pipeline and any grounding facility.
The disadvantages of an impressed current system on pipelines with AC interference are that the
transformer-rectifier is subject to outages due to fault currents and switching surges, the DC current
output from the impressed current system can cause interference corrosion on powerline metallic tower
footings and grounding systems, and pipe-to-soil potentials can become electronegatively elevated if not
adjusted properly.
Page 39
5. Monitoring Considerations
A cathodically protected pipeline that is experiencing steady-state induced AC interference, requires extensive monitoring facilities and monitoring protocols in order to establish the severity of the AC interference,
the effectiveness of the cathodic protection system, and the operation of the AC mitigation systems. Not
only are test stations required for normal cathodic protection monitoring but test stations need to be
installed where AC voltage peaks and AC current density peaks are located or are expected, because of
the geometrical arrangement between the powerline and pipeline. Moreover, test facilities are needed at
all AC grounding locations. Test stations, where practical, should be fabricated as dead-front construction
for personnel and public safety reasons.
The risk of an AC induced voltage hazard can be identified by simply measuring the pipeline AC voltage at
the test stations with respect to the copper-copper sulphate reference electrode, as is normally used for
recording pipe-to-soil potentials. When this voltage is greater than 10 V, the AC voltage should be
recorded for a 24 hour period to assess the daily voltage variation and to determine the maximum
voltage during the recording period. The risk of AC corrosion rests on the AC current density (iac) and the
ratio iac/idc. In general, the risk of AC corrosion needs to be investigated where the pipeline AC voltage,
expressed in mV, is greater than the soil resistivity at pipe depth, expressed in Ohm-cm (Vac{mV}>
{-cm}). Where this condition exists, iac would be greater than 20 A/m2 on a 1 cm2 holiday. For
example, soil resistivities near roads are often much lower than adjacent soil, owing to the accumulation
of salts from road de-icing practices. There are numerous instances where AC corrosion has occurred at
pipeline road crossings or where the pipeline parallels a road way. Once the soil resistivity and AC induced
voltage is known at any location the AC current density can be calculated using Equation 6a.
AC corrosion control guidelines are inextricably tied to the relationship between the cathodic protection
current density (idc) and the AC current density (iac) at a coating holiday.
Both AC and DC pipe-to-soil potentials should be monitored on a routine basis to determine if the AC
voltage is less than 15 V and at a level that would result in an acceptable AC corrosion current density,
based on a maximum of 50 mA/cm2 or an iac/idc ratio of less than 5. A maximum current density of 50
mA/cm2 is selected because there is a paucity of field information that indicates serious corrosion can
occur at current densities less than this threshold. Nevertheless, if a very conservative mitigation system
is desired, then a maximum AC current density, of either 20 mA/m2 or 30 mA/cm2, should be chosen.
Under some conditions, attempting to reduce the AC current density to these values can be prohibitively
expensive.
Most powerline phase current loading varies seasonally due to summertime air conditioning and
wintertime electrical heating and lighting. Also, seasonal moisture conditions vary from a typically wet
spring to a dry fall, which can affect the resistance of AC mitigation systems. Because of these variable
conditions, measuring of AC induced voltages and AC mitigation currents should be done more frequently
(e.g. quarterly) than is normally required for cathodic protection potentials. AC mitigation currents should
be measured using an AC clamp-on ammeter.
Also, it is important to recognize that the electrical power utility could increase the phase
current magnitudes at any time, for emergency purposes or to accommodate new load
demands, which would cause an increase in AC interference. Consequently, it is advisable to
establish a communication path with the utility so that the pipeline operator is aware of any
changes in the operation of the AC powerline and can adjust the monitoring schedule
accordingly.
Page 40
Another or alternative technique to monitor the corrosion control system is by installing corrosion rate
coupons along the pipeline at critical locations and monitoring them on a routine basis, even remotely.
Also AC and cathodic protection coupons can be installed to facilitate measuring both the AC and DC
current density. AC coupons should have a surface area of 1 cm2 and the coupon AC current should be
measured routinely. From these measurements the AC current density should be calculated.
At each AC coupon location, a cathodic protection coupon, having a surface area of approximately 10
