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Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
earthing systems
worldwide and
evolutions
Bernard Lacroix
Roland Calvas
glossary
Electrocution
Electro Shock
EMC
GFLD
In
MT/HVA
PIM
RCD
SCPD
STD
TBM
TEM
TPM
UL
summary
1. Review of standardised
earthing systems
4. Conclusion
Appendix 1: IEC 364 standard
Appendix 2: bibliography
History
p. 4
Emergence of earthing
p. 4
systems
Earthing systems of IEC 364
p. 7
General
p. 9
Influence of MV earthing systems p. 9
LV earthing systems
p. 10
Earthing systems of private
p. 11
LV networks in some countries
Evolution of electrical
p. 15
installations
Earthing systems and disturbances p. 15
in electronic systems
Evolution of earthing systems
p. 17
Choosing the earthing system
p. 18
p. 21
p. 22
p. 24
history
Electrical hazard and protection of
persons
c in the 18th century, the static
electricity produced by friction of certain
insulating bodies formed a scientific
diversion causing experimenters to
jump up.... in drawing rooms.
A few dangerous experiments showed
the electrical nature of lightning.
And in 1780: by chance an
electrostatic machine made a
frogs legs move. Galvani observed
the contraction of muscles by electricity.
c in 1880: in order to transmit electricity
over several kilometres, DC voltage left
the 100 V range (required for arc lamp
operation) and rose to 1,300 V (1882
exhibition in Munich) (see fig. 1), and
then to 3,000 V (Grenoble-Vizille link in
1883).
Insulation faults cause leaks and
short-circuits.
The 100 V DC voltage can allegedly be
touched without risk.
c in 1886: the first distribution
installation in the USA: 12 A/500 V/AC
generator and 16 small transformers
supply consumers with 100 V AC for
the first time;
fig. 1: Mr. Desprez's installation located in Munich Palace during the Munich exposition.
emergence of earthing
systems
These systems are the result of a
lengthy evolution guided by the
search for increased personnel
protection.
Between 1880 and 1920,
transmission and distribution of
electrical power took place in
unearthed neutral.
Lines are uninsulated, placed out of
reach, supported by insulators; no
points of the network are deliberately
earthed.
In homes, voltage is 100/110 V AC.
Throughout this period, fuses blow and
persons receive Electric Shocks
1st fault
nothing happens
double fault
the fuse blows
if full fault
Earthing of load
frames (1923) to prevent
Electric Shock by
indirect contacts
Ph
SCPD
or
RCD
SCPD
or
RCD
SCPD
SCPD
Ph
a
N
TN-C system
PEN
fault
TN-S system
N
PE
fault
N
PE
fault
RB
RA
fig. 7: TT-system.
RA
greater than
RB + RA
UL
.
RA
The IT system
c the transformer neutral is not earthed.
It is theoretically unearthed, but in fact
is connected to the earth by the stray
capacities of the network and/or by a
high impedance 1,500 (impedanceearthed neutral).
1st fault
RA
PE
fig. 8: IT system.
general
In all industrialised countries,
LV networks and loads are earthed for
safety reasons to guarantee protection
against electric current for persons.
The objectives are always the same:
c fixing the potential of live conductors
with respect to the earth in normal
operation;
c limiting voltage between the frames
of electrical equipment and the earth
should an insulation fault occur;
c implementing protection devices
which remove the risk of Electric
Shocks or electrocution of personne;
c limiting rises in potential due to
MV faults.
influence of MV earthing
systems
While the first three objectives listed
above fall into the range of LV earthing
systems, the fourth has considerable
repercussions on safety of personnel
and property in LV. Thus, at
MV/LV substation level, a MV phase/
frame fault or a fault between MV and
LV windings may present a risk for
equipment and users of the
LV network.
In public and industrial MV, except in
certain special cases, the neutral is not
distributed and there is no protective
conductor (PE) between substations or
between the MV load and substation.
A phase/earth fault thus results in a
single-phase short-circuit current
limited by earth connection resistance
and the presence of limitation
impedances, if any (zero sequence
generator).
