Asbestos-cement (AC) pipe was used extensively in the mid-1900s in potable water distribution systems,

particularly in the western United States. The Chrysotile Institute estimates AC pipe lifespan at 70 years, but
actual service life depends largely on pipe condition and working environment. Because thousands of miles
of AC pipe installed in distribution systems in the U.S. is nearing the end of its useful service life, AC pipe
condition assessment and strategic replacement planning will need to be done in the coming decade.

Over time, AC pipe undergoes gradual degradation in the form of corrosion (i.e., internal calcium leaching
due to conveyed water and/or external leaching due to groundwater). Such leaching leads to reduction in
effective cross-section, which results in pipe softening and loss of mechanical strength. Accordingly, as the
water distribution system ages, the number of AC pipe failures increases with time. In light of these risks, an
AC pipe condition assessment is essential to determine the remaining useful service life and develop a
suitable, proactive replacement plan for the distribution system. Exponent engineers and scientists assist
water agencies in development of strategic and cost-effective AC pipe replacement plans, customized to the
individual challenges of the distribution system.

The condition assessment and proactive replacement planning process consist of the following steps:
1. Collection of System Data

Identification of prevalent AC pipe failure mechanisms (beam failure, bursting under pressure, joint
failure, etc.)

Analysis of historical AC pipe leak records with respect to geographic location in the distribution
system, incorporating geographic information system (GIS)

Identification of factors affecting AC pipe failure propensity, which may include:

o

Pipe age

Pipe diameter

Pipe class

Pipe manufacturer

Internal/external water chemistry

Internal water pressure

Soil physical and chemical properties

Groundwater table elevation

Overburden

Climate

2. System-Wide Sampling, Condition Assessment and Laboratory Testing

Residual strength testing:

o

Crushing strength test (ASTM C 500)

Hydrostatic pressure test (ASTM C 500)

Flexural strength test (ASTM C 500)

Splitting tensile strength (ASTM C 496)

Degradation depth evaluation

o

Determination of calcium leaching depth

Scanning electron microscopy

Energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy

Petrographic examination (ASTM C 856)

Matrix hardness test

Assessment of O-ring condition

o

Compression set test (ASTM D 395)

Hardness test (ASTM D 1415)

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

3. Development of Service Life Prediction Model

Depending on the quality of historical leak records, size of the distribution system and number of samples
collected for laboratory testing, the following types of service life prediction models can be developed:

Historical leak rate based model:

o

Leak rate model based on influential factors (identified in Item 1)

Remaining service life determined by acceptable leak rate threshold

Pipe degradation/residual strength model:

o

Model predicting rate of pipe degradation and/or strength loss based on laboratory testing,
pipe attributes, and operational environment characteristics

Failure threshold degradation depth/residual strength obtained from failed pipe samples

Remaining service life based on projection of degradation rate/strength loss to failure

threshold

4. Development of Master Replacement Plan

Based on system-wide remaining service life prediction model

Incorporates hydraulic, operational and financial considerations, critical customers, seismic risk,
optimal feasible replacement length and other factors.

Size (in)

Inside Diameter of Outside Diameter of

Hub (in)
Barrel (in)

2
Size
3
(in)

3.06

2.38

Inside Diameter of Outside Diameter of

4.19
3.50(in)
Hub
(in)
Barrel

Inside Diameter
barrel (in)
2.00
Inside Diameter
3.00(in)
barrel

42

5.19
2.94

4.50
2.30

4.00
1.96

53

6.19
3.94

5.50
3.30

5.00
2.96

64

7.19
4.94

6.50
4.30

6.00
3.94

85

9.50
5.94

8.62
5.30

8.00
4.94

106

11.62
6.94

10.75
6.30

10.00
5.94

128

13.75
9.25

12.75
8.38

12.00
7.94

10

11.38

10.50

9.94

12

13.50

12.50

11.94

Dimensions of cast iron soil pipe and fittings are indicated below.

Service Cast Iron

Extra Heavy Cast Iron

A pipe fabricated of an iron alloy containing carbon and silicon; usually lined with cement or coal-tar enam
el andcoated externally with one of a variety of materials to reduce corrosion by soils; known technically a
s gray cast-iron pipe.

Concrete pipe has a well-established history and reputation for being a long lasting,
serviceable material. The Cloacae Maxima, built in about 180 B.C. as part of Rome's
main sewer system, was constructed mainly of stone masonry and natural cement
concrete. More than 2,000 years later, portions of the concrete sewer are still in use.
Modern day concrete pipe sewer systems emerged during the mid-19th century when
the public became conscious of the need for sanitation to control the spread of disease.
The earliest recorded use of concrete pipe in the United States is a sewer installation
built in 1842 at Mohawk, N.Y. Other New England cities followed suit and installed
concrete pipelines in the second half of the nineteenth century. Many of these concrete

pipelines are still in use today.