cm2, should also be installed, and the DC current should be measured using a zero resistance ammeter.
The iac and iac/idc ratio can be compared to Tables 3 and 4 to evaluate the risk of AC corrosion. Cathodic
protection coupons are also essential to enable the measurement of a representative polarized potential
on the pipeline for comparison to industry criteria. Cathodic protection coupons are indispensable where
problems in measuring an accurate instant-off potential are encountered, such as with direct-connected
anodes or as a result of the slow decay of the capacitors in DC decoupling devices. If buried reference
electrodes are used in conjunction with the cathodic protection coupons, they should be backfilled with a
bentonite/sulphate ion mixture to ensure long term reliability and performance. In addition to coupons,
AC current through DC decouplers or directly connected grounding facilities should be measured using an
AC clamp-on ammeter.
A more direct analysis of AC or DC corrosion can be obtained by running in-line inspection tools through
the pipeline sections influenced by AC interference.
For additional information pertaining to mitigation and monitoring procedures see section 6.2.
6. Summary
GENERAL
The electrical interaction between AC powerlines and steel pipelines can result in damage to steel
pipelines and their ancillary components and create a voltage hazard to personnel and the public. When
AC transmission powerlines of greater than 69 kV or AC distribution systems of 5-49 kV are parallel to a
steel pipeline or there is a mutual crossing, an AC interference investigation is required. This broad range
of powerline voltages is intended in order to avoid overlooking a serious situation, which can only be
evaluated by considering other factors as outlined in this guideline document.
The distance between a cathodically protected pipeline and an AC powerline tower or its grounding facility
needs to be identified to determine, whether or not, it is located at a safe separation distance, in
accordance with Table 6 and Figure 11. If not, the calculation of the GPR and induced voltage resulting
from a powerline ground fault is required to determine a safe flashover distance and a calculation of the
resulting voltage stress on the coating for comparison to Table 2. Also, at this stage, the need for any
gradient control measures at appurtenances can be evaluated.
The objectives of an AC interference evaluation for a cathodically protected pipeline, that is subjected to AC
powerline fault currents and electromagnetically induced voltages, are as follows:
prevent an AC fault current from damaging the pipe wall by arcing or melting;
prevent an AC fault current from damaging the coating by exceeding the dielectric strength of
the pipeline coating;
prevent damage to pipeline components such as isolating fittings, transformer-rectifiers,
resistance bonds, galvanic anodes, and electrical monitoring equipment;
prevent hazardous step and touch voltages to personnel and to the public, who might come in
contact with the pipeline or its appurtenances;
prevent AC corrosion of the pipeline.
Page 41
To satisfy these objectives, it is necessary to investigate the possibility of AC interference, evaluate the
magnitude of the interference, design and install mitigation facilities as necessary, and monitor the
performance of the mitigation system and the cathodic protection system.
These tasks must be incorporated into an AC interference management program. The procedures in such
a program will vary depending on whether or not the project involves the following types of
pipeline/powerline situations.
A. An existing pipeline on or near an existing AC powerline ROW,
B. A new pipeline intended to be constructed on or near an AC powerline ROW,
C. An AC powerline intended to be constructed on or near a pipeline ROW,
D. A lateral being built from an existing pipeline that is exposed to AC interference,
E.
An extension to a pipeline that is on or near an existing AC powerline ROW and that is within
5 km of the entrance or departure point between a powerline and a co-located pipeline.
Procedures for each of these circumstances are summarized below and included in flow chart form in
Appendix B. Values expressed in this document are guidelines only. AC interference studies and AC
mitigation designs must consider conditions where these guidelines may be too conservative or
conversely inadequate.
AC INTERFERENCE PROCEDURES
Preliminary
Regardless as to which one of the foregoing situations is involved in a pipeline project, there are a
number of procedural steps that are common to all.
For each pipeline project, the pipeline specifications and drawings must be reviewed to identify if one or
more of the five potential AC interference conditions could apply. When there is confirmation that AC
interference is a possibility, then more specific powerline and pipeline information, as listed in Appendix
A, must be obtained so that the risk of interference can be evaluated.
A soil resistivity survey is required along the route of the pipeline where the pipeline and powerline are
