Indian Standard - Code of Practice For Earthing

4/30/2015
IndianStandard:CODEOFPRACTICEFOREARTHING
PREAMBLE(NOTPARTOFTHESTANDARD)
Inordertopromotepubliceducationandpublicsafety,equaljusticeforall,abetterinformedcitizenry,theruleoflaw,
worldtradeandworldpeace,thislegaldocumentisherebymadeavailableonanoncommercialbasis,asitistherightofall
humanstoknowandspeakthelawsthatgovernthem.
ENDOFPREAMBLE(NOTPARTOFTHESTANDARD)
(Reaffirmed2006)
IS:30431987
(Reaffirmed2006)
IndianStandard
CODEOFPRACTICEFOREARTHING
(FirstRevision)
FourthReprintJUNE2007
(IncludingAmendmentNo.1)
UDC621.316.99:006.76
Copyright1988
BUREAUOFINDIANSTANDARDS
MANAKBHAVAN,9BAHADURSHAHZAFARMARG
NEWDELHI110002
PriceRs650.00
September1988
5
4
3
2
1
iii
IndianStandard
(FirstRevision)
ElectricalInstallationsSectionalCommittee,ETDC20
ftp://law.resource.org/pub/in/bis/S05/is.3043.1987.html
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Chairman
SHRIM.L.DONGRE
M3Satyam,88SionCircle,Bombay400022
Members
SHRIP.ANANTHARAMAN
Representing
EngineerinChiefsBranch,ArmyHeadquarters(Ministryof
Defence),NewDelhi
SHRIS.K.SHANGARI(Alternate)
SHRIP.D.BAGADE
TataConsultingEngineers,Bombay
SHRIR.K.KAUL(Alternate)
SHRIV.S.BHATIA
SiemensIndiaLtd,Bombay
SHRIM.M.SHETHNA(Alternate)
SHRIK.V.CHAUBAL
FederationofElectricityUndertakingofIndia,Bombay
SHRIK.S.JOSHI(Alternate)
SHRIR.R.CHOUDHURI
Larsen&Toubro(ConstructionGroup),Madras
SHRIN.BALASUBRAMANIAN(Alternate)
CHIEFELECTRICALENGINEER
RailwayBoard(MinistryofRailways),NewDelhi
DEPUTYDIRECTORSTANDARDS(ELEC)DI,RDSO(Alternate)
CHIEFELECTRICALINSPECTORTOGOVERNMENTOFTAMILNADU ChiefElectricalInspectortoGovernmentofTamilNadu,
Madras
ELECTRICALINSPECTOR(TECHNICAL)TOGOVERNMENTorTAMILNADU(Alternate)
CHIEFENGINEER(ELEC)1SUPERINTENDENTSURVEYORorWORKS CentralPublicWorksDepartment,NewDelhi
(ELEC)I(Alternate)
SHRIDEVENDERNATH
Larsen&ToubroLtd,Bombay
SHRIT.P.R.SARMA(Alternate)
SHRIK.W.DHARMADHIKARI
JyotiLtd,Vadodara
DRV.N.MALLER(Alternate)
SHRIG.L.DUA
RuralElectrificationCorporationLtd,NewDelhi
SHRIS.K.SETHI(Alternate)
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SHRIR.C.KHANNA
DelhiElectricSupplyUndertaking,NewDelhi
SHRIP.S.SAWHNEY(Alternate)
MEMBER(HYDROELECTRIC)
CentralElectricityAuthority,NewDelhi
DIRECTOR(HED)I(Alternate)
ERS.PANEERSELVAM
TamilNaduElectricityBoard,Madras
SHRIV.JANARDHANAN(Alternate)
SHRIK.P.R.PILLAI
FactEngineeringandDesignOrganization,Udhyogamandal
SHRIC.R.R.MENON(Alternate)
SHRIV.RADHAKRISHNAN
BharatHeavyElectricalsLtd,Hyderabad
SHRIH.S.RAO
CromptonGreavesLtd,Bombay
PROFG.RAVEENDRANNAIR
ChiefElectricalInspectortotheGovernmentofKerala,
Trivandrum
SHRIS.R.SARDA
MaharashtraStateElectricityBoard,Bombay
SHRIR.SATHIYABAL
TariffAdvisoryCommittee(GeneralInsurance),Bombay
SHRIK.K.MONDAL(Alternate)
SHRIH.K.SITARAM
CalcuttaElectricSupplyCorporationLtd,Calcutta
SHRIS.K.PALIT(Alternate)
SHRIP.SRINIVASAPOTI
KarnatakaElectricityBoard,Bangalore
SHRIJOSEPHPHILOMENY(Alternate)
SHRID.S.TAWARE
ElectricalEngineertoGovernmentofMaharashtra,Bombay
SHRIS.J.HARIDAS(Alternate)
SHRIG.N.THADANI
EngineersIndiaLtd,NewDelhi
SHRIS.K.GHOSH(Alternate)
SHRIG.S.THAKUR
ChiefElectricalInspector,GovernmentofMadhyaPradesh,
Bhopal
SHRIV.T.WARANG
BombayElectricSupplyandTransportUndertaking,Bombay
SHRIR.P.PATEL(Alternate)
SHRIS.P.SACHDEV,Director(Electech)
DirectorGeneral,BIS(ExofficioMember)
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Secretary
SHRIK.GANESH
DeputyDirector(Electech),BIS
Copyright1988
ThispublicationisprotectedundertheIndianCopyrightAct(XIV1957)andproductioninwholeorinpartbyanymeantexcept
withwrittenpermissionofthepublishershallbedeemedtobeaninfringmentofcopyrightunderthesaidAct.
PanelfortheRevisionofIS:3043,ETDC20:P38
1
Convener
SHRIN.BALASUBRAMANIAN
Members
Representing
Larsen&Toubro(ConstructionGroup),Madras
PROFG.RAVEENDRAMNAIR
ChiefElectricalInspectortotheGovernmentofKerala,Trivandrum
SHRIV.SATHYANATHAN
TamilNaduElectricityBoard,Madras
SHRIG.S.THAKUR
ChiefElectricalInspector,GovernmentofMadhyaPradesh,Bhopal
SHRIR.SATHIYABAL
TariffAdvisoryCommittee,Madras
SHRIK.P.R.PILLAI
FactEngineeringandDesignOrganization,Udyogamandal
CONTENTS
Page
0. FOREWORD
1. SCOPE
6
SECTION1GENERALGUIDELINES
2. TERMINOLOGY
3. EXCHANGEOFINFORMATION
4. STATUTORYPROVISIONSFOREARTHING
5. FACTORSINFLUENCINGTHECHOICEOFEARTHEDANDUNEARTHEDSYSTEMS
10
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6. SYSTEMEARTHING
11
7. EQUIPMENTEARTHING
15
SECTION2CONNECTIONSTOEARTH
8. RESISTANCETOEARTH
16
9. EARTHELECTRODE
19
10. CURRENTDENSITYATTHESURFACEOFANEARTHELECTRODE
27
11. VOLTAGEGRADIENTAROUNDEARTHELECTRODES
27
12. CONNECTIONSTOEARTHELECTRODESEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
27
13. EARTHINGARRANGEMENTFORPROTECTIVEPURPOSES
32
14. EARTHINGARRANGEMENTFORFUNCTIONALPURPOSES
32
15. EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORCOMBINEDPROTECTIVEANDFUNCTIONALPURPOSES
32
16. EQUIPOTENTIALBONDINGCONDUCTORS
33
17. TYPICALSCHEMATICOFEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
33
SECTION3EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONONCONSUMERSPREMISES
18. EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONININSTALLATIONS
34
19. SELECTIONOFDEVICESFORAUTOMATICDISCONNECTIONOFSUPPLY
39
SECTION4POWERSTATIONS,SUBSTATIONSANDOVERHEADLINES
20. EARTHINGINPOWERSTATIONSANDSUBSTATIONS
43
21. EARTHINGASSOCIATEDWITHOVERHEADPOWER.LINES
52
SECTION5INDUSTRIALPREMISES
22. GUIDELINESFOREARTHINGININDUSTRIALPREMISES
53
SECTION6STANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS
23. EARTHINGINSTANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS(INCLUDINGPORTABLEANDMOBILE
3
56
GENERATORS)
SECTION7MEDICALESTABLISHMENT
24. PROTECTIVEMEASURESTHROUGHEARTHINGINMEDICALESTABLISHMENT
64
25. SUPPLYCHARACTERISTICSANDPARAMETERS
65
SECTION8STATICANDLIGHTNINGPROTECTIONEARTHING
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(Underconsideration.Clauses26and27reservedforSection8)
SECTION9MISCELLANEOUSINSTALLATIONSANDCONSIDERATIONS
28. EARTHINGINPOTENTIALLYHAZARDOUSAREAS
69
29. TELECOMMUNICATIONCIRCUITSANDAPPARATUS
70
30. BUILDINGSITES
71
31. MINESANDQUARRIES
71
32. STREETLIGHTINGANDOTHERELECTRICALLYSUPPLIESSTREETFURNITURS
73
33. EARTHINGOFCONDUCTORSFORSAFEWORKING
74
34. MAINTENANCEOFEARTHELECTRODES
76
SECTION10MEASUREMENTSANDCALCULATIONS
35. CALCULATIONOFEARTHFAULTCURRENTS
76
36. MEASUREMENTOFEARTHRESISTIVITY
77
37. MEASUREMENTOFEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE
79
38. MEASUREMENTOFEARTHLOOPIMPEDANCE
80
SECTION11DATAPROCESSINGINSTALLATIONS
39. EARTHINGREQUIREMENTSFORINSTALLATIONSOFDATAPROCESSINGEQUIPMENT
80
40. EXAMPLEOFUSEOFTRANSFORMERS
83
IndianStandard
(FirstRevision)
0.FOREWORD
0.1
ThisIndianStandard(FirstRevision)wasadoptedbytheBureauofIndianStandardson6August1987,afterthedraft
finalizedbytheElectricalInstallationsSectionalCommittee,hadbeenapprovedbytheElectrotechnicalDivisionCouncil.
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0.2
TheIndianElectricityRules,togetherwiththesupplementaryregulationsoftheStateElectricityDepartmentsand
ElectricityUndertakings,governtheelectricalinstallationworkingeneratingstations,substations,industriallocations,
buildings,etc,inthecountry.Toensuresafetyoflifeandapparatusagainstearthfaults,itwasfeltnecessarytoprepareacodeof
practiceforearthing.Thiscodeofpracticeisintendedtoserveasaconsolidatedguidetoallthosewhoareconcernedwiththe
design,installation,inspectionandmaintenanceofelectricalsystemsandapparatus.
0.3
Thesubjectofearthingcoverstheproblemsrelatingtoconductionofelectricitythroughearth.Thetermsearthand
earthinghavebeenusedinthiscodeirrespectiveofreliancebeingplacedontheearthitselfasalowimpedancereturnpathof
thefaultcurrent.Asamatteroftact,theearthnowrarelyservesasapartofthereturncircuitbutisbeingusedmainlyfor
fixingthevoltageofsystemneutrals.Theearthconnectionimprovesservicecontinuityandavoidsdamagetoequipmentand
dangertohumanlife.
0.4
Theobjectofanearthingsystemistoprovideasnearlyaspossibleasurfaceunderandaroundastationwhichshallbeat
auniformpotentialandasnearlyzeroorabsoluteearthpotentialaspossible.Thepurposeofthisistoensurethat,ingeneral,
allpartsofapparatusotherthanliveparts,shallbeatearthpotential,aswellastoensurethatoperatorsandattendantsshallbe
atearthpotentialatalltimes.Alsobyprovidingsuchanearthsurfaceofuniformpotentialunderandsurroundingthestation,
therecanexistnodifferenceofpotentialinashortdistancebigenoughtoshockorinjureanattendantwhenshortcircuitsor
otherabnormaloccurrencestakeplace.Therecommendationsinthiscodearemadeinorderthattheseobjectsmaybecarried
out.
0.5
Earthingassociatedwithcurrentcarryingconductorisnormallyessentialtothesecurityofthesystemandisgenerally
knownassystemearthing,whileearthingofnoncurrentcarryingmetalworkandconductorisessentialtothesafetyofhuman
life,animalsandproperty,andisgenerallyknownasequipmentearthing.
0.6
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Sincethepublicationofthisstandardin1966,considerableexperiencehasbeengainedthroughtheimplementationofits
variousstipulations.Moreover,severalnewconceptshavebeenintroducedtheworldover,ontheunderstandingoffunctional
andprotectiveearthingwithaviewtotakeintoaccountavarietyofcomplexproblemsencounteredinactualpractice.Inthe
contextofincreaseduseofelectricpowerandtheassociatedneedforsafetyinthedesignofinstallations,ithadbecome
necessarytoprepareanoverallrevisionoftheearlierversionoftheCode.
0.7
InthisCode,thetermsearthingandgroundingareusedsynonymously.However,thisCodeintroducesseveralnew
terms(see2.15,2.17,2.28,etc)anddistinguishesearthingconductorfromprotectiveconductor.
0.8
ThisCodeincludescomprehensiveguidelinesonchoosingthepropersizeofthevariouscomponentsoftheearthing
system,particularlyearthingandprotectiveconductorsaswellasearthelectrodes.Guidanceincludedondeterminationof
relevantkfactordependingon(seeSec2)materialpropertiesandboundaryconditions,andtheassociatedminimumcross
sectionalareawouldassistinamorescientificdesignoftheearthingsystemundervariouscircumstances.
0.9
Forthefirsttime,theCodealsoincludescomprehensiveguidelinesonearthfaultprotectioninconsumerspremisesto
commensuratewiththeprovisionsofIERules1956.Itincludesspecificguidelinesonearthingsystemdesigntoachievethe
desireddegreeofshockhazardprotectionfromearthleakages.TherulesgiveninSection3oftheCodeshouldbereadin
conjunctionwithcorrespondingregulationsgiveninthewiringcode(seeIS:732).
0.9.1
Protectionagainstshock,bothinnormalservice(directcontact)andincaseoffault(indirectcontact)canbeachievedby
several
5
measures.Detailsofsuchprotectivemeasuresandguidanceontheirchoiceisthesubjectmatterofdebateintheprocess
ofrevisionofIS:732*.Earthfault/leakageprotectionsoughttobeachievedthroughequipotentialbondingandautomatic
disconnectionofsupplyisenvisagedtopreventatouchvoltagefrompersistingforsuchadurationthatwouldbeharmfulto
humanbeings.GuidanceonachievingthisprotectioniscoveredinSec3oftheCode.
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0.9.2
WhiledetailedguidelinesarecoveredinspecificportionsoftheCode,thefollowingshallbenoted:
a. Forsolidlygroundedsystems,itshallbesufficienttocheckwhetherthe,characteristicsofprotectivedeviceforautomatic
disconnection,earthingarrangementsandrelevantimpedancesofthecircuitsareproperlycoordinatedtoensurethat
voltagesappearingbetweensimultaneouslyaccessible,exposedandextraneous,conductivepartsarewithinthe
magnitudesthatwouldnotcausedanger
b. Forsystemswheretheearthingisdeemedtobeadequate,itshallbecheckedwhetherthemainovercurrentprotective
deviceiscapableofmeetingtherequirementsinthewiringcodeand
c. Wherethemainovercurrentprotectivedevicedidnotfulfiltherequirementsorwheretheearthingisconsidered
inadequate,thenaseparateresidualcurrentdevicewouldbenecessarytobeinstalled,theearthfaultloopimpedanceand
thetrippingcharacteristicssochosenthattheycomplywithsafetouchvoltagelimits.
0.10
TherevisionoftheCodeaimsatconsolidatinginonevolumealltheessentialguidelinesneededforpreparingagood
earthingdesigninanelectricalinstallation.Therevisionalsoattemptstobemoreelaboratethantheearlierversion,especially
inareasofspecificinterestkeepinginviewtheneedandwideexperiencegainedtheworldover.
*Codeofpracticeforelectricalwiringinstallation.
0.11
ForconvenienceofidentifyingareasofinterestbyanyspecificusersoftheCode,theinformationcontainedinthis
standardisdividedintodifferentSectionsasfollows:
Section1
Generalguidelines
Section2
Connectionstoearth
Section3
Earthfaultprotectioninconsumerspremises
Section4
Powerstations,substationsandoverheadlines
Section5
Industrialpremises
Section6
Standbyandotherprivategeneratingplant
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Section7
Medicalestablishments
Section8
Staticandlightningprotectiongrounding
Section9
Miscellaneousinstallationsandconsiderations
Section10
Measurementsandcalculationsand
Section11
Dataprocessinginstallations.
0.12
InthepreparationoftheCode,assistancehasbeentakenfromthefollowing:
IECPub364(andParts)Electricalinstallationsinbuildings.InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission.
BSDocument84/21243Draftstandardcodeofpracticeonearthing(revisionofCP1013:1965).BritishStandards
Institution.
ANSI/IEEEStd1421982IEEERecommendedpracticeforgroundingofindustrialandcommercialpowersystems.
AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(USA).
0.13
Forthepurposeofdecidingwhetheraparticularrequirementofthisstandardiscompliedwith,thefinalvalue,observed
orcalculated,expressingtheresultofatestoranalysisshallberoundedoffinaccordancewithIS:21960*.Thenumberof
significantplacesretainedintheroundedoffvalueshouldbethesameasthatofthespecifiedvalueinthisstandard.
*Rulesforroundingoffnumericalvalues(revised).
1.SCOPE
1.1
Thiscodeofpracticegivesguidanceonthemethodsthatmaybeadoptedtoearthanelectricalsystemforthepurposeof
limitingthepotential(withrespecttothegeneralmassoftheearth)ofcurrentcarryingconductorsformingpartofthesystem,
thatis,systemearthingandnoncurrentcarryingmetalworkassociationwithequipment,apparatusandapplianceconnectedto
thesystem(thatis,equipmentearthing).
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1.2
ThisCodeappliesonlytolandbasedinstallationsanditdoesnotapplytoships,aircraftsoroffshoreinstallations.
SECTION1GENERALGUIDELINES
2.TERMINOLOGY
2.0
Forthepurposeofthisstandard,thefollowingdefinitionsshallapply.
2.1
ArcSuppressionCoil(PetersonCoil)Anearthingreactorsodesignedthatitsreactanceissuchthatthereactive
currenttoearthunderfaultconditionsbalancesthecapacitancecurrenttoearthflowingfromthelinessothattheearth
currentatthefaultislimitedtopracticallyzero.
2.2
BondingConductorAprotectiveconductorprovidingequipotentialbonding.
2.3
ClassIEquipmentEquipmentinwhichprotectionagainstelectricshockdoesnotrelyonbasicinsulationonly,but
whichincludesmeansfortheconnectionofexposedconductivepartstoaprotectiveconductorinthefixedwiringofthe
installation.
NOTEForinformationonclassificationofequipmentwithregardtomeansprovidedforprotectionagainst
electricshock(seeIS:94091980*).
2.4
ClassIIEquipmentEquipmentinwhichprotectionagainstelectricshockdoesnotrelyonbasicinsulationonly,but
inwhichadditionalsafetyprecautionssuchassupplementaryinsulationareprovided,therebeingnoprovisionforthe
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connectionofexposedmetalworkoftheequipmenttoaprotectiveconductor,andnorelianceuponprecautionstobetakenin
thefixedwiringoftheinstallation.
2.5
DeadThetermusedtodescribeadeviceorcircuittoindicatethatavoltageisnotapplied.
2.6
DoubleInsulationInsulationcomprisingbothbasicandsupplementaryinsulation.
2.7
EarthTheconductivemassoftheearth,whoseelectricpotentialatanypointisconventionallytakenaszero.
2.8
EarthElectrodeAconductororgroupofconductorsinintimatecontactwithandprovidinganelectricalconnection
toearth.
2.9
EarthElectrodeResistanceTheresistanceofanearthelectrodetoearth,
2.10
EarthFaultLoopImpedanceTheimpedanceoftheearthfaultcurrentloop(phasetoearthloop)startingand
endingatthepointofearthfault.
2.11
EarthLeakageCurrentAcurrentwhichflowstoearthortoextraneousconductivepartsinacircuitwhichis
electricallysound.
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NOTEThiscurrentmayhaveacapacitivecomponentincludingthatresultingfromthedeliberateuseof
capacitors.
2.12
EarthedConcentricWiringAwiringsysteminwhichoneormoreinsulatedconductorsarecompletelysurrounded
throughouttheirlengthbyaconductor,forexample,asheathwhichactsasaPENconductor.
2.13
EarthingConductorAprotectiveconductorconnectingthemainearthingterminal(see2.2)(ortheequipotential
bondingconductorofaninstallationwhenthereisnoearthbus)toanearthelectrodeortoothermeansofearthing.
2.14
ElectricallyIndependentEarthElectrodesEarthelectrodeslocatedatsuchadistancefromoneanotherthatthe
maximumcurrentlikelytoflowthroughoneofthemdoesnotsignificantlyaffectthepotentialoftheother(s).
2.15
EquipotentialBondingElectricalconnectionputtingvariousexposedconductivepartsandextraneousconductive
partsatasubstantiallyequalpotential.
NOTEInabuildinginstallation,equipotentialbondingconductorsshallinterconnectthefollowing
conductiveparts:
a. Protectiveconductor
b. Earthcontinuityconductorand
c. Risersofairconditioningsystemsandheatingsystems(ifany).
2.16
ExposedConductivePartAconductivepartofequipmentwhichcanbetouchedandwhichisnotalivepartbut
whichmaybecomeliveunderfaultconditions.
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2.17
ExtraneousCondctivePartAconductivepartliabletotransmitapotentialincludingearthpotentialandnot
formingpartoftheelectricalinstallation.
2.18
FinalCircuitAcircuitconnecteddirectlytocurrentusingequipmentortoasocketoutletorsocketoutletsorother
outletpointsfortheconnectionofsuchequipment.
2.19
FunctionalEarthingConnectiontoearthnecessaryforproperfunctioningofelectricalequipment(see29.1).
2.20
LivePartAconductororconductivepartintendedtobeenergizedinnormaluseincludinganeutralconductorbut,by
convention,notaPENconductor.
2.21
MainEarthingTerminalTheterminalorbar(whichistheequipotentialbondingconductor)providedforthe
connectionofprotectiveconductorsandtheconductorsoffunctionalearthing,ifany,tothemeansofearthing.
2.22
NeutralConductorAconductorconnectedtotheneutralpointofasystemandcapableofcontributingtothe
transmissionofelectricalenergy.
*Classificationofelectricalandelectronicequipmentwithregardtoprotectionagainstelectricshock.
7
2.23
PENConductorAconductorcombiningthefunctionsofbothprotectiveconductorandneutralconductor.
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2.24
PortableEquipmentEquipmentwhichismovedwhileinoperationorwhichcaneasilybemovedfromoneplaceto
anotherwhileconnectedtothesupply.
2.25
PotentialGradient(AtaPoint)Thepotentialdifferenceperunitlengthmeasuredinthedirectioninwhichitis
maximum.
NOTEIWhenanelectricforceisduetopotentialdifference,itisequaltothepotentialgradient.
NOTE2Potentialgradientisexpressedinvoltsperunitlength.
2.26
ProtectiveConductorAconductorusedasameasureofprotectionagainstelectricshockandintendedfor
connectinganyofthefollowingparts:
a. Exposedconductiveparts,
b. Extraneousconductiveparts,
c. Mainearthingterminal,and
d. Earthedpointofthesourceoranartificialneutral.
2.27
ReinforcedInsulationSingleinsulationappliedtoliveparts,whichprovidesadegreeofprotectionagainstelectric
shockequivalenttodoubleinsulationundertheconditionsspecifiedintherelevantstandard.
NOTEThetermsingleinsulationdoesnotimplythattheinsulationhastobeonehomogeneouspiece.It
maycompriseseverallayersthatcannotbetestedsinglyassupplementaryorbasicinsulation.
2.28
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ResidualCurrentDeviceAmechanicalswitchingdeviceorassociationofdevicesintendedtocausetheopeningof
thecontactswhentheresidualcurrentattainsagivenvalueunderspecifiedconditions.
2.29
ResidualOperatingCurrentResidualcurrentwhichcausestheresidualcurrentdevicetooperateunderspecified
conditions.
2.30
ResistanceArea(ForanEarthElectrodeonly)Thesurfaceareaofground(aroundanearthelectrode)onwhich
asignificantvoltagegradientmayexist.
2.31
SafetyExtraLowVoltageSeeIS:94091980*.
2.32
SimultaneouslyAccessiblePartsConductorsorconductivepartswhichcanbetouchedsimultaneouslybyaperson
or,whereapplicable,bylivestock.
NOTE1Simultaneouslyaccessiblepartsmaybe:
a. liveparts,
b. exposedconductiveparts,
c. extraneousconductiveparts,
d. protectiveconductors,and
e. earthelectrodes.
NOTE2Thistermappliesforlivestockinlocationsspecificallyintendedfortheseanimals.
*Classificationofelectricalandelectronicequipmentwithregardtoprotectionagainstelectricalshock.
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2.33
SupplementaryInsulationIndependentinsulationappliedinadditiontobasicinsulation,inordertoprovide
protectionagainstelectricshockintheeventofafailureofbasicinsulation.
2.34
SwitchgearAnassemblyofmainandauxiliaryswitchingapparatusforoperation,regulation,protectionorother
controlofelectricalinstallations.
NOTEAmorecomprehensivedefinitionofthetermSwitchgearcanbehadfromIS:1885(Part17)1979*.
2.35
Voltage,NominalVoltagebywhichaninstallation(orpartofaninstallation)isdesignated.
2.36
TouchVoltageThepotentialdifferencebetweenagroundedmetallicstructureandapointontheearthssurface
separatedbyadistanceequaltothenormalmaximumhorizontalreach,approximatelyonemetre(seeFig.1).
2.37
StepVoltageThepotentialdifferencebetweentwopointsontheearthssurface,separatedbydistanceofonepace,
thatwillbeassumedtobeonemetreinthedirectionofmaximumpotentialgradient(seeFig.1).
2.38
EquipotentialLineorContourThelocusofpointshavingthesamepotentialatagiventime.
2.39
MutualResistanceofGroundingElectrodesEqualtothevoltagechangeinoneofthemproducedbyachangeof
oneampereofdirectcurrentintheotherandisexpressedinohms.
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2.40
EarthGridAsystemofgroundingelectrodesconsistingofinterconnectedconnectorsburiedintheearthtoprovidea
commongroundforelectricaldevicesandmetallicstructures.
NOTEThetermearthgriddoesnotincludeearthmat.
2.41
EarthMatAgroundingsystemformedbyagridofhorizontallyburiedconductorsandwhichservestodissipatethe
earthfaultcurrenttoearthandalsoasanequipotentialbondingconductorsystem.
3.EXCHANGEOFINFORMATION
3.1
Whentheearthingofaconsumersinstallationisbeingplanned,priorconsultationshalltakeplacebetweenthe
consultantorcontractorandthesupplyauthority.Wherenecessary,consultationswiththePosts&TelegraphsDepartment
shallalsobecarriedoutinordertoavoidanyinterferencewiththetelecommunicationsystem.
*Electrotechnicalvocabulary:Part17Switchgearandcontrolgear(firstrevision).
8
FIG.1STEPANDTOUCHVOLTAGES
FIG.1STEPANDTOUCHVOLTAGES
4.STATUTORYPROVISIONSFOREARTHING
4.1
EartingshallgenerallybecarriedoutinaccordancewiththerequirementsofIndianElectricityRules1956,asamended
fromtimetotimeandtherelevantregulationsoftheElectricitySupplyAuthorityconcerned.
4.2
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Allmediumvoltageequipmentshallbeearthedbytwoseparateanddistinctconnectionswithearth.Inthecaseofhigh
andextrahighvoltages,theneutralpointsshallbeearthedbynotlessthantwoseparateanddistinctconnectionswithearth,
eachhavingitsownelectrodeatthegeneratingstationorsubstationandmaybeearthedatanyotherpointprovidedno
interferenceiscausedbysuchearthing.Ifnecessary,theneutralmaybeearthedthroughasuitableimpedance.
4.2.1
Incaseswheredirectearthingmayproveharmfulratherthanprovidesafety(forexample,highfrequencyandmains
frequencycorelessinductionfurnaces),relaxationmaybeobtainedfromthecompetentauthority.
4.3
Earthelectrodesshallbeprovidedatgeneratingstations,substationsandconsumerpremisesinaccordancewiththe
requirementsofthisCode.
4.4
Asfaraspossible,allearthconnectionsshallbevisibleforinspection.
4.5
Allconnectionsshallbecarefullymadeiftheyarepoorlymadeorinadequateforthepurposeforwhichtheyare
intended,lossoflifeorseriouspersonalinjurymayresult.
4.6
Eachearthsystemshallbesodevisedthatthetestingofindividualearthelectrodeispossible.Itisrecommendedthatthe
valueofanyearthsystemresistanceshallbesuchastoconformwiththedegreeofshock,protectiondesired.
4.7
Itisrecommendedthatadrawingshowingthemainearthconnectionandearthelectrodesbepreparedforeach
installation.
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4.8
Noadditiontothecurrentcarryingsystem,eithertemporaryorpermanent,shallbemadewhichwillincreasethe
maximumavailableearth
9
faultcurrentoritsdurationuntilithasbeenascertainedthattheexistingarrangementofearthelectrodes,earthbusbar,
etc,arecapableofcarryingthenewvalueofearthfaultcurrentwhichmaybeobtainedbythisaddition.
4.9
Nocutout,linkorswitchotherthanalinkedswitcharrangedtooperatesimultaneouslyontheearthedorearthed
neutralconductorandtheliveconductors,shallbeinsertedonanysupplysystem.This,however,doesnotincludethecaseofa
switchforuseincontrollingageneratororatransformeroralinkfortestpurposes.
4.10
Allmaterials,fittings,etc,usedinearthingshallconformtoIndianStandardspecifications,wherevertheseexist.
5.FACTORSINFLUENCINGTHECHOICEOFEARTHEDORUNEARTHEDSYSTEM
5.1ServiceContinuity
5.1.1
Anumberofindustrialplantsystemshavebeenoperatedunearthedatoneormorevoltagelevels.Thisisbasicallyguided
bythethoughtofgaininganadditionaldegreeofservicecontinuityvaryinginitsimportancedependingonthetypeofplant.
Earthedsystemsareinmostcasesdesignedsothatcircuitprotectivedeviceswillremovethefaultycircuitfromthesystem
regardlessofthetypeoffault.However,experiencehasshownthatinanumberofsystems,greaterservicecontinuitymaybe
obtainedwithearthedneutralthanwithunearthedneutralsystems.
5.2MultipleFaultstoGround
5.2.1
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Whileagroundfaultononephaseofanunearthedsystemgenerallydoesnotcauseaserviceinterruption,theoccurrence
ofasecondgroundfaultonadifferentphasebeforethefirstfaultiscleared,doesresultinanoutage.Thelongeragroundfault
isallowedtoremainonanunearthedsystem,greateristhelikelihoodofasecondoneoccurringinanotherphaseandrepairs
arerequiredtorestoreservice.Withanunearthedsystem,anorganizedmaintenanceprogrammeisthereforeextremely
importantsothatfaultsarelocatedandremovedsoonafterdetection.
Experiencehasshownthatmultiplegroundfaultsarerarely,ifever,experiencedonearthedneutralsystems.
5.3ArcingFaultBurndowns
5.3.1
Intypicalcases,anarcingfaultbecomesestablishedbetweentwoormorephaseconductorsinanunearthedsystemsor
betweenphaseandgroundinasolidlyearthedneutralsystem.Thiswouldresultinseveredamageordestructiontoequipment.
However,arcingfaultcurrentlevelsmaybesolowthatphaseovercurrentprotectivedevicesdonotoperatetoremovethefault
quickly.Suchfaultsarecharacteristicofopenorcoveredfuses,particularlyinswitchgearormetalenclosedswitchingand
motorcontrolequipment.Itisgenerallyrecognizedthatprotectionundersuchcircumstancesispossiblebyfastandsensitive
detectionofthearcingfaultcurrentandinterruptionwithin1020cycles.Insolidlyearthedneutralsystems,thisispossibleas
anarcingfaultwouldproduceacurrentinthegroundpath,therebyprovidinganeasymeansofdetectionandtrippingagainst
phasetogroundarcingfaultbreakdowns.
5.4LocationofFaults
5.4.1
Onanunearthedsystem,agroundfaultdoesnotopenthecircuit.Somemeansofdetectingthepresenceofaground
faultrequirestobeinstalled.Inearthedsystem,anaccidentalgroundfaultisbothindicatedatleastpartiallylocatedbyan
automaticinterruptionoftheaccidentallygroundedcircuitorpieceofequipment.