Milestones in concrete pipe development include the production of the first reinforced
concrete pipe in 1905, the invention of prestressed concrete pipe in the 1930s, and the
manufacture of the first steel-cylinder prestressed concrete pipe in 1942.
Concrete pipe comes in many shapes and sizes. Concrete pipe sizes can range
from four inches up to 17 feet in diameter. Although concrete pipe can be manufactured
in a variety of shapes, there are five standard shapes: circular, horizontal elliptical,
vertical elliptical, arch, and rectangular. The pipe shape selected for a project depends
on the topography of the site, importance of hydraulic and structural efficiency, erosion
and deposition in the stream channel, and cost. Most often, the preferred pipe shape is
the one that will alter the natural drainage flow the least.

Five Methods of Producing Concrete Pipe

As with all concrete products, the basic materials of concrete pipe are portland cement,
aggregate, and water. There are five basic methods of producing concrete pipe. Four
methods -- centrifugal/spinning, dry cast, packerhead, and tamp-entail using a dry
concrete mix. The fifth method, wet casting, uses a high-slump concrete mix. Wet-cast
concrete mix usually has a slump less than four inches and is most frequently used for
manufacturing large diameter pipe.
Concrete pipe serves as a conduit material for irrigation, water supply lines, sanitary
sewers, culverts, and storm drains. Culverts, usually made with arch-shaped concrete,
are used to carry water under highways in non-urban areas. Storm drain systems for
cities and towns are becoming more important as communities become larger and more
densely populated. Recent major floods and the resulting damage only emphasize the
need for efficient drainage systems.
Subsurface drainage carries away water below the surface of the pavement. This water
reduces flow support capacity of the base and subgrade material causing potential
damage to roads, airport runways, and building foundations. Many farm fields depend
on proper underground drainage for their cultivation. Thousands of square miles of
otherwise arid land rely on concrete irrigation pipe to supply water for farmland.
Additionally, most of the large cities in the United States a concrete pipe system to
transport their water supply.
The iron pipe is used to join multiple input pipes to one output pipe. Without the
pipes items will randomly choose which way to go upon reaching a junction
meaning many will go where you don't want them.
The iron pipe only has one output and multiple inputs, which are indicated by the
presence or absence of a solid fill. In some versions the output is indicated by a
solid fill, in others this indicates input (as is the case in the image to the right).
The direction can be changed by right-clicking the pipe with a wrench. The output
direction can also be changed by redstone current. Every time it either loses or
gains redstone power, it will cycle to a different output, however it will never output
to a wooden pipe.
This combination of properties allows for players to accurately control its output
direction from afar, via redstone wiring and/or gates . The iron pipe will pop out
blocks if they try to go through the barrier that makes them go the correct direction
as of 2.0. Also it will not pop out blocks if a chest, engine etc. is full, it will simply go
back through the pipe.
Iron Pipes will occasionally bug when they have more than 2 additional pipes
connected. This bug presents itself as the pipe visually showing it will allow items to

pass through in a direction, but instead the items either bounce back the way they
came or move off in one of the blocked directions.

Polyethylene (PE) pipe manufacture commenced in Australia in the 1950s with small diameter pipes
used for rural, irrigation and industrial applications. Since then, PE use and the number of applications
for PE pipes has grown enormously, due to its versatility and the advantages it offers over iron, steel
and cement systems.
The flexibility of PE pipe allows cost savings in installation. Trenchless technology can avoid the need
for open trenches and reduce the disturbance to the public and environment by pulling long lengths of
PE pipes through holes below ground bored by mechanical moles. PE is often used in renovation of old
pipelines as it can be readily inserted as a structural lining into an old pipeline. PEs resistance to
ground instability means that PE gas and water systems were the only systems to survive the major
earthquakes in Kobe, Japan in 1995.
PE pipe can be supplied in straight lengths or in coils, reducing the need for joints and fittings. PE pipes
can be jointed using butt and electrofusion techniques or using mechanical fittings.
There are a range of grades offered in PE products for different applications:
PE 100- The latest generation polyethylene pipe grade has higher strength and toughness than earlier
generation materials. PE 100 has an MRS of 10.0MPa at 20C.
HDPE Used in production of polyethylene conduits.
LDPE Low density polyethylene has high flexibility and retention of properties at low temperatures.
The main applications of LDPE are in micro irrigation, low pressure drip irrigation, rural irrigation and
stock watering applications.
PE pressure pipes are designated by their outside diameter or DN. For water and other general
pressure applications, the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) with a minimum service
coefficient is designated by the pressure rating or PN. The SDR of a PE pipe refers to its Standard
Dimension Ratio which describes the geometry of the pipe and is the ratio of the outside diameter and
the minimum wall thickness. Pipes with a higher SDR have a thinner wall than pipes with a low SDR.
The SDR can be related to the MAOP using the material MRS and the service coefficient appropriate for
the application.
A commitment to using only the highest standard of raw materials and the latest manufacturing
technology has established Vinidex with a reputation as a quality supplier of Polyethylene Pipes in sizes
ranging from 13mm to 1000mm in diameter. PE pipes are used in a wide range of applications
including:

Water supply

Irrigation

Mining and Slurry Lines

Gas

Recycled and Reclaimed Water Transfer

Underground Fire Service


Sewerage

Drainage

Compressed Air

Conduits for Directional Drilling

Conduits are available for telecommunication and electrical applications.