co-located or where a pipeline crosses a powerline ROW near a powerline metal tower or electrical
ground. Soil resistivity measurements at 1, 3, and 5 meter depths should be taken opposite each tower,
powerline ground, and pipeline appurtenance, such as cathodic protection test stations, pipeline risers,
and valves. Soil resistivities should be taken at greater depths at locations where there are powerline
transpositions, changes in pipeline/
powerline geometry, and soil stratifications.
If the AC interference situation involves a co-location of more than one pipeline or more than one
powerline, conduct computer modeling to assess the fault and steady-state induced conditions. Otherwise
follow the steps outlined for the following cases. Values expressed in this document are guidelines only.
AC interference studies and AC mitigation designs must consider conditions where these guidelines may
be too conservative or conversely inadequate.
Case A - An Existing Pipeline on or near an Existing AC Powerline ROW
Step 1: Assess whether or not there is a safe separation distance between the pipeline and tower(s) or
powerline grounding systems with reference to Figure 11 or Table 6. If not, calculate the GPR due to a
powerline fault at those towers where the safe separation distance is not obtained using fault current
Page 42
values provided by the electrical utility. Use the faulted tower GPR in Equation 4 for a sustained arc to
evaluate whether there is an arcing risk and whether or not mitigation measures are needed to protect
the pipe and the coating. Regardless as to whether or not the pipe is at a safe separation distance during
a fault, assess if gradient control measures are required at appurtenances to protect personnel from a
shock hazard based on a calculation of voltage tolerance given by Equation 1.
Step 2: Measure the AC pipe-to-ground voltage (Vg) and soil resistivity at pipe depth at cathodic protection
test stations, at isolating fittings, and at locations where there is an electrical discontinuity between the
pipeline and powerline and at locations where the soil resistivity is expected to be low, such as at
roadways where de-icing salts are being applied.
Step 3: Record the pipe-to-ground AC voltage for a 24 hour period at test locations where the measured
AC voltage is greater than 5 V.
Step 4: Contact the electrical utility to determine the powerline phase current loading during the
foregoing survey period. Compare the reported powerline load current to the average and peak load
current and linearly extrapolate the measured Vg to obtain an estimate of the pipe-to-ground voltage (Vg')
when the powerline is operating at average and peak current.
Step 5: AC mitigation is required if Vg' using the values for peak load current is greater than 15 Vac, or if
the calculated current density at a 1 cm2 holiday using Equation 6a and the soil resistivity survey data for
pipe depth is greater than 50 A/m2 for the Vg based on the average current loading.
Step 6: If AC mitigation of the induced voltage is required, use a computer modeling program to design
an effective mitigation system.
Step 7: Install AC and DC coupons or corrosion rate probes at pipeline test stations, at locations of
electromagnetic discontinuities, and at locations where the calculated AC current density is greater than
30 A/m2, so that actual AC current densities or AC corrosion rates can be measured during future
surveys.
Step 8: Use non-metallic enclosures and install dead-front terminal enclosures at cathodic protection test
station locations.
Step 9: Install DC decouplers across any isolating joint and at bare steel casings in the piping system within
10 km of the pipeline-powerline co-location providing consideration is given to any detrimental effects
that the transferred voltage or current could have on the structure being coupled to the interfered
pipeline.
Step 10: Ensure that a minimum polarized potential of -850 mVCSE is being met on the pipeline at test
stations and locations of electrical discontinuities.
Step 11: Where possible run an in-line inspection tool through the pipeline section that is exposed to the
AC interference to assess corrosion anomalies.
Case B - A New Pipeline Intended to be Constructed on or near an AC Powerline ROW
Step 1: Assess whether or not there is a safe separation distance between the pipeline and tower(s) with
reference to Figure 11 or Table 6. If not, calculate the GPR during a powerline fault at those towers where
the safe separation distance is not obtained, using fault current values provided by the electrical utility.
Evaluate whether or not mitigation measures are needed to protect the pipe and the coating. Regardless
as to whether or not the pipe is at a safe separation distance during a fault, assess if gradient control
Page 43
measures are required at appurtenances to protect personnel from a shock hazard based on a calculation
of voltage tolerance given by Equation 1. Attempt to have the pipeline rerouted in order to maintain a
safe separation distance.
