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Training Unit
Electronic Components 2
Theory
No: EE 045
Training Unit
Electronic Components 2
Theoretical Part
No.: EE 045
Edition:
2008
All Rights Reserved
Editor:
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
CONTENTS
Page
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.5.1
1.6
1.2
1.4.1
N-silicon .........................................................................................................10
The construction of a P-type semiconductor......................................................10
P-silicon..........................................................................................................11
PN-junction ........................................................................................................11
1.6.1
1.6.2
General ..............................................................................................................14
2.2
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES.....................................................................................16
3.1
General ..............................................................................................................16
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
SPECIAL DIODES......................................................................................................24
4.1
4.1.1
General ..........................................................................................................24
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.2
4.2.1
General ..........................................................................................................27
4.2.2
Application......................................................................................................27
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
describe the method of Operation of a voltage stabilizer circuit using a Zener diode.
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
Semiconductors are materials, the resistance of which is greater than that of electrical
conductors, but less than that of non-conducting materials (insulating materials).
Silicon
Germanium
Selenium
1.1
1.1.1
Each silicon atom has valence electrons (also referred to as free electrons) in the outer
ring.
Valency represents the ability to join with other atoms.
NOTE:
Silicon has a valency of 4 because of its 4 valence electrons.
A simple representation of a crystal grid (2-dimensional)
A silicon atom can join with other silicon atoms due to its 4 valence electrons. This means
that valence electrons circulate around their own and adjacent atoms.
1.2
Intrinsic conductivity
The electrical conductivity of a material depends on its free charge carriers (electrons in
the outer shell).
A very pure silicon crystal should, therefore, be an insulator, as all the electrons in the
outer ring are required for the crystalline bonds.
The fact that there is a small amount of conductivity (intrinsic conductivity) is due to the
following three causes
-
Remaining impurities
Surface conductivity
NOTE:
The intrinsic conductivity is greatly dependent on temperature.
1.3
Doping of semiconductors
Impurity atoms are "introduced" into a pure semiconductor. This process is called
"doping".
If a pure semiconductor with acceptors * (indium, gallium, boron or aluminium) is doped,
then a P-conducting material is formed. If a pure semiconductor with donors ** (arsenic,
antimony or phosphorus) is doped, then an N-conducting material is formed.
**
1.4
Very pure silicon has impurities deliberately added to it. Atoms of a material with a valency
of 5 are introduced into the crystal.
Sb = antimony = valency 5
The donor atom requires 4 valence electrons for bonding with the silicon atom. One
valence electron is not needed to form a bond. It is, therefore, used as a free electron for
conducting electrical current.
1.4.1
N-silicon
N-silicon is a semiconductor material with free, negative charge carriers. It is not charged
electrically, since there is the same number of electrons as there is of protons in the
material.
1.5
electron movement
hole movement
In = indium - valency 3
If one dopes with acceptors, then one crystalline bond remains free, due to the lack of
electrons. The free bond is called a hole.
hole movement
electron movement
10
If, due to heating, an electron breaks away from a bond situated near a free bond (hole), it
is attracted by the hole (positive charged) and forced to complete the free bond. As a
result, the hole disappears. The hole now appears where the electron was previously
situated. The hole has moved from one place to another in the opposite direction as the
electron.
1.5.1
P-silicon
P-silicon is a doped semiconductor with free, positive charge carriers. It is not electrically
charged.
1.6
PN-junction
If a pure silicon crystal is doped on one side with acceptors and on the other side with
donors, then a thin layer is formed between these two zones. There are no charge carriers
(electrons or holes) inside this layer.
11
This layer is called the PN-junction, blocking layer, boundary layer or depletion layer.
The charge carriers, free electrons and electron deficiencies (holes) evenly distributed
over the rest of the crystal.