5.5Safety
5.5.1
Whetherornotasystemisgrounded,protectionofpersonnelandpropertyfromhazardsrequirethoroughgroundingof
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equipmentandstructures.Propergroundingresultsinlesslikelihoodofaccidentstopersonnel.Otherhazardsofshockandfire
mayresultfrominadequategroundingofequipmentinunearthedandearthedsystems.However,relativelyhighfaultcurrents
associatedwithsolidlyearthedsystemmaypresentahazardtoworkersfromexposuretohotarcproductsandflyingmolten
metal.Thisprotectionis,however,reducedbecauseofuseofmetalenclosedequipment.
5.6AbnormalVoltageHazards
5.6.1
Thepossibleovervoltagesontheunearthedsystemmaycausemorefrequentfailuresofequipmentthanisthesystem,if
earthed.Afaultononephaseofanunearthedorimpedancegroundedsystemplacesasustainedincreasedvoltageonthe
insulationofungroundedphasesina3phasesystem.Thisvoltageisabout1.73timesthenormalvoltageontheinsulation.This
orothersustainedovervoltagesontheunearthedsystemmaynotimmediatelycausefailureofinsulationbutmaytendto
reducethelifeoftheinsulation.Someofthemorecommonsourcesofovervoltagesonapowersystemarethefollowing:
a. Lightning,
b. Switchingsurges,
c. Static,
d. Contactwithahighvoltagesystem,
e. Linetogroundfault,
f. Resonantconditions,and
g. Restrikinggroundfaults.
5.6.2
Surgearrestersarerecommendedforlightningprotection.Groundingundersuchcasesareseparatelydiscussedin
Section8.Neutral
10
groundingisnotlikelytoreducethetotalmagnitudeofovervoltageproducedbylightningorswitchingsurges.Itcan,
however,distributethevoltagebetweenphasesandreducethepossibilityofexcessivevoltagestressonthephasetoground
insulationofaparticularphase.Asystemgroundconnectionevenofrelativelyhighresistancecaneffectivelypreventstatic
voltagebuildup(seeSec8).EvenunderconditionsofanHVlinebreakingandfallingonanLVsystem,aneffectivelygrounded
LVsystemwillholdthesystemneutralclosetothegroundpotentialthuslimitingtheovervoltage.Anunearthedsystemwillbe
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subjectedtoresonantovervoltages.Fieldexperienceandtheoreticalstudieshaveshowntheworldoverthatarcing,restriking
orvibratinggroundfaultsonunearthedsystemscan,undercertainconditions,producesurgevoltagesashighas6timesthe
normalvoltage.Neutralgroundingiseffectiveinreducingtransientbuildupbyreducingtheneutraldisplacementfromground
potentialandthedestructivenessofanyhighfrequencyvoltageoscillationsfollowingeacharcinitiationorrestrike.
5.7Cost
5.7.1
Thecostdifferentialbetweenearthedandunearthedneutralsystemwillvary,dependingonthemethodofgroundingthe
degreeofprotectiondesired,andwhetheraneworanexistingsystemistobeearthed.
6.SYSTEMEARTHING
6.0BasicObjectives
6.0.1
Earthingofsystemisdesignedprimarilytopreservethesecurityofthesystembyensuringthatthepotentialoneach
conductorisrestrictedtosuchavalueasisconsistentwiththelevelofinsulationapplied.Fromthepointofviewofsafety,itis
equallyimportantthatearthingshouldensureefficientandfastoperationofprotectivegearinthecaseofearthfaults.Most
highvoltagepublicsupplysystemsareearthed.Approvalhasbeengiveninrecentyearstounearthedoverheadlinesystemsin
certaincountries,butthesehaveonlybeensmall11kVsystemsderivedfrom33kVmains,wherethecapacityearthcurrentis
lessthan4Aandcircumstancesaresuchthatthesystemwillnotbeappreciablyextended.
6.0.2
Thelimitationofearthingtoonepointoneachsystemisdesignedtopreventthepassageofcurrentthroughtheearth
undernormalconditions,andthustoavoidtheaccompanyingrisksofelectrolysisandinterferencewithcommunication
circuits.Withasuitabledesignedsystem,properlyoperatedandmaintained,earthingatseveralpointsmaybepermitted.This
methodofearthingbecomeseconomicallyessentialinsystemsat200kVandupwards.
6.0.3
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Thesystemearthresistanceshouldbesuchthat,whenanyfaultoccursagainstwhichearthingisdesignedtogive
protection,theprotectivegearwilloperatetomakethefaultymainorplantharmless.Inmostcases,suchoperationinvolves
isolationofthefaultymainorplant,forexample,bycircuitbreakersorfuses.
6.0.4
Inthecaseofundergroundsystems,thereisnodifficultywhateverbut,forexample,inthecaseofoverheadlinesystems
protectedbyfusesorcircuitbreakersfittedwithovercurrentprotectiononly,theremaybedifficultyinarrangingthatthevalue
ofthesystemearthresistanceissuchthataconductorfallingandmakinggoodcontactwiththegroundresultsinoperationof
theprotection.Alowsystemearthresistanceisrequiredeveninthecaseswhereanarcsuppressioncoilisinstalled,asits
operationmaybefrustratedbytoohighanearthelectroderesistance.
6.0.5
Earthingmaynotgiveprotectionagainstfaultsthatarenotessentiallyearthfaults.Forexample,ifaphaseconductoron
anoverheadspurlinebreaks,andthepartremotefromthesupplyfallstotheground,itisunlikelythatanyprotectivegear
relyingonearthing,otherthancurrentbalanceprotectionatthesubstation,willoperatesincetheearthfaultcurrentcircuit
includestheimpedanceoftheloadthatwouldbehighrelativetotherestofthecircuit.
6.0.6
Forthepurposesofthiscodeofpractice,itisconvenienttoconsiderasystemascomprisingasourceofenergyandan
installationtheformerincludingthesupplycablestothelatter.
6.1ClassificationofSystemsBasedonTypesofSystemEarthing
6.1.1
Internationally,ithasbeenagreedtoclassifytheearthingsystemsasTNSystem,TTSystemandITSystem.Theyare:
a. TNsystemhasoneormorepointsofthesourceofenergydirectlyearthed,andtheexposedandextraneousconductive
partsoftheinstallationareconnectedbymeansofprotectiveconductorstotheearthedpoint(s)ofthesource,thatis,
thereisametallicpathforearthfaultcurrentstoflowfromtheinstallationtotheearthedpoint(s)ofthesource.TN
systemsarefurthersubdividedintoTNC,TNSandTNCSsystems.
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b. TTsystemhasoneormorepointsofthesourceofenergydirectlyearthedandtheexposedandextraneousconductive
partsoftheinstallationareconnectedtoalocalearthelectrodeorelectrodesareelectricallyindependentofthesource
earth(s).
c. ITsystemhasthesourceeitherunearthedorearthedthroughahighimpedanceandtheexposedconductivepartsofthe
installationareconnectedtoelectricallyindependentearthelectrodes.
11
6.1.2
Itisalsorecognizedthat,inpractice,asystemmaybeanadmixtureoftypeforthepurposesofthiscode,earthing
systemsaredesignatedasfollows:
a. TNSSystem(for240Vsinglephasedomestic/commercialsupply)Systemswherethereareseparateneutraland
protectiveconductorsthroughoutthesystem.Asystemwherethemetallicpathbetweentheinstallationandthesource
ofenergyisthesheathandarmouringofthesupplycable(seeFig.2).
b. IndianTNSSystem(for415Vthreephasedomesticcommercialsupply)Anindependentearthelectrodewithinthe
consumerspremisesisnecessary(SeeFig.3).
c. IndianTNCSystemTheneutralandprotectivefunctonsarecombinedinasinglecouductorthroughoutthesystem(for
exampleearthedconcentricwiring(seeFig.4).
d. TNCSSystemTheneutralandprotectivefunctionsarecombinedinasingleconductorbutonlyinpartofthesystem
(seeFig5).
e. TTNSSystem(for6*6/11kVthreephasehulksupply)Theconsumersinstallation,aTNSsystemreceivingpowerata
captivesubstationthroughadeltaconnectedtransformerprimary(seeFig.6).
f. TTSystemfor415Vthreephaseindustrialsupply)Sameas6.1.1(b)(seeFig7.).
g. ITSystemSameas6.1.1(c)(seeFig.8).
FIG.2TNSSYSTEMSEPARATENEUTRALANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORSTHROUGHOUTTHESYSTEM,
230VSIMPLEPHASE.DOMESTIC/COMMERCIALSUPPLYFOR3TNS(SeeFIG.3)
FIG.2TNSSYSTEMSEPARATENEUTRALANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORSTHROUGHOUTTHESYSTEM,230V
SIMPLEPHASE.DOMESTIC/COMMERCIALSUPPLYFOR3TNS(SeeFIG.3)
FIG.3INDIANTNSSYSTEM
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FIG.3INDIANTNSSYSTEM
12
FIG.4INDIANTNCSYSTEM(NEUTRALANDPROTECTIVEFUNCTIONSCOMBINEDINASINGLE
CONDUCTORTHROUGHOUTSYSTEM)
FIG.4INDIANTNCSYSTEM(NEUTRALANDPROTECTIVEFUNCTIONSCOMBINEDINASINGLECONDUCTOR
THROUGHOUTSYSTEM)
FIG.5TNCSSYSTEM,NEUTRALANDPROTECTIVEFUNCTIONSCOMBINEDINASINGLECONDUCTORIN
APARTOFTHESYSTEM
FIG.5TNCSSYSTEM,NEUTRALANDPROTECTIVEFUNCTIONSCOMBINEDINASINGLECONDUCTORINAPART
OFTHESYSTEM
13
FIG.6TTNSSYSTEM
FIG.6TTNSSYSTEM
FIG.7TTSYSTEM
FIG.7TTSYSTEM
FIG.8ITSYSTEM
FIG.8ITSYSTEM
14
6.2MarkingofEarthing/ProtectiveConductor
6.2.1
TheearthingandprotectiveconductorshallbemarkedasgiveninTable1(seealsoIS:113531986*).
TABLE1MARKINGOFCONDUCTORS
DESIGNATIONOFCONDUCTOR
IDENTIFICATIONBY
AlphanumericNotation
Earth
Protectiveconductor
COLOUR
GraphicalSymbol
Nocolourotherthancolourofthebareconductor
PB
Greenandyellow
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6.2.2
UseofBiColourCombinationGreenandYellowThebicolourcombination,greenandyellow(green/yellow),shall
beusedforidentifyingtheprotectiveconductorandfornootherpurpose.Thisistheonlycolourcoderecognizedfor
identifyingtheprotectiveconductor.
Bareconductorsorbusbars,usedasprotectiveconductors,shallbecolouredbyequallybroadgreenandyellowstripes,
each15mmupto100mmwide,closetogether,eitherthroughoutthelengthofeachconductororineachcompartmentor
unitorateachaccessibleposition.Ifadhesivetapeisused,onlybicolouredtapeshallbeapplied.
Forinsulatedconductors,thecombinationofthecolours,greenandyellow,shallbesuchthat,onany15mmlengthof
insulatedconductor,oneofthesecolourscoversatleast30percentandnotmorethan70percentofthesurfaceofthe
conductor,theothercolourcoveringtheremainderofthatsurface.
NOTEWheretheprotectiveconductorcanbeeasilyidentifiedfromitsshape,constructionorposition,for
example,aconcentricconductor,thencolourcodingthroughoutitslengthisnotnecessarybuttheendsor
accessiblepositionsshouldbeclearlyidentifiedbyasymbolorthebicolourcombination,greenandyellow,
7.EQUIPMENTEARTHING
7.0BasicObjectives
7.0.1
Thebasicobjectivesofequipmentgroundingare:
1. toensurefreedomfromdangerouselectricshockvoltagesexposuretopersonsinthearea
2. toprovidecurrentcarryingcapability,bothinmagnitudeandduration,adequatetoacceptthegroundfaultcurrent
permittedbytheovercurrentprotectivesystemwithoutcreatingatireorexplosivehazardtobuildingorcontentsand
3. tocontributetobetterperformanceoftheelectricalsystem.
7.0.2
VoltageExposureWhenthereisunintentionalcontactbetweenanenergizedelectricconductorandthemetalframeor
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structurethatenclosesit(orisadjacent,theframeorstructuretendstobecomeenergizedtothesamevoltagelevelasexistson
theenergizedconductor.Toavoidthisappearanceofthisdangerous,exposedshockhazardvoltage,theequipmentgrounding
conductormustpresentalowimpedancepathfromthestrickenframetothezeropotentialgroundjunction.Theimpedance
shouldalsobesufficientlylowenoughtoacceptthefullmagnitudeofthelinetogroundfaultcurrentwithoutcreatingan
impedancevoltagedroplargeenoughtobedangerous.
7.0.3
AvoidanceofThermalDistressTheearthingconductormustalsofunctiontoconductthefullgroundfaultcurrent
(bothmagnitudeandduration)withoutexcessivelyraisingthetemperatureoftheearthingconductororcausingtheexpulsion
ofarcsandsparksthatcouldinitiateafireorexplosion.Thetotalimpedanceofthefaultcircuitincludingthegrounding
conductorshouldalsopermittherequiredcurrentamplitudetocauseoperationoftheprotectivesystem.
7.0.4
PreservationofSystemPerformanceTheearthingconductormustreturnthegroundfaultcurrentonacircuitwithout
introducingenoughadditionalimpedancetoanextentthatwouldimpairtheoperatingperformanceoftheovercurrent
protectivedevice,thatis,ahigherthannecessarygroundcircuitimpedancewouldbeacceptableifthereisnoimpairmentof
theperformancecharacteristicsoftheprotectivesystem.
7.1ClassificationofEquipmentwithRegardtoProtectionAgainstElectricShock
7.1.1
Table2givestheprincipalcharacteristicsofequipmentaccordingtothisclassificationandindicatestheprecautions
necessaryforsafetyintheeventoffailureofthebasicinsulation.
TABLE2CLASSIFICATIONOFEQUIPMENT
CLASS0
Principalcharacteristics Nomeansof
CLASSI
Protectiveearthing
CLASSII
CLASSIII
Additionalinsulationandnomeans Designedforsupplyatsafety
ofequipment
protectiveearthing meansprovided
forprotectiveearting
extralowvoltage
Precautionsforsafety
Earthfree
Connectiontothe
Nonenecessary
Connectiontosafetyextralow
environment
protectiveearthing
voltage
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*Guideforuniformsystemofmarkingandidentificationofconductorsandapparatusterminals.
SECTION2CONNECTIONSTOEARTH
15
8.RESISTANCETOEARTH
8.0NatureofEarthingResistance
8.0.1
Theearthingresistanceofanelectrodeismadeupof:
a. resistanceofthe(metal)electrode,
b. contactresistancebetweentheelectrodeandthesoil,and
c. resistanceofthesoilfromtheelectrodesurfaceoutwardinthegeometrysetupfortheflowofcurrentoutwardfromthe
electrodetoinfiniteearth.
Thefirsttwofactorsareverysmallfractionsofanohmandcanbeneglectedforallpracticalpurposes.Thefactorofsoil
resistivityisdiscussedin8.1.
8.1SoilResistivity
8.1.1
Theresistancetoearthofagivenelectrodedependsupontheelectricalresistivityofthesoilinwhichitisinstalled.This
factoris,therefore,importantindecidingwhichofmanyprotectivesystemstoadopt.
ThetypeofsoillargelydeterminesitsresistivityandexamplesaregiveninTable3.Earthconductivityis,however,
essentiallyelectrolyticinnatureandisaffected,bythemoisturecontentofthesoilandbythechemicalcompositionand
concentrationofsaltsdissolvedinthecontainedwater.Grainsizeanddistribution,andclosenessofpackingarealso
contributoryfactorssincetheycontrolthemannerinwhichthemoistureisheldinthesoil.Manyofthesefactorsvarylocally
andsomeseasonallysothatthetableshouldonlybetakenasageneralguide.
Localvaluesshouldbeverifiedbyactualmeasurement,andthisisespeciallyimportantwherethesoilisstratifiedas,
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owingtothedispersionoftheearthcurrent,theeffectiveresistivitydependsnotonlyonthesurfacelayersbutalsoonthe
underlyinggeologicalformation.
Itshouldalsobenotedthatsoiltemperaturehassomeeffect(see8.7),butisonlyimportantnearandbelowfreezing
point,necessitatingtheinstallationofearthelectrodesatdepthstowhichfrostwillnotpenetrate.Itis,therefore,
recommendedthatthefirstmetreofanyearthelectrodeshouldnotberegardedasbeingeffectiveunderfrostconditions.
Whilethefundamentalnatureandpropertiesofasoilinagivenareacannotbechanged,usecanbemadeofpurelylocal
conditionsinchoosingsuitableelectrodesitesandmethodsofpreparingthesiteselectedtosecuretheoptimumresistivity.
Thesemeasuresmaybesummarizedasin8.2to8.7.
TABLE3EXAMPLESOFSOILRESISTIVITY
TYPEOFSOIL
CLIMATICCONDITION
NormalandHighRainfall(for
Example,Greaterthan500mma
Year)
(1)
LowRainfallandDesertCondition(For
Examples,Lessthan250mmaYear)
Underground
Waters(Salids)
Probablevalue
Rangeofvalues
encountered
Rangeofvalues
encountered
Rangeof
values
encountered
(2)
m
(3)
m
(4)
m
(5)
m
Alluviumandlighterclays
1to5
Clays(excludingalluvium)
10
5to20
10to100
Marls(forexample,keupermarl)
20
10to30
50to300
Porouslimestone(forexample,chalk)
50
30to100
Poroussandstone(forexample,keuper
100
30to300
100to1000
sandstoneandclayshales)
Quartzites,compactandcrystallinelimestone 300
(forexample,carboniferousmarble,etc)
Clayslatesandslateyshales
1000
300to3000
1000upwards
30to100
Granite
1000
Fossileslates,schistsgneissigneousrocks
2000
1000upwards
*Dependsonwaterleveloflocality.
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16
8.2
Wherethereisanyoption,asiteshouldbechoseninoneofthefollowingtypesofsoilintheorderofpreferencegiven:
a. Wetmarshyground(see8.3)
b. Clay,loamysoil,arableland,clayeysoil,clayeysoilorloammixedwithsmallquantitiesofsand
c. Clayandloammixedwithvaryingproportionsofsand,gravelandstones
d. Dampandwetsand,peat.
Drysand,gravelchalk,limestone,graniteandanyverystonygroundshouldbeavoided,andalsoalllocationswhere
virginrockisveryclosetothesurface.
8.3
Asiteshouldbechosenthatisnotnaturallywelldrained.Awaterloggedsituationisnot,however,essential,unlessthe
soilissandorgravel,asingeneralnoadvantageresultsfromanincreaseinmoisturecontentaboveabout15to20percent.Care
shouldbetakentoavoidasitekeptmoistbywaterflowingoverit(forexample,thebedofastream)asthebeneficialsaltsmay
beentirelyremovedfromthesoilinsuchsituations.
8.4
Wherebuildinghastakenplace,thesiteconditionsmaybealteredbydisturbanceofthelocalstratificationandnatural
geologicalformationwhentheelectrodeshavetobeinstalledinthisdisturbedarea.
Ifacutandfillexercisehasbeencarriedoutthenthetoplayermaybesimilartothenaturalformationbutincreasedin
depth,whetheritisgoodorbadintermsofresistivity.
Ifanimportedfillexercisehasbeencarriedout,theconditionsoftheupperlayersmaybealteredconsiderably.
Inthesecases,deeperdrivingoftheelectrodemaybenecessarytoreachlayersofreasonableresistivityandalsotoreach
stableground,suchthatthevalueoftheelectroderesistanceremainsstableifthetoplayersofthegrounddryout.
8.5
Soiltreatmenttoimproveearthelectrodecontactresistancemaybeappliedinspecialordifficultlocations,butmigration
andleachingofappliedchemicalsoveraperiodoftimereducestheefficiencyofthesystemprogressively,requiringconstant
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monitoringandreplacementoftheadditives.Ecologicalconsiderationsareinherentbeforesuchtreatmentiscommencedand
anydeleteriouseffectuponelectrodematerialhastobetakenintoaccount.However,forsometemporaryelectricalinstallations
inareasofhighgroundresistivity,thismaybethemosteconomicmethodforobtainingsatisfactoryearthcontactoverashort
periodofworking.Ifagreaterdegreeofpermanenceisenvisaged,earthelectrodespackagedinmaterialsuchasbentoniteare
preferable.
Bentoniteorsimilarmaterialmaybeusedtoadvantageinrockyterrain.Whereholesareboredfortheinsertionof
verticalelectrodesorwherestripelectrodesarelaidradiallyundershallowareasoflowresistivityoverlayingrockstrata,
bentonitepackingwillincreasethecontactefficiencywiththegeneralmassofground.
8.6
EffectofMoistureContentonEarthResistivityMoisturecontentisoneofthecontrollingfactorsinearth
resistivity.Figure9showsthevariationofresistivityofredclaysoilwithpercentageofmoisture.Themoisturecontentis
expressedinpercentbyweightofthedrysoil.Dryearthweighsabout1440kgpercubicmetreandthus10percentmoisture
contentisequivalentto144kgofwaterpercubicmetreofdrysoil.ItwillbeseenfromFig.9thataboveabout20percent
moisture,theresistivityisverylittleaffected,whilebelow20percenttheresistivityincreasesveryabruptlywiththedecreasein
moisturecontent.Adifferenceofafewpercentmoisturewilltherefore,makeaverymarkeddifferenceintheeffectivenessof
earthconnectionifthemoisturecontentfallsbelow20percent.Thenormalmoisturecontentofsoilsrangesfrom10percent
indryseasonsto35percentinwetseasons,andanapproximateaveragemaybeperhaps16to18percent.
8.6.1
CorrosionAllowanceOnanaverage,steelcorrodesaboutsixtimesasfastascopperwhenplacedinsoil.Theextentof
corrosiondependsuponthepropertiesofsoil.Thegenerallyacceptedcorrelationbetweentheelectricalresistivityofsoilandits
corrosivityisasindicatedinthetablebelow:
SoilResistivityandCorrosion
RangeofSoilResistivity(ohmmetres)
(ClassofSoil)
Lessthan25
Severelycorrosive
2550
Moderatelycorrosive
50100
Mildlycorrosive
Above100
Verymildlycorrosive
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ThisfollowingmethodscanbeadoptedtosafeguardConductoragainstexcessivecorrosion:
a. Useofcathodicprotection,and
b. Usecurrentconducting,corrosionresistantcoatingonsteel(forexample,zinccoating).
ThezinccoatingonthetubesshallbeinaccordancewithIS4736:1986Hotdipzinccoatingsonmildsteeltubes
(firstrevision)withcoatingthickness150microns,Min.
a. Usesteelconductorwithlargecrosssectionhavingallowanceforcorrosion.
Basedontheresultsofthefieldstudiesonratesofcorrosion,thefollowingallowancesincrosssectionalareaof
theearthingconductorarerecommendedtotaketheeffectofcorrosionintoaccount.
AllowancesinCrossSectionalAreaoftheEarthingConductortoTaketheEffectofCorrosionintoAccount
TypeofLayingoftheEarthConductor
AllowancestobeConsideredin
Sizing
a) Conductorslaidtosoilshavingresistivitygreaterthen100ohmmeters
0(Noallowance)
b) Conductorslaidinsoilshavingresistivityfrom25to100ohmmeters
15percent
c) Conductorlaidinsoilshavingresistivitylowerthan25ohmmetersorwheretreatmentofsoilaround
30percent
electrodeiscarriedout
Forthepurposeofdeterminingtheallowancetobemadeforcorrosion,theminimumresistivityofthesoilencountered
atthelocationofgroundingelectrodestobeconsideredTheresistivitywillbetheminimuminwetweather.Thus,forvery
mildlycorrosivesoils,steelconductorsmeetingthestabilityandmechanicalrequirementareadequate.However,thesteel
conductorsinthesoilofothertypesshouldbeatleast6mmthickifitissteelflatandhaveadiameterofatleast16mmifitis
intheformofsteelrod.
Itshouldberecognized,however,thatmoisturealoneisnotthepredominantfactorinthelowresistivityofsoilsfor
example,earthelectrodesdrivendirectlyinthebedsofriversormountainstreamsmaypresentveryhighresistancetoearth.If
thewaterisrelativelypure,itwillbehighresistivityandunlessthesoilcontainssufficientnaturalelementstoforma
conductingelectrolyte,theabundanceofwaterwillnotprovidethesoilwithadequateconductivity.Thevalueofhighmoisture
contentinsoilsisadvantageousinincreasingthesolubilityofexistingnaturalelementsinthesoil,andinprovidingforthe
solubilityofingredientswhichmaybeartificiallyintroducedtoimprovethesoilconductivity.
8.7
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EffectofTemperatureonEarthResistanceThetemperaturecoefficientofresistivityforsoilisnegative,butis
negligiblefortemperaturesabovefreezingpoint.Atabout20C,theresistivitychangeisabout9percentperdegreeCelsius.
Below0Cthewaterinthesoilbeginstofreezeandintroducesatremendousincreaseinthetemperaturecoefficient,sothatas
thetemperaturebecomeslowertheresistivityrisesenormously.Itis,therefore,recommendedthatinareaswherethe
temperatureisexpectedtobequitelow,theearthelectrodesshouldbeinstalledwellbelowthefrostline.Wherewinterseasons
aresevere,thismaybeabout2metresbelowthesurface,whereasinmildclimatesthefrostmaypenetrateonlyafew
centimetresorperhapsthegroundmaynotfreezeatall.Earthelectrodeswhicharenotdrivenbelowthefirstdepthmayhavea
verygreatvariationinresistancethroughouttheseasonsoftheyear.Evenwhendrivenbelowthefrostline,thereissome
variation,becausetheuppersoil,when
17
frozen,presentsadecidedincreaseinsoilresistivityandhastheeffectofshorteningtheactivelengthofelectrodein
contactwithsoilofnormalresistivity.
8.8
ArtificialTreatmentofSoilMultiplerods,eveninlargenumber,maysometimefailtoproduceanadequatelylow
resistancetoearth.
Thisconditionarisesininstallationsinvolvingsoilsofhighresistivity.Thealternativeistoreducetheresistivityofthesoil
immediatelysurroundingtheearthelectrode.Toreducethesoilresistivity,itisnecessarytodissolveinthemoisture,normally
containedinthesoil,somesubstancewhichishighlyconductiveinitswatersolution.Themostcommonlyusedsubstancesare
sodiumchloride(NaCl),alsoknownascommonsalt,calciumchloride(CaCl2),sodiumcarbonate(Na2CO3),coppersulphate
(CUSO4),salt,andsoftcoke,andsaltandcharcoalinsuitableproportions.
8.8.1
Withaverageorhighmoisturecontent,theseagentsformaconductingelectrolytethroughoutawideregionsurrounding
theearthelectrode.Approximately90percentoftheresistancebetweenadrivenrodandearthlieswithinaradiusofabouttwo
metresfromtherod.Thisshouldbekeptinmindwhenapplyingtheagentsforartificialtreatmentofsoil.Thesimplest
applicationisbyexcavatingashallowbasinaroundthetopoftherod,onemetreindiameterandabout30cmdeep,and
applyingtheartificialagentinthisbasin.Thebasinshouldsubsequentlybefilledseveraltimeswithwater,whichshouldbe
allowedeachtimetosoakintotheground,thuscarryingtheartificialtreatment,inelectrolyteform,toconsiderabledepthsand
allowingtheartificialagenttobecomediffusedthroughoutthegreaterpartoftheeffectivecylinderofearthsurroundingthe
drivenrod.
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FIG.9VARIATIONOFSOILRESISTIVITYWITHMOISTURECONTENT
18
8.8.2
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ThereductioninsoilresistivityeffectedbysaltisshownbythecurveinFig.10.Thesaltcontentisexpressedinpercent
byweightofthecontainedmoisture.Itwillbenotedthatthecurveflattensoffatabout5percentsaltcontentandafurther
increaseinsaltgivesbutlittledecreaseinthesoilresistivity.Theeffectofsaltwillbedifferentfordifferentkindsofsoilandfor
variousmoisturecontentsbutthecurvewillconveyanideaofhowthesoilconductivitycanbeimproved.Decreasingthesoil
resistivitycausesacorrespondingdecreaseintheresistanceofadrivenearthelectrode.
FIG.10VARIATIONOFSOILRESISTIVITYWITHSALT(Nacl)CONTENT,CLAYSOILHAVING3PERCENT
MOISTURE
FIG.10VARIATIONOFSOILRESISTIVITYWITHSALT(Nacl)CONTENT,CLAYSOILHAVING3PERCENT
MOISTURE
8.8.3
Inclosetexturesoils,theartificialtreatmentmaybeeffectiveoveraperiodofmanyyears.However,itisrecommended
thatannualorbiannualmeasurementsofearthresistivityshouldbemadetofindoutifadditionaltreatmentisneeded.
8.8.4
Inusingartificialtreatment,thepossiblecorrosiveeffectofthesaltonthedrivenrodsandconnectionsshouldbe
considered.Thepossiblecontaminationofthedomesticwatersupplyshouldalsobeconsidered.
9.EARTHELECTRODES
9.1EffectofShapeonElectrodeResistance
9.1.1
Withallelectrodesotherthanextendedsystems,thegreaterpartofthefallinpotentialoccursinthesoilwithinafew
feetoftheelectrodesurface,sinceitisherethatthecurrentdensityishighest.Toobtainalowoverallresistancethecurrent
densityshouldbeaslowaspossibleinthemediumadjacenttotheelectrode,whichshouldbesodesignedastocausethe
currentdensitytodecreaserapidlywithdistancefromtheelectrode.Thisrequirementismetbymakingthedimensionsinone
directionlargecomparedwiththoseintheothertwo,thusapipe,rodorstriphasamuchlowerresistancethanaplateofequal
surfacearea.Theresistanceisnot,however,inverselyproportionaltothesurfaceareaoftheelectrode.
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9.2ResistanceofCommonTypesofEarthElectrodes
9.2.1
PlatesTheapproximateresistancetoearthofaplatecanbecalculatedfrom:
Image
Image
where
resistivityofthesoil(assumeduniform)(in.m)and
areaofbothsidesoftheplate(inm2).
Wheretheresistanceofasingleplateishigherthantherequiredvalue,twoormoreplatesmaybeusedinparalleland
thetotalresistanceisthaninverselyproportionaltothenumberemployed,providedthateachplateisinstalledoutsidethe
resistanceareaofanyother.Thisnormallyrequiresaseparationofabout10mbutforsizesofplategenerallyemployed,a
separationof2missufficienttoensurethatthetotalresistancewillnotexceedthevalueobtainedfromtheaboveformulaby
morethan20percent.Evenatthelatterspacing,itisgenerallymoreeconomicaltousetwoplatesinparallel,eachofagiven
size,thanoneoftwicethatsize.Thesizeemployedis,therefore,normallynotgreaterthan1212m.
Plateelectrodesshallbeofthesizeatleast60cm60cm.Platesaregenerallyofcastironnotlessthan12mmthickand
preferablyribbed.Theearthconnectionshouldbejoinedtotheplateatnotlessthantwoseparatepoints.Plateelectrodes,
whenmadeofGIorsteel,shallbenotlessthan63mminthickness.PlateelectrodesofCushallbenotlessthan315mmin
thickness.
Suitablemethodsofjointingareataperpindrivenintoareamedholeandrivetedoveroracopperstudscrewedintoa
tappedholeandriveted.Suchjointsshouldbeprotectedbyaheavycoatofbitumen.Theconnectionbetweentheearthplate
andthedisconnectinglinkshouldbesetverticallyandthedepthofsettingshouldbesuchastoensurethatthesurroundingsoil
isalwaysdamp.Theminimumcovershouldbe600mmexceptthatwheretheunderlyingstratumissolid,forexample,chalkor
sandstoneandnearthesurface,thetopoftheplateshouldbelevelwiththetopofthesolidstratum.Sufficientsolidstratum
shouldberemovedandreplacedwithfinesoilorothersuitableinfilltoensureaslowaresistanceaspossible.
Theuseofcokebreezeasaninfillisnotrecommendedasitmayresultinrapidcorrosionnotonlyoftheelectrodeitself
butalsoofcablesheaths,etc,towhichitmaybebonded.
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19
TheresistanceR(in)ofa12m12mplateisgivenapproximatelybytheformula:
Image
Forconventionalsizes,theresistanceisapproximatelyinverselyproportionaltothelineardimensions,notthesurface
area,thatisa09m09mplatewouldhavearesistanceapproximately25percenthigherthana1212mplate.Thecurrent
loadingcapacityofa12m12mplateisoftheorderof1600Afor2sand1300Afor3s.
Plateelectrodesshallbeburiedsuchthatitstopedgeisatadepthnotlessthan15mfromthesurfaceoftheground.