Step 2: Calculate the voltage stress that would appear across the coating due to a powerline fault at a tower
or powerline grounding system and refer to Table 2 to determine if remedial measures are required.
Step 3: Conduct field measurements to estimate the longitudinal electric field (LEF) as shown in Figure 12
and calculate the total LEF, using this value and the total length of the paralleling section. Calculate the
peak pipe-to-ground voltage and extrapolate to determine the maximum Vg' based on the average and
peak phase current. This calculation assumes that the propagation constant is small and therefore gives a
conservative estimate. Measure the soil resistivity at pipeline depth along the pipeline route, especially in
areas of suspected low soil resistivity, so that the AC current density on a 1 cm2 coupon can be calculated
using Equation 6a.
Step 4: Estimate the induced voltage on the pipeline, using Figures 13 and 14, if there is a simple pipelinepowerline co-location arrangement, or conduct computer modeling to determine the induced voltage profile
along the length of the parallel section to design appropriate mitigation measures. Mitigation is required if
the steady-state Vg' is greater than 15 V at appurtenances based on the peak load current and if i ac is
greater than 50 A/m2 based on the average phase current loading
Step 5: Install mitigation measures during construction in accordance with the CSA C22.3 No.6-13
Standard.
Step 6: Install AC and DC coupons or corrosion rate probes at pipeline test stations and at locations of
electromagnetic discontinuities so that actual AC and DC current densities can be measured as well as
polarized potentials.
Step 7: Install DC decouplers across isolating joints and at bare steel casings in the piping system within
10 km of the pipeline-powerline co-location location, providing consideration is given to any detrimental
effects that the transferred voltage or current could have on the structure being coupled to the interfered
pipeline.
Step 8: Ensure that a minimum polarized potential of -850 mVCSE is being met on the pipeline at test
Step 9: After construction and where possible, run an in-line inspection tool through the pipeline section
that is exposed to the AC interference to assess corrosion anomalies.
Case C - An AC Powerline Intended to be Constructed on or near a Pipeline ROW
Step 1: Assess whether or not there is a safe separation distance between the pipeline and tower(s) with
reference to Figure 11 or Table 6. If not, calculate the GPR during a powerline fault at those towers where
the safe separation distance is not obtained using fault current values provided by the electrical utility.
Regardless as to whether or not the pipe is at a safe separation distance during a fault, evaluate whether
or not mitigation measures are needed to protect the pipe and the coating, and if gradient control
measures are required at appurtenances to protect personnel from a shock hazard based on a calculation of
voltage tolerance given by Equation 1. Attempt to have the powerline rerouted in order to maintain a safe
separation distance.
Step 2: After the powerline route is finalized, calculate the voltage stress that would appear across the
coating due to a powerline fault at a tower or powerline grounding system and refer to Table 2 to
determine if remedial measures are required.
Page 44
Step 3: If the powerline has vertical double circuit towers, instruct the power utility to
phases in a centre point symmetrical configuration.
arrange the
Step 4: Estimate the induced voltage on the pipeline, using Figures 13 and 14, if there is a simple
pipeline-powerline co-location arrangement, or conduct computer modeling to determine the induced
voltage profile along the length of the parallel section and to design mitigation measures.
Step 5: Using the calculated induced voltage values and soil resistivity data, measured at the proposed
pipe depth, calculate the expected AC current density from Equation 6a to determine the AC current
density based on the average phase current loading and the Vg' based on the peak current loading.
Mitigation is required if the steady-state Vg' is greater than 15 V at appurtenances based on the peak
load current and if iac is greater than 50 A/m2 based on the average phase current loading
Step 6: Install AC and DC coupons or corrosion rate probes at pipeline test stations and at locations of
electromagnetic discontinuities and at locations where the AC current density threshold is exceeded so
that actual AC and DC current densities or corrosion rates can be measured.
Step 7: Install DC decouplers across any isolating joint and at any bare steel casings in the piping system
within 10 km of the pipeline-powerline co-location, providing consideration is given to any detrimental
effects that the transferred voltage or current could have on the structure being coupled to the interfered
pipeline.
Step 8: Ensure that a minimum polarized potential of -850mVCSE is being met on the pipeline at test
Step 9: Where possible run an in-line inspection tool through the pipeline section that is exposed to the