1.6.1
Reverse biased
If a voltage is applied to these two layers, with the positive pole connected to the N-zone
and the negative pole to the P-zone (reverse biased) the following action takes place in a
crystal:
-
Only a very small current (reverse current) flows in the reverse direction
12
1.6.2
Forward biased
If the voltage is now reversed, i.e. the positive pole is connected to the P-zone and the
negative pole is connected to the N-zone (forward biased) then the following action will
take place in the crystal:
-
The charge carriers are pushed into the inside of the crystal
13
2.1
SEMICONDUCTOR RECTIFIERS
General
2.2
Silicon rectifiers
These are rectifiers which may have a reverse voltage of several thousand volts and
forward current over 1.5 kA.
They are the most frequently used rectifiers.
Germanium rectifiers
Germanium rectifiers use a low reverse voltage.
They are rarely used in industrial electronics.
Selenium rectifiers
Selenium rectifiers are used for small loads. They are insensitive to short overloads.
14
Term
Silicon
Germanium
selenium
cuprous oxide
0.7 V
0.3 V
0.6 V
0.2 V
>3000 V
200 V
40 V
6V
200 V
90C
85C
50C
15
30
Maximum reverse
voltage (V)
Maximum junction
temperature (C)
Relative space
required for
same load
15
3.1
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES
General
Rectifier type semiconductor diodes cannot be used for high frequencies, as they have a
large depletion layer.
For high frequency semiconductor diodes the area of the PN-junction is small, and,
therefore, the depletion layer capacitance is reduced.
The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor depends on the following:
-
16
A comparison between a semiconductor rectifier diode and a detector diode (point contact
diode)
For many years, point contact diodes were used exclusively as high frequency rectifiers
and switching diodes.
The latest developments are the so called "epitaxial planar diodes" (special manufacturing
process).
They have switching times of a few nanoseconds. The switching currents are a few
hundred mA.
17
3.2
18
19
In drawing (c) above, the output waveform has only positive parts.
3.3
Full-wave rectification in a centre-tapped circuit is a type of circuit which uses both half
cycles of an alternating voltage.
20
voltage waveform
Although better use is made of the voltage than in half-wave rectification, this circuit is
used relatively rarely. One of the main reasons for this is the stringent requirements for
the transformer. It must have a centre-tap and each half of the winding must supply the
same voltage as for the half-wave rectification, which makes its manufacture relatively
expensive.
For this reason experiments with this type of rectification have been omitted.
3.4
21
NOTE:
A diode is defective if the resistance is very low or very high in both forward and reverse
directions.
3.5
Limiting values may never be exceeded otherwise the component will be destroyed.
3.5.1
NOTE:
Characteristics are properties or features of components which can be measured.
22
3.5.2
Examples of characteristics
NOTE:
Nominal values are operating data recommended by the manufacturer and can be
exceeded as long as the limiting values are not reached.
23
SPECIAL DIODES
4.1
Zener diodes
4.1.1
General
Zener diodes behave like semiconductor diodes in the forward direction. By suitable
doping, they develop a low resistance in the reverse direction after a certain voltage has
been exceeded.
NOTE:
Zener diodes are operated in the reverse direction and develop a low resistance when the
Zener voltage is reached.
4.1.2
The low-resistance condition is produced either by the Zener effect or by the avalanche
effect.
24
4.1.3
The Zener effect was investigated on insulating materials by Dr. Zener in 1920.
When the reverse voltage is increased, the depletion layer becomes wider.
The reverse voltage produces an electrical field in the depletion layer. If the electrical field
strength exceeds the value of 200 kV/cm then valence electrons are torn out of the atomic
bonds and are available to form an electrical current.
A critical voltage of between 2 and 600 V can be obtained according to the doping.
4.1.4
The charge carriers (electrons) which have been released due to the Zener effect are
accelerated by the electrical field to such an extent that they knock other electrons out of
their bonds.
The number of free charge carriers increases like an avalanche and swamps the depletion
layer.
Due to the sudden breakdown in the depletion layer there in an instantaneous increase of
reverse current.
NOTE:
After the Zener breakdown, the current must be limited by a resistor RV.