The current tendency, in various
countries, is to limit the zero sequence
fault currents of MV networks, thus
allowing:
HV
MV
LV
IhMT
RP
RB
fig. 9a: if Rp and RB are connected, the fault current causes the potential of the LV network to
rise with respect to the earth.
MV
LV
IhMT
RT (RPBA)
fig. 9b: the LV load frames are raised to the potential IhMT RT.
LV earthing systems
The MV/LV transformers used are
generally Dy 11 (delta/star). However
the use of midpoint single-phase
distribution for public distribution in the
USA and Japan should be pointed out
(see fig. 11).
Most countries apply or derive
inspiration from standard IEC 364
which defines the TN, IT and TT
earthing systems and the protection
conditions, both for public and private
distribution.
In public distribution
The most common systems are
TT and TN; a few countries, in
particular Norway, use the IT system.
The table in figure 12 lists some
examples for public distribution
(LV consumers).
This table shows that Anglo-Saxon
countries mainly use the TN-C, whereas
the TT is used in the rest of the world.
a) star
three-phase
country
MV earthing
system
Germany
unearthed or compensed
10 and 20 kV
Id < 60 A
Australia
directly earthed
11 and 12 kV
Id= a few kA
Belgium
limitation impedance
6.3 and 11 kV
Id < 500 A
France
limitation
20 kV
impedance
overhead
Id i 300 A
underground Id i 1,000 A
Great Britain
direct or limitation
11 kV
impedance
Id < 1,000 A
Italy
unearthed
10-15 and 20 kV
Id i 60 A
(more in reality)
Ireland
unearthed on 10 kV
10 and 38 kV
compensated on 38 kV
Id < 10 A
Japan
unearthed
6.6 kV
Id < 20 A
Portugal
limitation
10 to 30 kV
impedance
overhead
Id i 300 A
underground Id i 1,000 A
USA
directly earthed
4 to 25 kV
or by
low impedance
Id = a few kA
country
Germany
230/400 V
Belgium
230/400 V
Spain
230/400 V
France
230/400 V
Great Britain
240/415 V
Italy
230/400 V
Japan
100/200 V
Norway
230/400 V
Portugal
USA
120/240
observations
Rp < 2 or 5
Rp < 10
Rp < 5
Rp < 30
Rp < 1
Rp < 25
separated
Rp < 20
separated
except if RT < 10
stipulations
on how to
produce Rp
connected
RT < 65
separated except
if RT < 1
Rp < 20
connected
b) midpoint
single-phase
frame
connection
connected if
Id x RT < 250 V
separated
except if RT < 1
separated
d u 15 m
separated
except if RT
<3
<1
separated
except if RT < 1
LV earthing observations
system
TT and TN-C the TN is the most commonly used; RT must be < 2 ;
earth connection at the consumer's, even in TN
TT
Ru < 100
30 mA RCD for sockets
TT
Ru < 800 with 30 mA RCD at supply end of the
installation
TT
Ru < 50 , (100 shortly)
30 mA RCD for sockets
TT and TN-C - town areas: TN-S and TN-C (New Est installations:
15 %), the earth connection (< 10 ) of the neutral
is provided by the distributor
- rural areas: TT
TT
RCD with In as a function of Ru (In < 50/Ru).
For consumers without earth connection 30 mA RCD
TT
Ru < 100 , frequent use of 30 mA RCD,
no search for equipotentiality
IT
premises in insulating materials and poor earth
connections account for this choice.
homes with signalling 30 mA RCD.
tripping of connection circuit breaker if 2 faults.
TT
Ru < 50 (100 as from 1995).