AC interference before and after construction of the AC powerline, to assess and compare corrosion
anomalies.
Case D - A Lateral being Built from an Existing Pipeline that is Exposed to AC Interference
Step 1: Measure and record the pipe-to-ground AC voltage at the lateral location for a 24 hour period and
measure the soil resistivity at the tie-in location.
Step 2: Contact the electrical utility to determine the powerline fault current at the closest tower to the
tie-in and calculate the fault voltage at the tie-in. If this voltage would create a personnel shock hazard,
based on the calculated voltage tolerance from Equation 1, then touch potential mitigation is required at
the lateral take-off riser and at appurtenances along the lateral if the lateral is electrically continuous with
the co-located pipeline.
foregoing measurement period. Compare the reported powerline load current to the peak load current
and linearly extrapolate the measured Vg to obtain an estimate of the pipe-to-ground voltage (Vg') when
the powerline is operating at peak current. If Vg' is greater than 15 V then mitigation is required at the
tie-in and consideration must be given to providing mitigation facilities for a distance along the lateral.
Step 4: Calculate the AC current density at the tie-in using Equation 6a, based on a 1 cm2 holiday for the
calculated Vg' when the powerline is operating at the average phase current loading using measured soil
resistivity data at pipe depth. If the AC current density is greater than 50 A/m2 then mitigation of the
induced voltage is necessary at the tie-in and consideration must be given to providing mitigation
facilities for a distance along the lateral.
Page 45
Step 5: If either of the foregoing conditions require mitigation, then computer modeling of the lateral
must be completed.
Step 6: If Vg' is greater than 15 V at peak load current then construction of the lateral must be done in
accordance with CSA-C 22.3 No. 6-13 Standard.
Step 7: If mitigation of induced AC is required on the lateral then AC and DC coupons or corrosion rate
probes should be installed at dead front test stations along the lateral for a 10 km distance.
Step 8: Install a DC decoupler across any isolating fitting(s) at the lateral take-off and at any isolating
fittings within 10 km of the take-off providing consideration is given to any detrimental effects that the
transferred voltage or current could have on the structure being coupled to the interfered pipeline.
Step 9: Maintain a minimum polarized potential of -850 mVCSE on the lateral piping within 10 km of the
tie-in.
Case E - An Extension to a Pipeline that is on or near an Existing AC Powerline ROW and that is
within 5 km of the Entrance or Departure Point between a Powerline and a Co-located Pipeline.
Step 1: Measure and record the pipe-to-ground AC voltage at the start of the extension location for a 24
hour period and also measure the soil resistivity at this location.
Step 2: Contact the electrical utility to determine the powerline fault current at the closest tower to the
tie-in and calculate the fault voltage at the tie-in. If this voltage would create a personnel shock hazard,
based on the calculated voltage tolerance from Equation 1, then touch potential mitigation is required at
above-grade pipeline appurtenances and at test stations for the next 5 km.
foregoing measurement period, the average operating current, and the peak load current. Compare the
reported powerline load current to the peak load current and linearly extrapolate the measured Vg to
obtain an estimate of the pipe-to-ground voltage (Vg') when the powerline is operating at peak current. If
Vg' is greater than 15 V at the tie-in, then mitigation at pipeline appurtenances for a distance of 5 km
form the tie-in is required.
Step 4: Calculate the AC current density at the tie-in using Equation 6a, based on a 1 cm2 holiday, using
the calculated Vg' when the powerline is operating at average current loading, and the soil resistivity at
pipe depth. If the AC current density is greater than 50 mA/cm2, then mitigation of the induced voltage is
necessary at the tie-in and along the extension for a distance of 5 km.
Step 5: If the AC current density is greater than 50 A/m2, computer modeling of the extension must be
completed.
Step 6: If Vg' is greater than 15 V, then construction of the extension for the next 5 km must be done in
accordance with CSA-C 22.3 No. 6 Standard.
Step 7: If mitigation of induced AC is required on the extension then AC and DC coupons or corrosion rate
probes should be installed at test stations along the extension for a 5 km distance.
Step 8: Install DC decoupler across any isolating fitting(s) at the extension tie-in and at any isolating
fittings within 5 km of the extension providing consideration is given to any detrimental effects that the
transferred voltage or current could have on the structure being coupled to the interfered pipeline.
Page 46
Step 9: Install dead-front test stations on the extension for a distance of 5 km from the tie-in.