However,thedepthatwhichplatesaresetshouldbesuchastoensurethatthesurroundingsoilisalwaysdamp.Wherethe
underlyingstratumissolid,forexamplechalkorsandstoneandnearthesurface,thetopoftheplateshouldbeapproximately
levelwiththetopofthesolidstratum.
9.2.2
PipesorRodsTheresistanceofapipeorrodelectrodeisgivenby:
Image
where
l
lengthofrodorpipe(incm),
diameterofrodorpipeincm,and
resistivityofthesoil(in.m)(assumeduniform).
ThecurvesofFig.11arecalculatedfromthisequationforelectrodesof13,25and100mmdiameterrespectivelyinasoil
of100.mrespectively.Changeofdiameterhasarelativelyminoreffectandsizeofpipeisgenerallygovernedbyresistanceto
bendingorsplitting.Itisapparentthattheresistancediminishesrapidlywiththefirstfewfeetofdriving,butlesssoatdepths
greaterthan2to3minsoilofuniformresistivity.
Anumberofrodsorpipesmaybeconnectedinparallelandtheresistanceisthenpracticallyproportionaltothe
reciprocalofthenumberemployedsolongaseachissituatedoutsidetheresistanceareaofanyother.Inpractice,thisis
satisfiedbyamutualseparationequaltothedrivendepth.Littleistobegainedbyseparationbeyondtwicethedrivendepth.A
substantialgainiseffectedevenat2mseparation.
Pipesmaybeofcastironofnotlessthan100mmdiameter,2.5to3mlongand13mmthick.Suchpipescannotbe
drivensatisfactorilyandmay,therefore,bemoreexpensivetoinstallthanplatesforthesameeffectivearea.Alternatively,mild
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steelwaterpipesof38to50mmdiameteraresometimesemployed.Thesecanbedrivenbutarelessdurablethancopperrods.
Alternatively,40mmdiameterGIpipeintreatedearthpitor40mmdiameterMSrodcanbedirectlydriveninvirginsoil.The
earthrodshallbeplacedat1.250mbelowground.
Drivenrodsgenerallyconsistofroundcopper,steelcoredcopperorgalvanizedsteel(see9.2.8)13,16or19mmin
diameterfrom1220to2440mminlength.
FIG.11EFFECTOFLENGTHOFPIPEELECTRODEONCALCULATEDRESISTANCEFORSOILRESISTIVITYOF
100m(ASSUMEDUNIFORM)
FIG.11EFFECTOFLENGTHOFPIPEELECTRODEONCALCULATEDRESISTANCEFORSOILRESISTIVITYOF
100m(ASSUMEDUNIFORM)
Cruciformandstarshapedsectionsarealsoavailableandaremorerigidwhilebeingdriven,buttheapparentadditional
surfacedoesnotconferanoticeableadvantageincurrentcarryingcapacityorreductionofresistance.Incircumstanceswhere
itisconvenienttodoso,theadditionofradialstripswillbeadvantageous.
Suchrodsmaybecoupledtogethertogivelongerlengths.Exceptinspecialconditions,anumberofrodsinparallelareto
bepreferredtoasinglelongrod.Deeplydrivenrodsare,however,effectivewherethesoilresistivitydecreaseswithdepthor
wheresubstrataoflowresistivityoccuratdepthsgreaterthanthosewithrods,foreconomicreasons,arenormallydriven.In
suchcasesthedecreaseofresistancewithdepthofdrivingmaybeveryconsiderableasisshownbythemeasurementsplotted
inFig.12foranumberofsitesforcurvesA1andA2,itwasknownfrompreviouslysunkboreholesthatthesoildowntoa
depthbetween6and9mconsistedofballast,sandandgravelbelowwhichoccurredLondonclay.Therapidreductionin
resistance,whentheelectrodespenetratedthelatter,wasverymarked.Themeanresistivityuptoadepthof8minonecase
was150mat11mthemeanvalueforthewholedepthwas20mmovingtothelowresistivityoftheclaystratum.Similarly
forcurveC,thetransitionfromgravelysoiltoclayeyatadepthofabout15mwasveryeffective.InthecaseofcurveB,
however,nosuchmarkedeffectoccurred,althoughtherewasagradual
20
reductioninaverageresistivitywithincreaseindepth,ascanbeseenbycomparisonwiththedottedcurves,whichare
calculatedontheassumptionofuniformresistivity.
FIG.12CALCULATEDANDEXPERIMENTALCURVESOFRESISTANCEOF13mmDIADRIVENELECTRODES
FIG.12CALCULATEDANDEXPERIMENTALCURVESOFRESISTANCEOF13mmDIADRIVENELECTRODES
Otherfactorsthataffectadecisionwhethertodrivedeepelectrodesortoemployseveralrodsorpipesinparallelarethe
steepriseintheenergyrequiredtodrivethemwithincreaseindepthandthecostofcouplings.Theformercanbeoffsetby
reducingthediameteroftherods,sincea13mmdiameterrodcanbedriventoconsiderabledepthswithoutdeformationor
bendingifthetechniqueofusingalargenumberofcomparativelylightblowsisadoptedratherthanasmallernumberofblows
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withasledgehammer.Powerdrivenhammerssuitableforthispurposeareavailable.
Incaseswhereimpenetrablestrataorhighresistivitysoiloccuratrelativelysmalldepths,considerableadvantagemay
resultfromdrivingrodsatanangleofabout30tothehorizontal,thusincreasingthelengthinstalledforagivendepth.
9.2.3
StriporConductorElectrodesThesehavespecialadvantageswherehighresistivitysoilunderliesshallowsurfacelayers
oflowresistivity.Theminimumcrosssectionalareaofstripelectrodesshallbeaccordingto12.1.1.Ifroundconductorsare
usedasearthelectrodes,theircrosssectionalareashallnotbelessthanthesizesrecommendedforstripelectrodes.The
resistanceRisgivenby:
Image
where
resistivityofsoil(m)(assumeduniform):
lengthofthestripincmand
width(strip)ortwicethediameter(conductors)incm
Careshouldbetakeninpositioningtheseelectrodes,especiallytoavoiddamagebyagriculturaloperations.
Figure13showsthevariationofcalculatedearthresistanceofstriporconductorelectrodes
21
withlengthforasoilresistivityof100.m.Theeffectofconductorsizeanddepthovertherangenormallyusedisvery
small.
Ifseveralstripelectrodesarerequiredforconnectioninparallelinordertoreducetheresistance,theymaybeinstalledin
parallellinesortheymayradiatefromapoint.Intheformercase,theresistanceoftwostripsataseparationof24misless
than65percentoftheindividualresistanceofeitherofthem.
FIG.13EFFECTOFLENGTHOFSTRIPORCONDUCTORELECTRODESINCALCULATEDRESISTANCEFOR
SOILRESISTIVITYOF100m(ASSUMEDUNIFORM)
FIG.13EFFECTOFLENGTHOFSTRIPORCONDUCTORELECTRODESINCALCULATEDRESISTANCEFORSOIL
RESISTIVITYOF100m(ASSUMEDUNIFORM)
9.2.4
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WaterPipesWaterpipesshallnotbeusedasconsumerearthelectrodes.
NOTEInurbandistrictsandotherareaswherepipedwatersupplyisavailabletheuseofwaterpipesfor
consumersearthelectrodeshasbeencommoninthepast.Thoughthiswasgenerallyveryeffectivewhen
consumerspipesandwatermainstowhichtheywereconnectedwereallmetaltometaljoints,theuseofpublic
waterpipesforthispurposehasnotbeenacceptableformanyyearsbecauseoftheuseofnonconductingmaterial
forpipesonnewinstallationsandforreplacementpurposes.Jointingtechniquesnowbeinguseddonotensure
electricalcontinuityofmetallicpipes.
Fornewinstallations,therefore,apublicwaterpipemaynotbeusedasameansofearthing.Metallicpipesystemsof
servicesotherthanwaterservice(forexample,forflammableliquidsorgases,heatingsystems,etc)shallnotbeusedasearth
electrodesforprotectivepurposes.Bondingofthewaterservicewiththeexposedmetalworkoftheelectricalinstallation(onthe
consumerssideofanyinsulatinginsert)andanyotherextraneousmetalworktotheinstallationearthingterminalis,however,
permissibleandindeednecessaryinmostcircumstancessubjecttotheprovisionofearthingfacilitiesthataresatisfactorybefore
thesebondingconnectionsaremade.
Forexistinginstallationsinwhichawaterpipeisusedasasoleearthelectrodeanindependentmeansofearthingshould
beprovidedatthefirstpracticableopportunity.
9.2.5
CableSheathsWhereanextensiveundergroundcablesystemisavailable,theleadsheathandarmourformamost
effectiveearthelectrode.Inthemajorityofcases,theresistancetoearthofsuchasystemislessthan1.Afreshlyinstalled
juteorhessianservedcableisinsulatedfromearth,buttheinsulationresistanceofthejutedeterioratesaccordingtothe
moisturecontentandnatureofthesoil.However,cablesheathsarcmorecommonlyusedtoprovideametallicpathtothefault
currentreturningtotheneutral.
9.2.6
StructuralSteelworkTheresistancetoearthofsteelframesorreinforcedconcretebuildingswillvaryconsiderably
accordingtothetypeofsoilanditsmoisturecontent,andthedesignofthestanchionbases.Forthisreason,itisessentialto
measuretheresistancetoearthofanystructuralsteetworkthatitisemployingandatfrequentintervalsthereafter.
NOTESpecialcareisnecessarywheretheconstructionincludesprestressedconcrete.
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9.2.7
ReinforcementofPilesAtpowerstationsandlargesubstations,itisoftenpossibletosecureaneffectiveearthelectrode
bymakinguseofthereinforcementinconcretepiles.Theearthstrapshouldbebondedtoaminimumoffourpilesandallthe
pilesbetweenthebondsshouldbebondedtogether.Eachsetoffourpilesshouldbeconnectedtothe[IllegibleTextOmittedon
Page22]ofthesubstation.
9.2.8
CathodicallyProtectedStructuresCathodicprotectionisnormallyappliedtoferrousstructuresinordertocounteract
electrolyticcorrosionatametaltoelectrolyteinterface.
Theelectrolyteisgenerallythegroundinwhichthestructureiseitherwhollyorpartiallyburiedandtheprotection
systemreliesuponmaintainingthemetalworkataslightlymorenegativepotentialthanitwouldexhibitbyhalfcell
measurements,ifnocorrectiveactionhadbeentaken.
Theapplicationofcathodicprotectionvariesaccordingtocircumstancesbetweenbaremetalincontactwithgroundand
metalthathasbeen
22
deliberatelycoatedorwrappedagainstcorrosion.Inthelattercase,cathodicprotectionisusedtosupplementthecoating
andguardagainstlocalizedcorrosionduetocoatingflawsorfaults.Protectivesystemcurrentdrainisproportionaltothearea
ofbaremetalinearthcontactandifanormalearthingelectrodeisattachedtoacathodicallyprotectedstructure,theincreased
draincurrenttakenbytheelectrodecouldbecompletelyunacceptable.Thisisespeciallytruewherethesystemhasbeen
designedtoprotectawellwrappedorcoatedstructure.
Nevertheless,theremaybeanecessitytoconnectearthelectrodestocathodicallyprotectedstructures,especiallywhere
thecoatingorwrappingtendstoelectricallyinsulatethestructurefromground,forexample:
a. diversionofearthfaultcurrentsfromelectricalapparatusmountedonthestructure
b. diversionofstraycurrenttoground,aproblemoftenmetwherewellcoatedpipelinesaresubstantiallyparalleltothe
routeofahighvoltageoverheadline
c. preventionofelevatedvoltageswherestructuresencroachintohazardous(flammable)areasand
d. Preventionofpowersurgesintotheapparatusprovidingcathodicprotection,orsimilarinvasionofdelicatelowcurrent
instrumentationcircuits.
Inadditiontotheguidancegivenin9.3,selectionofmetalsforearthelectrodesanddeterminationoftheirground
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contactareaismostimportantwherecathodicallyprotectedstructuresareinvolved.
Thematerialselectedshouldexhibitagalvanicpotentialwithrespecttogroundasnearlyequaltothatexhibitedbythe
structureinitsnaturalorunprotectedcondition.Forferrousstructures,austeniticiron(austeniticcastnickelchromiumalloy
withspheroidalgraphitepresent)isoftenused.Verticallydrivenrodsofthismaterialarepreferredinordertominimizecontact
areaandthusreducecathodicprotectiondrain,whilstobtainingoptimumperformancefromtheelectrode.Coppershouldbe
avoided,whereverpossible,notonlyforitsincreaseddrainbutalsoforitsabilitytobecomecathodictotheprotectedstructure.
Magnesiumorzincelectrodeshavebeenusedsuccessfully,butareanodictotheprotectedstructureandthussacrificialin
action.
9.3
SelectionofMetalsforEarthElectrodesAlthoughelectrodematerialdoesnotaffectinitialearthresistance,care
shouldbetakentoselectamaterialthatisresistanttocorrosioninthetypeofsoilinwhichitwillbeused.Testsinawide
varietyofsoilshaveshownthatcopper,whethertinnedornot,isentirelysatisfactory(subjecttotheprecautionsgiveninthis
subclause),theaveragelossinweightofspecimens150mm25mm3mmburiedfor12yearsinnocaseexceed02percent
peryear.Correspondingaveragelossesforunprotectedferrousspecimens(forexample,castiron,wroughtironormildsteel)
usedinthetestswereashighas22percentperyear.Considerableandapparentlypermanentprotectionappearstobegivento
mildsteelbygalvanizing,thetestshowinggalvanizedmildsteeltobelittleinferiortocopperwithanaveragelossnotgreater
than05percentperyear.Onlyinafewcaseswasthereanyindicationinalltheseteststhatcorrosionwasacceleratingandin
thesecasestheindicationswerenotverysignificant.
Thepossibilityondamagetocablesandotherundergroundservicesandstructuralmetalworkinthevicinityofearth
electrodeduetoelectrolyticactionbetweendissimilarmaterialsshouldnotbeoverlookedwhenthematerialforearth
electrodesisselected.Materialscompatiblewithothermetalstructuresinthevicinityshouldbeselectedorotherremedial
actiontaken.
Itmaybeessentialtousematerialsoftypesotherthanthosementionedearlierinspecialcircumstances,when
cathodicallyprotectedstructuressuchaspipelinesareencountered.
Amodernhighpressuregaspipeline,wrappedandcathodicallyprotectedmayhaveagalvanicpotentialof05V,the
acceptedmaterialofcopperforanearthelectrodewithagalvanicpotentialof02Vdecreasesthetotalgalvanicvoltageand
increasestheneedforcurrentfromthecorrosionprotectionimpressedcurrentsystem,whentheearthelectrodeisconnected
tothepipeline.
Anearthelectrodewithagalvanicpotentialnearertotheprotectedstructurehastobeusedtoovercometheaboveand
becertainthepipelineisbeingprotected.Suchamaterialistermedanausteniticironandisanausteniticcastnickelchromium
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alloy,withspheroidalgraphitepresent.
Itmaybenecessarytoearththepipelineforoneormoreofthefollowingreasons:
a. Itshouldnotonitsownbeacarrierofanylowvoltagefaultcurrent,
b. Itmayhavelowvoltageequipmentconnectedtoit,forexample,forthepurposeofvalveoperation
c. Itmayhaveinstrumentationconnectedtoitthatrequireittobeearthedforthispurposeandtoprovideasignal
referenceearthaswellasforearthingrequirementrelativetoelectricalequipmentusedinhazardousareasand
23
d. Itmayrequireconnectiontoearthatpointstodischargeunwantedinducedcurrentsandvoltagesfromothersources
suchasoverheadlines.
Thesefourpointsleadtoacompromisebetweentheneedtohavealowearthvalueforinstrumentationreference
purposes,whichmayrequirealotofburiedmetal,andareasonableearthvalueforelectricalpurposesagainstthecorrosion
protectionrequirementtohaveaminimumofburiedbaremetalconnectedtothepipeline,andthusdrawingacorrosion
protectioncurrentthatmayberequiredbythepipeline.
9.4
TypicalinstallationsofpipeearthelectrodeandplateearthelectrodeareshowninFig.14and15.
9.5
TypicalMethodforJointingofConductorsMethodsofjointingconductorsareshowninFig.16.
FIG.14TYPICALARRANGEMENTOFPIPEELECTRODE
FIG.14TYPICALARRANGEMENTOFPIPEELECTRODE
24
FIG.15TYPICALARRANGEMENTOFPLATEELECTRODE
Image
FIG.15TYPICALARRANGEMENTOFPLATEELECTRODE
Image
25
Image
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FIG16.TYPICALEARTHINGCONNECTIONDETAILS
26
10.CURRENTDENSITYATTHESURFACEOFANEARTHELECTRODE
10.1
Anearthelectrodeshouldbedesignedtohavealoadingcapacityadequateforthesystemofwhichitformsapart,thatis,
itshouldbecapableofdissipatingwithoutfailuretheenergyintheearthpathatthepointatwhichitisinstalledunderany
conditionofoperationonthesystem.Failureisfundamentallyduetoexcessivetemperatureriseatthesurfaceoftheelectrode
andisthusafunctionofcurrentdensityanddurationaswellaselectricalandthermalpropertiesofthesoil.
Ingeneral,soilshaveanegativetemperaturecoefficientofresistancesothatsustainedcurrentloadingresultsinaninitial
decreaseinelectroderesistanceandaconsequentriseintheearthfaultcurrentforagivenappliedvoltage.Assoilmoistureis
drivenawayfromthesoilelectrodeinterface,however,theresistanceincreasesandwillultimatelybecomeinfiniteifthe
temperatureriseissufficient.
10.2
Threeconditionsofoperationrequireconsideration,thatis,longdurationloadingaswithnormalsystemoperation
shorttimeoverloadingasunderfaultconditionsindirectlyearthedsystems,andlongtimeoverloadingasunderfault
conditionsinsystemsprotectedbyarcsuppressioncoils.
10.3
Thelittleexperimentalworkwhichhasbeendoneonthissubjectbyexpertsattheinternationallevelhasbeenconfined
tomodeltestswithsphericalelectrodesinclayorloamoflowresistivityandhasledtothefollowingconclusions:
a. Longdurationloadingduetonormalunbalanceofthesystemwillnotcausefailureofearthelectrodesprovidedthatthe
currentdensityattheelectrodesurfacedoesnotexceed40A/m2.Limitationtovaluesbelowthiswouldgenerallybe
imposedbythenecessitytosecurealowresistanceearth.
b. Timetofailureonshorttimeoverloadisinverselyproportionaltothespecificloading,whichisgivenbyi2,whereiisthe
currentdensityattheelectrodesurface.Forthesoilsinvestigated,themaximumpermissiblecurrentdensity,iisgivenby
Image
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where
t
durationoftheearthfault(ins)
resistivityofthesoil(in.m).
Experienceindicatesthatthisformulaisappropriateforplateelectrodes.
11.VOLTAGEGRADIENTAROUNDEARTHELECTRODES
11.1
Underfaultcoditions,theearthelectrodeisraisedtoapotentialwithrespecttothegeneralmassoftheearththatcanbe
calculatedfromtheprospectivefaultcurrentandtheearthresistanceoftheelectrode.Thisresultsintheexistenceofvoltagesin
thesoilaroundtheelectrodethatmaybeinjurioustotelephoneandpilotcables,whosecoresaresubstantiallyatearth
potentional,owingtothevoltagetowhichthesheathsofsuchcablesareraisedthevoltagegradientatthesurfaceofthe
groundmayalsoconstituteadangertolife,especiallywherecattleareconcerned.Theformerriskarisesmainlyinconnection
withlargeelectrodesystemsasatpowerstationsandsubstations.
11.2
Dangertoanimalsoccursprincipallywithpolemountedsubstationsonlowvoltagesystems.Inruralareas,itisbyno
meansuncommonfortheearthpathresistancetobesuchthatfaultsarenotclearedwithinashortperiodandinsuchcases,
animals,whichfrequentlycongregatenearapole,areliabletoreceiveadangerousshock.Thesametroublesometimesoccursat
farmswhereearthelectrodesareprovidedforindividualappliances.Aneffectiveremedyistoearththeneutralconductorat
somepointonthesysteminaccessibletoanimalsratherthanearthingtheneutralatthetransformeritself.Alternatively,an
effectivemethodisforpipeorrodelectrodestobeburiedwiththeirtopsbelowthesurfaceofthesoilandconnectionmadeto
thembymeansofinsulatedleads.Themaximumvoltagegradientoveraspanof2madjacenttoa25mmdiameterpipe
electrodeisreducedfrom85percentofthetotalelectrodepotentialwhenthetopoftheelectrodeisatgroundlevelto20and5
percentwhenitisburied03and10mrespectively.
11.3
Earthelectrodes,otherthanthoseusedfortheearthingofthefenceitself,shouldnotbeinstalledinproximitytoametal
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fence,toavoidthepossibilityofthefencebecomingliveandthusdangerousatpointsremotefromthesubstationor
alternativelygivingrisetodangerwithintheresistanceareaoftheelectrodebyintroducingagoodconnectionwiththegeneral
massoftheearth.
12.CONNECTIONSTOEARTHELECTRODESEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
12.0General
12.0.1
Thematerialsusedformakingconnectionshavetobecompatiblewiththeearthrodandthecopperearthingconductor
sothatgalvaniccorrosionisminimized.Inallcases,theconnectionshavetobemechanicallystrong.
12.0.2
Forlargeearthinginstallations,suchasatmajorsubstations,itiscommontomakeprovisionforthetestingofearth
electrodes.Thisis
27
achievedbyconnectingagroupofroddrivenelectrodestothemainearthgridthroughaboltedlinkadjacenttothe
electrodesinasunkenconcretebox.Simplerdisconnectingarrangements(ornoneatall)maybeacceptableforsmallearthing
installations.
12.1EarthingConductors
12.1.1
Earthingconductorsshallcomplywith12.2.2and,whereburiedinthesoil,theircrosssectionalareashallbein
accordancewithTable4.
TABLE4MINIMUMCROSSSECTIONALAREAOFEARTHINGCONDUCTORS
Protectedagainstcorrosion
Notprotectedagainstcorrosion
MECHANICALLYPROTECTED
Accordingto12.2.2withaminimumof16mm2(Cu)or(Fe)
MECHANICALLYUNPROTECTED
16mm2,(Cu)16mm2(Fe)
25mm2,(Cu)
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50mm2(Fe)
12.1.2
Theconnectionofanearthingconductortoanearthelectrodeshallbesoundlymadeandelectricallysatisfactory.Where
aclampisused,itshallnotdamagetheelectrode(forexample,apipe)ortheearthingconductor.
12.1.3
MainEarthingTerminalsorBarsIneveryinstallation,amainearthingterminalorbarshallbeprovidedandthe
followingconductorsshallbeconnectedtoit:
a. earthingconductors
b. protectiveconductorsand
c. functionalearthingconductors,ifrequired.
Meansshallbeprovidedinanaccessiblepositionfordisconnectingtheearthingconductor.Suchmeansmay
convenientlybecombinedwiththeearthingterminalorbartopermitmeasurementoftheresistanceoftheearthing
arrangementsThisjointshallbedisconnectableonlybymeansofatool,mechanicallystrongandensurethemaintenanceof
electricalcontinuity.
12.1ProtectiveConductors
12.2.1TypesofProtectiveConductors
12.2.1.1
Protectiveconductorsmaycomprise:
a. conductorsinmulticorecables
b. insulatedorbareconductorsinacommonenclosurewithliveconductors
c. fixedbareofinsulatedconductors
d. metalcoverings,forexample,thesheaths,screensandarmouringofcertaincables(furtherrequirementsunder
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consideration)(seeNote1)
e. metalconduitsorothermetalenclosuresforconductors(furtherrequirementsunderconsideration)(seeNote2)and
f. certainextraneousconductiveparts.
NOTE1Wherethemetalsheathsofcablesareusedasearthcontinuityconductors,everyjointinsuch
sheathsshallbesomadethatitscurrentcarryingcapacityisnotlessthanthatofthesheathitself.Where
necessary,theyshallbeprotectedagainstcorrosion.Wherenonmetallicjointboxesareused,meansshallbe
providedtomaintainthecontinuitysuchasametalstriphavingaresistancenotgreaterthanthatofthesheathof
thelargestcableenteringthebox.
NOTE2Metalconduitpipeshouldgenerallynotbeusedasanearthcontinuityconductorbutwhereused,
averyhighstandardofworkmanshipininstallationisessential.Jointsshallbesomadethattheircurrentcarrying
capacityisnotlossthanthatoftheconduititself.Slacknessinjointsmayresultindeteriorationandevencomplete
lossofcontinuity.Plainsliporpingripsocketsareinsufficienttoensuresatisfactorycontinuityofjoints.Inthe
caseofscrewedconduit,locknutsshouldalsobeused.
12.2.1.2
Themetalliccoveringincludingsheaths(bareorinsulated)ofcertainwiring,inparticularthesheathsofmineral
insulatedcables,andcertainmetallicconduitsandtrunkingforelectricalpurposes(typesunderconsideration)maybeusedasa
protectiveconductorforthecorrespondingcircuits,iftheirelectricalcontinuitycanbeachievedinsuchamannerensuring
protectionagainstdeteriorationandtheypermitconnectionofotherprotectiveconductorsatpredeterminedtapoffpoints.
Otherconduitsforelectricalpurposesshallnotbeusedasaprotectiveconductor.
12.2.1.3
Extraneousconductivepartsmaybeusedasaprotectiveconductoriftheysatisfythefollowingfourrequirements:
a. theirelectricalcontinuityshallbeassuredeitherbyconstructionorbysuitableconnectionsinsuchawayastobe
protectiveagainstmechanical,chemicalorelectrochemicaldeterioration
b. theirconductanceshallbeatleastequaltothatresultingfromtheapplicationof12.2.2
c. unlesscompensatorymeasuresareprovidedprecautionsshallbetakenagainsttheirremovaland
d. theyhavebeenconsideredforsuchauseand,ifnecessary,suitablyadapted.
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Theuseofmetallicwaterpipesispermitted,providedtheconsentofapersonorbodyresponsibleforthewatersystemis
obtained.Gaspipesshallnotbeusedasprotectiveconductors.
12.2.1.4
ExtraneousconductivepartsshallnotbeusedasPENconductors.
12.2.2MinimumCrossSectionalArea
12.2.2.0
Thecrosssectionalareaofprotectiveconductorsshalleitherbe:
a. calculatedinaccordancewith12.2.2.1,or
b. selectedinaccordancewith12.2.2.2.
28
Inbothcases,12.2.2.3shallbetakenintoaccount.
NOTETheinstallationshouldbesopreparedthatequipmentterminalsarecapableofacceptingthese
protectiveconductors.
12.2.2.1
Thecrosssectionalareashallbesocalculatedthatthecurrentdensityvaluedeterminedbythefollowingformulaisnot
exceeded(applicableonlyfordisconnectiontimesnotexceeding5s).
Image
where
S = crosssectionalarea,insquaremillimetres
I = value(ac,rms)offaultcurrentforafaultofnegligibleimpedance,whichcanflowthroughtheprotectivedevice,inamperes
t = operatingtimeofthedisconnectingdevice,insecondsand
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NOTEAccountshouldbetakenofthecurrentlimitingeffectofthecircuitimpedancesandthelimitingcapability(joule
integral)oftheprotectivedevice.
k = factordependentonthematerialoftheprotectiveconductor,theinsulationandotherparts,andtheinitialandfinaltemperatures.
Valuesofkforprotectiveconductorsinvarioususeorservicefort=1and3srespectivelyaregiveninTable6Ato6D.
Thekfactorsforprotectiveconductorsofcopper,steelandaluminiumareshowninFig.17to19.
Ifapplicationoftheformulaproducesnonstandardsizes,conductorsofthenearesthigherstandardcrosssectionalarea
shallbeused.
NOTE1Itisnecessarythatthecrosssectionalareasocalculatedbecompatiblewiththeconditions
imposedbyfaultloopimpedance.
NOTE2Maximumpermissibletemperaturesforjointsshouldbetakenintoaccount.
NOTE3Valuesformineralinsulatedcablesareunderconsideration.
Methodofderivingthefactork
Thefactorkisdeterminedfromtheformula:
Image
where
Qc
volumetricheatcapacityofconductormaterial(j/Cmm3),
reciprocaloftemperaturecoefficientofresistivityat0Cfortheconductor(C),
20
electricalresistivityofconductormaterialat20C(mm),
initialtemperatureofconductor(C),and
finaltemperatureofconductor(C).
ThesematerialconstantsaregiveninTable5.
FIG.17kFACTORSFORCOPPERPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS(See12.2.2.1)
FIG.17kFACTORSFORCOPPERPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS(See12.2.2.1)
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29
FIG.18kFACTORSFORSTEELPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
FIG.18kFACTORSFORSTEELPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
FIG.19kFACTORSFORALUMINIUMPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
FIG.19kFACTORSFORALUMINIUMPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
TABLE5MATERIALCONSTANTS
MATERIAL
B(C)
Qc(J/Cmm3 )
20 (mm)
Image
Copper
2345
345106
17241106
226
Aluminium
228
25103
28264106
148
Lead
230
145103
214106
42
Steel
202
38103
138106
78
30
TABLE6CURRENTRATINGOFVARIOUSPROTECTIVEEARTHINGMATERIALS
(Clauses12.2.2and19.2)
6ABareConductorwithNoRiskofFireorDangertoAnyOtherTouchingorSurroundingMaterial
BoundaryConditions:InitialTemperature.40CFinaltemperature395Cforcopper325Cforaluminium500Cforsteel
MATERIAL
1scurrentratinginA/mm2(k)
COPPER
ALUMINIUM
STEEL
205
126
80
118
73
46
6BInsulatedProtectiveConductorsnotIncorporatedinCablesorBareConductorsTouchingOtherInsulatedCables
BoundaryConditions:InitialTemperature:40C.Finaltemperature:160CforPVC,220Cforbutylrubber250CforXLPE/EPR
MATERIALINSULATION
COPPER
ALUMINIUM
STEEL
PVC ButylRubber XLPE/EPR PVC
ButylRubber XLPE/EPR PVC ButylRubber XLPE/EPR
136 160
106
170
90
112
49
58
62
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79
92
98
52
61
65
28
33
36
6CProtectiveConductorasaCoreinMulticoreCables
BoundaryConditions:
InitialTemperature
FinalTemperature
PVC
70C
160C
ButylRubber
85C
220C
XLPE/EPR
90C
250C
MATERIALINSULATION
COPPER
PVC ButylRubber
XLPE/EPR PVC
ButylRubber
XLPE/EPR
115 134
143
76
89
94
66
83
44
51
54
ALUMINIUM
77
6DProtectiveBareConductorsinHazardousAreasWhereThereisRiskofFirefromPetroleumBoundOilorOther
SurroundingMaterial
BoundaryConditions:InitialTemperature:40CFinalTemperature150C/200C.
MATERIAL
COPPER
ALUMINIUM
STEEL
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12.2.2.2
ThecrosssectionalareaoftheprotectiveconductorshallbenotlessthantheappropriatevalueshowninTable7.Inthis
case,checkingofcompliancewith12.2.2.1isusuallynotnecessary.
Iftheapplicationofthistableproducesnonstandardsizes,conductorshavingthenearesthigherstandardcrosssectianal
areaaretobeused.
TABLE7CROSSSECTIONOFPROTECTIVECONDUCTOR
CROSSSECTIONALAREAOFPHASECONDUCTORSOF
MINIMUMCROSSSECTIONALAREAOFTHECORRESPONDING
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31
THEINSTALLATIONS(mm2)
PROTECTIVECONDUCTORSp(mm2)
S<16
16<S<35
16
5>35
See12.2.2.1
ThevaluesinTable7arevalidonlyiftheprotectiveconductorismadeofthesamemetalasthephaseconductors.Ifthis
isnotso,thecrosssectionalareaoftheprotectiveconductoristobedeterminedinamannerwhichproducesaconductance
equivalenttothatwhichresultsfromtheapplicationofTable7(seealso18.3.3).
12.2.2.3
Thecrosssectionalareaofeveryprotectiveconductorwhichdoesnotformpartofthesupplycableorcableenclosure
shallbe,inanycase,notlessthan:
a. 25mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisprovidedand
b. 4mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisnotprovided.
12.2.3PreservationofElectricalContinuityofProtectiveConductors
12.2.3.1
Protectiveconductorsshallbesuitablyprotectedagainstmechanicalandchemicaldeteriorationandelectrodynamic
forces.
12.2.3.2
Jointsofprotectiveconductorsshallbeaccessibleforinspectionandtestingexceptincompoundfilledorencapsulated
joints.
12.2.3.3
Noswitchingdeviceshallbeinsertedintheprotectiveconductor,butjointswhichcanbedisconnectedfortestpurposes
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byuseofatoolmaybeprovided.
12.2.3.4
Whereelectricalmonitoringofearthcontinuityisused,theoperatingcoilsshallnotbeinsertedinprotectiveconductors.