TN-C
earthing of neutral at LV consumers (all earth
connections are connected to the source substation).
fig. 12: public distribution examples worldwide (LV consumers) - LV earthing systems.
load
earth
leakage
circuit-breaker
N
a)
insulation fault protection
R
D1
M25 + GFP
D2
M10 + GFP
short-circuit protection
D3
C161
b)
ts
D3
D2
STR38
D1
STR58
T1200 A - 0.2 s
T1000 A - 0.1 s
5
0.2
0.1
875
1,000
1,200
2,500
IpA
fig. 17: discrimination between downstream short-circuit protection (D3) and upstream earth
protection (GFP) (orange).
c additional measure
Limitation resistance is monitored by an
ohmic relay:
v if resistance is broken: the earthing
system becomes an IT: operation can
continue, but the RCD will open a
feeder on a double fault,
v if resistance is short-circuited, the
earthing system becomes TN-S and
the first insulation fault causes the
BT circuit-breaker to open, unless, of
course, the electrical maintenance
service has acted in time.
Uo RPE
RPE + RPh + 27
525/900 V
N
R = 27
a)
V
PE
digital link
In TN: on an insulation fault, the voltage drop in the PE causes the reference potential of the
communicating devices to vary.
Uo
where as the devices close to the
The frames of devices 2, 3..., are at the potential
2
source are at the earth potential.
b)
PE
digital link
evolution of
earthing systems
Evolution of the TN
The original aim of this earthing system
was simplicity, efficiency and minimum
installation cost (see the American TN
where the neutral is not even
protected);
Safety of personnel is guaranteed,
but that of property (fire, damage to
electrical equipment) is less so.
Proliferation of low current power
electronics is increasing and will
continue to increase complexity of its
implementation.
Derived from the TT of the nineteen
twenties, the TN was a solution
for controlling fault current value
and ensuring that all insulation
faults could be eliminated by
a SCPD.
It grew up in Ango-Saxon countries
where rigour of installation designers
and users is excellent.
The logical evolution is TN-C
TN-C-S TN-S TN-S with fault
current limitation to limit fire hazards,
damage to loads and malfunctionings
due to widespread use of distributed
electronics (see fig. 20).
A survey carried out in Germany in
1990 showed that 28 % of electrical
(electronic) problems were due to EMC.
In terms of protection, the TN system
often uses fuses; already hindered by
an overlong breaking time when limit
safety voltage UL is 25 V, they will be
further hindered in the long term if
LV networks with voltages greater than
230/400 V are developed. The use of
RCDs (impedance-earthed TN-S)
solves this problem.
Evolution of the IT
The earliest electrical installations
(1920) were produced in IT. However,
double faults quickly gave this system a
bad name (failure to master loop
impedances).
Standards gave it official status in the
sixties in order to meet continuity of
service requirements of process
industries and safety requirements in
mines.
LV
Ph
PEN
LV
Ph
N
PE
(2)
(1)
(1) new earth connection preferable if the transformer is at a distance (public distribution);
improves local equipotentiality compared with the eath. This solution is used in Germany and is
being experimented in France (in DP).
(2) in France, the C 15-100 stipulates changing to TN-S when cross-section of conductors
is i 10 mm2 Cu.
c) TN-S earthing system
3
MV
LV
Ph
N
PE
LV
Ph
N
PE
Solution used in the USA (Id of the order of 500 A), in RSA (I 20 A); limits fire risks, damage
and potential reference problems for distributed electronics.
This earthing system is similar to the TT one.
a) at the outset
3
MV
M
Ph
N
LV
Ph
N
PE
b) in 1960
MV
limiter
CPI
MV
LV
Ph
N
PE
limiter
CPI
Becoming more similar to the TN-S (PE distributed, calculation of loop impedances).
d) 2000
MV
LV
LV
TN-S
or
TT
IT
a) at the outset
RCD
3
HV
LV
Ph
N
b) in 1960
HV
RCD
LV
Ph
N
PE
RCD
RCD
Multiple RCDs with time discrimination, local equipotentialites and minimum number of earth
connections.
c) in 1990
HV
Ph
N
PE
LV
CDR
RCD
HV
LV
To retain the advantage of the small fault current (damage and EMC), an impedance-earthed
TT (r 12 /Id = 20 A) emerges with a single earth connection. This system requires the use of
a surge limiter if the MV zero sequence current exceeds 80 A - DDRs are used in the same
way (time discrimination)
TN-C TN-S
TT
IT(1)
IT(2)
Observations
safety
c of persons
c fire
c explosions
availability(further to 1 fault)
+
--+
+
+
+
+
+
+
++
++
++
++
maintenability
++
reliability
of the installation
++
++
++
--
++
disturbances
c radiation
transmission EM
c equipotentiality
of PE
(1) : 1st insulation fault.