Step 10: Maintain a minimum polarized potential of -850 mVCSE on the extension piping within 5 km of
the extension.
Page 47
7. References
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IEEE Standard 367 (latest revision), Recommended Practice for Determining the Electric Power
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IEEE Standard 80 (latest revision), Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, Institute of
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Chisholm, W., Lightning 101, IEEE/PES Technical Committee Meeting, Orlando, Jan. 11, 2010
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Lemon, D.W. and Nicholson, P., AC Effects on Underground Pipelines, NACE, Canadian Region,
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Gleekman, L.W., Corrosion from Lightning and Power Fault Current, Materials Performance, Vol.
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Dabkowski, J. and Taflove, A., Mutual Design Considerations for Overhead AC Transmission Lines
and Gas Transmission Pipelines, Vol. 1 Engineering Analysis, PRC/AGA Research Project No. PR132-80,
Sept. 1978, pp.7-29.
vii
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Akhtar, A. and Hunter, M., Damage of a Gas Pipeline Resulting from a High Impedance Fault on
a 25kV AC Distribution Power Line, Materials Performance, August 1985, pp.21-24.
viii
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Webster, C. et al, Powerline Ground Fault Effects on Pipelines, Canadian Electrical Association,
Report No. 239T817 December 1994, p.59.
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Drakos, J.E. and Akhtar, A., Problems Associated with Pipelines Occupying Joint-Use Corridors
with AC Transmission Lines, CEA Research Report No. 75-02, Vol.No.1, January 1979, pp.96-97.
x
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Webster, C. et al, Powerline Ground Fault Effects on Pipelines, Canadian Electrical Association,
Report No. 239T817, December 1994, p.23.
xi
CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 84th Edition, CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, Florida, 2003.
xii
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Dabkowski, J., Powerline Coating Impedance Effects on Powerline Fault Current Coupling, AGA,
Corrosion Supervisory Committee, Final Report # PR-200-634, p.3-56.
xiii
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Gummow, R.A., Cathodic Protection Considerations for Pipelines with AC Mitigation Facilities, AGA,
Corrosion Supervisory Committee, PRCI Report PR-262-9809, January 1999.
xiv
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El-Kady, M.A. and Vainberg, M.Y., Risk Assessment of Grounding Hazards due to Step and Touch
Potentials near Transmission Line Structures, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol,
PAS-102, No. 9, Sept. 1983, p.3085.
xv
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IEEE Standard 80 (latest revision), Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, New York, NY.
xvi
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Mitigation of Alternating Current and Lightning Effects on Metallic Structures and Corrosion
Control Systems, NACE International, Houston, TX, Item #21021, p.2.
xvii
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Control Systems, NACE International, Houston, TX, Item #21021, p.2.
xviii
CIGRE working Group 36,02, 1995.
Page 48
xix
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McCollum, B., and Ahlborn, G.H., Technological Papers of the Bureau of Standards, No. 72,
Influence of Frequency of Alternating or Infrequently Reversed Current on Electrolytic Corrosion,
Washington, DC, Aug. 1916.
xx
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Hamlin, A.W., Some Effects of Alternating Current on Pipeline Operations, Materials
Performance, Vol.19, Jan. 1980, pp.18-27.
xxi
Prinz, W. AC Induced Corrosion on Cathodically Protected Pipelines, UK Corrosion 92, Vol. 1, 1992.
xxii
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Heim, G. and Peez, G. The Influence of Alternating Current on Buried and Cathodically Protected
High Pressure Gas Pipelines, Gas-Erdgas, 133, No.3, 1992.
xxiii
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Hartmann, P. External Corrosion on a Cathodically Protected Gas Pipeline Due to Interference
from 50 Hz Alternating Current, 3R International, 30, Issue 10, Oct. 1991, pp.584-589.
xxiv
Prinz, W., AC Induced Corrosion on Cathodically Protected Pipelines, UK Corrosion 92, Vol. 1, 1992.
xxv
.
Evaluation of AC Corrosion Likelihood of Buried Pipelines Applicable to Cathodically Protected
Pipelines, CEN, EN15280, 2011.
xxvi
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von Baeckmann, W., Schwenk, W., and Prinz, W., Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion Protection, 3rd
Edition, Gulf Publishing House, Houston, Texas, 1997, p.151.
xxvii.
Yanxia Du et al, Study on CP Criteria for Mild Steel in the Presence of AC Interference, NACE International,
,
.
Corr14, Mar., 2014