12.2.3.5
Exposedconductivepartsofapparatusshallnotbeusedtoformpartoftheprotectiveconductorforotherequipment
exceptasallowedbythepreconditionsin12.2.1.2.
13.EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORPROTECTIVEPURPOSES
NOTEForprotectivemeasuresforvarioussystemsofearthing,seeSection3.
13.1ProtectiveConductorsusedwithOvercurrentProtectiveDevices
13.1.1
Whenovercurrentprotectivedevicesareusedforprotectionagainstelectricshock,theincorporationoftheprotective
conductorinthesamewiringsystemastheliveconductorsorintheirimmediateproximityisstronglyrecommended.
13.2EarthingandProtectiveConductorsforFaultVoltageOperatedProtectiveDevices
13.2.1
Anauxiliaryearthelectrodeshallbeprovidedelectricallyindependentofallotherearthedmetal,forexample,
constructionalmetalwork,pipers,ormetalsheathedcables.Thisrequirementisconsideredtobefulfillediftheauxiliaryearth
electrodeisinstalledataspecifieddistancefromallotherearthedmetal(valueofdistanceunderconsideration).
13.2.2
Theearthingconductorleadingtotheauxiliaryearthelectrodeshallbeinsulatedtoavoidcontactwiththeprotective
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conductororanyofthepartsconnectedtheretoorextraneousconductivepartswhichare,ormaybe,incontactwiththem.
NOTEThisrequirementisnecessarytopreventthevoltagesensitiveelementbeing,inadvertentlybridged.
13.2.3
Theprotectiveconductorshallbeconnectedonlytotheexposedconductivepartsofthoseitemsofelectricalequipment
whosesupplywillbeinterruptedintheeventoftheprotectivedeviceoperatingunderfaultconditions.
13.2.4
ExcessiveEarthedleakageCurrentUnderconsideration.
14.EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORFUNCTIONALPURPOSES
14.1
GeneralEarthingarrangementsforfunctionalpurposesshallbeprovidedtoensurecorrectoperationofequipmentor
topermitreliableandproperfunctioningofinstallations.
(Furtherrequirementsunderconsideration).
14.2
LowNoiseSee39.22.
15.EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSFORCOMBINEDPROTECTIVEANDFUNCTIONALPURPOSES
15.1
GeneralWhereearthingforcombinedprotectiveandfunctionalpurposesisrequired,therequirementsforprotective
measuresshallprevail.
15.2PENConductors
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15.2.1
InTNsystems,forcablesinfixedinstallationshavingacrosssectionalareanotlessthan10mm2forcopperand16mm2
foraluminium,asingleconductormayservebothasprotectiveconductorandneutralconductor,providedthatthepartofthe
installationconcernedisnotprotectedbyaresidualcurrentoperateddevice.
However,theminimumcrosssectionalareaofaPENconductormaybe4mm3,providedthatthecableisofa
concentrictypeconformingtoIndianStandardsandthatduplicatecontinuityconnectionsexistatalljointsandterminationsin
therunoftheconcentricconductors.
15.2.2
ThePENconductorshallbeinsulatedforthehighestvoltagetowhichitmaybesubjectedtoavoidstraycurrents.
NOTEThePENconductorneednotbeinsulatedinsideswitchgearandcontrolgearassemblies.
32
15.2.3
Iffromanypointoftheinstallationtheneutralandprotectivefunctionsarcprovidedbyseparateconductors,itis
inadmissibletoconnecttheseconductorstoeachotherfromthatpoint.Atthepointofseparation,separateterminalsorbars
shallbeprovidedfortheprotectiveandneutralconductors.ThePENconductorshallbeconnectedtotheterminalorbare
intendedfortheprotectiveconductor.
16.EQUIPOTENTIALBONDINGCONDUCTORS
16.1MinimumCrossSectionalAreas
16.1.1
EquipotentialBondingConductorsSee12.2.2.1.
16.1.2
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BondingofWaterMetersBondingofwatermetersisnotpermitted(see9.2.4).
16.2
NonEarthedEquipotentialBondingUnderconsideration.
17.TYPICALSCHEMATICOFEARTHINGANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
17.1
AtypicalschematicofearthingandprotectiveconductorsisgiveninFig.20.
FIG.20EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
FIG.20EARTHINGARRANGEMENTSANDPROTECTIVECONDUCTORS
SECTION3EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONINCONSUMERSPREMISES
33
18.EARTHFAULTPROTECTIONININSTALLATIONS
18.0BasicPhilosophyofEarthFaultProtection
18.0.1
TherulesgiveninthisSectionareapplicabletoinstallationbelow1000Vac.
18.0.2
Amongstotherthings,protectionagainstshockincaseofafault(protectionagainstindirectcontact)isprovidedby
automaticdisconnectionofsupply.Thisprotectivemeasurenecessitatescoordinationofthetypesofsystemearthingandthe
characteristicsoftheprotectivedevices.ThisSectiondiscussesthebasiccriteriaforachievingthisprotection.
18.0.3
Protectionagainstelectricshockbothinnormalservice(protectionagainstdirectcontact)andincaseoffault(protection
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againstindirectcontact)canbeachievedbyseveralmeasures.Detailsofachievingprotectionthroughthechoiceofan
appropriateprotectivemeasureisthesubjectofIS:732*.Oneofsuchmeasuresisprotectionbyautomaticdisconnectionof
supply.Automaticdisconnectionisintendedtopreventatouchvoltagepersistingforsuchtimethatadangercouldarise.This
methodnecessitatescoordinationof(a)thetypeofsystemearthing,and(b)characteristicsofprotectivedevices.Descriptionof
thetypesofsystemearthingpermittedandtherequirementsforearthingarrangementsandprotectiveconductorsvisavis
protectionagainstshockisthesubjectofthiscode.
18.0.4
Protectivemeasurebyautomaticdisconnectionofsupplyfollowinganinsulationfaultreliesontheassociationoftwo
conditionsgivenbelow:
a. Theexistenceofaconductingpath(faltloop)toprovideforcirculationoffaultcurrent(thisdependsontypeofsystem
earthing)and
b. Thedisconnectionofthiscurrentbyanappropriatedeviceinagiventime.
Thedeterminationofthistimedependsonvariousparameters,suchasprobabilityoffault,probabilityofaperson
touchingtheequipmentduringthefaultandthetouchvoltagetowhichapersonmighttherebybesubjected.
Limitsoftouchvoltagearebasedonstudiesontheeffectsofcurrentonhumanbody(seeIS:84371977).
18.0.5
Thestudyoftheelectricalimpedanceofthehumanbodyasafunctionoftouchvoltageandmagnitudeofcurrentflowin
thebodyasafunctionofitsdurationlikelytoproduceagiveneffectaretwocomponentswhichhelpinestablishinga
relationshipbetweenprospectivetouchvoltageanditsdurationwhichwillnotresultinharmfulphysiologicaleffectsforany
person.
Table8showsthevaluesofdisconnectingtimestforgiventouchvoltagesfortwomostcommonconditions.
TABLE8DISCONNECTINGTIMESFORDIFFERENTTOUCHVOLTAGES
PROSPECTIVETOUCH
VOLTAGEUc
(V)
CONDITION1*
Z1
CONDITION2
(mA)
(s)
Z2
(mA)
(s)
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25
075
23
50
1725
29
925
54
047
75
1625
46
060
825
91
030
90
1600
56
045
780
115
025
110
1535
72
036
730
151
018
150
1475
102
027
660
227
010
220
1375
160
017
575
383
0035
280
1370
204
012
570
491
0020
350
1365
256
008
565
620
500
1360
368
004
560
893
*Dryormoistlocations,dryskinandsignificantfloorresistance.22
Wetlocations,wetskinandlowfloorresistance.
18.0.6
Itisnecessary,therefore,toapplytheseresultsemanatingoutofIS:84371977*tothevariousearthingsystems.The
disconnectingtimesspecifiedfordifferentcircuitsinthiscodefollowsbasicallythesummaryinTable8,inadditiontakinginto
accountthelikelihoodoffaultsandlikelihoodofcontact.
18.0.7
TNSystemsAllexposedconductivepartsshallbeconnectedtotheearthedpointofthelowersystembyprotective
conductors.Theprotectiveconductorsshallbeearthedneareachpowertransformerorgeneratoroftheinstallation.Ifother
effectiveearthconnectionsexist,itisrecommendedthattheprotectiveconductorsalsobeconnectedtosuchpoints,wherever
possible.Earthingatadditionalpointsasevenlyaspossibleisdesirable.Itisalsorecommendedthatprotectiveconductors
shouldbeearthedwheretheyenteranybuildingsorpremises.
Thecharacteristicsoftheprotectivedevicesandthecrosssectionalareaofconductorsshallbesochosenthatifafaultof
negligibleimpedanceoccursanywherebetweenaphaseconductorand
*Codeofpracticeforwiringinstallations.
Guideoneffectsofcurrentspassingthroughthehumanbody.
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*Guideoneffectsofcurrentspassingthroughthehumanbody.
34
aprotectiveconductororexposedconductivepart,automaticdisconnectionofthesupplywilloccurwithintheminimum
possiblesafetime.Thetimeofoperationwoulddependonthemagnitudeofthecontactpotential.Asageneralrule,65Vmay
beclearedwithin10secondsandvoltagesoftheorderof240Vandaboveshallbeclearedinstantaneously.
Thisrequirementismetif:
ZsIaUc
where
Zs
faultloopimpedance,
Ia
currentensuringtheautomaticoperationofdisconnectingdevice,and
U0
conventionalvoltagelimits.
NOTE1Zsmaybecalculatedormeasured.
NOTE2ThedurationofIapermitteddependsODtheprospectivetouchvoltage.Thetouchvoltageis
calculatedfromthevoltageofthesystemandtheratiooftheimpedanceofthesourceandthefaultloop.Higher
touchvoltagesshouldbeclearedinshortertimes.
Ifthisconditioncannotbefulfilled,supplementarybondinginaccordancewith18.0.10maybenecessary.
18.0.8
TTSystemsAllexposedconductivepartscollectivelyprotectedbythesameprotectivedeviceshallbeinterconnectedby
protectiveconductorswithanearthelectrodecommontoallthoseparts.Whereseveralprotectivedevicesareusedinseries,
thisrequirementappliesseparatelytoalltheexposedconductivepartsprotectedbyeachdevice.Forcompliancewiththe
requirementof18.0.7(para2),thefollowingshallbefulfilled:
RAIaUc
where
Ra
resistanceoftheearthedsystemforexposedconductiveparts,
Ia
operatingcurrentsofthedisconnectingseriesdeviceorsettingsofshuntrelays,and
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Uo
conventionalvoltagelimit(32Vincaseofrelayswithtimelag).
18.0.9
ITSystemsTheimpedanceofthepowersystemearthshallbesuchthatontheoccurrenceofasinglefaulttoexposed
conductivepartsortoearth,thefaultcurrentisoflowvalue.Disconnectionofthesupplyisnotessentialontheoccurrenceof
thefirstfault.Protectivemeasuresmust,however,preventdangerontheoccurrenceoftwosimultaneousfaultsinvolving
differentliveconductors.
Thefollowingconditionshallbefulfilled:
RAIaUc
where
RA
resistanceoftheearthedsystemforexposedconductiveparts,
Ia
operatingcurrentsofthedisconnectingseriesdevice,and
Uo
conventionalvoltagelimit.
18.0.10
EquipotentialBondingIftheconditionsspecifiedin18.0.7to18.0.9cannotbefulfilledforautomaticdisconnection
ofsupply,itisnecessarytoprovidelocalequipotentialbonding(seealso18.3.4).Thisappliestoentireinstallationorapart
thereof,anitemofapparatusoralocation.Theprotectiveconductorsforlocalbondingshallalsoconformto12.2.Wheredoubt
existsregardingeffectivenessofsupplementaryequipotentialbonding,itshallbeconformedif:
Image
where
Z = impedancebetweensimultaneouslyaccessibleexposedconductivepartsandextraneousconductiveparts,andearthingsystem
Ia = operatingcurrentofthedisconnectingseriesdeviceand
U = conventionalvoltagelimit.
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18.1
BasicPurposeofEarthFaultProtectionTheoccurrenceofanearthfaultinaninstallationcreatestwopossible
hazards.Firstly,voltagesappearbetweenexposedconductivepartsandextraneousconductiveparts,andifthesepartsare
simultaneouslyaccessible,thesevoltagesconstituteashockhazard,thisconditionbeingknownasindirectcontact.
Secondly,thefaultcurrentthatflowsinthephaseandprotectiveconductorsofthecircuitfeedingthefaultyequipment
(theearthfaultmay,ofcourse,occurinthefixedwiringofthecircuititself)maybeofsuchamagnitudeastocauseanexcessive
temperatureriseinthoseconductors,therebycreatingafirehazard.
Theprotectivemeasureknownasearthedequipotentialbondingandautomaticdisconnectionofthesupplyisintended
togiveahighdegreeofprotectionagainstbothhazards.Thechoiceofprotectivedeviceusedtogivedisconnectionisinfluenced
bythetypeofsystemofwhichtheinstallationispart,becauseeither:
a. theearthfaultloopimpedancehastobelowenoughtoallowadequateearthfaultcurrenttolowtocauseanovercurrent
protectivedevice(forexample,afuseorcircuitbreaker)inthefaultycircuittooperateinasufficientlyshorttimeor
b. whereitisnotpossibletoachievealowenoughearthfaultloopimpedance,disconnectionmaybeinitiatedbyfitting
eitheraresidualcurrentdeviceoravoltageoperatedearthleakagecircuitbreakerwiththeformerbeingpreferred.
35
18.2EarthingofInstallations
18.2.1
ProtectionAgainstIndirectContact(AgainstElectricShockinCaseofaFault)Protectionagainstindirectcontactis
achievedbytheadoptionofoneofthefollowingprotectivemeasures:
a. Safetyextralowvoltage
b. TheuseofGlassIIequipmentorbyequivalentinsulation
c. Anonconductinglocation
d. Earthfreelocalequipotentialbonding
e. Electricalseparationand
f. Earthedequipotentialbondingandautomaticdisconnectionofthesupply.
NOTE1TheprimaryconcernofthisCodeis(d)and(f)whileothermethodsofprotectionagainstindirect
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contactarecoveredinotherrelevantIndianStandardCodesofPractice.
NOTE2Item(a)requiresthatthenominalvoltageofthecircuitconcerneddoesnotexceedextralow
voltagethatthesourcehasahighdegreeofisolationfromhighervoltagecircuits(forexample,aClassIIsafety
isolationtransformer)andthatlivepartsalsohaveasimilardegreeofisolationorseparationfromthosecircuits.
Themostimportantrequirement,however,isthatlivepartsandexposedconductivepartsofasafetyextralow
voltagecircuitshouldnotbeconnectedtoearth,protectiveconductorsorexposedconductivepartsofanother
circuit.Wherethesegeneralrequirementsarenotmetbutthenominalvoltagestilldoesnotexceedextralow
voltage,thecircuitisdescribedasafunctionalextralowvoltagecircuitandonepartofitmaybeconnectedto
earth.
NOTE3Item(b)isgenerallyapplicableandcoverstheselectionanduseofequipmentcomplyingwith
eitherinsulationencasedClassIIequipment(allinsulated)ormetalcasedClassIIequipment.Insomecases,such
asfactorybuiltassembliesofswitchgearandcontrolgear,theequivalenttermusedistotalinsulation.Item(b)can
alsobeachievedbytheapplicationofsuitablesupplementaryorreinforcedinsulationtoequipmentonsite.
Earthingoftheequipmentisnotrequiredinfact,bydefinitiontherewillbenofacilityforearthingprovided
inClassIIequipment.
NOTE4Items(c),(d)and(e)areoflimitedinterestastheycanbeappliedonlyinspecialsituationsand
usedundereffectivesupervision.Theyallincludeahighdegreeofisolationfromearth.
NOTE5InthisSection,detailedconsiderationislimitedtoearthedequipotentialbondingandautomatic
disconnectionofthesupply.
18.2.2
EarthedEquipotentialBondingandAutomaticDisconnectionoftheSupplyThetwoaimsofthisprotectivemeasure
areto:
a. ensurethatwhenanearthfaultoccurs,thevoltagesappearingbetweenexposedconductivepartsandextraneous
conduetivepartsinthelocationservedbytheinstallationconcernedareminimizedand
b. ensurerapiddisconnectionofthecircuitinwhichthatearthfaultoccurs.
Inordertomeet(a),azoneiscreatedbyfirstconnectingallextraneousconduetivepartsbymeansofequipotential
bondingconductorstothemainearthingterminalorearthelectrode(s)oftheinstallation.
Thezoneiscompletedbytheconnectionofallexposedconduetivepartsofthecircuitsintheinstallationandofcurrent
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usingequipmentfedfromthosecircuitstothemainearthingterminal(orinstallationearthelectrode)usingcircuitprotective
conductors.
Whilstsuchazoneiscalledanequipotentialzone,thisdoesnotmeanthatvoltagescannotexistbetweenconductive
partsinthatzonewhenanearthfaultoccurs.Thevoltagesreferredtoearlier(see18.1)willstillexistbetweentheexposed
conduetivepartsofperfectlysoundequipmentandbetweensuchpartsandextraneousconductiveparts,buttheapplicationof
bondingminimizesthesevoltagesineachcase.
Aninstallationmayconsistofanumberofzonesforinstance,whenaninstallationsuppliesanumberofbuildings,
equipotentialbondingisnecessaryineachbuildingsothateachconstitutesazonehavingareferencepointtowhichthe
exposedconductivepartsofthecircuitsandcurrentusingequipmentinthatbuildingareconnected.
Thesecondaimofthisprotectivemeasureismetbylimitingtheuppervalueoftheearthfaultloopimpedanceofeach
circuittoavaluedeterminedbythetypeandcurrentratingoftheprotectivedeviceconcernedsuchthat,ontheoccurrenceof
anearthfault(assumedtobeofnegligibleimpedance),disconnectionwilloccurbeforetheprospectivetouchvoltagereachesa
harmfulvalue.
18.2.3
ExtraneousConductivePartsTheextraneousconduetivepartsthatarerequiredtobebondedtothemainearthing
terminaloftheinstallation(ortotheearthelectrodeoftheinstallation)include:
a. gaspipes
b. otherservicepipesandducting
c. risersandpipesoffireprotectionequipment
d. exposedmetallicpartsofthebuildingstructureand
e. lighteningconductors(seeSection8).
NOTEConnectionstopipes,ductingandexposedmetallicpartsofbuildingstructureshouldbeconsidered
mostcarefully.Insometypesofearthingsystems,especiallyTNCorTNCSsystemseffectivelyconnectextraneous
conductingmetalworktothesupplysystemneutralandcouldcausecontinuouslycirculatingcurrentsandstanding
voltagesthatmightresultinelectrochemicalcorrosionorrandomsparkhazardsinpotentiallyflammable
atmospheres.
36
18.2.4
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ExposedConductivePartsExposedconductivepartsthatarerequiredtobeconnectedbymeansofprotective
conductorstothemainearthingterminal(orearthelectrode)oftheinstallationareasfollows:
a. Allmetalworkassociatedwithwiringsystem(otherthancurrentcarryingparts)includingcablesheathsandarmour,
conduit,ducting,trunking,boxesandcatenarywires
b. TheexposedmetalworkofallClassIfixedandportablecurrentusingequipment.Evenwhereatthetimeoftheerection
oftheinstallationthisequipmentisofClassIIconstructionoritsequivalent,becausethereisapossibilitythatinthelife
oftheinstallationtheequipmentmaybereplacedbyClassIequipment,allfixedwiringaccessoriesshouldincorporatean
earthingterminalthatisconnectedtothemainearthingterminalbymeansoftheprotectiveconductorsofthecircuits
concerned.
c. Theexposedmetalworkoftransformersusedintheinstallationotherthanthosethatareanintegralpartofequipment.
Thesecondarywindingsoftransformersshouldalsobeearthedatonepointofthewinding,unlessthetransformerisa
safetyisolatingtransformersupplyingapartoftheinstallationwheretheprotectivemeasureelectricalseparationis
beingused).
Exposedconductivepartsthat(becauseoftheirsmalldimensionsordisposition)cannotbegrippedorcontactedbya
majorsurfaceofthehumanbody(thatis,ahumanbodysurfacenotexceeding50mm50mm)neednotbeearthedifthe
connectionofthosepartstoaprotectiveconductorcannotreadilybemadeandreliablymaintained.Typicalexamplesofsuch
partsarescrewsandnameplate,cableclipsandlampcaps.Fixingscrewsfornonmetallicaccessoriesneednotbeearthed
providedthereisnoappreciableriskofthescrewscomingintocontactwithliveparts.
Otherexposedconductivepartsnotrequiredtobeearthedare:
1. Overheadlineinsulatorbracketsandmetalpartsconnectedtothemifsuchpartsarenotwithinarmsreachand
2. ShortlengthsofmetalconduitorothermetalenclosuresusedtogivemechanicalprotectiontoequipmentofClassIIor
equivalentcunstruction.
18.ProtectionagainstExcessiveTemperatureRiseandMechanicalDamage
18.3.1
GeneralTheprotectivecircuitofaninstallationincludesthefollowing(seeFig.20):
a. Circuitprotectiveconductors
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b. Equipotentialbondingconductorsand
c. Earthingconductors.
Undercertaincircumstances,theremayalsobelocalequipotentialbondingconductors.
ThedeterminationofcrosssectionalareasofalltheseconductorsisthesubjectofSection2(alsosee18.4)andhere
considerationislimitedtothetypesofconductorthatcanbeusedwithsomeindicationoftheprecautionsthatshouldbetaken
duringerection,particularlythoseconcernedwithmechanicalandchemicaldeteriorationandelectrodynamiceffects.
18.3.2
EarthingconductorsCopperearthingconductors,ingeneral,neednotbeprotectedagainstcorrosionwhentheyare
buriedinthegroundiftheircrosssectionalareaisequaltoorgreaterthan25mm2.Incaseofburiedsteelconductors,
appropriatecorrosionfactorsbaseduponthesummedupcorrosionindexescorrespondingtodifferentparametersconnected
withthematerialforgrounding,environmentalconditions,natureofsoil,etc(seeSection4)shouldbeappliedindetermining
thesizeoftheearthingconductor,howevertheminimumsizeshouldnotbelessthan50mm.Iftheearthingconductorisof
tapeorstrip,thethicknessshouldbeadequatetowithstandmechanicaldamageandcorrosion.
Itshouldberememberedthatplainuncoatedcopperispositivetoplainuncoatedburiedsteelandwheninterconnected
byacurrentcarryingconductor,thesemetalswillformanelectrochemicalcellthatcancauseacceleratedcorrosionofsteel.As
aroughguide,adccurrentof1Aleavingaburiedsteelstructurecanremovenearly9kgofmetalinoneyear.
Wheresuchconductorsareprotectedagainstcorrossionbutarenotmechanicallyprotected,theminimumcross
sectionalareais16mm2iftheconductorisofcopperorcoatedsteel(Table4).Thedeterminationofthecrosssectionalarea
wheretheearthingconductorisbothmechanicallyprotectedandprotectedagainstcorrosionisconsideredinalatersection.
Aluminiumorcoppercladaluminiumconductorsshouldnotbeusedforfinalundergroundconnectionstoearth
electrodes.Whereacopperconductoristobejoinedtoaluminium,thecoppershouldbetinned,unlessanapprovedconductor
isused.
Theconnectionoftheearthingconductortotheearthelectrodeorothermeansofearthingshouldbereadilyaccessible
andsoundlymadebytheuseofsolderedjointsorsubstantialclampsofnonferrousmaterial.Wheretheearthingconductoris
tobeconnectedtothemetalarmourandsheathofacable,thearmourshouldbebondedtothemetalsheathandtheprincipal
connectionbetweenthecableandtheearthingconductor
37
shouldbetothemetalsheath,andshouldpreferablybesoldered.However,ifaclampisusedforthisconnectionthe
clampshouldbesodesignedandinstalledastoprovidereliableconnectionwithoutdamagetothecable.
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18.3.3
CircuitProtectiveConductorsAcircuitprotectiveconductormayformpartofthesamecableastheassociatedlive
conductors,eitherasacoreofthatcableorthemetallicsheathorarmouring,oritmaybeseparatelyruninsulatedconductor,
theinsulationbeingatleastequivalenttothatprovidedforasinglecorenonsheathedcableofappropriatesize.Aseparatelyrun
circuitprotectiveconductorhavingacrosssectionalareagreaterthan6mm2orofcopperstripisnotrequiredtobeinsulated.
Allprotectiveconductorsshould,however,beprotectedagainstphysicaldamageandotherformsofdamage,forexample,
weldingcurrentstrayreturnpaths.Wherethesheathofacableincorporatinganuninsulatedprotectiveconductorhavinga
crosssectionalareaof6mm2orlessisremovedatjointsandthetermination,theconductorshouldbeprotectedbyinsulating
sleeving.
Whenthemetallicsheathisusedeveryjointinthatsheathshouldbesomadethatitscurrentcarryingcapacityisnotless
thanthatofthesheathandwherenonmetallicjointboxesareused,meanssuchasametalstriphavingaresistancenotgreater
thanthatofthecorrespondinglengthofsheathofthelargestcableenteringtheboxshouldbeprovidedtomaintaincontinuity.
Whenusingthemetallicsheathorarmourasaprotectiveconductor,attentionshouldbepaidtotheabilityofcable
glandsandconnectionstocarryprospectiveearthfaultcurrents.Particularcareshouldbetakentoavoidproblemswith
nonconductingfinishes.
Metallicenclosuresforcables,suchasconduit,ductingandtrunking,maybeusedascircuitprotectiveconductorsbut
whereflexibleorpliableconduitisused,separateprotectiveconductorsshouldbeusedtomaintaintheintegrityoftheearth
path.Whereconduitisused,ahighstandardofworkmanshipininstallationisessential.Jointsshouldbesomadethattheir
currentcarryingcapacityisnotlessthantheconduititself.Slacknessinjointscanresultindeteriorationinandevencomplete
lossofcontinuity.Plainsliporpingripsocketsareconsideredinsufficienttoensuresatisfactoryelectriealcontinuityofjoints.
Inthecaseofunscrewedconduit,theuseofluggripfittingisrecommended,butforoutdoorinstallationsandwhereotherwise
subjectedtoatmospherecorrosion,screwedconduitshouldalwaysbeused,suitablyprotectedagainstcorrosion.Inscrewed
conduitinstallations,theliberaluseoflocknutsisrecommended.Jointsinallconduitsystemsshouldbepaintedoverallafter
assembly.
Theseprecautionsshouldbeadequate,butperiodicaltestsshouldbemadetoverifythatelectricalcontinuityis
satisfactorilymaintained.
18.3.4
LocalEquipotentialBonding(18.0.10)Theequipotentialzonepartiallycreatedbythebondingofextraneous
conductivepartstothemainearthingterminaldependsforitsefficacyonmetaltometalcontactofnegligibleimpedance.
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Withinaparticularpartofthezonewhereextraneousconductivepartsaresimultaneouslyaccessiblewitheitherother
extraneousconduetivepartsorexposedconductivepartsorboth,testsmayshowthatitisnecessarytocarryoutlocal
equipotentialbondingbetweenthepartsconcernedinordertoobtainsatisfactorylowimpedance.
18.3.5
ElectrolyticCorrosionUnderdampconditions,electrolyticcorrosionisliabletooccuratcontactsbetweendissimilar
metals.Copperandalloyshavingahighcoppercontentareparticularlyliabletocausecorrosionundertheseconditionswhenin
contactwithaluminiumbasedalloys.
Whendisimilarmetalsformpartofanelectricalcircuit,thejointsshouldbecleanandassembledfreeofmoisture,and
thenimmediatelysealedwithasuitablemediumagainsttheingressofmoisture.
Wheredampconditionsprevail,thefittings,fixingscrewsandsaddlesusedtosecurealuminiumbasedalloyconductors,
shouldbemadeofaluminiumalloyorsuitablyprotectedsteel(zonecoated)andallthepointsofcontactbetweenthempainted.
Particularattentionshouldbepaidtopipeworkbecauseoftheriskofreplacementofpartofthepipesystembynon
metallicpipesorjoints.Metalworkthatmayrequirebondingincludesexposedmetalpipes,sinkstaps,tanks,radiators,and
wherepracticableandaccessible,structuralcomponents.
18.4
CrossSectionalAreasoftheConductorsofanInstallationProtectiveCircuitThecrosssectionalareasof
theconductorsoftheprotectivecircuitareinfluencedbythelimitation,placedonearthloopimpedancestoensure
disconnectionofthecircuitinwhichandearthfaultoccursintheprescribedtime,thatis,instantaneousdisconnectionfor
highercontrolpotentialanddisconnectionwithtimelagforlowervoltages.
Whereaprotectivedeviceconcernedisafuse,miniaturecircuitbreakerorothertypesofseriesovercurrentdevice,those
disconnectingtimesimplythattheearthfaultloopimpedancesshouldbesuchthattheearthfaultcurrentisconsiderably
greaterthantheratedcurrentofthedevice(orofthesameorderasoccurringundershortcircuitconditions)ResidualCurrent
Devices(RCDs)shallbeprovidedtodisconnectthecircuitwithinthesametimeincaseofimpedanceorarcingfaultconditions.
Thedevicesettingshouldbeinterlinkedwithearthfaultloopimpedance,safecontactpotentialandpermissibletimefor
disconnection.
38
Alltheconstituentconductorsoftheprotectivecircuitshouldthereforebeofadequatecrosssectionalareatoensurethat
thetemperaturesattainedbytheconductorsdonotexceedtheirprescribedlimitingvalues.
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18.5
ConsumersEarthConnections(see6.1.1)Themethodofconnectionofthemainearthingterminalofan
installationtoearthdependsonthetypeofsystemofwhichthatinstallationispart.ThedifferentsystemsaredescribedinFig.
2to8.
Whenthesourceofenergyisprivatelyowned,thereshouldbenometallicconnectionwiththegeneralpublicsupply
unlesstherehasbeenconsultationwiththeelectricityauthorityconcerned.
Itshouldbeemphsizedthataninstallationtogetherwithitssourceofenergymaynotconsistentirelyofoneparticular
typeofsystem.Insuchcases,eachpartofthatinstallationmayberequiredtobetreatedseparatelywithoutdetrimenttoother
partsofthesameinstallation.Byandlarge,thetypesofsystemencounteredfallinoneorothercategoriesshowninFig.2to8.
19.SELECTIONOFDEVICESFORAUTOMATICDISCONNECTIONOFSUPPLY
19.1
GeneralIngeneral,everycircuitisprovidedwithameansofovercurrentprotection.Iftheearthfaultloopimpedance
islowenoughtocausethesedevicestooperatewithinthespecifiedtimes(thatis,sufficientcurrentcanflowtoearthunder
faultconditions),suchdevicesmaybereliedupontogivetherequisiteautomaticdisconnectionofsupply.Iftheearthfaultloop
impedancedoesnotpermittheovercurrentprotectivedeviecstogiveautomaticdisconnectionofthesupplyunderearthfault
conditions,thefirstoptionistoreducethatimpedance.Itmaybepermissibleforthistobeachievedbytheuseofprotective
multipleearthingorbyadditionalearthelectrodes.Therearepracticallimitationstobothapproaches.
Incaseofimpedance/arcingfaults,seriesprotectivedevicesmaybeineffectivetoclearthefaults.Analternateapproach
istobeadoptedforthecompletesafetyoftheoperatingpersonnelandequipmentfromthehazardsthatmayresultfromearth
faults.Thisistouseresidualcurrentdeviceswithappropriatesettingstoclearthefaultswithinthepermissibletime,basedon
theprobablecontactpotential.Thismethodisequallyapplicablewhereearthloopimpedancescannotbeimproved.
InTTsystems,thereisanadditionaloptionoftheuseoffaultvoltageoperatedprotectivedevices.Whilstthesedevices
willalwaysgiveprotectionagainstshockrisk,providedtheyarecorrectlyinstalled,thepresenceofparallelearthsfromthe
bondingwillreducetheeffectivenessofthefireriskprotectiontheyoffer.Theseare,therefore,moresuitedforisolated
installationsthatdonothaveinterconnectionstootherinstallations.Itshouldalsoberememberedthateverysocketoutlet
circuitthatdonothaveearthingfacilityinahouseholdorsimilarinstallationshouldbeprotectedbyaresidualcurrentdevice
havingaratedresidualoperatingcurrentnotexceeding30mA.
Onallothersystemswhereequipmentissuppliedbymeansofasocketoutletnothavingearthingfacilityorbymeansof
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aflexiblecableorcordusedoutsidetheprotectivezonecreatedbythemainequipotentialbondingoftheinstallationsuch
equipmentshouldbeprotectedbyaresidualcurrentoperateddevicehavinganoperatingcurrentof30mAorless.