(2) : 2nd fault.
3
HV
LV
PEN
TN-C
N
PE
TN-S
TT
IT
3
HV
LV
N
PE
TT
PE
TN-S
IT
- machines
- communicating systems
. automation
. office
. TBM
- premises with fire hazards
- safety systems
- medical facilities
- industrial process
4. conclusion
v 364-4-473 - 1977
Chapter 47: Application of protective
measures for safety - Section 473:
Measures of protection against
overcurrent
v 364-4-481 - 1993
Chapter 48: Choice of protective
measures as a function of external
influences - Section 481: Selection of
measures for protection against Electric
Shock in relation to external influences
v 364-4-482 - 1982
Chapter 48: Choice of protective
measures as a function of external
influences - Section 482: Protection
against fire
c 364-5
Part 5: Selection and erection of
electrical equipment.
v 364-5-51 - 1979
Chapter 51: Common rules
v 364-5-51 - 1 - 1982
Amendment No. 1
364-5-51 - 1979.
v 364-5-51 - 2 - 1993
Amendment No. 2
364-5-51 - 1979.
v 364-5-53 - 1986
Chapter 53: Switchgear and
controlgear
v 364-5-53 - 2 - 1992
Amendment No. 1
364-5-53 - 1986.
v 364-5-54 - 1980
Chapter 54: Earthing arrangements and
protective conductors
v 364-5-54 - 1 - 1982
Amendment No. 1
364-5-54 - 1980.
v 364-5-56 - 1980 Chapter 56: Safety services
v 364-5-523 - 1983
Chapter 52: Wiring systems - Section
523: Current-carrying capacities
v 364-5-537 - 1981
Chapter 53: Switchgear and
controlgear - Section 537: Devices for
isolation and switching
v 364-5-537 - 1 - 1989
Amendment No. 1
364-5-537 - 1981.
c 364-6
Part 6: Verification
v 364-6-61 - 1986
Chapter 61: Initial verification
v 364-6-61 - 1993
Amendment No. 1
364-6-61 - 1986.
c 364-7
Part 7: Requirements for special
installations or locations
v 364-7-701 - 1984
Section 701: Locations containing a
bath tub or shower basin
v 364-7-702 - 1983
Section 702: Swimming pools
v 364-7-703 - 1984
Section 703: Locations containing
sauna heaters
v 364-7-704 - 1989
Section 704: Construction and
demolition site installations
v 364-7-705 - 1984
Section 705: Electrical installations
of agricultural and horticultural
premises
v 364-7-706 - 1983
Section 706: Restrictive conducting
locations
v 364-7-707 - 1984
Section 707: Earthing requirements for
the installation of data processing
equipment
v 364-7-708 - 1988
Section 708: Electrical installations in
caravan parks and caravans
appendix 2: bibliography
Standards
c IEC 241: Fuses for domestic and
similar purposes.
c IEC 269: Low voltage fuses.
c IEC 364: Electrical installations of
buildings.
c IEC 479: Effects of currents flowing
through the human body.
c IEC 755: General requirements for
residual current operated protective
devices.
c IEC 947-2: Low voltage switchgear
and controlgear.
c NF C 15-100 : Installations
lectriques basse tension.
c NF C 63-080 : Dispositifs de contrle
permanent d'isolement et dispositifs de
localisation de dfauts associs.
c NF C 63-150 : Limiteurs de
surtension : rgles.
French decree of the 14.11.88
Other publications
c Guide de linstallation lectrique
(partie G).
Ed. FRANCE IMPRESSION
CONSEIL 1991.
c Guide de lingnierie lectrique.
Ed. ELECTRA 1986.
c Electrical Review.
Nov. 1991 - Oct. 1992.
c La protection diffrentielle.
Cahier Technique J3E - 02/90.