xxviii
. AC Corrosion State of the Art; AC Corrosion Rate Mechanism and Mitigation Requirements, NACE
International, Houston, TX, Publication 35110, Item # 24240, 2010, p.6.
xxix
.
Neilsen, L.V., Role of Alkalization in AC Induced Corrosion of Pipelines and Consequences Hereof in
Relation to CP Requirements, CORR05, NACE International, Houston, 2005.
xxx
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Ormellese, M., et al, Proposal of CP Criterion in the Presence of AC Interference, CORR10,
NACE International, Paper # 10032, 2010.
xxxi
.
Gummow, R.A., Cathodic Protection Considerations for Pipelines with AC Mitigation Facilities, AGA,
Corrosion Supervisory Committee, PRCI Report PR-262-9809, January 1999.
xxxii
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Kajiyama, F., and Nakamura, Y., Effect of Induced Alternating Current Voltage on Cathodically
Protected Pipelines Paralleling Electric Power Transmission Lines, Corrosion, Vol. 55, No.2, Feb, 1999 ,
p.203.
xxxiii
. Bruckner, W.H., Effects of 60 Cycle Alternating Current on the Corrosion of Steels and Other Metals
Buried in Soils, University of Illinois, Bulletin 470, Nov 1964, p.22.
xxxiv
Hamlin, A.W., Alternating Current Corrosion, Materials Performance, Jan. 1986, p.56.
xxxv
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Miura, C., et al, Studies on the Corrosion of Magnesium Anode Under the Effect of Alternating
Current, Boshoku Gijutsu, Vol. 22, No.10/11, 1973, pp.435-440.
xxxvi
. Kouteynikoff, P., Results of an International Survey of the Rules Limiting Interference Coupled
into Metallic Pipelines by High Voltage Power Systems, CIGRE Study committee 36, Electra No.110,
1983, pp.57.
xxxvii
Sunde, E.M., Earth Conduction Effects, Dover Publications, 1968, pp 296-298.
Page 49
xxxviii
. Webster, C. et al., Powerline Ground Fault Effects on Pipelines, Canadian Electrical Association,
Report No. 239 T 817, Dec. 1994, pp.59.
xxxix
. El-Kady, M.A. and Vainberg, M.Y., Risk Assessment of Grounding Hazards due to Step and Touch
Potentials near Transmission Line Structures, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol.
PAS-102, No.9, Sept. 1983, p.1.
xl
.
Dabkowski, J., Calculations and Mitigation of Induced Voltages on Buried Pipelines, NACE,
Corrosion/80, Chicago Paper #64, p.13.
xli
.
Heim, G. and Peez, G. The Influence of Alternating Current on Buried and Cathodically Protected
High Pressure Gas Pipelines, Gas-Erdgas, 133, No.3, 1992.
xlii
Prinz, W. AC Induced Corrosion on Cathodically Protected Pipelines, UK Corrosion 92, Vol. 1, 1992.
xliii
MetriCorr Corrosion Risk Monitoring System, MetriCorr ApS, Denmark.
xliv.
T. Kodama, Potential and Current Distribution and Conformal Transformation, Corrosion Engineering, 36, 109-
114, 1987
xlv
.
Control Systems, NACE International, Houston, TX, Item #21021, pp.10-11.
xlvi
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Principles and Practices of Electrical Coordination between Pipelines and Electrical Supply Lines,
Canadian Standards Association (CAN/CSA-C22.3 No.6-13), Toronto, Ontario.
xlvii
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Cherney, E.A., Effect of Powerline Faults on Pipelines in a Common Corridor, CEA Report
239T532, Phase I, p.6.
xlviii
Berry, W.B., Battelle Report to Sun Pipe Line Co., unpublished, Oct. 1971.
xlix
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Southey, R.D., Dawalibi, F.P., and Donoso, F.A., Mitigating AC Interference on Pipelines,
Materials Performance, May 1994, p.22.
l
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James, W.G., Report on the Effects of Induced AC and Related Factors Affecting the Choice of
Location for the East Chatham Loop, Union Gas Report, Nov. 8, 1973, p.8.
li
.
Russell, G. I., Polarization Cells Preserve DC Isolation and AC Continuity for Safe Effective
Cathodic Protection, NACE Corrosion/84, Paper No. 362, p.5.
lii
.
Dabkowski, J. and Taflove, A., Mutual Design Considerations for Overhead AC Transmission Lines
and Gas Transmission Pipelines, Vol. 1 Engineering Analysis, PRC/AGA Research Project No. PR132-80,
Sept. 1978, pp.7-29.
liii
.
Akhtar, A. and Drakos, J.E., Problems Associated with Pipelines Occupying Joint-Use Corridors
with AC Transmission Lines, BC Hydro Research and Development Report 81-D-72, 1981, p.D276.
liv
.
Hamlin, A.W., Some Effects of Alternating Current on Pipeline Operations, Materials
Performance, Vol. 19, Jan 1980, pp.18-27.
lv
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Performance, April, 1979, pp.34-41.
lvi
.
Russell, G. I., Polarization Cells Preserve DC Isolation and AC Continuity for Safe Effective
Cathodic Protection, NACE Corrosion/84, Paper No. 362, p.5.
Page 50
lvii
.
Gummow, R.A., Use of Polarization Cells on a Cathodically Protected Pipe Line Located on a
HVAC Corridor, NACE Canadian Eastern Region Conference, Sept. 1977, pp.3-4.
lviii
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Commission of Ontario, Research Report 56-386, 1956, p.3.
lix
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Inc., 1996, p.3.47.
lxi
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lxii
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lxiii
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von Baeckmann, W., Schwenk, W., and Prinz, W., Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion Protection, 3rd
Edition, Gulf Publishing House, Houston, Texas, 1997, p.151
lxiv.
Ormellese, M., et al, Proposal of CP Criterion in the Presence of AC Interference, CORR10,