19.2
UseofOvercurrentProtectiveDevicesforEarthFaultProtectionWhereovercurrentprotectivedevicesare
usedtogiveautomaticdisconnectionofsupplyincaseofearthfaultinordertogiveshockriskprotection,thebasic
requirementisthatanyvoltageoccurringbetweensimultaneouslyaccessibleconductivepartsduringafaultshouldbeofsuch
magnitudeanddurationasnottocausedanger.Thedurationwilldependonthecharacteristicoftheovercurrentdeviceand
theearthfaultcurrentwhich,inturn,dependsonthetotalearthfaultloopimpedance.Themagnitudewilldependonthe
impedanceofthatpartoftheearthfaultlooppaththatliesbetweenthesimultaneouslyaccessibleparts.
Thebasicrequirementcanbemetif:
a. acontactpotentialof65voltsiswithinthetolerablelimitsofhumanbodyfor10seconds.Henceprotectiverelayor
devicecharacteristicshouldbesuchthatthis65voltscontactpotentialshouldbeeliminatedwithin10secondsand
highervoltageswithshortertimes.
b. avoltageof250voltscanbewithstoodbyahumanbodyforabout100milliseconds,whichrequiresinstantaneous
disconnectionofsuchfaults,givingrisetopotentialriseof250voltsormoreabovethegroundpotential.
Themaximumearthfaultloopimpedancecorrespondingtospecificratingsoffuseorminiaturecircuitbreakerthatwill
meetthecriteriacanbecalculatedonthebasisofanominalvoltagetoearth(Uo)andthetimecurrentcharacteristicsofthe
deviceassumingworstcaseconditionsthatis,theslowestoperatingtimeacceptedbytherelevantstandards.Thus,ifthese
valuesarenotexceeded,compliancewiththiscodecoveringautomaticdisconnectionincaseofanearthfaultisassured.
Whereitisrequiredtoknowthemaximumearthfaultloopimpedanceacceptableinacircuitfeeding,afixedapplianceor
setofappliancesandprotectedbyanovercurrentdevice,theminimum
39
currentthatmaybenecessarytoensureoperationoftheovercurrentdevicewithinthepermissibletimeof10secondsfor
acontactpotentialof65voltsisfoundfromthecharacteristiccurveofthedeviceconcerned.ApplicationoftheOhmsLaw
thenenablesthecorrespondingearthfaultloopimpedancetobecalculatedasprovidedintheformulaein18.0.3to18.0.6.
Forcircuitssupplyingsocketoutlets,thecorrespondingearthfaultloopimpedancecanbefoundbyasimilarcalculation
forearthedequipment.Whenequipmentarenotearthedandconnectedtosocketoutletswithoutearthingfacility,
disconnectionshouldbeensuredfor30mAwithin10secondsandwithappropriatedecrementsintimeforhighercurrents.
Thismethodrequiresaknowledgeofthetotalearthloopimpedancealone(ratherthanindividualcomponents)andis,
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therefore,quickanddirectinapplication.Itssimplicitydoesexcludesomecircuitarrangementsthatcouldgivetherequired
protection.
Whilecalculationsgivethemaximumearthfaultlooporprotectiveconductorimpedancetoensureshockriskprotection
underfaultconditionsitisalsonecessarytoensurethatthecircuitprotectiveearthconductorisprotectedagainstthethermal
effectsofthefaultcurrent.Theearthfaultloopimpedanceshould,therefore,belowenoughtocausetheprotectivedeviceto
operatequicklyenoughtogivethatprotectionaswell.Thisconsiderationplacesasecondlimitonthemaximumearthloop
impedancepermissibleandcanbecheckedbysuperimposingonthetimecurrentcharacteristicoftheoverloaddevice,the
adiabaticlinehavingtheequation:
Image
NOTEValuesofkfortypicalprotectiveconductorconditionsaregivenin12.2.2.1andTables6Ato6D.
Detailsofthemaximumpermissibleearthloopimpedanceforthethermalprotectionofcablesbyfusescanalsobe
computed.However,thetimecurrentcharacteristicsofaminiaturecircuitbreakeraresuchthatiftheloopimpedanceislow
enoughtogiveautomaticdisconnectionwithinsafedisconnectingtimesoprovidingshockriskprotection,itwillalsogivethe
necessarythermalprotectiontotheearthconductorlikelytobeusedwithabreakerofthatspecificrating.Figure21showsthe
relationshipbetweentheadiabaticlineandthecharacteristicoffusesandminiaturecircuitbreaker.
Inorderthatthedeviceswillgivethermalprotectiontotheprotectiveconductor,operationhastoberestrictedtothe
areatotherightofpointAwherethesecurvescross.Thus,themaximumearthfaultloopimpedanceforthermalprotectionof
thecableisthatcorrespondingtotheminimumearthfaultcurrentforwhichthedevicegivesprotection.Thevalueofthis
currentcanbereadfromthecurveandthecorrespondingloopimpedancecanbecalculatedfrom:
Image
where
Zs
earthfaultloopimpedance,
Uo
nominalvoltagetoearth,and
Ir
earthfaultcurrent.
Foragivenapplication,themaximumpermittedearthfaultloopimpedancewouldbethelowerofthetwovalues
calculatedforshockriskprotectionorthermalrestraintrespectively.
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ItwillbenotedthattheadiabaticlinecrossesthecharacteristiccurveforaminiaturecircuitbreakeratasecondpointB.
Thisdenotesthemaximumfaultcurrentforwhichabreakerwillgivethermalprotectionbutitwillgenerallybefoundin
practicethatthisvalueishigherthantheprospectiveshortcircuitcurrentthatoccursinthecircuitinvolvedandcannot,
therefore,berealized.
FIG.21RELATIONSHIPBETWEENADIABATICLINESANDCHARACTERISTICS
FIG.21RELATIONSHIPBETWEENADIABATICLINESANDCHARACTERISTICS
40
19.3
EarthFaultProtectiveDevicesTherearetwobasicformsofsuchdevicesthatcanbeusedforindividualnon
earthed/earthed(withlimitedapplication)equipmentasfollows:
a. ResidualCurrentOperatedDevices(RCD)AnRCDincorporatestwocomponentitems.Acorebalancetransformer
assemblywithawindingforeachrecognizingtheoutofbalancecurrentthatthefaultproducesinthemainconductors.
Thisinducesacurrentthatisusedtooperatethetrippingmechanismofacontactsystem.Foroperatingcurrentsof05A
ormore,theoutputfromsuchatrausformerassemblycanoperateaconventionaltripcoildirectly.Forlowervaluesof
operatingcurrent,itisnecessarytointerposealeaydevice,eithermagneticorsolidstate.
Devicesforloadcurrentsgreaterthan100Ausuallycompriseaseparatetransformerassemblywithacircuit
breakerorcontactrelay,mountedtogetherwithinacommonenclosure.Devicesforloadcurrentsbelow100Ausually
includethetransformerandcontactsystemwithinthesamesingleunit,whichisthendescribedasaresidualcurrent
operatedcircuitbreaker(RCB).SuchanRCBshouldbeconsideredaparticulartypeofRCBalthoughitisthemostusual
form.
Awidechoiceofoperatingcurrentsisavilable(typicalvaluesarebetween10mAand20A)RCBsarenormally
nonadjustablewhilstRCDsareoftenmanufacturedsothatoneofseveraloperatingcurrentsmaybechosen.Single
phaseandmultiphasedeviceswithorwithoutintegralovercurrentfacilitiesareavailable.
Whereresidualcurrentbreakersof30mAoperatingcurrentorlessarebeingused,thereisachoicebetween
devicesthatareentirelyelectromechanicalinoperationandthosethatemployasolidstatedetector.The
electromechanicaltypesaregenerallysmallandcompactandwilloperateonthepowerbeingfedtothefaultalone
whereasthesolidstatetypewhichtendtobebulkiertorequireapowersupplytoensureoperation.Wherethispower
supplyisderivedfromthemains,itmaybenecessarytotakeaddedprecautionagainstfailuresofpartofthatmains
supply.Devicessuitablefortimegradingaremorelikelytobeofthesolidstateformasarethosehavinghigherthrough
faultcapacity.
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AtestdeviceisincorporatedtoallowtheoperationoftheRCDtobechecked.Operationofthisdevicecreatesan
outofbalanceconditionwithinthedevice.TrippingoftheRCDbymeansofthetestdeviceestablishesthefollowing:
1. theintegrityoftheelectricalandmechanicalelementsofthetrippingdeviceand
2. thatthedeviceisoperatingatapproximatelythecorrectorderofoperatingcurrent.
Itshouldbenotedthatthetestdevicedoesnotprovideameansofcheckingthecontinuityoftheearthingleador
theearthcontinuityconductor,nordoesitimposeanytestontheearthelectrodeoranyotherpartoftheearthing
circuit.
AlthoughanRCDwilloperateoncurrentsequaltoorexceedingitsoperatingcurrent,itshouldbenotedthatitwill
onlyrestrictthetimeforwhichafaultcurrentflows.Itcannotrestrictthemagnitudeofthefaultcurrentwhichdepends
solelyonthecircuitconditions.
b. FaultVoltageOperatedEarthLeakageCircuitBreakers(ELCB)Avoltageoperatedearthleakagecircuitbreaker
comprisesacontactswitchingsystemtogetherwithavoltagesensitivetripcoil.Oninstallations,thiscoilisconnected
betweenthemetalworktobeprotectedandasgoodaconnectionwithearthascanbeobtained.Anyvoltageriseabove
earthonthatmetalworkexceedingthesettingofthecoilwillcausethebreakertotripsogivingindirectshockrisk
protection.
Trippingcoilsaredesignedsothatafaultvoltageoperateddevicewilloperateona40Vrisewhentheearth
electroderesistanceis500or24Vona200electrode.Singleandmultiphaseunits,withorwithoutovercurrent
facilities,areavailableforloadcurrentsupto100A.
Atestdeviceisprovidedonavoltageoperatedunittoenabletheoperationofthecircuitbreakertobechecked,
operationofthedeviceappliesavoltagetothetripcoilsosimulatingafault.
Trippingofthecircuitbreakerbymeansofthetestdeviceshowstheintegrityoftheelectricalmechanicalelements
thattheunitisoperatingwiththecorrectorderofoperatingvoltageand,inaddition,provestheconductorfromthe
circuitbreakertotheearthelectrode.Itcannotproveotherfeaturesoftheinstallation.
Whilstthevoltageoperated(ELCB)willoperatewhensubjectedtoafaultvoltageof20Vormore,itshouldbe
notedthatitcannotrestrictthevoltageinmagnitudeonlyinduration.
41
c. CurrentOperatedEarthLeakageCircuitBreakersForindustrialapplications,earthleakagecircuitbreakersoperating
onmilliampereresidualcurrentsorworkingonfaultvoltageprincipleareoflittleuse,sincemilliamperesofearthleakage
currentforanextensiveindustrialsystemisanormaloperatingsituation.Trippingbasedonthesecurrentswillresultin
nuisanceforthenormaloperation.Milliamperesofcurrentinasystem,whereexposedconductivepartsofequipments
areeffectivelyearthedandfaultloopimpedanceiswithinreasonablevalues,willgiveriseonlytoaground
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potential/contactpotentialriseofafewmillivolts.Thiswillinnowaycontributetoshockorfirehazard.Here
objectionablefaultcurrentswillbeafeworafewtenthsofamperes.Insuchcases,residualcurrentoperateddevices
sensitivetothesecurrentsmustbemadeuseofforearthfaultcurrentandstableoperationoftheplantwithoutnuisance
tripping.Thisisachievedeitherbyseparaterelaysorinbuiltreleasesinitiatingtripsignalstothecircuitbreakers(For
details,refertoSection5).
19.4
SelectionofEarthFaultProtectiveDevicesIngeneral,residualcurrentoperateddevicesarepreferredandmay
bedividedintotwogroupsaccordingtotheirfinalcurrentoperatingcharacteristics.
a. RCDsHavingMinimumOperatingCurrentsGreaterThan30mAThesedevicesareintendedtogiveindirectshock
riskprotectiontopersonsincontactwithearthedmetal.
b. RCDsHavingMinimumOperatingCurrentof30mAandBelowThesedevicesaregenerallyreferredtoashavinghigh
sensitivityandcangivedirectshockriskprotectiontopersonswhomaycomeincontactwithliveconductorsandearth
providedthattheRCDoperatingtimesarebetterthanthosegiveninIS:84371977*.ItshouldbenotedthatsuchRCDs
canonlybeusedtosupplementanearthconductorandnotreplaceone.
InadditiontogivingprotectionagainstindirectcontactordirectcontactRCDsmayalsogivefireriskprotection,the
degreeofprotectionbeingrelatedtothesensitivityofthedevice.
AnRCDshouldbechosenhavingthelowestsuitableoperatingcurrentThelowertheoperatingcurrentthegreaterthe
degreeofprotectiongiven,itcanalsointroducepossibilitiesofnuisancetrippingandmaybecomeunnecessarilyexpensive.The
minimumoperatingcurrentwillbeaboveanystandingleakagethatmaybeunavoidableonthesystem.Afurtherconsideration
arisesifitisintendedtohaveseveraldevicesinseries.Itisnotalwayspossibletointroducetimegradingtogivediscrimination
whereasalimitedamountofcurrentdiscriminationcanbeobtainedbygradingthesensitivitiesalongthedistributionchain.
Themaximumpermittedoperatingcurrentdependsontheearthfaultloopimpedance.Theproductofthenetresidual
operatingcurrentloopimpedanceshouldnotexceed65volts.
Itisoftenacceptableoncommercialgroundstohaveseveralfinalcircuitsprotectedbythesameresidualcurrentdevices.
This,however,doesresultinseveralcircuitsbeingaffectedifafaultoccursononeofthecircuitssoprotectedandthefinancial
advantageshavetobeweighedagainsttheeffectsofloosingmorethanonecircuit.
ItshouldalsobenotedthatdifferenttypesofRCDindifferentcircuitsmayreactdifferentlytothepresenceofaneutral
toearthfaultontheloadside.Suchanearthconnectiontogetherwiththeearthingofthesupplyattheneutralpointwill
constituteashuntacrosstheneutralwindingontheRCDtransformer.Consequently,aportionoftheneutralloadcurrentwill
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beshuntedawayfromthetransformeranditmayresultinthedevicetripping.Ontheotherhand,suchashuntmayreducethe
sensitivityofthedeviceandpreventitstrippingevenunderlinetoearthfaultconditions.Ingeneral,therefore,careshouldbe
takentoavoidaneutraltoearthfaultwhereRCDsareinuse,althoughtherearesomedesignsbeingdevelopedthatwilldetect
andoperateundersuchconditions.OninstallationswithseveralRCDs,careshouldbetakentoensurethatneutralcurrentsare
returnedviathesamedevicethatcarriesthecorrespondingphasecurrentandnoother.Failuretoobservethispointcould
resultindevicestrippingevenintheabsenceofafaultonthecircuittheyareprotecting.
WhenusingfaultvoltageoperatedELCBs,themetalworktobeprotectedshouldbeisolatedfromearthsothatanyfault
currentpassesthroughthetrippingcoilgivesbothshockandfireriskprotection.However,thisisolationisnotalways
practicableandthepresenceofasecondparallelpathtoearthwillreducetheamountoffireriskprotectionoffered.Because
thecoilisvoltagesensitive,thepresenceofsuchaparallelpathwillnotreducetheshockriskprotectionofferedprovidedthat
thissecondpathgoestoearthwellclearofthepointatwhichtheearthleakagecircuitbreakertripcoilisearthed.Itisrequired
thattheearthingconductorisinsulatedtoavoidcontactwithotherprotectiveconductorsoranyexposedconductivepartsor
extraneousconductivepartsso
*Guideoneffectsofcurrentpassingthroughthehumanbody.
42
astopreventthevoltagesensitivityelementfrombeingshunted,alsothemetalworkbeingprotectedshouldbeisolated
fromthatassociatedwithothercircuitsinordertopreventimportedfaults.
VoltageoperatedELCBsaresuitableforprotectionofisolatedinstallationsonaTTsystemsuchasoccurinruralareas.
Table9showsthemaximumearthelectrodeimpedancewithswitchdifferenttypesofbreakermaybeused.
TABLE9MAXIMUMEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCEFORDIFFERENTTYPESOFCIRCUITBREAKER
TYPEOFBREAKER
RCD
VoltageOperatedELCB
OPERATINGCURRENT
MAXIMUMEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE()
300mA
166
30mA
1666
500
SECTION4POWERSTATIONS,SUBSTATIONSANDOVERHEADLINES
20.EARTHINGINPOWERSTATIONSANDSUBSTATIONS
20.1
GeneralIngeneral,earthinginstallationswillberequiredatpowerstationsandsubstationsfor:
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a. Theneutralpointsofeachseparateelectricitysystemwhichhastobeearthedatthepowerstationorsubstation
b. Apparatusfremeworkorcladdingorothernoncurrentcarryingmetalworkassociatedwitheachsystem,forexample,
transformertanks,powercablesheaths
c. Extraneousmetalworknotassociatedwiththepowersystems,forexampleboundaryfences,sheathsofcontrolor
communicationcables.
Forsafety,theobjectiveofearthbondingistoensurethat,innormalorabnormalconditions,anyvoltageappearingon
equipmenttowhichthereisaccessshouldbebelowadangerouslevel.Itisnotpracticabletoensurethatmetalpartsare
earthedandremainneartrueearthpotentialduringthepassageofearthfaultcurrents,particularlyonhighvoltagesystems
withdirectlyearthedneutrals.Theobjectiveshould,therefore,betoprovideeffectivebondingoflowimpedanceandadequate
currentcarryingcapacitybetweenpartswithwhichanyonemaybeinsimultaneouscontact,andtoarrange,asfaraspossible,
thatlargefaultcurrentsdonotflowbetweensuchpoints.
Tominimizeriskofdamagetocertainauxiliaryplant,theriseofpotentialofastationearthinginstallationabovethe
potentialoftrueorremoteearthshouldbeaslowaspracticable,sincethispotentialwillbeappliedacrossprotectiveinsulation
ofanyplantwithconnectionstoearthexternaltothesubstation,forexample,plantwithconnectionstopilotortelephone
cablesorcablesheaths.Forsimilarreasons,thepotentialdifferencebetweenearthedpointsinthestationshouldalsobekeptto
aminimum.Wheresurgeprotectionisprovided,theconnectionoftheprotectivedevicestoearthshouldbeasdirectas
possible.Thedischargeofhighcurrentswithhighfrequencycomponentsrequiresearthconnectionsoflowresistanceand
reactance,thatis,shortconnectionswithasfewchangesofdirectionaspossible.
Wheretheneutralpointsoftwoelectricallyseparateelectricitysystemsareconnectedtoacommonearthelectrode
systematasite,thereisacouplingofthesystemsintheeventofanearthfaultoccurringoneithersystembyvirtueoftherise
ofearthpotentialduetothepassageofthefaultcurrentthroughtheearthelectrodesystem.Similarly,ifnoncurrentcarrying
metalworkisbondedtothesameearthelectrodeastheneutralpointofthesupplythemetalworkwillexperiencethesamerise
ofearthpotential.Ifcompleteseparationofelectricalsystemswererequired,itwouldbeessentialthattheneutralpointsof
eachsystemanditsassociatedmetalworkbeseparatelyearthed.Ifsuchamethodwereadopted,eachearthingsystemwould
requireinsulationfromotherearthingsystemstowithstandthemaximumriseofearthpotentialoccurringinanysystemby
virtueoflightningcurrentsorpowersystemfaultcurrents.Insulationtothislevelisrarelypracticable.
Thechoiceofusingacommonearthorseparateearthsforthesystemofdifferentvoltagesatatransformingpointaffect:
a. theprobabilityofbreakdownoccurringinatransformerbetweenthehigherandlowervoltagesidesduetolightingor
othersurgesand
b. thesafetyofconsumersortheirpropertysuppliedbyanylowvoltagesystemdistributedfromthestationagainstariseof
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potentialoftheearthedneutralbyahighvoltagesystemearthfaultatthestation.
Theformerriskisreducedbyuseofacommonearthsystem,andthelatterdangeronlyarisesiftheresistanceofthe
earthelectrodesystemisnotsufficientlylowtolimittheriseofearthpotentialtoasafevalue.Thereisadvantageinusinga
commonearthwheretheearthelectroderesistance,includingtheparallelresistanceofanybondedmetalwork,etc,toearthis1
orless,asisusualatpowerstations,largeoutdoorsubstationsorsubstationssupplyinganetworkofcableswhosesheaths
havealowimpedancetoearth.
Thesubstationearthsystemriseofpotentialwillnotbeexcessiveiftheresistanceoftheearthelectrodesystemissmall
comparedtothetotalearthfaultcircuitimpedance.Systemsofhigher
43
yoltage(66kVandabove)generallyhavetheneutraldirectlyearthed,sincetheincreaseincostsofinsulationthatwould
berequiredforthetransformerwindingwouldbeconsiderable.
Inruralsituations,whereoverheadlinesareused,itmay,incertaincircumstances,beinadvisabletouseacommonearth
(see20.2).
Therequirementsare,therefore,bestconsideredseparatelyforsubstations:
a. wherelowvoltageisconfinedtoauxiliarysupplieswithinthesubstation
b. substationsthatprovideanexternallowvoltagesupplyand
c. powerstations.
Theuseofneutralearthingswitchgearinpublicsupplysystemsisavoided,wherepossible,sinceadirectearthissimple,
reliableandcheaperthanaswitchedearth.Thecircumstancesinwhichneutralearthingswitchgearmaybenecessaryareso
broadthatitisnotpracticabletoformgeneralrulesontypeandapplication.
20.2
GeneralEarthingArrangementAtypicalearthingarrangementforanoutdoorswitchyardisshowninFig.22.A
typicalearthingarrangementforconnectingthereinforcementoffoundationsofsubstationbuildingandswitchyardRCCmasts
isshowninFig.23.
FIG.22ATYPICALEARTHINGGRIDFORANOUTDOORSUBSTATION(66kVANDABOVE)
FIG.22ATYPICALEARTHINGGRIDFORANOUTDOORSUBSTATION(66kVANDABOVE)
44
FIG.23EARTHINGOFFOUNDATIONREINFORCEMENT(CONCRETEENCASEDEARTHINGELECTRODE)
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FIG.23EARTHINGOFFOUNDATIONREINFORCEMENT(CONCRETEENCASEDEARTHINGELECTRODE)
Theperimeterfencemayneedtobeearthedseparatelyfromthemainstationearthelectrodesystem(see20.6.1).
Thetertiarywindingofapowertransformershouldbeconnectedtothetransformertankbyaconnectionofsufficient
crosssectionalareatocarrytheprimaryshortcircuitcurrent.
Inthecaseofpolemountedtransformersonoverheadlinesystems,difficultiesmayariseinareasofhighsoilresistivity.
Here,ifthepolecarriesalsoisolatingswitchgearwithlowleveloperatinghandle,uptothreeseparatelyearthedelectrode
systemsmayberequired.Thatfortheneutralofthelowvoltagesystemisusuallyprovidednotnearerthanonepolespanaway
onthelowvoltageline.Thatforthehighvoltagemetalwork(transformertank,switchframework,supportmetalwork),
consistsofoneearthelectrodeatornearthepole.Resistancesof5to50aresometimestheminimumeconomicallypossible.
Inaudition,anearthmatshouldbeprovided,nearthegroundsurface,inthepositiontakenupbyapersonoperatingtheswitch
handlethismatshouldbeconnectedtotheswitchhandle.Thematshouldbeelectricallyseparatedfromthemainelectrode
thisisconsideredtobeachievedbyspacingthenearestelementofthatelectrodeatleast1mfromtheperipheryofthemat
andbyplacingthetwoearthingwiresonoppositesidesofthepole.Thetopsofthemainelectrodesshouldbeatleast225mm
andpreferably750mmbelowtheground,andtheearthingwiretothemainelectrodeofoutdoortyperubberorplastics
insulatedcableuptoapoint2mabovegroundlevel.Thiscable,betweenthebottomofthepoleandtheelectrodeshouldbelaid
ina50mmdiameterearthenwareductfilledsolidwithbitumen.
20.3GeneralEarthingArrangementsatPowerStationsofPublicElectricitySupplies
45
20.3.1
NeutralEarthingofGeneratorCircuitsAtmodernlargepowerstationsforpublicelectricitysupplythegeneration
circuitsgenerallycompriseastarconnectedstatorcircuitwithanoperatingvoltageuptoabout26kV,directlyconnectedtoa
stepupdelta/startransformer,thehighervoltagewindinggenerallyoperatingat132Vk,275kVor400kV,withthe
transmissionsystemneutralpointdirectlyearthed.
Thefollowingthreemethodshavebeenusedforearthingtheneutralofthegeneratorwindings:
a. Earthingthroughtheprimarywindingofamatchingtransformer,withresistorconnectedacrossthesecondarywinding
b. earthingthrougharesistorand
c. earthingthroughtheprimarywindingofavoltagetransformer.
Method(a)iscurrentpractice,thedesignbeingsuchthatthemaximumsubstainedearthfaultcurrentinthegenerator
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circuitisrestrictedto10to15A,thuslimitingthedamageatthepointoffault.Theneutralandearthingconnections,however,
areofadequatecapacitytowithstandfor3stheearthfaultcurrentthatwouldflowintheeventofthematchingtransformer
terminalsflashingoverduringanearthfault.Theresistorusedforthearrangementisofthemetallicgridnoninductivetype.
Method(b)canbeusedtoachievethesamedegreeoffaultcurrentlimitation,bydesignofasuitablehighcurrent
resistor,butisnotpreferredonthegroundsofcostanditslessrobustconstructionthanthatoftheequipmentusedinmethod
(a).Itwasearlierpractice,however,toindividuallyeartheachgeneratoratpowerstationsbyliquidearthingresistorsdesigned
tolimittheearthfaultcurrenttoabout300A.
Method(c)isnowhistoric,buthadtheadvantagethatminimaldamageresultedatanearthfault.Ifdesired,the
generatorcouldremainincircuitwhileoperationalarrangementsweremadetopermititswithdrawal.However,thisimposeda
highervoltagestressonthestatorwindingsandplantontheunfaultedphases,andthemachinedesignusuallyimposed
limitationsonthis.Theoutputfromthesecondarywindingofthevoltagetransformercouldbearrangedtoactivateanalarmor
tripthegeneratorcircuitasdesired.Indesigningtheneutralandearthingconnectionstothevoltagetransformer,theearth
faultcurrentusedwasthatresultingbyflashoverofthevoltagetransformerduringanearthfault.
Someoldpowerstationshavegeneratorsconnecteddirectlytodistributionsystembusbarsingeneral,theneutral
terminalsofsuchgeneratorshavebeenearthedvialiquidneutralearthingresistorsofsuchavaluethatthemaximumsustained
earthfaultcurrentisoftheorderoffullloadcurrentofthegenerator.Installationsofneutralpointswitchboardswith
switchingofneutralpointsandearthingresistorshavebeenabandonedinfavourofindividualunswitchedearthingresistors.
20.3.2
EarthingofPowerStationAuxiliarySystemsThereare,incommonuse,threemethodsofearthingtheneutralpointin
powerstationauxiliarysystems:
a. Solidearthing
b. earthingthroughavoltagetransformer(orvoltagerelay)withasurgediverter(butnotafuse)shuntingtheprimary
winding(ortherelay)
c. Resistanceearthing.
Methods(a)and(c)involvetheautomaticdisconnectionoftheindividualfaultcircuit.
Withmethod(b),analarmcanbearrangedtobeoperatedfromthesecondaryofthevoltagetransformerandthescheme
enablesallauxiliariestobekeptinserviceuntilitisconvenienttomaketheauxiliaryswitchboarddead.
Method(a)isnormallyusedinpowerstationswithsmallergeneratingsetsandmethod(c)usedinthelargerpower
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stations.Method(b)hascertaindisadvantages,suchasthecomplicationinarrangingforspeedyidentificationoftheindividual
faultycircuitandthepossibledifficultiesarisingfromfunctioningofthesurgediverter.
20.4
EquipmentEarthingatPowerStationsPracticeinequipmentearthingatpowerstationsisidenticaltothatfor
largesubstationsnotgivingexternallowvoltagesupplies(see20.2).Acommonearthisusedfortheneutralearthingof
generatorsandpowerstationauxiliaries,andforallequipmentframework,cladding,powercablessheathsandextraneous
metalworknotassociatedwiththepowersystems,otherthantheperimeterfence(see20.6.1.).
20.5PowerStationandSubstationEarthElectrodes
20.5.1
GeneralTherequiredcharacteristicsofearthelectrodesystemare:
a. asuitablylowresistance,underallvariationsduetoclimaticconditions,forthefaultcurrentsenvisaged
b. currentcarryingcapabilityforallcurrentsanddurationsthatmayariseinnormaloperatingconditionsorduringfaultor
surgedischargeconditions,withoutundueincreaseinresistance
c. suitablelocationinthevicinityofanylightingdischargedevicessuchthatearthconnectionconductorsfromsuchdevices
areasshortandstraightaspossibletominimizesurgeimpedanceand
d. earthelectrodeinstallationsshouldbedurableandofsuchmaterialanddesigntoavoidcorrosions.
46
Forhighvoltagesystemearthing,thevalueoftheresistanceoftheearthelectrodesystem,withanyadventitiousearths
duetothebondingofmetalwork,etc,incontactwithearth,shouldbesuchthattheriseinpotentialoftheelectrodesystem
abovethepotentialofremoteearthisaslowaseconomicallypossible.Intheabsenceofanyspecificrestriction,attemptshould
bemadetorestricttheriseofpotentialwithinsafevalue.Atsomesites,theriseinearthpotentialwillinevitablyexceedthese
values,andspecialprecautionsarenecessary.
Wherethesoilofasiteishostilebyvirtueofalkalinityoracidityitmaybenecessarytoembedearthelectrodesin
rammedneutralsoiltoavoidcorrosion.
Earthelectrodesystemscanalsorepresentsomehazardtoadjacentundergroundservicesorstructuralsteelworkthrough
electrolyticactionbetweendissimilarmetals(see23).Wherethisdangercannotbeavoidedbyselectionofcompatiblemetals,
theadoptionofcathodicprotectionorotherremedicalactionmaybenecessary.
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Atpowerstationsandsubstationsthesteelinforcementinfoundationsandpilescanbeusedtoprovideaneffective
electrodesystem,withoutnecessitytoprovidefurtherburiedelectrodes.Wherepilesareusedtheyshouldbebondedbywelding
andconnectedtoearthbondingbarsatleastfourpoints.
Wherenosubstantialadventitiousearthsexistorwheretheyareinadequate,itisnecessarytoinstallelectrodes(see9.1,
9.2and12.1.1).
Allcladdingorsteelworkatastationshouldbebondedtotheearthingsystemasshouldallstructuralsteelwork,but
attentionisdrawntoprecautionsagainstunduerelianceonthelatterasanelectrode.
20.5.2
ChoiceandDesignWhereelectrodesoflargesurfaceareaarenecessarytoprovidetherequisitecurrentcarrying
capacity,earthplatesarerecommended.Thesearegenerallyofcastiron,notlessthan125mmthick,andareusually122mby
122m.Asanalternativetoplates,castironpipesmaybeinstalled.Theseare,forexample,about100mmindiameterand3m
long,butarenotgenerallyascosteffectiveasplatesforequivalentsurfacearea.
Forlowercurrentratingrequirements,drivenrodsarepreferred,usually,ofthecoppercladsteeltype.Theyaregenerally
driveningroups,preferablywithaspacingofnotlessthantheirlength,althoughthisisnotalwaysachievable.Closerspacing
reducestheireffectiveness.Theuseofdrivenrodsisadvantageouswherethedeeperstratasofasitehavealowerresistivitythan
theupperstratasbuttheymaynotbesuitableifthesiteisstonyorhasarocksubstrata.
Atlargesubstationcompounds,itisusualtolayameshofundergroundearthstripstowhichsystemneutralterminals
andtheearthbondingconductorsfromabovegroundstructuresareconnected.Inadditiontoprovidinganapproximately
equipotentialsurfaceoverthesubstation,theearthstripmeshfrequentlysufficestoprovideanelectrodeofsuitableresistance
andcurrentcarryingcapacitywithoutaugmentation.