Polyethylene - PE - is popular material and and commonly used as water pipes in

the PE 50, PEH or PE-HD (PolyEthylene High Density) qualities.
PE pipes are produced in different pressure grades - PN grades - indicating the
pressure in bars the pipe supports with water at 20 oC.
Pressure grades according to European standards:

PN 2.5 - max pressure 2.5 bar

PN 4 - max pressure 4 bar

PN 6 - max pressure 6 bar

PN 10 - max pressure 10 bar

PN 16 - max pressure 16 bar

1 bar = 105 Pa (N/m2) = 0.1 N/mm2 = 10.197 kp/m2 = 10.20 m H2O = 0.9869
atm = 14.50 psi (lbf/in2) = 106 dyn/cm2 = 750 mmHg

PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride

strong and rigid

resistant to a variety of acids and bases

may be damaged by some solvents and chlorinated hydrocarbons

maximum usable temperature 140oF (60oC)

usable for water, gas and drainage systems

not usable in hot water systems

ABS pipe and fittings are made from a thermoplastic resin called Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
(ABS for short).
ABS PIPING SYSTEMS:

Are easier and less expensive to install than metal piping

Feature superior flow due to smooth interior finish
Do not rot, rust, corrode or collect waste
Withstand earth loads and shipping (with proper handling)
Resist mechanical damage, even at low temperatures
Perform at an operational temperature up to 140F (60C)

 Are lightweight (one person can load and unload)

Take less time to rough in than metal DWV materials
ABS pipe and fittings were originally developed in the early 1950s for use in oil fields and the
chemical industry. In 1959, John F. Long, a prominent Arizona builder, used ABS pipe in an
experimental residence. Twenty-five years later, an independent research firm dug up and
analyzed a section of the drain pipe. The result: no evidence of rot, rust or corrosion. ASTM
standard for ABS-DWV pipe and fittings was originally approved in 1967.
ABS PIPE SYSTEMS
ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) is an extremely robust thermoplastic pipework system used by
many industries in systems for food and beverage production, sewerage and water treatment etc.
ABS is extremely resistant to impact with good resistance to chemicals, is non-toxic. Conforming to
the toxicological requirements of the British Plastic Federation, British Industrial Biological Research
Association Code of Practice for Food Usage 45/5, and EEC requiremtns for plastic materials in contact
with foodstuffs. These systems are light, strong and simple to fit using a solvent cement.
ABS Products are clearly identified by their light grey colour.

PVC and CPVC Pipes - Schedule 40

ABS

Nominal
Pipe
Size
(inches)

Outside
Diameter
(inches)

Minimum Wall
Thickness
(inches)

Inside
Diameter*)
(inches)

1/2

0.840

0.109

3/4

1.050

Weight
(lb/ft)
PVC

CPVC

0.622

0.16

0.17

0.113

0.824

0.21

0.23

1.315

0.133

1.049

0.32

0.34

1 1/4

1.660

0.140

1.380

0.43

0.46

1 1/2

1.900

0.145

1.610

0.51

0.55

2.375

0.154

2.067

0.68

0.74

2 1/2

2.875

0.203

2.469

1.07

1.18

3.500

0.216

3.068

1.41

1.54

4.500

0.237

4.026

2.01

2.20

5.563

0.258

5.047

2.73

6.625

0.280

6.065

3.53

3.86

8.625

0.322

7.981

5.39

5.81

10

10.750

0.365

10.020

7.55

8.24

12

12.750

0.406

11.938

10.01

10.89

14

14.000

0.438

13.124

11.80

16

16.000

0.500

15.000

15.43

Imperial Pipe Dimensions

NB

PIPE O D (mm)

CLASS

MAX W P

WALL (mm)

WEIGHT KG/M

3/8"

17.1

15

1.70

0.09

1/2"

21.4

15

2.00

0.13

3.60

0.22

2.50

0.20

3.60

0.28

T
3/4"

26.7

15

T
1"

33.6

2.00

0.21

15

3.10

0.31

T
1.1/4"

42.2

4.30

0.43

2.50

0.32

15

3.90

0.49

5.30

0.65

T
1.1/2"

48.3

2.80

0.42

15

4.50

0.64

6.00

0.85

T
2"

60.3

3.60

0.67

15

5.60

1.00

7.20

1.28

T
2.1/2"

75.2

5.00

1.14

3"

88.9

5.20

1.40

15

8.30

2.16

6.60

2.32

15

10.60

3.59

4"

114.3

5"

140.2

9.30

3.97

6"

168.3

9.90

5.12

12

12.80

6.50

12.70

8.57

8"

219.1

Key:
N B = Nominal Bore
O D = Outside Diameter
W P - Working Pressure

CATCH BASIN
1.

1: a cistern located at the point where a street gutter

discharges into a sewer and designed to catch and retain matter
that would not pass readily through the sewer
2.
2: a reser voir or well into which sur face water may drain of