NACE International, Paper # 10032, 2010.
lxv
.
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International, Houston, TX, Publication 35110, Item # 24240, 2010, p.26.
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Page 51

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A/C

2.0 AC Interference Modes and their Harmful Effects

2.1 AC Fault Conditions

2.2 Safety During Construction - Capacitive Coupling (Electrostatic Induction)

2.3 Steady-State Conditions

Personnel Shock Hazard

2.4 Other Harmful Effects of Steady-State Induced AC

3.0 Determining the Risk of AC Interference Effects

3.1 Risks Under Fault Conditions

Risk of Pipe Wall Damage

Risk of Coating Voltage Stress Damage

Prediction of AC Voltages Under Fault Conditions 19

3.2 Risk of Shock Hazard from Steady-State AC Induction

3.3 Risk of AC Corrosion

4.0 Methods of Mitigating AC Interference

4.2 Mitigating Harmful Effects from a Powerline Fault

4.3 Mitigation of Electrostatically Induced Voltages

4.4 Mitigation of Electromagnetically Induced Voltages

DC Decouplers and Surge Protectors

4.5 Cathodic Protection Effectiveness in Mitigating AC Corrosion

Corrosion Control Criteria

Type of Cathodic Protection System 39

5.0 Monitoring Considerations

6.2 AC Interference Procedures

A Recommended Pipeline & Powerline Information

Error! Bookmark not defined.

a pipeline located on a powerline right-of-way (ROW) and vice versa;

A/C Interference Guideline

2. AC Interference Modes and their Harmful

Figure 1 Illustration of a Powerline Fault to Ground at a Tower near a Buried Pipeline

A/C Interference Guideline

A/C Interference Guideline

Data obtained from test pipe on which

Thickness of Pipe Wall

Current Entering Pipe, kA (Peak)

A/C Interference Guideline

Fusion Bonded Epoxy

Coal Tar Epoxy

Coal Tar Enamel

A/C Interference Guideline

Vtouch-tolerance = (1000 + 1.5) 0.116/t

A/C Interference Guideline

Figure 3 Electrostatic (Capacitive) Coupling between Powerline Overhead Conductor and

A/C Interference Guideline

A/C Interference Guideline

A/C Interference Guideline

A/C Interference Guideline

20A/m < iac < 100A/m

iac > 100A/m

iac / idc < 5

iac / idc > 10

A/C Interference Guideline

Figure 7 Residual Corrosion Rate of Carbon Steel Specimens

Effect on AC Corrosion Rate

Decreases with increasing time

Decreases with increasing frequency

Increases in deaerated environments

Coating Defect Size

Increases with decreasing surface area but peaks at 1cm

A/C Interference Guideline

OTHER HARMFUL EFFECTS OF STEADY-STATE INDUCED AC

Figure 8 Off-Potential of the Probe at Test Stations

A/C Interference Guideline

A/C Interference Guideline