20.6EarthingConductorsforPowerStationsandSubstations
20.6.1
DispositionItisnecessarytoprovidepermanentandsubstantialconnectionsbetweenallequipmentandtheearth
electrodessoastoaffordalowresistancepathforfaultcurrentsbothtoearthandbetweenitemsofequipment.Inaddition,all
othermetalplantinoraboutthestationshouldbeconnectedtothemainstationearthingsystem.Themostefficient
dispositionofearthingconductorsrequiredwilldependonthelayoutofequipmentandthefollowingmaybetakenasaguide:
a. IndoorEquipmentAmainearthbarshouldbeprovidedandconnectedtotheframeworkofeachitemandtotheearth
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electrodes.Exceptforthesmallestinstallations,thereshouldbeaconnectiontotheearthelectrodesateachendofthe
earthbaror,ifthisisintheformofaring,atseveralpointsonthering.TheseConnectionsmay,dependingonthelayout
beburiedcablesofasizeadequatefortheshortcircuitcurrent.Wherethestructureofaswitchboardisextensiveor
occupiesmorethanonefloor,afurtherparallelmainearthbarmayberequiredwhichshouldbecrossconnectedtoits
companionbaratonepointatleastineachsectionoftheswitchboard.
Themainearthbarshouldbesoplacedthatcablesheathscanbereadilyconnectedtoit.Whencablesareso
connected,thebondsshouldbemadetothecableglandonwhichtheleadsheathshouldbeplumbedandthearmouring
clamped.Themainearthbarshouldbeaccessiblefortheconnectionofanydetachableearthingdevicesprovidedwith
theswitchgear.
Branchconnectionsfromthemainearthbarshouldbeprovidedtoallaccessoryequipment,suchascontroland
relaypanels,constructionalsteelworkandfireextinguishingequipment.
Wherebusbarprotectioniseffectedatswitchboardsbyframeleakage,twomainearthbarsarerequired.Theframe
barinterconnectingtheframeworkoftheswitchunitswillbeconnectedtothetrueearthbarthroughacurrent
transformerandboltedlinksfortestpurposes.Thetrueearthbarshouldberunseparatelyfromtheframeearthbarin
convenientpositionforthe
47
connectionofcablesheathsandearthingdevices.Whereitismountedontheswitchunits,itshouldbeinsulated
therefrombyinsulationcapableofwithstandingatestvoltageof4kVrmsalternatingcurrentfor1minutes.
Whereinsulatedcableglandsareused,itisrecommendedthatislandinsulationshouldbeprovidedtofacilitate
testing.
b. OutdoorEquipment(ExcludingPoleMountedTransformers)Amainearthbarshouldbeprovided,sodisposedasto
allowoftheshortestsubsidiaryconnectionstoallmajorequipment,suchastransformersorcircuitbreakers.Wherever
possible,thisshouldbearrangedtoformaringroundthestation.Themainearthbar(orring)shouldbeconnected
whererequiredtoearthelectrodes.Forlargerstations,theringshouldbereinforcedbyoneormorecrossconnections.
Fromthemainearthbar,branchconnectionsshouldbetakentoeachitemofapparatusandwhereseveralsuch
itemslietogether,asubsidiaryringwithshortbranchesispreferabletoanumberoflongerindividualbranchesfromthe
mainbar.Theaimshouldbetoprovideameshsystemwhereverthiscanbecontrivedwithreasonableeconomy.
Theoperatingmechanismsforoutdoorairbreakswitchdisconnectorsandearthswitchesandcircuitbreaker
controlkiosks,etc,notintegralwiththecircuitbreakershouldbeconnectedtothemainearthgridbyabranchearth
connectionentirelyseparatefromthatemployedforearthingtheairbreakswitchdisconnectororearthswitchbase,or
thecircuitbreakerstructure.Thefurthercontributiontosafetygivenbyaninsulatedinsertinthemechanismdriveis
smallcomparedwiththatobtainedfromsuchabranchearthconnectionand,therefore,insulatedinsertsarenot
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recommendedinoperatingmechanismsofapparatusinstalledinsubstations.Whilesitescoveredwithhardcoreand
stonechippingswillconstituteasurfacelayerwitharelativelyhighspecificresistance,intheinterestsofsafety,ametal
gridcanbeprovidedattheoperatingpointstogivealevelstandingareaandanearthconnectionmadefromthisgridto
theoperatinghandle.
Whereitcanbeprovedthatthecurrentcarryingcapacityofamainaluminiumorsteelmemberorweldedsections
formingastructureareatleastequaltothatoftherequiredaluminiumorcopperearthconductor,thestructuremay
formpartoftheconnectionandthereisnoneedtofixanearthconductoralongthissection.Astructuremadeupof
boltedsectionsshouldnotbereliedupontoformanefficientearthbondbetweenequipmentandthemainearthgrid,
andloopsbondingacrossstructuraljointsarerequired.
Connectionstometalcladding,steelstructureandmetaldoorframesandwindowsoranyothermetallicpanels
shouldbemadeinsidebuildings.
Wheretheearthwireofanincominglineendsattheterminalsupportsandisnotconnectedtoapointonthe
substationstructures,asubsidiaryearthconnectionshouldbeprovidedbetweenthesubstationearthsystemandthebase
ofthesupport.Ifthelatterliesoutsidethesubstationfence,theearthconnectionshouldbeburiedwhereitpassesunder
thefenceandshouldbekeptwellclearofthelatter.
Earthconnectionstosurgedivertersshouldbeofsamplecrosssectionandasdirectaspossibletheyshouldnot
passthroughironpipeswhichwouldincreasetheimpedancetosurgesoftheconnection.Theearthconnectionsofthe
divertersshouldbeinterconnectedwiththemainearthingsystemsince,fortheeffectiveprotectionofthesubstation
equipment,adefiniteconnectionoflowimpedancebetweentheequipmentandthedivertersisessential.
20.6.2Design
20.6.2.0
GeneralThetermearthinggridappliesonlytothatpartofthegridwhichisburiedinsoil.Fordesigncalculationsofthe
gridresistancetothesoil,onlytheburiedpartofthegridistobetakenintoaccount.Thatpartofthegridwhichliesembedded
inconcreteandalsoreinforcementconnectedtothegroundingpadsdolowerthecombinedgridresistancebutthis
contributionmaynotbetakenintoaccountwhiledesigningtheearthinggrid.
20.6.2.1
ConductorsinstalledabovegroundEarthingconductorsforpowerstationsandsubstationswillnormallybeselected
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fromcopperoraluminiumorsteelsectionsadequatelyratedinsizetocarrythedesignedearthfaultorthreephasefaultcurrent
fortheappropriatedesignedmaximumdurationwithoutexceedingatemperaturegiveninTable6A.Compliancewiththis
requirementwilladditionallyensuresatisfactorybondingwithoutexcessivevoltagedifferencealonganyconductor.
Therequiredcrosssectionalareaoftheearthingconductorisdeterminedbythechoiceofconductormaterialandthe
maximumdurationofthefaultcurrent.Thegenerallyaccepteddurationfordesignpurposesareonesecondforvoltagesabove
33kVand3secondsforlowervoltages.
48
20.6.2.2
ConductorsburiedasstripelectrodesTheearthinggridconsistsoftheverticalpipeelectrodesorplateelectrodes
interconnectedbyhorizontalconductorswhichserveasastripelectrode(9.2.3)inadditiontoformingaearthinggrid.Itis
recommendedthatthedurationofearthfaultcurrentshouldbetakenasonesecondfor230and400kVsubstations,and3
secondswhiledesigningearthgridsforallothervoltagelevels.
Itisrecommendedthatthedurationofearthfaultcurrentshouldbetakenasonesecondfor66kVandabovevoltage
levelsubstationsand3secondswhiledesigningearthgridsforallothervoltagelevelsbelow66kV.
Theotherfactorswhichshallbetakenastheconsiderationwhiledesigningtheearthgridaregivenbelow:
a. Factorofsafetyfortheabilityoftheearthconductortocarrythefaultcurrentduringtheperiodthefaultpersists,
withoutanythermalandmechanicaldamagetotheconductor
b. Therelativeimportanceoftheinstallationforwhichtheearthingsystemisbeingdesigned
c. Thelikelyincreaseinthenearfutureinthefaultlevelintheareawheretheearthconductorhasbeeninstalled
d. Operatingtimeoftheprotectivedevices
e. Corrosionoftheearthconductor
f. Factorofsafetyforworkmanshipinjointing,etcand
g. Maximumpermissibletemperatureraisefortheburiedpartofthegrid,whichmaybetakenas450Cforcopperandsteel
conductors.
20.6.2.3Sizing
a. Thecrosssectionoftheareaofthegridconductorshallnotbelessthanthevaluestipulatedin12.2.2.1wherethevalue
ofkistobetakenas80forsteel.Thisisbasedonareasonableassumptionthat1and3secondsdurationcouldnotbe
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adequatetobakeoutthegroundmoisturearoundtheelectrodeespeciallyasonlyapartofthecurrentwouldbeflowing
acrosselectrodesoilinterface,Forcorrosionallowance,see8.6.1.
b. KtisacoefficientwhichtakesintoaccounttheeffectofnumbernspacingD,diameterdanddepthofburialhofthegrid
conductors.
Image
c. KsisacoefficientwhichissimilartoKtdependentonthemeshwidthandthenumberofparallelconductorsgivenbythe
emphiricalrelationship.
Image
d. Ktisanirregularityfactortoallowfornonuniformityofground,dependentonthenumberofparallelconductorsinthe
groundusedinthemesh.
Kt=065+0172n
wheren=numberofparallelconductors.
e. Meshpotential:Meshpotentialisthepotentialdifferenceinvoltsfromgridconductortogroundsurfaceatcentreof
meshgrid.
Image
where
I
faultcurrentinamperes,and
Lengthofburiedconductor.
f. Thedurationoffaultforcalculationofstep,touchandmeshpotentialshallbetheactualbreakerfaultclearingtime.
20.6.3Construction
20.6.3.1
GeneralItisessentialforthesafetyofpersonnelandplantthatanearthsystemshouldremaineffectivethroughoutthe
liteoftheplant.Itisdifficultinmanycasestomakeacheckofcontinuityafterinstallation.Thesystem,therefore,hastobe
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robustandprotectedfrommechanicaldamageandcorrosion,wherenecessary.Anyjointsshouldbecapableofretaininglow
resistanceaftermanypassagesoffaultcurrent.
20.6.3.2
LavingconductorsBuriedbarecopperorsteelconductorsformingpartoftheearthingsystemshouldbeatabout600
mmdeepwhich,inadditiontogivingprotectiontotheconductorandconnections,shouldensurethatitwillnormallybebelow
frostline.Aluminimumshouldonlybeusedforabovegroundconnections.
NOTEIftheindigeneoussoilishostiletocopper,thatis,acidicwithapHvalueoflessthan6oralkaline
withapHvalueofmorethan10,suitablesurroundingsoilshouldbeimported.
Whereanadequateearthinginstallationisprovided,thesubsidiaryconnectionsfromthemainearthgridtoequipment
maybelaidatadepthandbyroutesmostappropriatetositeconnections.Forconvenienceinconnectingtoequipment,they
maybelaidatadepthofabout250mm,and
49
astheyare,therefore,ingroundmoresubjecttoseasonalorprogressivechangesofresistivity,itmaybeassumedthat
theymakenegligiblecontributiontowardsreducingstationearthresistance.Ontheotherhand,theydoservetoreducesurface
gradientwithinthestationsite.Converselywheretheseconnectionarealsorequiredtoimprovetheearthvalueofthestation,
the600mmdepthisrequired.Theaboverecommendationsdealmainlywithstationsonnormalsites.Whereground
conditionsrestricttheinstallationdepthorwherethesoilresistivityisexcessive,additionalmeasuresmayberequiredbeyond
thestationboundarytoimprovetheoverallearthvalue.
Theearthinginstallationwithinthestationwill,however,bondthestationplantandrestricttouchpotentialsto
acceptablelimits.
Wherebaremetalconductorisburiedundermetalfencing,andthefencingisindependentlyearthed,theconductor
shouldbeinsulatedbythreadingthroughnonmetallicpipeextendingforatleast2meachsideofthefenceoralternatively
insulatedconductormaybeused.
Whenlayingstrandedconductorforearthingpurposes,careshouldbetakentoavoidbirdcagingofthestrands.
20.6.3.3
FixingconductorsInfixingaluminiumorcopperconductorstostructures,etc,insulatedclipsshouldbeusedtoavoid
drillingandpreventelectrolyticaction.Galvanizedclipsshouldnotbeused.Fixingshouldbespacednotmorethan1mapart.
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Earthconductorsintrenchescontainingpowerand/ormulticorecablesshouldbefixedtothewallsnearthetop(for
example,100mmfromthetop).
Copperearthstripsupportedfromorincontactwithgalvanizedsteelshouldbetinnedtopreventelectrolyticaction.
Sharpbendsrequiredinaluminiumstripshouldbeformedbytheuseofabendingmachine.
Aluminiumearthingconductorswillgivesatisfactoryperformanceincontactwithconcrete,cement,plasterand
brickwork,andmaybeburiedinconcreteorplaster,provideditremainsdryaftersetting.Inoutdoorinstallations,the
conductorwillweathertoagreyappearanceandinmarineorindustrialatmospheresslightsurfacepittingmayoccur.Thiswill
notaffectperformancesincethesectionsarerelativelylarge.Theinterfacesofallmechanicaljointsshouldbeprotectedwitha
suitableelectricaljointcompound,particularlyanybimetallicjoints.Allbimetallicjointsshouldthenbeencapsulatedinagrease
impregnatedtape,masticcompoundorbitumasticpaint,etc,toexcludemoisture.
Ingeneral,aluminiumshouldonlybeusedabovegroundandtheconnectionstoearthelectrodesmadeaboveground
withbimetallicjoints.Aluminiumcanbeusedbelowgroundonlyifefficientlyprotectedorsheathedagainstcontactwithsoil
andmoisture.
20.6.3.4Jointingconductors
a. GeneralAllcrossingsofconductorsinthemainearthgridshouldbejointed.Compressiontypejointsmaybeusedfor
strandedconductors.Nonconductorstripshouldbedrilledforabolthavingadiametergreaterthanonethirdofthe
widthofthestrip.Ifthisdiameterwillbeexceeded,thanawiderflagshouldbejointedtothestrip.
b. AluminiumtoaluminiumWhenpossible,jointsonstripconductorshouldbearcweldedusingeitherthetungsteninert
gasarc(TIC)ormetalinertgasarc(MIG)techniques.Oxyacetylenegasweldingorbrazingmayalsobeused.
Rangesofcompressionfittingsandtoolsareavailableforroundconductors.Roundconductorscanalsobe
flattenedandpunchedwithsuitabletoolstoformaterminal.
Roundandrectangularconductorscanbejoinedwithboltedclamps.
Rectangularconductorscanbejoinedorterminatedbydrillingandbolting.Whenmakingaboltedtypejoint,the
surfaceofthealuminiumshouldbecleanedthoroughlybywirebrushingandgreasedoranapprovedjointingcompound
appliedimmediatelytobothmatingsurfaces.Boltsshouldthenbetightenedandallexcessgreaseorcompoundwipedoff
anddiscarded.
Toensureadequatecontactpressureandavoidoverstressing,torquespannersshouldbeused.Theconductor
manufacturersliteratureshouldbeconsultedforfurtherdetailsforthejointsandprocedures.
Coldpressureweldingandexplosivebondingcanbeusedforjointingrectangularconductors.Theappropriate
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manufacturershouldbeconsultedfordetailsoftheseprocedures.
c. AluminiumtocopperJointsbetweenaluminiumandcoppershouldbeoftheboltedtypeandbeinstalledinthevertical
planeataminimumdistanceof150mmabovegroundlevel.
Theratingsurfaceofthealuminiumshouldbecleanedthoroughlybywirebrushingandgreasedoranapproved
jointingcompoundappliedandthecoppertinned.Greaseoranapprovedjointingcompoundshouldbeappliedtothe
meltingsurfaceof
50
thealuminium.Afterbolttighteningbytorquespanner,excessgreaseorcompoundshouldbewipedoffand
discarded,andthejointprotectedfromtheingreaseofmoisturebytheapplicationofsuitableplasticscompoundor
irradiatedpolyethylenesleevewithmasticlining.Alternatively,thejointmaybeprotectedbyabitumasticpaint.
Aluminiumconductorconnectionstoequipmentshould,wherepossible,beintheverticalplane.Surface
preparationofthealuminiumandthemakingofthejointshouldbeaspreviouslydescribed.Thefinishedjointshouldbe
protectedbyabitumasticpaint.
d. CoppertocopperThefollowingmethodsmaybeused:
1. Brazingusingzincfreebrazingmaterialwithameltingpointofatleast600C
2. Bolting
3. Rivetingandsweatingand
4. Explosivewelding.
Earthingconductorconnectionstoequipmentshould,asfaraspracticable,bemadeontoverticalsurfacesonly.In
thecaseofpaintedmetal,thepaintshouldbecarefullyremoved.Earthingconductorsshouldbetinnedwhereconnected
togalvanizedsteelwork.Noconnectionpointshouldbelessthan150mmabovegroundlevel.Inanyposition,subjectto
corrosion,thefinishedjointshouldbeprotectedbybitumasticpaint.
e. LoopsforportableearthsLoopsofplainaluminiumorcoppershouldbeprovidedontheearthconductorateach
locationwhereportableearthingleadsmaybeapplied.Theloopsshouldnotbelessthan180mmlongand75mmclear
oftheearthconductortheyshouldbeataconvenientheightandshouldbeformedseparately,notbybendingtheearth
stripitself.Loopsshouldbejointedtotheearthconductorusingamethodgivenin20.6.8.4(d).
f. SteelForsteel,itisrecommendedtouseonlyweldedjoints.
20.7EarthingofHighVoltageCableSheaths
20.7.1
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ThreeCoreCablesModernhighvoltagepowercablesaregenerallyprovidedwithapolymericinsulatingoversheaths.
Thesheathofsolidtypecablesaregenerallydirectlyearthedattheirterminationsandjoints,thecablesheathsbeingbondedat
joints.Thesheathearthconnectionsofpressuretypecablesaregenerallymadeviaaremovablelinkinalockableboxtopermit
periodictestingoftheoversheathinsulation,thejointsbeinginsulated,butthesheathsbondedthrough.Thetestrequirement
alsomeansthatinsulatingglandsshouldbeprovidedatthecableterminationboxesoftransformers,switchgear,etcandat
cablesealingendsorjoints.
20.7.2
SingleCoreCableTailsThesheathsofsinglecorecableshavealongitudinalinducedvoltage,themagnitudeofwhichis
directlyproportionaltothecurrentflowinginthecore.Whenbothendsofasinglecorecablearebondedtoearth,acurrent
flowsinthesheathandthethermaleffectsofthissheathcurrentderatesthecapacityofthecablecore.Wherethisderatingis
unacceptableandthevalueofthestandinginducedvoltageisacceptable,itisusualtoearththesheathsofthesinglecorecables
atthetrifurcatingboxorinthecaseofsinglecoremains,theendofthetrefoilformation,thecableglandsatsealingendsor
plantcableboxesbeingoftheinsulatedtype.Theacceptablelevelofthemaximumsheathvoltageisgenerallytakenas65Vwith
fullratedcurrentflowinginthecable,butwheretheratiooffaultcurrenttofullratedcurrentissohighthatthevoltage
developedacrossaninsulatedglandisunacceptable,itisnecessarytoderatethepermissiblevoltagetosomelevellowerthan65
V.
20.7.3
SingleCoreCableMainsThechoiceofterminationandearthingarrangementsforsinglecorecablemainsisamatter
ofeconomics.Thepossiblemethodsofearthingareasfollows:
a. SolidBondingInthissystem,thesheathbondingandearthingarrangementsaresuchthatthesheathsaremaintained
nearearthpotentialthroughouttheirlength.
b. SinglePointBondingThismethodisasdescribedin20.7.2forsinglecoretails,andissubjectedtopracticallimitations
ofcablelengthspermissible.
c. CrossBondingInthismethod,thecablelengthisdividedintothreeequalsections(orintoamultipleofthreesuch
sections)andateachsectionjunction,aninsulatingjointisprovided.Atthesejoints,thesheathofeachcablesectionis
bondedtothesheathofadifferentphasecableofthenextsectionthroughlockablelinkboxes.Bysuitableconnection,
thephasersumofthelongitudinalsheathvoltageiszero,andatthecableterminations,thesheathsofallthreecablesare
bondedtoearth.Itisusualtoprovideathreephasestarconnectedsetofcableprotectionsateachintermediate
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insulatingjointtheseprotectorsarenonlinearresistorspresentinglowimpedancetosurgecurrents.Thecrossbonding
methodpermitsthefullratingofthecabletobemaintained,butincursconsiderablecostintheprovisionofinsulating
joints,linkboxes,protectors,etc.
20.8
MiscellaneousMattersinPowerStationsandSubstationsIftwoormorestationsareadjacentonwhatmay
beconsideredtobeonesite,theearthingsystemsandthestationsshouldbeinterconnectedtoformasingleearthing
51
system.Wherethestationsactuallyadjoin,theextremitiesoftheirearthingsystemsshouldbeconnectedtogethersothat
thewholeareaisenclosedbytheearthingsystem.Wheretheseparationistoolargetotreatasadjoiningstations,an
interconnectingearthconductorofsubstantialcrosssectionshouldberuntoensurethat,asfaraspracticable,faultcurrents
aredivertedfromcablesheathsandarmour.Thisisofparticularimporatncewherefaultcurrentflowinginonestationis
providedfromtheadjoiningstation,forexample,whereaswitchingstationadjoinspowerortransformingstationsitessothat
anearthfaultintheswitchgearcausescurrentflowbetweenthetwositesinordertoreachthesystemneutralatthegenerators
ortransformers.Suchinterconnectionsbetweensitescanincludelinkssuitablydisposedtoassistintesting.
Exceptwherespecialinsulationiscalledfor,sheathsofallmaincablesshouldbeconnectedtothestationearthsystem.
Withmulticorecablestheconnectionisgenerallymadeatthetermination.
Wherehighearthfaultcurrentsaretobeexpected,andanappreciableriseofpotentialofthestationsystemwithrespect
tothegeneralbodyoftheearthmayensure,specialcareisnecessarywithconnectionsotherthanmaincablesorlinesentering
thestation,suchaswaterpipesandtelephoneorpilotcables,waterpipesshouldincludeaninsulatedsectionpolymericpiping
isoftensuitable.Inseveralcases,isolatingtransformersmaybenecessaryfortelephoneconnections.BritishTelecomprovides
isolationequipmentattheircircuitterminationswhenthepotentialriseexceeds430V(650Vforhighreliabilitylines).Pilot
cablesshouldbeprovidedwithinsulatedglandsandsodisposedastominimizethepossibilityoffaultcurrentsbeingcarriedby
thesheaths.
Wherecarriercurrentequipmentisemployed,afurtherearthelectrode,normallyadrivenrod,shouldbeprovidedator
immediatelyadjacenttoeachstructuresupportingthecouplingcapacitors.Thisearthelectrodeisanadditionaloneforthehigh
frequencyequipmentandshouldbebondedintothemainearthingsystem.Thestructuressupportingthecouplingcapacitors
shouldbeearthedinthenormalway.
21.EARTHINGASSOCIATEDWITHOVERHEADPOWERLINES
21.1
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TypeofSupportAnyconsiderationofwhethermetalworkassociatedwithoverheadpowerlinesshouldbeearthed
and/orbondedhastotakeaccountofthetypeofsupport.Someoverheadlinesaresupportedbylatticatowersofmetallic
construction,othersbypoles,whichmaybeofsteel,wood,concreteoroffabricatedconstruction,forexample,glassreinforced
plasticsbracketsattachedtobuildingsarealsousedtosupportconductors.
21.2
InsulationFailureFollowinganinsulationfailure,avoltagemayexistbetweenanysupportingmetalworkandearth.
Thepublicaregenerallyprotectedifnometalworkwithin3mofthegroundisliabletobecomeliveonfailureofinsulation.If
thesupportsareclosetobuildings,etc,theparticularcircumstanceshavetobeconsidered.
21.3
LatticeSteelStructuresTherewilloftenbesatisfactoryearthingoflatticesteelstructures,polesofmetallic
constructionandreinforcedconcretepolesthroughtheircontactwiththeground.Inareasofhighearthresistivity,special
earthingarrangementsmaybenecessaryanoverheadprotectiveconductorattachedateachsupportandconnectedtothe
neutralofthesupplyandofthelinemaybethemosteconomicalsolution.Thisconductorifpositionedabovethelive
conductors,willalsoprovideameasureoflightningprotection.
21.4PolesofNonconductingMaterial
21.4.1
GeneralWhereapoleisofnonconductingmaterial,forexamplewoodorglassreinforcedplastics,thepolewillact
againsttheflowofleakagecurrentandcanbeexpectedtopreventdangerneargroundlevelduetoleakageacrossorfailureof
anyinsulatorsupportingalineconductor,exceptwherethereisinterveningequipmentormetalworkthatisormaybecome
live.
Forthereasonsgivenin21.4.2to21.4.5,thereareadvantagesinnotearthingthepoletopmetalworkofsuchpolesand
innotmakingbondingconnectionstoit.
21.4.2
OmissionofBondingWhereinsulatorsareattachedtoapoleortononconductingcrossarms,etc,attachedtothe
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pole,ommissionofbondingofpoletopmetalworkgivesagreaterimpulsewithstandvoltage,sothereislessriskoffaultsdueto
phasetophaseflashover.Toreduceriskoffire,wherewoodencrossarmsareused,careshouldbetakentomakeclose,fire
contactbetweenthecrossarmandtheinsulatorpipe.
21.4.3
OmissionofEarthingIfpoletopmetalworkisnotearthed,transientfaultsduetobirds,flyingbranches,etc,bridging
theclearancebetweenlineconductorsandthemetalworkaregreatlyreduced.
21.4.4
Transformers,RodoperatedSwitchgearandCableTerminationsIncaseswhereequipment,suchastransformers,
rodoperatedswitchgearorcableterminationsaremountedonawoodenorreinforcedplasticspole,theimpulseflashovervalue
oftheadditionalinsulationprovidedbythepoleisimpaired,andallthemetalworkonthepoleneedstobebondedand
earthed.
21.5
StaysTopreventstaycorrosionthatwouldotherwiseoccurduetopassageofsmallleakagecurrentsoccurringevenin
normaloperation,stayinsulatorsshouldbefittedinstaywiresonpoles.
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Nopartofthestayinsulatorshouldbelessthan3mabovegrounditshouldbefittedashighupthestayaspossible,but
thestayinsulatorshouldbesopositionedthattherecanbenocontactbelowthestayinsulatorbetweenthestaywireandany
phaseconductor(includingajumperconnection),shouldeitherofthembreakorbecomeloose
21.6
MetalBracketsAttachedtoBuildingsAmetalbracketattachedtooradjacenttoanymetalworkonorjoiningpart
ofanybuildingorstructureandsupportingaphaseconductorneedstobeearthedunlesstheconductorisbothinsulatedand
supportedbyaninsulator,eachformofinsulationbeingsuitablefortheconditionsunderwhichitwillberequiredtooperatein
theeventoffailureoftheother.
21.7
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EarthWiresandEarthConnectionAnyconnectionbetweenmetalworkandearthhastobeoflowresistivity,
bothtoprovideforpromptoperationofprotectiveequipmentandtominimizeinductiveinterferencewithcommunications
circuitsintheeventofaflowoffaultcurrent.Electromagneticinterferenceisreducediftheresistanceoftheearthreturnpath
issmallcomparedwithitsreactance.At50Hz,inductiveinterferencemaybecausedbytheuseofahighresistivitywire(for
example,steelwire)evenifitisperfectlyearthed.Asinglelowresistivityearthwiremadeofcopper,aluminiumetc,shouldbe
usedanditshouldavoidpassingclosetoconductorsorcablesbelongingtoothercircuits.Itshouldbeprotectedagainst
mechancialdamageforadistanceof3mabovegroundlevel.
21.8
LightningProtectionAlightningconductorattachedtoastructureandearthedatitslowerendactstoreducethe
likelihoodofalightningstrike.Anoverrunningaerialearthwireonoverheadpowerline,besidesformingpart,oftheearth
returnpath,alsogivesadegreeoflightningprotection.Thelowertheimpedancebetweenaerialearthwireandearth,thebetter
istheprotectionsincethisreducesthepossibilityofabackflashoverfromtheearthedmetalworktolineconductorsonthe
occasionofadirectstriketotheearthwire.
SECTION5INDUSTRIALPREMISES
22.GUIDELINESONEARTHINGOFINDUSTRIALPREMISES
22.1
GeneralThedesignofearthingsystemforanyschemeisdevelopedonthebasisofbasicrequirements.
22.1.1
Sofarastheconsumerstakingsupplyat240Vareconcernedaccordingtotheprovisionsofthebasicstatutes,itisthe
responsibilityofthesuppliertoprovideearthedterminalatthepremisesoftheconsumer.Inthecasesofconsumerstaking
supplyathighervoltages,earthingschemeshouldbesodesignedastosatisfythebasicstatutoryrequirementsandalsoto
provideadequateprotectionagainstgroundfaults.
22.1.2
Theearthingsysteminthepremisesofconsumersatvoltagesabove240VshouldbedesignedasaPMPsystemwith
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separateprotectiveconductor.Theneutralofthetransformershouldbeconnectedtobeearthelectrodesbyduplicate
connectionsandadequatenumberofearthelectrodesshouldbeprovidedwithinterlinkingearthbusforgettinganoptimum
valueoftheearthresistancedependinguponthesettingoftheearthfault/earthleakagerelaysandalsotolimittheextentof
riseofpotentialinthecaseofsolidlyearthedsystem,thegroundfaultcurrentcanbeoftheorderofsymmetricalshortcircuit
currentandhencethethermaldesignoftheearthbusandtheearthingsystemshoulddependuponthemaximumsymmetrical
shortcircuitcurrentavailable.Thedurationoftheearthfaultcurrentaccordingtotheexistingdesignpracticeis3seconds.
However,incaseofinstallationswhereadequateprotectivearrangementshavebeenincorporatedsoastoinstantaneously
isolatethesystemintheeventofagroundfault,alesserdurationcanbeconsideredfordesignpurposes.
22.1.3
Asfarasthevalueoftheearthresistanceisconcerned,theobjectivefromthepointofsafetyconsiderationisnotto
attainminimumvalueoftheearthresistanceasissometimesunderstood.Buttheconsiderationshouldbewhetherthereis
adequatecoordinationbetweenthepracticallyobtainablevalueoftheearthresistanceandsettingoftheprotectiverelays.This
aspectisverymuchrelevantinthecaseofinstallationswherethevalueoftheearthresistivitywhichistobetakenforthe
calculationsisabnormallyhigh.Thedispositionoftheearthelectrodes,andtheextentandsizeofearthgridwillalwaysdepend
uponthedispositionofplantelectricsthelayoutshouldbedoneinsuchamannerastokeeptheearthcontinuityresistanceto
withinthestipulatedfigure.Thethermalratingoftheearthelectrodeisspecifiedbythiscodewhichgivestheformulaforthe
maximumallowablecurrentdensityinanearthelectrode.However,inthecaseofaprotectivemultipleearthingsystemwhere
theneutralofthesupplytransformerandthenoncurrentcarryingmetalpartsinthesystemareinterconnectedbythe
commonearthgrid,whichisdesignedfortheprospectivefaultcurrent,thereisnoreasontodesigntheearthelectrodes
assumingthattotalearthfaultcurrentisdissipatedthroughtheearthelectrodes.Inthecaseofaninterconnectedsystem,earth
faultcurrentisreturnedtotheneutralmostlythroughtheinterconnectedsystem,earthfaultgrid.However,dependingupon
the
53
valueoftheearthresistivity,apercentageofthecurrentmayflowthroughthemassoftheearthaswell.Thecurrent,
whichtakestheearthreturnpath,enterstheearththroughdifferentearthelectrodes.Hence,whiledesigningtheearth
electrodes,thethermalcapabilityoftheearthelectrodesneedbeverifiedonlywithreferencetotheportionofthecurrent
whichmaytaketheearthreturnpath,whichdependsupontheearthresistivity.Inthenormalrangeofearthresistivities
between10and1000m,thisdivisionofcurrentisfoundtobeinbetween80percentand20percentfordesignpurposes.
Hence,dependinguponthedispositionoftheplantelectrics,anoptimumnumberofearthelectrodesareprovidedas
anchoragesfortheearthgrid.Thevalueoftheearthresistanceofthegridsoformedisthencalculatedassumingthebare
interconnectedgridasastripelectrode.Thevalueoftheearthresistancesoobtainedshouldbewithinreasonablelimits,
otherwisebroughtdownbyaddingmoreetectrodes.Thegroundfaultprotectivedeviceorthephasefaultprotectivedevice(in
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casethereisnogroundfaultprotectivedevice)issettooperateattheminimumcurrentwhichisobtainableunderaground
faultcondition.Thethermalratingoftheearthelectrodesarethencrossverified,baseduponthepercentageofcurrentwhich
takestheearthreturnpath.Basedupontheabovephilosophy,thefollowingguidelinesforthedesignofanearthingsystemin
theHTconsumerspremisesareissued.