4.1.5
Zener diodes are used for voltage stabilization (stabilized mains equipment), limiter diodes
and for reference values in control technology etc.
25
Stabilization circuit
In order to build the above circuit the value for resistor RV must be known:
There is a minimum value for the load resistance RL in order that the Zener diode
operates in the reverse breakdown region:
26
4.2
4.2.1
General
Each blocked PN-junction acts like the dielectric of a capacitor. In a capacitance diode,
the thickness of the depletion layer can be affected by the level of the voltage applied.
That is:
Low reverse voltage - thin depletion layer - high capacitance.
High reverse voltage - thick depletion layer - low capacitance.
4.2.2
Application
Capacitance diodes are replacing rotating plate variable capacitors in radio and television
sets to an increasing extent.
27
Example
Resonant circuit tuning in television sets.
28
EE 045
Electronic Components 2
Theoretical Test
29
EE 045
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
TEST 1
5. State three reasons why high purity silicon still has a small conductivity.
30
EE 045
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
TEST 2
Germanium diode
Silicon diode.
6. Why can semiconductor rectifier diodes not be used for high frequency?
7. Name a recently developed diode for high frequency switching and rectification.
8. Draw the characteristic curve (EU) of a semiconductor diode for both the forward and
reverse direction.
9. Draw the output waveform for the following circuit, if the input is a sinusoidal
alternating voltage.
31
Draw a circuit used for recording the static characteristic curve of diodes.
32
EE 045
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
TEST 3
1. Draw the characteristic curve and the circuit symbol for a capacitance diode (varactor
diode).
2. State the effect of capacitor (C1) on the output voltage of the circuit shown below.
5. State the disadvantages and advantage of a bridge rectifier over a full-wave rectifier
using a centre-tap transformer.
33
8. Draw the characteristic curve and circuit symbols for a Zener diode.
34
EE 045
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
TEST 1
(Solution)
1. Semiconductors are materials, the resistance of which is greater than that of electrical
conductors, but less than that of non-conducting materials (insulating materials).
2. -
Silicon
Germanium
Selenium
4. Free electrons.
5. -
Remaining impurities
Surface conductivity
6. Impurity atoms are "introduced" into a pure semiconductor. This is termed "doping".
7. Very pure silicon with impurities deliberately added to it. Atoms of a material with a
valence of 5 are introduced into the crystal.
8. No.
35
10. Pure silicon crystal doped on one side with acceptors and on the other side with
donors, a thin layer being formed between these two zones. There are no charge
carriers (electrons or holes) inside this layer.
36
EE 045
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
TEST 2
(Solution)
1. If a voltage is applied to the two layers, so that the positive pole is connected to the Nzone and the negative pole to the P-zone, then the diode is reversed biased.
2. -
3. -
0.3 V
0.6 V
4. Silicon rectifier.
5. These rectifiers have the lowest diffusion voltage and are suitable for small loads only.
37
8.
9.
38
10.
39
EE 045
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS 2
TEST 3
(Solution)
1.
2. The greater the capacitance of the capacitor, the nearer the output voltage will be to
the peak AC input voltage. The AC component of the DC voltage becomes less and,
therefore, better filtering is obtained
40
3.
4. Because it must have a centre-tap transformer and each half of the winding must
supply the same voltage as for the half-wave rectification, which makes its
manufacture relatively expensive.
5. Advantage:
The centre-tap transformer is not needed.
Disadvantages:
-
A slight disadvantage is the higher diode voltage drop (2 x forward voltage per
branch).
7. This is the maximum voltage which may be applied to the diode in the reverse
direction.
41
8.
9. Zener diodes are used for voltage stabilization, limiter diodes and for reference values
in control technology etc.
10. Capacitance diodes are replacing rotating plate variable capacitors in radio and
television sets in an increasing extent.
42
KEY TO EVALUATION
PER CENT
MARK
88 100
75 87
62 74
50 61
0 49
43