22.2ConsiderationforEarthing
22.2.1
Themainearthingconductorwillberuninbetweenstandardearthelectrodesconformingtospecificationsand
distributeduniformallyaroundtheworkingarea.Allthenoncurrentcarryingmetalpartsoftheequipments,switchboards,etc,
willbesolidlyconnectedtothisearthgridorequipotentialbondingconductorbyduplicateearthconnectionsofadequatesize.
ForinterconnectingswitchboardsprotectedbyHRCfusestothisearthgrid,thesizeofinterconnectionneednotbemorethan
75mm2copperoritsequivalent.Inlayingouttheearthelectrodesandtheearthconductors,alleffortsshouldbemadeto
maintainauniformpotentialgradientinandaroundtheworkarea.Thetransformerneutralshouldbesolidlyconnectedtothis
gridbyduplicateearthconnections,onegoingdirectlytoearthelectrodesandothergoingtothecommonearthbus.Thesizeof
theneutralearthingconductorshouldinnocasebelessthanthatofthesizeofthemainearthingconductor.
22.2.2
Theearthgridshouldberunataminimumdepthof50cmbelowground.Whenbareconductorsareusedasearthgrid,
thiscanalsobeassumedtodissipatethefaultcurrenttothemassoftheearthandforcalculatingtheeffectivevalueoftheearth
resistanceofthisgrid,thisgridcanbetreatedasastripelectrodeandthestandardformulacanbeappliedforcalculatingthe
earthresistanceofthegrid.
22.2.3
Thecontinuityresistanceoftheearthreturnpaththroughtheearthgridshouldbemaintainedaslowaspossibleandin
nocasegreaterthanoneohm.
22.2.4
InthecaseofEHTsubstations,wherethereispossibilityofthegroundpotentialattainingveryhighvalues(oftheorder
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of5kVandabove)intheeventofanearthfault,theearthgriddesignshouldbebasedonthetolerablelimitsofthepotential
gradientinthesubstationarea,andthestepandtouchpotentialduetofaultconditions.
22.2.5
InthecaseofEHTsubstations,theearthconductorsshouldbebareandtheyshouldbeburieddirectinground.
22.3TheEarthElectrodes
22.3.1
Theearthelectrodesareprovidedtodissipatethefaultcurrentincaseofearthfaultsandtomaintaintheearthresistance
toareasonablevaluesoastoavoidriseofpotentialoftheearthinggrid.Practice,whichhasbeenfolloweduptilnow,isto
designtheearthelectrodesfortheappropriatethermalwithstandcapacity,assumingthetotalfaultcurrenttobepassing
throughtheearthelectrodes.Thisistrueinthecaseofanearthingsystemwhichisnotinterconnectedwithneutralearthing
(TT/ITsystem).ButwiththeadoptionofPMEsysteminindustrialdistributionwheretheneutralissolidlyconnectedtothe
earthinggrid,theabovepracticerequiresrevisionashasalreadybeenpointedoutin22.1.3inordertoavoidredundancyand
therebytoavoidunnecessaryexpenditure.Theamountofcurrentthatmayactuallybedissipatedthroughtheearthelectrodes
dependstoalargeextent,ontheearthresistivityofthesoil.Dependinguponthevalueoftheearthresistivity,thetotalfault
currentfromthesupplysystemwillreturntoneutralpartiallythroughtheearthgridandpartiallythroughtheearthreturn
path.Thepercentageofcurrentwhichflowsdirectlythroughtheearthgriddependsontheresistanceoftheearthreturnpath
inrelationtotheearthresistivity.Thestandardearthresistivityvaluestypicallyvaryintherangebetween10and1000ohms.
Inthisrangeofvariation,itcanbereasonablyassumedthatthefaultcurrentdivisionatthepointofentrytotheearthgridis
20to80percent.Forverificationofthefaultdissipatingcapacityofearthelectrodes,onlytheportionofthefaultcurrent
whichisdivertedtotheearthelectrodeneedbetakenandundertheseconditionsthemaximumallowablecurrentdensityas
stipulatedinthiscodeshouldnotbeexceeded.
22.3.2
Thenumberofearthelectrodesrequiredforaparticularinstallationwillbebasicallydecidedbytheoptimumvalueofthe
earthresistancewhichisrequiredtomaketheprotectivesystemoperation.Hence,theoptimumvalueoftheearthresistance
dependsuponthereasonablepotentialriseandsettingoftheearthfaultisolatingdevices
54
ortheseries,protectivedevicesincasewherethereisnogroundfaultdetectingdevices.Themaincriterionisthatthe
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valueoftheearthreturnresistanceshouldnotbesohighasnottoproducetherequiredgroundfaultcurrentforactuatingthe
protectivedeviceswithinthestipulatedtime.Orinotherwords,theoptimumvalueoftheearthresistanceiscloselyrelatedto
settingoftheearthfaultprotectivedevicesusedinthesystem.Forasmallinstallation,asageneralrule,intheeventofadirect
earthfaulttheearthfaultcurrentproducedshouldnotbelessthanfivetimesthehighestratingofthemaximumprotective
fusesorthesettingoftheearthfaultrelayifsuchadeviceisprovided.
22.4
DeterminationofEarthResistivityAshasalreadybeenpointedout,thevalueoftheearthresistivityplaysan
importantroleinthedesignoftheearthelectrodes.Intheconventionalmethod,theearthresistivitywhichistobeappliedin
thedesigncalculationsistakenasthearithmeticmeanofanumberofmeasuredvaluesintheareaunderconsideration.The
figuresoobtainedseldomprojectsarealisticvalue.Amorescientificapproachistomeasuretheearthresistivityindifferent
radialdirectionsfromacentralpointwhichmaybetakenastheproposedloadcentre.Withthevaluessoobtained,apolar
curveisdrawn.Thepolarcurveisconvertedtoanequivalentcircle(see36.6).Theradiusofthecircleistakentobetheaverage
valueoftheearthresistivityfigurewhichistobeappliedindesigncalculations.Necessaryallowanceshould,ofcourse,begiven
forfactorssuchasvariationsinclimaticconditions,treatmentofsoil,etc.
22.5DesignofEarthBus
22.5.1
DesignofearthbusisbaseduponthegeneralguidelinesgiveninSection2.Thesizeofthemainearthgridwillbedecided
onthebasisoflinetogroundfaultcurrentassumedtobesymmetricalshortcircuitcurrentinthesystem.Thisassumptionis
fairlyreasonableinthecaseofasolidlyearthedsystemwheretheratiobetweenXO/XIislimitedtolessthan3andtheohmic
valueoftheearthreturnpathtothesupplyneutralisreasonablylow.Theminimumfaultlevelexistingatthesupplypointwill
beassumedtobe13.1kAortheactualfaultcurrentwhicheverisgreaterforpremisesatvoltagesabove1kV.
22.5.2
Barecopper,PVCcoveredaluminiumorGIsubjecttorelevantrestrictionsbasedonthelocationandnatureof
installationmaybeusedasearthingtoconductors.Thesizeoftheearthingconductorswillbecalculatedaccordingtoguidelines
giveninthecode.Thetimedurationofthefaultcurrentasrecommendedis3seconds.Accordingtostandardsdevelopedinthis
regard,thesizeoftheearthingconductorswillbebaseduponcurrentdensitiesasgiveninSection2ofthiscode.Acorrosion
factorof5percentofunitdropinthevalueofcorrosionindexupto10isrecommededforsteel/GIearthingconductorswhile
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designinganearthingscheme,situationsofcorrosionindexofbelow10shouldnotbeallowed.
22.5.3
Inthecaseofsystemswherestandardprotectivearrangmentshavebeenprovidedforisolatingthegroundfaults
instantaneously,dueconsiderationcanbegiventothisaspectindecidinguponthesizeoftheearthingconductorbygivingdue
allowancetolowerdurationofthegroundfaultcurrents.
22.6CorrelationBetweenGroundingandEarthFaultProtection
22.6.1
Thephasefaultprotectivedevicenormallyusedinsystemsoperatingat415Vaffordreasonableprotectionagainstarcing
groundfaults.Thegroundfaultcurrentdependsupontheimpedancetozerosequencecurrentflowsanddependstoalarge
extentonthegroundingnetworkandtheearthresistivity.Thepickupvalueofthegroundfaultrelaysorthevalueofthephase
faultprotectivedeviceshouldbecoordinatedfortherequiredprotectionforthesystem.Incasetheimpedanceoftheearth
returnpathforgroundfaultcurrentcannotberegulatedsoastoproduceadequtefaultcurrentforoperatingthephasefault
protectivedeviceslikefuses,suchcircuitsshouldbeprotectedbyseparategroundfaultprotectivedevices.Hence,thenecessity
ofseparategroundfaultprotectiondependsonthegroundingnetworkanditseffectiveimpedanceandearthgriddesignis
closelyrelatedtotheeffectivenessofthephasefaultprotectivedeviceinclearingagroundfaultinplacewhereseparateground
faultprotectivedevicesarenotprovided.
22.7GroundingandGroundFaultProtection
22.7.1
Inrecent,years,therehasbeenanincreasinginterestintheuseofgroundfaultprotectioninindustrialdistribution
circuits.Thisinteresthasbeenbroughtaboutbyadisturbingnumberofelectricfailures.Henceitisworthwhiletoexplorethe
needforbettergroundfaultprotectionandtoexaminethegroundingpracticesinthelightoftherequiredprotection.
22.7.2
Distributioncircuitswhicharesolidlygroundedorgroundedthroughlowimpedancesrequirefastclearingofground
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faults.Thisinvolveshighsensitivityindetectinglowgroudfaultcurrentsaswallasthecoordinationbetweenmainandfeeder
circuitprotectivedevices.Faultclearingmustbeextremelyfastwherearcingispresent.
22.7.3
Theappealofeffectivegroundfaultprotectionisbasedonthefollowing:
55
1. Themajorityofelectricfaultsinvolveground.Ungroundedsystemsarealsosubjecttogroundfaultsandrequirecareful
attentiontogroundfaultdetectionandgroundfaultprotections.
2. Thegroundfaultprotectivesensitivitycanberelativelyindependentofcontinuousloadcurrentvaluesandtherebyhave
lowerpickupsettingsthanphaseprotectivedevices.
3. Groundfaultcurrentsarenottransferredthroughsystem,inthecaseofpowertransformerswhichareconnecteddelta
star,deltadelta.Thegroundfaultprotectionforeachsystemvoltagelevelshouldbeindependentoftheprotectionat
othervoltagelevels.Thispermitsmuchfasterrelayingthancanbeaffordedbyphaseprotectivedevicewhichrequireco
ordinateusingpickupvaluesandtimedelayswhichextendfromtheloadtotheservicegenerators,oftenresultingin
considerabletimedelayatsomepartsinthesystem.
4. Arcinggroundfaultswhicharenotpromptlydetectedandclearedcanbeextremelydestructive.Arelativelysmall
investmentcanprovideveryvaluableprotections.
22.8
Muchofthepresentemphasisongroundfaultprotectioncentresaroundorcircuitsbelow550V.Protectivedeviceshave
usuallyfuseswitchesofcircuitbreakerswithintegrallymountedphasetrippingdevices.Theseprotectiveelementsaretermedas
overloadorfaultovercurrentdevicesbecausetheycarrythecurrentineachphaseandclearthecircuitonlywhenthecurrent
reachesamagnitudegreaterthanfullloadcurrent.Toaccommodateinrushcurrentssuchasmotorstartingortransformer
magnetisinginrush,phaseovercurrentdevicesaredesignedwithinversecharacteristics,whichareratherslowatovercurrent
valuesuptoabout5timesrating.Forexample,a1600Acircuitbreakerwithconventionalphaseprotectionwillcleara3200A
faultinabout100seconds.Althoughitcanbeadjustedintherangeof30to200seconds,atthisfaultvalue.A1600Afusemay
require10minutesormoretoclearthesame3200Afault.Theselowvaluesoffaultcurrentsareassociatedpredominantly
withfaulttogroundandhavegenerallyreceivedlittleattentioninthedesignofearthingsystems,untiltheoccurrenceofmany
seriouselectricfailuresinrecentyears.Incontrast,ongroundedsystemsof33kVandabove,ithasbeenastandardpracticeto
applysomeformofgroundfaultprotection.
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22.9
Theactioninitiatedbygroundfaultsensingdeviceswillvarydependingupontheinstallation.Insomecases,suchas
servicestodwelling,itmaybenecessarytoimmeditatelydisconnectthefaultedcircuittopreventlossoflifeandproperty.
However,theopeningofsomecircuitsincriticalapplicationsmayinitself,endangerlifeorproperty.Therefore,eachparticular
applicationshouldbestudiedcarefullybeforeselectingtheactiontobeinitiatedbythegroundfaultprotectivedevices.
22.10ProtectionAgainstArcingGroundFaultsandEarthLeakage
22.10.1
Necessityofarcinggroundfaultprotectionespeciallyfor415Vinstallationsisnotverywellunderstoodandprotective
schemessuggestedfornormalindustrialinstallationsnevergivemuchimportancetothisaspect.Itisalsoseenthatthefactthat
aseriesprotectivedevicelikebreakerorafusedoesnotofferprotectionagainstanearthfaultorarcinggroundfaultina415V
system,isveryoftenforgotten.Inthecaseofsuchinstallations,theavoidanceofarcinggroundfaultsisimportantfromthe
pointofviewofpersonalsafelyandequipmentdamage.
SECTION6STANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS
23.EARTHINGINSTANDBYANDOTHERPRIVATEGENERATINGPLANTS(INCLUDING
PORTABLEANDMOBILEGENERATORS)
23.1
GeneralTheearthingofstandbyandotherprivategeneratingplantisnecessarytoprotectagainstindirectcontactthat
mayresultinelectricshock.Theobjectiveistocreateazoneinwhichvoltagebetweenexposedconductivepartsandextraneous
conductivepartsareminimizedintheeventofanearthfault.
Inthissectiontherequirementismetbyconnectingthegeneratingsetframe(s),metalliccablesheathsandarmouring,
andallexposedconductivepartstoanearthingconductor,andbyconnectingthesystemtoearth(normallyatonepointonly).
Exceptinsomespecialapplications,thereis,ineverycase,needforanindependentearthelectrodeforenergysource
earthingatthepremiseswherethegeneratorislocated.(Anysuppliersprotectiveearthterminalatthepremisesshouldalsobe
connectedtotheindependentearthelectrode).
Therearemanyvariationsinsystemdesignandforanyparticularapplication,theprecisemethodofenergysource
earthingissubjecttotherecommendationsofthemachinemanufacturers,thesystemparametersand,wheremainssupplies
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arealsoinvolved,theagreementoftheconcernedsupplyauthority.
Itmay,however,benotedthattheguidanceincludedinthissection,appliestostockprotectionaswellasprotectionof
equipment.
56
23.2LowVoltageUpto1000VGenerators
23.2.1
EarthElectrodesTheoverallresistancetoearthoftheelectrodesformingtheconnectiontothegeneralmassofearth
fromthelowvoltageenergysourcehastobeconsistentwiththeearthfaultprotectionprovidedandshallbeaslowaspossible.
23.2.2SingleLowVoltageGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachines)
23.2.2.1
Generatoroperatinginisolation(fromthemainsorothersupplies)Inthisbasicarrangement,thegeneratorneutral
pointshouldbeconnectedtotheneutralofthelowvoltageswitchgearwhichisitselfconnectedthroughaboltedlink(fortest
purposes)toanearthingconductorandtheindependentearthelectrode.
23.2.2.2
Standbygenerator(withoutparallelingfacility)Inadditiontotheearthingrequirementsstatedforasetoperatingin
isolationfromothersupplies,specialattentionneedstobegiventothechangeoverarrangementforstandbyset,whichhasto
ensurethattherecanbenoinadvertentparallelconnection(seeFig.24).
Ingeneralfourpolechangeoverswitchingbetweenthemainsandstandby,suppliesshouldbeusedtoprovideisolationof
thegeneratorandelectricityboardneutralearths.However,inthecaseofaprotectivemultipleearthing(PME)supply,three
orfourpoleswitchingmaybeused.
23.2.2.3
Standbygenerator(capableofparalleloperationwithincomingmainssupply)Electricityboardswillnotgenerally
permitcontinuousparalleloperationofasynchronousmachinewiththelowvoltagemainssupply,unlesstherearenoother
consumersonthenetwork.However,shorttermparalleloperationfornobreakloadtransferortestingmaybepermitted.
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Also,ifasynchronusmachineoutputisrectifiedandconnectedthroughamainsmodulatedstaticinvertercontinuousparallel
operationwillusuallybepermitted.Inthelattercase,thegeneratorneutralterminalshouldbeconnectedtotheindependent
earthelectrodeandtoanyelectricityboardearth.
Forshorttermparalleloperation,givingnobreakloadtransfer,thealternativeenergysourceearthingarrangements,
whichmaybeused,areasdescribedin23.2.3.1,exceptthatonlyonegeneratingsetisinvolved.
FIG.24SINGLELowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATOR(WITHOUTPARELLELINGFACILITY)
57
23.2.3MultipleLowVoltageGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachines)
23.2.3.1
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GeneratoroperatinginisolationfromothersuppliesWhenlowvoltagegeneratingsetsareoperatedinparallel,the
energysourceearthingmethodisinfluencedbythemagnitudeofthecirculatingcurrents,particularlythirdharmonic,which
canarisewhengeneratorsareconnectedasfourwiremachines.Ifthemagnitudeofthecirculatingcurrentduetothenatureof
theloadorthedesignofthegeneratorsisexcessivewhentheneutralsareconnected,thenaneutralearthingtrnsformeror
starpointearthingswitchesarerequired.
Hence,threealternativeneutralearthingarrangementsarepossibleforparalleloperationasfollows:
a. AllgeneratorneutralsconnectedWiththisarrangement,theneutralbusbarinthemainlowvoltageswitchgearis
connectedthroughaboltedlinktoanearthingconductorandindependentearthelectrode.
b. NeutralearthingtransformerByprovidinganeutralearthingtransformersolidlyconnectedtothebusbars,thesystem
neutralcanremainearthedatalltimeswhilstanynumberofgeneratorscanbeconnectedtothebusbarsasthreewire
machines.
c. GeneratorstarpointswitchingWhenthisarrangementisadopted,itisnecessarybeforethefirstgeneratorisstarted
foritsstarpoint/neutralearthingswitchtobeclosed.Whensubsequentsetsarestarted,theirstarpointearthing
switchesremainopen.Thisavoidsthecirculatingcurrentproblem,butitisessentialthatelectricalandmechanical
interlocksonthestarpoint/earthswitchesensuretheintegrityoftheenergysourceneutralearthconnectionatalltimes
andunderallpossibleoperatingconditions.
23.2.3.2
Standbygenerators(withoutmainsparallelingfacility)Thealternativeneutralearthingarrangementsforstandby
generatorsareassetoutin23.2.3.1forgeneratorsoperatedinisolationfromanelectricityboardsupply.Theearthing
arrangementsareshowninthefollowingdrawings:
a. Allgeneratorneutralsconnected(seeFig.25)
b. Neutralearthingtransformer(seeFig.26)and
c. Alternatorstarpointswitching(Fig.27).
Forstandbygeneratorswithnomainsparallelingfacility,thechangeoverarrangementhastopreventinadvertent
connectionofthegeneratoroutputsandelectricityboardsupply.
FIG.25LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHNEUTRALSCONNECIED
FIG.25LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHNEUTRALSCONNECIED
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58
FIG.26LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHNEUTRALEARTHINGTRANSFORMERS
FIG.26LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHNEUTRALEARTHINGTRANSFORMERS
Ingeneral,fourpolechangeoverswitchingbetweentheelectricityboardsupplyandthestandbysupplyshouldbeusedto
provideisolationoftheneutralearths.However,inthecaseofaprotectivemultipleearthing(PME)electricityboardsupply,
threeorfourpoleswitchingmaybeused.
23.2.3.3
Standbygenerators(capableofparalleloperationwiththeincomingmainssupply)Theconditionsforwhichparallel
operationofmultiplegeneratingsetinstallationswiththemainssupplymaybepermittedbytheelectricityboardarethesame
asapplyforsinglegenerators(see23.2.2.3).
Thepossiblealternativeenergysourceearthingarrangementsareaslistedin23.2.3.2.
23.2.4
SingleandMultipleGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachines)Theparalleloperationofsynchronousmachinesis
generallypermittedsuchmachinesarenormallyprovidedwheretheprimemoverisdrivenbywind,waterorbiochemical
plant,butmaybeprovidedwithanyprimemover.Anyneutralpointofsuchmachinewindingsshouldbeearthed,butthe
machineframeworkandanyotherextraneousmetalworkshouldbeconnectedtotheelectricityboardearthterminal,if
provided.
23.2.5
SmallPortableLowVoltageGeneratorsupto5kVAinRatingWhereportablegeneratorsareusedtoprovideasupply
andearthingisconsideredasameansofprotectionagainstelectricshock,theyarerequiredtobeconnectedasfollows:
a. Singlephasemachinesshouldhaveeitheracentretaponthewindingconnectedtoearthor,ifnotcompatiblewiththe
system,oneendconnectedtoearthanddesignatedtheneutral.TheCentretapmethodreducestheeffectivelineearth
voltageandisparticularlyusedwherethegeneratoristofeed110Vportabletoolsand
b. Threephasemachinesshouldhavetheirwindingsconnectedinstar,withthestarconnectionmadeavailableand
connectedtoearth.
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Inallcases,theexposedmetalworkofthegeneratorshouldbeadequatelyconnectedtotheearthterminal,preferably
withaboltedconnection.
Theearthelectrodeshouldhaveaminimumcrosssectionareaifitisnotprotectedagainstcorrosionof25mm2for
copperand50mm2forsteel.Whilstthereisnominimumvalueofearth
59
electroderesistance,itshouldbeaslowaspossible.Theupperlimitshouldnotexceedthevaluerequiredforthe
protectivedevicestooperateanddisconnecttheloadinatimenotexceedingthesafevalue.
NOTETheselectionofdevicesfortheautomaticdisconnectionofsupplyiscoveredinSection3.
Forportablegenerators,residualcurrentdeviceshavinganoperatingtimeof40msorlessataresidualcurrentof250
mAarerecommendedtoameansofprovidingadditionalprotectionagainsttheeffectofelectricshock.However,itis
importanttotestsuchdevicesregularly,particularlywhenthegreaterisusedinahostileenvironment.Themethodof
connectingarodusedontheoutputofaportablegeneratorisshowninFig.28.
23.2.6
MobileGeneratorsWhereasupplyistakenfromamobilegenerator,thefollowingrecommendations,additionalto
thosegivenin23.2.5shallapply:
a. Thegeneratorneutralshouldbeconnectedtothevehiclechassis
b. Theearthterminalateachoutletonthegeneratorvehicleshouldbeconnectedseparatelytothealternatorneutralwhere
thelatterisbondedtothevehiclechassisand
c. Whereanelectricityboardprotectiveearthterminalorexposedstructuralmetalworkispresent,itshouldbeconnectedto
theearthingconductoronthemobilegenerator.
23.3HighVoltageGenerators
23.3.1
EarthElectrodesandEarthingResistorsWhereanearthelectroderesistanceis1orless,acommonearthmaybe
usedforthehighvoltagegeneratorandforthelowvoltagesystemderivedthroughhighvoltage/lowvoltagetransformation.
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NOTEForfurtherinformationsee20.1(c).
Wherearesistorisusedforearthingthestarpointofahighvoltagegenerator,itisnormallydesignedtolimittheearth
faultcurrenttothesameorderofmagnitudeasthemachinesfullloadcurrent.Ingeneral,howeverearthingviaresistorsisnot
necessaryforsinglegeneratorsof1MWorlessinrating.
FIG.27LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHSTARPOINTSWITCHING
FIG.27LowVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATORSWITHSTARPOINTSWITCHING
60
FIG.28METHODOFCONNECTINGARESIDUALCURRENTDEVICE(r.c.d.)ONTHEOUTPUTOFA
PORTABLEORMOBILEGENERATOR
FIG.28METHODOFCONNECTINGARESIDUALCURRENTDEVICE(r.c.d.)ONTHEOUTPUTOFAPORTABLE
ORMOBILEGENERATOR
23.3.2
SingleHighVoltageGeneratorEarthing(SynchronousMachineswithStarConnectedAlternaters).
23.3.2.1
Generatoroperatinginisolation(frommainsorothersuppliersThestarpointofthegeneratorshouldbeconnected
(viaaresistor,ifnecessary)andthroughaboltedlinkfortestpurposestoanearthingconductorandtheindependentearth
electrode.
23.3.2.2
Standbygenerator(withoutparallelingfacility)Inadditiontotheearthingrequirementsdescribedforasetoperating
inisolationfromothersupplies,thepresenceofanincomingelectricityboardsupplymakesnecessarytheinterlockingofthe
standbysupplycircuitbreakerstopreventinadvertentconnection(seeFig.29).
FIG.29SINGLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETNOTSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATION
FIG.29SINGLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETNOTSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATION
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23.3.2.3
Standbygenerator(capableofparalleloperationwithanincomingsupply)Theoperationofaprivategenerator(or
generators)inparallelwithanelectricityboardhighvoltagesystemissubjecttotheparallelandtechnicalagreementofthe
electricityboard.
Inmostcaseswhereparalleloperationwithanincomingelectricityboardisrequired,anearthingcontactorisnecessary
betweenthegeneratorstarpointandtheboltedtestlink(seeFig.30).Thecontactorshouldbeinterlockedwiththeincoming
supplycircuitbreakersothatitisopenduringperiodsofparalleloperationbutclosesatalltimes.Intheeventoftheelectricity
supplybeinglostduringaperiodofparalleloperation,theearthingcontactorshouldbearrangedtocloseautomatically.The
formofgeneratorearthing(directorresistance)isdependentuponthesystemparametersandthemachinemanufacturers
recommendations.
23.3.3MultipleHighVoltageGeneratorEarthing
23.3.3.1
GeneratorsoperatinginisolationfromothersuppliesWhenitisrequiredtooperatetwoormoregenerators
inparallelandthemethodofenergysourceearthingisdirectorresistanceearthing,thenearthingcontactorsshouldbe
installedbetweeneachgeneratorstarpointandtheearthingconductoreachelectrode(asdescribedin23.2.3.1).The
contactorsneedtobeinterlockedsothatonlyonecanbeclosedtomaintainasingleenergysourceearth.
Ifaneutralearthingtransformeristobeusedforenergysourceearthings,itshouldbeconnectedasshowninFig.31
exceptthatinthecaseofanisolatedgeneratingsystem,theearthingcontactorsisnotrequired.
23.3.3.2
Standbygenerators(withoutmainsparallelfacility)Whenthegeneratingsetsarenottobeoperatedinparallelwith
themainssupply,andhavedirectorresistanceearthing,thestandbygeneratorcircuitbreakersandmainscircuitbreakerneed
tobeinterlocked.
Ifaneutralearthingtransformerisusedtherequirementsarethesameasdescribedforasinglestandbygeneratorin
23.3.2.2asshowninFig.31,butwithouttheearthingcontactor.
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FIG.30SINGLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATIONWITH
INCOMINGMAINSSUPPLY
FIG.30SINGLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATIONWITH
INCOMINGMAINSSUPPLY
62
23.3.3.3
Standbygenerators(capableofparalleloperationwithanincomingmainssupply)Whenthegeneratingsetshave
directorresistanceearthingandareusedasstandbytothemains,earthingcontactorsareneededifparallelrunningisa
requirement.Theseshouldbeinterlockedwiththeincomingmainssupplycircuitbreakersothattheyareopenduringparallel
operationofthesetwiththemains,butoneisclosedatallothertimes(seeFig.32).
FIG.31MULTIPLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSWITHNEUTRALEARTHING
TRANSFORMERSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATIONWITHEACHOTHERANDWITHTHEINCOMINGMAINS
SUPPLY
FIG.31MULTIPLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSWITHNEUTRALEARTHINGTRANSFORMER
SUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATIONWITHEACHOTHERANDWITHTHEINCOMINGMAINSSUPPLY
FIG.32MULTIPLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATION
WITHEACHOTHERANDWITHTHEINCOMINGMAINSSUPPLY
FIG.32MULTIPLEHIGHVOLTAGESTANDBYGENERATINGSETSSUITABLEFORPARALLELOPERATION
WITHEACHOTHERANDWITHTHEINCOMINGMAINSSUPPLY
SECTION7MEDICALESTABLISHMENTS
63
24.PROTECTIVEMEASURESTHROUGHEARTHINGINMEDICALESTABLISHMENTS
24.0
GeneralInthecontextofthisSectioninstallation,meansanycombinationofinterconnectedelectricalequipment
withinagivenspaceorlocationintendedtosupplypowertoelectricalequipmentusedinmedicalpractice.
24.0.1
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ForthepurposesofthisSection,referencemayalsobemadetoSP:30(Part3/Sec4)1985*.
24.0.2
Assuch,somepartsoftheinstallationmaybepresentinthepatientsenvironment,wherepotentialdifferences,that
couldleadtoexcessivecurrentsthroughthepatient,mustbeavoided.Forthispurposeacombinationorearthingofequipment
andpotentialequalizationintheinstallationseemstoprovidethebestsolution.Adisadvantageofsuchasystemisthatinthe
caseofaninsulationfaultincircuitsdirectlyconnectedtosupplymains,thefaultcurrentmaycauseaconsiderablevoltagedrop
overtheprotectiveearthconductoroftherelevantcircuit.Sinceareductionofsuchavoltagedropbytheapplicationof
increasedcrosssectionalareasofprotectiveconductorsisusuallyimpractical,availablesolutionsarethereductionofthe
durationoffaultcurrentstoearthbyspecialdevicesortheapplicationofapowersupplywhichisisolatedfromearth.
24.0.3
Generallyapowersupplysystemincludingaseparatedprotectiveconductorisrequired.(TNSSystem)inmedical
establishment(see6.1.1).
Inadditionthefollowingprovisionsmayberequired,dependinguponthenatureoftheexaminationsortreatments
performed:
a. Additionalrequirementsconcerningprotectiveconductorsandprotectivedevicestorestrictcontinuousvoltage
differences.
b. Restrictionofvoltagedifferencesbysupplementaryequipotentialbonding.Duringtheapplicationofequipmentwith
directcontacttothepatient,atleastapotentialequalizedzonearoundthepatientshallbeprovidedwithapatientcentre
bondingbartowhichtheprotectiveandfunctionalearthconductorsoftheequipmentareconnected.Allaccessible
extraneousconductivepartsinthezoneshallbeconnectedtothispotentialequalizationbar.
c. Restrictionofthepotentialequalizationzonearoundonepatient,meaningpracticallyaroundoneoperationtableor
aroundonebedinanintensivecareroom.
d. Ifmorethanonepatientispresentinanarea,connectionofthevariouspotentialequalizationcentrestoacentral
potentialequalizationbusher,whichshouldpreferablybeconnectedtotheprotectiveearthsystemofthepowersupply
forthegivenarea.Initscompletedform,theequipotentialbondingnetworkmayconsistpartlyoffixedandpermanently
installedbondingandpartlyofanumberofseparatebondingswhicharemadewhentheequipmentissetupnearthe
patient.Thenecessaryterminalsforthesebondingconnectionshouldbepresentonequipmentandintheinstallation.
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e. Restrictionofthedurationoftransientvoltagedifferencebytheapplicationofresidualcurrentoperatedprotective
devices(earthleakagecircuitbreakers).
f. Continuityofpowersupplytocertainequipmentinthecaseofafirstinsulationfaulttoearthandrestrictionoftransient
voltagedifferencesbyapplicationofisolatingtransformers.
g. MonitoringoffirstinsulationfaulttoearthinanITSystems(see6.1.1)(thesecondarysideofanisolatingtransformer)
withsufficientlyhighimpedancetoearth.
NOTEAdditionalsafetymeasuresarerequiredbesidesearthingdescribedinthisSection.Thesecoverfire
safety,safetysupplysystemsandinterferencesuppression.ReferencemaybemadetoNEC(Part3,Section4)*.
*NationalElectricalCode.
24.1SafetyProvisions
24.1.1
SafetymeasuresfromthepointofviewofearthingaredividedintoanumberofprovisionsasgiveninTable10.
24.1.2
ProvisionPoshallbeapplicabletoallbuildingscontainingmedicallyusedrooms.ProvisionPIshallbeapplicableforall
medicallyusedrooms.
OtherrequirementsofthisSection,neednotbecompliedwith,if:
a. aroomisnotintendedfortheuseofmedicalelectricalequipment,or
b. patientsdonotcomeintentionallyincontactwithmedicalelectricalequipmentduringdiagnosisortreatment,or
c. onlymedicalelectricalequipmentisusedwhichisinternallypoweredorofprotectionClassII.
Theroomsmentionedunder(a),(b)and(c)maybe,forexample,massagerooms,generalwards,doctorsexamining
room(office,consultingroom),wheremedicalelectricalequipmentisnotused.
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TABLE10SAFETYPROVISIONS
PROVISIONS
PRINCIPALREQUIREMENTS
(Clause24.1.1)
(1)
INSTALLATIONMEASURES
(2)
(3)
P0
Durationoftouchvoltagerestrictedtoasafelimit
P1
AsP0butadditionally:Touchvoltagesinpatientenvironmentrestrictedtoasafe AdditionaltoP0Supplysystemwith
limit
TNS,TTorITsystem(see6.1.1)
additionalrequirementsforprotective
earthing,etc
P2
P3
AsPIbutadditionally:Resistancebetweenextraneousconductivepartsandthe
AdditionaltoPI:Supplementary
protectiveconductorbusbaroftheroomnotexceeding01
equipotentialbonding
AsPlorP2butadditionally:Potentialdifferencebetweenexposedconductive
AsP1orP2:Measurementnecessary,
partsandtheprotectiveconductorbusbarnotexceeding10mVinnormal
correctiveactionpossiblynecessary
condition(seeNote)
P4
P5
AsP1orP2.Additionalprotectionagainstelectricshockbylimitationof
AdditionaltoP1orP2:Residualcurrent
disconnectingtime
operatedprotectivedevice
Continuityofthemainssupplymaintainedincaseofafirstinsulationfaultto
AdditionaltoP1,P2orP3:Isolated
earthandcurrentstoearthrestricted
supplysystemwithisolationmonitoring
NOTENormalconditionmeanswithoutanyfaultintheinstallation.
24.1.3
GuidanceontheapplicationoftheprovisionsaregiveninTable11.
24.1.4
AtypicalexampleofaninstallationinahospitalisgiveninAppendixCofNEC(Part3,Section4)*.
25.SUPPLYCHARACTERISTICSANDPARAMETERS
25.0ExchangeofInformation
25.0.1
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Propercoordinationshallbeensuredbetweenthearchitect,buildingcontractorandtheelectricalengineerorthevarious
aspectsofinstallationdesign.Thenecessaryspecialfeaturesofinstallationsshallbeascertainedbeforehandwithreferenceto
Table11.
25.1
CircuitInstallationMeasuresforSafetyProvisions(SeeTable10,col3).
25.1.1
ProvisionP0General
25.1.1.1
AllbuildingsinthehospitalareawhichcontainmedicallyusedroomsshallhaveaTNS,TTpowersystem.The
conventionaltouchvoltagelimit(LL)isfixedat50Vac.
NOTETheuseofTNCSsystem(inwhichthePENconductormaycarrycurrentinnormalcondition)can
causesafetyhazardsforthepatientsandinterferewiththefunctionofmedicalelectricalequipment,data
processingequipment,signaltransmissionlines,etc.
25.1.2
ProvisionP1:MedicalTNSSystem
25.1.2.1
Theconventionaltouchvoltagelimit(LL)isfixedat25Vac.
25.1.2.2
Protectiveconductorsinsideamedicallyusedroomshallbeinsulatedtheirinsulationshallbecolouredgreenyellow.
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25.1.2.3
Exposedconductivepartsofequipmentbeingpartoftheelectricalinstallationusedinthesameroomshallbeconnected
toacommonprotectiveconductor.
25.1.2.4
Amainequipotentialbondingwithamainearthingbarshallbeprovidednearthemainserviceentrance.Connections
shallbemadetothefollowingpartsbybondingconductors:
a. lighteningconductor
b. earthingsystemsoftheelectricpowerdistributionsystem
c. thecentralheatingsystem
d. theconductivewatersupplyline
e. theconductivepartsofthewastewaterline
f. theconductivepartsofthegassupplyand
g. thestructuralmetalframeworkofthebuilding,ifapplicable.
Mainequipotentialbondingconductorsshallhavecrosssectionalareasofnotlessthanhalfthecrosssectionalareaof
thelargestprotectiveconductoroftheinstallation,subjecttoaminimumof6mm2.Thecrosssectionalarea,neednot,
however,exceed25mm2ifthebondingconductorisofcopperoracrosssectionalareaaffordingequivalentcurrentcarrying
capacityinothermetals.
65
TABLE11EXAMPLESOFAPPLICATIONOFSAFETYPROVISIONS
(Clause24.1.3)
MEDICALLYUSEDROOM
POTECTIVEMEASURES
P0/P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
1.Massageroom
2.Operatingwashroom
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3.Ward,General
4.Deliveryroom
5.ECG,EEG,EMGroom
6.Endoscopicroom
7.Examinationortreatmentroom
8.Labourroom
9.Operatingsterilizationroom
10.Orologyroom(notbeinganoperatingtheatre)
11.Radiologicaldiagnosticandtherapyroomotherthanmentionedunder20and24
12.Hydrotherapyroom
13.Physiotherapyroom
14.Anaestheticroom
x1
15.Operatingtheatre
x1
16.Operatingpreparationroom
x1
17.Operatingplasterroom
x1
18.Operatingrecoveryroom
x1
19.Outpatientoperatingroom
x1
20.Heartcatheterizationroom
x1
21.Intensivecareroom
x1
22.Intensiveexaminationroom
x1
23.Intensivemonitoringroom
x1
24.Angiographicexaminationroom
x1
25.Hemodialysisroom
x1
26.Centralmonitoringroom(seeNote)
x1
NOTEOnlyifsucharoomispartofamedicalroomgroupand,therefore,intstalledinthesamewayasanintensivemonitoringroom.
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Centralmonitoringroomhavingnoconductiveconnectiontothemexiallyusedroom(forexample,byuseofisolatingcouplingdevicesfor
signaltransmission)maybeinstalledasnonmedicallyusedfrom(ProvisionP0only).
M
mandatorymeasure
recommendedmeasure
x1
asx,butonlyforinsulationmonitoringdeviceand
additionalmeasuremaybeconsidereddesirable.
25.1.2.5
Eachmedicallyusedroomorroomgroupshallhaveitsownprotectiveconductorbusbar,whichshouldhaveadequate
mechanicalandelectricalpropertiesandresistanceagainstcorrosion.
Thisbusbarmaybelocatedintherelevantpowerdistributionbox.Theleadsconnectedtoterminalsofsuchaprotective
conductorbarshallbeidentifiedandshallbesimilarlydesignatedondrawingsoftheinstallationsystem.
25.1.2.6
Theimpedance(Z)betweentheprotectiveconductorbarandeachconnectedprotectiveconductorcontactinwall
socketsorterminalsshouldnotexceed02,iftheratedcurrentoftheovercurrentprotectivedeviceis16Aorless.Incaseof
aratedcurrentexceeding16A,theimpedanceshouldbecalculatedusingtheformula:
Image
inallcasesZshallnotexceed02.
(Ir=ratedcurrentofovercurrentprotectivedeviceinamperes).
NOTEThemeasurementoftheprotectiveconductorimpedanceshouldbeperformedwithanaccurrent
notlessthan10Aandnotexceeding25Afromasourceofcurrentwithanoloadvoltagenotexceeding6V,fora
periodofatleast5a.
25.1.2.7
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ThecrosssectionalareaoftheprotectiveconductorshallbenotlessthantheappropriatevalueshowninTable7.
Thecrosssectionalareaofeveryprotectiveconductorwhichdoesnotformpartofthesupplycableorcableenclosure
shallbe,inanycase,notlessthan:
a. 25mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisprovidedand
b. 4mm2,ifmechanicalprotectionisnotprovided.
25.1.2.8
Itmaybenecessarytoruntheprotectiveconductorseparatefromthephaseconductors,inordertoavoidmeasuring
problemswhenrecordingbioelectricpotentials.
25.1.3
ProvisionP3:SupplementaryEquipotentialBonding
25.1.3.1
Inordertominimizethetouchvoltage,allextraneousconductivepartsshallbeconnectedtothesystemofprotective
conductors.
Anequipotentialconductorbarshallbeprovided.Itshouldbelocatedneartheprotectiveconductorbar(seealso
25.1.2.5).Acombinedprotectiveconductorandequipotentialbondingbarmaybeused,ifallconductorsareclearlymarked
accordingto25.1.2.5and25.1.3.3(e).
25.1.3.2
Connectionsshallbeprovidedfromtheequipotentialbondingbartoextraneousconductivepartssuchaspipesforfresh
water,heating,gases,vacuumandotherpartswitha
66
conductivesurfacearealargerthanC02m2oralineardimensionexceeding20cmorsmallerpartthatmaybegrasped
byhand.
Additionally,thefollowingrequirementsapply:
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a. Suchconnectionsneednotbemadeto:
1. Extraneousconductivepartsinsideofwalls(forexample,structuralmetalworkofbuildings)havingnodirect
connectiontoanyaccessibleconductivepartinsidetheroom,and
2. Conductivepartsinanonconductiveenclosure
b. Inlocationswherethepositionofthepatientcanbepredeterminedthisprovisionmayberestrictedtoextraneous
conductivepartswithinthepatientenvironment(seeAppendixBofNEC(Part3,Section4)and
c. Inoperatingtheatres,intensivecarerooms,heartcatheterizationroomsandroomsintendedfortherecordingof
bioelectricalactionpotentialsallpartsshouldbeconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingbarviadirectandseparate
conductors.
25.1.3.3
Thefollowingrequirementsshallbefulfilled:
a. Theimpedancebetweenextraneousconductivepartsandtheequipotentialbondingbarshallnotexceed01.
NOTEThemeasurementofthisimpedanceshouldbeperformedwithacurrentnotlessthan10A
andnotexceeding25Aduringnotlessthan5sfromacurrentsourcewithanoloadpotentialnotexceeding
6Vac.
b. Allequipotentialbondingconductorsshallbeinsulated,theinsulationbeingcolouredgreenyellow.
NOTEInsulationoftheequipotentialbondingconductorsisnecessary,toavoidloopsbycontactand
toavoidpickingupofstraycurrents.
c. Equipotentialconductorsbetweenpermanentlyinstalledextraneousconductivepartsandtheequipotentialbondingbar
shallhaveacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan4mm2copperorcopperequivalent.
d. Theequipotentialbondingbar,ifany,shouldhaveadequatemechanicalandelectricalproperties,andresistanceagainst
corrossion.
e. Theconductorsconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingbarshallbemarkedandshallbesimilarlydesignatedondrawings
oftheinstallationsystem.
f. Aseparateprotectiveconductorbarandanequipotentialbondingbarinamedicallyusedroomorinaroomgroupshall
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beinterconnectedwithaconductorhavingacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan16mm2copperorcopperequivalent
(see25.1.3.1).
g. Anadequatenumber(underconsideration)ofequipotentialbondingterminalsotherthanthoseforprotectiveconductor
contactorpinsofsocketoutletsshouldbeprovidedineachroomfortheconnectionofanadditionalprotective
conductorofequipmentorforreasonsoffunctionalearthingofequipment.
25.1.4
ProvisionP3:RestrictionofTouchVoltageinRoomsEquippedforDirectCardiacApplication
25.1.4.1
Thecontinuouscurrentthrougharesistanceof1000connectedbetweentheequipotentialbondingbarandanyexposed
conductivepartaswellasanyextraneousconductivepartinthepatientenvironmentshallnotexceed10MAinnormal
conditionforfrequenciesfromdcto1kHz.
Foradescriptionofpatientenvironment,seeAppendixBofNEC(Part3,Section4).Wherethemeasuringdevicehasan
impedanceandafrequencycharacteristics,thecurrentmayalsobeindicatedasacontinuousvoltagewithalimitof10mV
betweenthepartsmentionedabove.
a. Duringthetest,itisassumedthatfixedandpermanentlyinstalledmedicalelectricalequipmentisoperating.
b. Normalconditionsmeanswithoutanyfaultintheinstallationandinthemedicalelectricalequipment.
NOTETocomplywiththisrequirement,itmaybenecessarytoapplyoneormoreofthefollowingmethods:
Extraneousconductivepartsmaybe:
a. connectedtotheequipotentialbondingbarbyaconductorofalargecrosssectionalareainordertoreducethe
voltagedropacrosssuchaconductor,
b. insulatedsothatitisnotpossibletotouchthemunintentionally,and
c. providedwithisolatingjointsatthoseplaceswheretheyenterandleavetheroom.
Exposedconductivepartsofpermanentlyinstalledequipmentmaybeisolatedfromtheconductivebuildingconstruction.
25.1.5
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ProvisionP4:ApplicationofResidualCurrentProtectiveDevices
25.1.5.1
Theuseofaresidualcurrentprotectivedeviceisnotrecognizedasasolemeansofprotectionanddoesnotobviatethe
needtoapplytheprovisionsPIandP2.
25.1.5.2
Eachroomoreachroomgroupshallbeprovidedwithatleastoneresidualcurrentprotectivedevice.
25.1.5.3
Aresidualcurrentprotectivedeviceshallhaveastandardratedoperatingresidualcurrent//N30mA.
25.1.5.4
Amedicalisolatingtransformerandthecircuitssuppliedfromitshallnotbeprotectedbyaresidualcurrentprotective
device.
67
25.1.5.5
Electricalequipment,forexample,generallightingluminaries,installedmorethan25mabovefloorlevel,neednotbe
protectedbyaresidualcurrentprotectivedevice.
25.1.5.6
Fixedandpermanentlyinstalledelectromedicalequipmentwithapowerconsumptionrequiringanovercurrent
protectivedeviceofmorethan63Aratedvaluemaybeconnectedtothesupplymainsbyuseofaresidualcurrentprotective
devicewithIN300mA.
25.1.6
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ProvisionP5:MedicalITSystem
25.1.6.0
TheuseofamedicalITSystemforthesupplyofmedicallyusedroomforexample,operatingtheatres,maybedesirable
fordifferentreasons:
a. AmedicalITSystemincreasesthereliabilityofpowersupplyinareaswhereaninterruptionofpowersupplymaycausea
hazardtopatientoruser
b. AmedicalITSystemreducesanearthfaultcurrenttoalowvalueandthusalsoreducesthetouchvoltageacrossa
protectiveconductorthroughwhichthisearthfaultcurrentmayflow
c. AmedicalITSystemreducesleakagecurrentsofequipmenttoalowvalue,wherethemedicalITSystemisapproximately
symmetricaltoearth.
ItisnecessarytokeeptheimpedancetoearthofthemedicalITSystemashighaspossible.Thismaybeachieved
by:
a. restrictionofthephysicaldimensionsofthemedicalisolatingtransformer,
b. restrictionofthesystemsuppliedbythistransformer,
c. restrictionofthenumberofmedicalelectricalequipmentconnectedtosuchasystem,and
d. highinternalimpedancetoearthoftheinsulationmonitoringdeviceconnectedtosuchacircuit.
IftheprimaryreasonfortheuseofamedicalITSystemisthereliabilityofthepowersupply,itisnotpossibletodefine,
forsuchsystem,ahazardcurrentandaninsulationresistancemonitoringdeviceshouldbeused.
If,ontheotherhand,therestrictionofleakagecurrentofequipmentisthemainreasonfortheuseofthemedicalIT
System,aninsulationimpedancemonitoringdeviceshouldbeused.
25.1.6.1
Foreachroomoreachroomgroupatleastonefixedandpermanentlyinstalledmedicalisolatingtransformershallbe
provided.
25.1.6.2
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Amedicalisolatingtransformershallbeprotectedagainstshortcircuitandoverload.
IncaseofashortcircuitoradoubleearthfaultinpartsofoppositepolarityofthemedicalITSystem,thedefective
systemshallbedisconnectedbytherelevantovercurrentprotectivedevice.
Ifmorethanoneitemofequipmentcanbeconnectedtothesamesecondarywindingofthetransformer,atleasttwo
separatelyprotectedcircuitsshouldbeprovidedforreasonsofcontinuityofsupply.
25.1.6.3
Overcurrentprotectivedevicesshallbeeasilyaccessibleandshallbemarkedtoindicatetheprotectivecircuit.
25.1.6.4
Aninsulationmonitoringdeviceshallbeprovidedtoindicateafaultoftheinsulationtoearthofalivepartofthemedical
ITSystem.
25.1.6.5
Fixedandpermanentlyinstalledequipmentwitharatedpowerinputofmorethan5kVAandallXrayequipment(even
witharatedpowerinputoflessthan6kVA)shallbeprotectedbyProvisionP4.Electricalequipment,forexample,general
lighting,morethan25mabovefloorlevel,maybeconnecteddirectlytothesupplymains.
25.1.6.6
GeneralrequirementsforinsulationmonitoringdevicesAseparateinsulationresistanceorimpedancemonitoring
deviceshallbeprovidedforeachsecondarysystem.Itshallcomplywiththerequirementsof(a)to(d)below:
a. Itshallnotbepossibletorendersuchadeviceinoperativebyaswitch.Itshallindicatevisiblyandaudiblyiftheresistance
orimpedanceoftheinsulationfallsbelowthevaluegivenin25.1.6.7and23.1.6.8.
b. Atestbuttonshallbeprovidedtoenablecheckingtheresponseofthemonitortoafaultconditionasdescribedin
25.1.6.4.
c. Thevisibleindicationmentionedin(a)oftheinsulationmonitoringdeviceshallbevisibleinthemonitoredroomor
roomgroup.
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d. Theinsulationmonitoringdeviceshouldbeconnectedsymmetricallytothesecondarycircuitofthetransformer.
25.1.6.7
InsulationresistancemonitoringdeviceTheacresistanceofaninsulationresistancemonitoringdeviceshallbeatleast
100k.Themeasuringvoltageofthemonitoringdeviceshallnotexceed25V,andthemeasuringcurrent(incaseofashort
circuitofanexternalconductortoearth)shallnotexceed1mA.Thealarmshalloperateiftheresistancebetweenthe
monitoredisolatedcircuitandearthis50korless,settingtoahighervalueisrecommended.
25.1.6.8
InsulationimpedancemonitoringdeviceAninsulationimpedancemonitoringdeviceshall
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givereadingcalibratedintotalhazardcurrentwiththevalueof2mAnearthecentreofthemetrescale.
Thedeviceshallnotfailtoalarmfortotalhazardcurrentsinexcessof2mA.Innocase,however,shallthealarmbe
activateduntilthefaulthazardcurrentexceeds07mA.
NOTEThevalueof2mAor07mAarebasedonpracticalexperiencewith110to120Vpowersupplies.For
a220240Vpowersupply,itmaybenecessarytoincreasethesevaluesto4and14mAbecauseofthehigher
leakagecurrentofequipment.
DuringthecheckingoftheresponseofthemonitortoafaultconditiontheimpedancebetweenthemedicalITSystem
andearthshallnotdecrease.
SECTION8STATICANDLIGHTNINGPROTECTIONEARTHING
NOTEForthetimebeing,thegeneralprinciplesofstaticandlightningprotectionearthing,togetherwith
therelevantrulesforsuchpurposesascontainedinIS:76891974Guideforcontrolofundesirablestatic
electricityandIS:23091969Codeofpracticefortheprotectionofbuildingsandalliedstructuresagainstlightning
(firstrevision)areconsideredasvalidinthissection.Asimultaneousreview/revisionofthesestandardsisin
progress.
Forcompletenessoftheearthingcode,itisproposedtoincluderelevantearthingandbondingdetailsfor
controlofstaticelectricityandlightningprotectioninSection8induecourse.
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SECTION9MISCELLANEOUSINSTALLATIONSANDCONSIDERATIONS
28.EARTHINGINPOTENTIALLYHAZARDOUSAREAS
28.1EarthingandBonding
28.1.1
Earthingshouldbeinaccordancewiththerelevantsectionsofthiscode.Theconnectionbetweenmetalparttobe
groundedandthegroundingconductorshallbemadesecuremechanicallyandelectricallybyusingadequatemetallicfitting.
Thegroundingconductorsshallbesufficientlystrongandthick,andtheportionsofconductorwhicharelikelytobecorroded
ordamagedshallbewellprotected.Groundingconductorswhichshallnotreachahazardoushightemperatureduetothe
anticipatedmaximumearthfaultcurrentflowingshallbeused.
28.1.2
ProtectionagainstlightningshallbeprovidedinaccordancewithSection8.Specificguidelinesforinstallationsin
hazardouslocationsaregiveninIS:23091969*Interconnectionsystemwithotherburiedmetalservicesand/orearth
terminationsforequipmentgroundingforthepurposeofequalizingthepotentialdistributioninthegroundshouldpreferably
bemadebelowground.
28.1.3
Portableandtransportableapparatusshallbegroundedwithoneofthecoresofflexiblecableforpowersupply.Theearth
continuityconductorandthemetallicscreen,whereverprovidedfortheflexiblecable,shouldbebondedtotheappropriate
metalworkoftheapparatusandtoearthingpinoftheplug.
28.1.4
Efficientbondingshouldbeinstalledwhereprotectionagainststraycurrentsorelectrostaticchargesisnecessary.
28.1.5
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EarthingandBondingofPipelinesandPipeRacksUnlessadequatelyconnectedtoearthelsewhere,allutility
andprocesspipelinesshouldbebondedtoacommonconductorbymeansofearthbarsorpipeclampsandconnectedtothe
earthingsystematapointwherethepipelinesenterorleavethehazardousareaexceptwhereconflictingwiththerequirements
ofcathodicprotection.Inaddition,itisrecommendedthatsteelpiperacksintheprocessunitsandoffsiteareasshouldbe
groundedatevery25m.
28.2PermissibleTypeofEarthingSystem
28.2.1
Guidanceonpermissiblepowersystemsisgivenbelow:
*Codeofpracticefortheprotectionofbuildingsandalliedstructuresagainstlighting(firstrevision).
a. ifapowersystemwithanearthedneutralisused,thetypeTNSsystemwithseparateneutral(M)andprotective
conductor(PE)throughoutthesystemispreferred.
Theneutralandtheprotectiveconductorshallnotbeconnectedtogetherorcombinedinasingleconductorina
hazardousarea.
ApowersystemoftypeIndianTNC(havingcombinedneutralandprotectivefunctionsinasingleconductor
throughoutthesystem)isnotallowedinhazardousarea.
b. IfatypeITpowersystem(separateearthsforpowersystemandexposedconductiveparts)isusedinZone1,itshallbe
protectedwitharesidualcurrentdeviceevenifitisasafetyextralowvoltagecircuit(below50V).
ThetypeTTpowersystemisnotpermittedinZone0.
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c. ForanITpowersystem(neutralisolatedfromearthorearthedthroughimpedance),aninsulationmonitoringdevice
shouldbeusedtoindicatethefirstearthfault.However,equipmentinZone0shallbedisconnectedinstantaneouslyin
caseofthefirstearthfault,eitherbythemonitoringdeviceorbyaresidualcurrentoperateddevice.
d. ForpowersystemsatallvoltagelevelsinstalledinZone0,dueattentionshouldbepaidtothelimitationofearthfault
currentsinmagnitudeandduration.Instantaneousearthfaultprotectionshallbeinstalled.
ItmayalsobenecessarytoprovideinstantaneousearthfaultprotectiondevicesforcertainapplicationsinZone1.
28.2.2
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PotentialEqualizationToavoiddangeroussparkingbetweenmetallicpartsofstructures,potentialequalizationis
alwaysrequiredforinstallationsinZone0andZone1areasandmaybenecessaryforinstallationsinZone2areas.Therefore,
allexposedandextraneousconductivepartsshallbeconnectedtothemainorsupplementaryequipotentialbondingsystem.
Thebondingsystemmayincludenormalprotectiveconductors,conduits,metalcablesheaths,steelwirearmouringand
metallicpartsofstructuresbutshallnotincludeneutralconductors.Theconductancebetweenmetallicpartsofstructuresshall
correspondtoacrosssectionofatleast10mm2ofcopper.
Enclosuresarenottobeseparatelyconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingsystemiftheyaresecuredtoandarein
metalliccontactwithstructuralpartsorpipingwhichareconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingsystem.
Foradditionalinformation,seerelevantsectionofthiscode.
However,therearecertainpiecesofequipment,forexample,someintrinsicallysafeapparatus,whicharenotintendedto
beconnectedtotheequipotentialbondingsystem.
29.TELECOMMUNICATIONCIRCUITSANDEQUIPMENT
29.1
GeneralInadditiontoprotectiveearthingwhichmayberequiredinaccordancewiththiscode,telecommunication
systemsmayrequirefunctionalearthsforanyorallofthefollowingpurposes:
a. tocompletethecircuitsoftelegraphortelephonesystemsemployingonearthpathforsignallingpurposes
b. toearththepowersupplycircuitandstabilizethepotentialoftheequipmentwithrespecttoearth
c. forlightningprotectiveapparatusand
d. toearthscreeningconductorstoreduceelectricalinterferencetothetelecommunicationcircuits.
Ifequipmentrequiresbothaprotectiveearthandafunctionalearthconnection,itispreferredthatthetwoearthsshould
beseparatedwithintheequipmentsothatpowersystemfaultcurrentscannotflowinthefunctionalearthingconductors.The
functionalearthingsystemandconductorscanthenbedesignedsolelyinaccordancewiththerequirementsofthe
telecommunicationsystem.Alternatively,theprotectiveandfunctionalearthmaybeconnectedtogetherwithintheequipment
butinthiscasethefunctionalearthsystemandconductorsshouldbesuitableforthecurrenttheymaycarryunderpower
systemfaultconditions.
Thegeneralrecommendationsforlightningprotectionapplytoearthsystemsfortelecommunicationlightning
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protection.
Thetelecommunicationfunctionalearthshouldbeobtainedfromapointwhichevenunderpowersystemfault
conditionsisunlikelytohaveadangerouspotentialtoremoteearth.
TheconsumersearthterminalofaTNsystemissuitable,otherwiseasuitableearthelectrodesystem,separatefromthe
protectiveearth,shouldbeprovided.
29.2
TelecommunicationCircuitsAssociationwithHighVoltageSupplySystemsTelecommunicationcircuitsusedinany
wayinconnectionwithorincloseproximitytohighvoltageequipmentrequirespecialattentionanddueconsiderationshould
begiventothesafeguardingofsuchcircuitsagainstriseinpotentialofthesupplysystemearthelectrodes.
Whenatelecommunicationcircuitisprovidedinabuilding,whereahighvoltagesystemterminatesandthe
telecommunicationcircuitispartoforiselectricallyconnectedtoasystemoutsidetheearthelectrodearea,precautionsshould
betakentosafeguardpersonnelandtelecommunicationplantagainstriseofpotentialoftheearthelectrodesystem.
Thetermearthelectrodesystemincludesallmetalwork,suchaspowercablesheaths,pipes,frameworksofbuildings
andmetalfences,bondedtothepowersystemearthelectrodesandsituatedwithinadistanceof100moutsidethefencingthat
surroundsthehighvoltagecompoundorcompoundsitalsoincludesthefirstthreesupportsofanyoverheadlineleavingthe
station.Theearthelectrodeareaisanyareawithin5mofanypartoftheearthelectrodesystem.
Thefollowingpracticeisrecommended:
70
a. Inallcasesasgreataseparationasispracticableshouldbeprovidedbetweenthetelecommunicationcablesandthe
stationearthelectrodesystem.Nevertheless,withinastation,topreventtheappearanceofpotentialdifferencesbetween
normallyaccessiblemetalparts,allsuchpartsofthetelecommunicationinstallationshouldbeconnectedtothestation
earthelectrodesystem.
b. Atstationswheretheneutralofthehighvoltagesystemisearthed,itisgenerallypracticablefromaknowledgeofthe
impedanceoftheearthelectrodesystemandofthemaximumearthfaultcurrenttoestimatetheriseofearthpotential
thatwilloccurupontheincidenceofafault.Wheretheestimatedoesnotexceedsafevaluesnoprecautionadditionalto
thatdescribedin(a)isnecessary.Thislimitmaybeextendedtohighervaluesifallthepowerlinescontributingtothe
earthfaultcurrentareinthehighreliabilitycategory.
Iftheestimateisabovesafelimits(see20.5.1),thefollowingadditionalprecautionsshouldbeobserved.
c. Wherethetelecommunicationcircuitlieswithintheearthelectrodearea,itshouldberunininsulatedcablecapableof
withstandingtheapplicationofatestvoltageof2200Vdc(orac50Hzpeak)or(1500+2U)Vdc(orac50Hzpeak),
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whereUistheestimatedriseofearthpotential,whicheveristhegreater,betweenconductorsandearthfor1min.Itis
preferredthatthecableshavenometallicsheath,armouringorscreenbut,ifanyexists,itshouldbeisolatedeitherfrom
theriseofearthpotentialorfromtherestofthetelecommunicationnetworkbyinsulationcapableofwithstandingthe
abovetestvoltage.Thestationterminalequipmentandwiringshouldbeisolatedfromthelinebyabarrierdesignedto
withstandthetestvoltageasabove.Allwiringandapparatusconnectedtothelinesideofthisbarriershouldbeinsulated
fromthestationearthtowithstandthesametestvoltage.
d. Anyearthconnectionforthetelecommunicationcircuitrequiredonthelinesideofisolatingbarriershouldbeobtained
fromapointoutsidetheearthelectrodeareaviaeitherapairinthetelecommunicationcableoracableinsulatedin
accordancewith(c).
Inpractice,(c)and(d)arenormallyconfinedtostationswheretheneutralofa33kVorhighervoltagesystemisearthed
since,atotherstations,linefaultsdonotusuallyproducedangerousconditions.
30.BUILDINGSITES
30.1
Intheoftendampandroughenvironmentofbuildingsites,precautionstopreventelectricalhazardshavetoberobust
andregularlyinspectedandthisparticularlyappliestotheearthingsystem.
Becauseofthegreatdifficultyofensuringthatallincomingmetallicservicesandextraneousmetalworkarebondedtothe
neutralofthesupplysystem,wherethesupplyisat415V/240V,tothussatisfytherequirementsofthePMEapproval,itis
unlikelythatthesupplyauthoritywillofferanearthterminalwherethesupplysystemhasamultipleearthedneutral.Ifthe
supplyisatavoltagehigherthan415V,thedeveloperwillhavetoprovidetheneutralearthingonthelowvoltagesystem.
30.2
Themainprotectionagainstelectricalhazardsonaconstructionsiteistheuseofareducedlowvoltagesystemforpower
tools(110Vbetweenphasesand55Vtomidpointearthor65Vtostarpointearth)andsafetyextralowvoltageforsuppliesto
headlamps,etc.
Theearthfaultloopimpedancesonareducedvoltagesystemorona240/415Vsystemservingfixedequipmentshould
allowdisconnectionwithinthesafeduration.
30.3
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Earlydiscussionswiththeelectricityboardareessentialsothatagreementonthetypeofsupply,includingearthing
facilities,canbeobtained.Wherethesupplyisprovidedfromthelowvoltagedistributionsystem,theincreasinguseof
protectivemultipleearthing(PME)willusuallypreventanearthingterminalbeingprovidedbytheelectricityboardbecauseof
thedevelopersinabilitytocomplywiththerequirementsofthePMEapprovalduringconstructionwork.
31.MINESANDQUARRIES
31.1
GeneralEarthingrequirementsforminesandquarriesarebasedonthebroadprinciplethatexposedconductiveparts
ofapparatusshouldbeefficientlyconnectedtoearthorotherwiseprotectedbyotherequallyeffectivemeanstopreventdanger
resultingfromariseinpotential(aboveearth)ontheseconductiveparts.
Insomeminesandcertainquarries(quarriesincludeopencastcoalsites),inadditiontoshockrisk,therearealso
dangersassociatedwiththepossiblepresenceofflammablegasandexplosivematerials.Inthesecases,separatelocalearthing
maybenecessarytoavoidincendivesparkscausedbystaticelectricaldischarge.
31.2
PowerSystemEarthingAtmostminesandquarries,theincomingsupplyisprovidedbythesupplyauthoritywho
willinstalswitchgearandmeteringfortheirownpurpose.Itisimportanttoclearlyestablishinallcases,thepointatwhichthe
supplyauthoritiesresponsibilitiesterminateandwheretheconsumersresponsibilitycommence.
Ifthesupplyisfromatransformer(orgenerator),thatis,thepropertyofthesupplyauthority,andisonsite,arequest
shouldbemadeforthemtofacilitateconnectionoftheconsumersearthingsystemtotheneutralormidvoltagepoint.In
somecases,thesupplyauthoritywillallowtheuseoftheirearthelectrodeforjointuse,inthiseventtheconsumermaynot
havetoprovideandmaintainhisownearthelectrode.Ifthesupplyisfromatransformer
71
thatisnotthepropertyofthesupplyauthority,oriftheconsumergenerateselectricityprivately,thentheconsumer
shouldprovideandmaintaintheearthelectrodesthathavetheneutralormidvoltagepointsbondedtothem.
Ifthesupplytransformer(orgenerator)isdistantfromtheconsumerspremises,provisionofanearthterminalatthe
premisesshouldberequested.Wherethisispossible,theearthterminalshouldbemadeavailablebymeansofanadditional
earthconductorinthesupplycableoroverheadline.
NOTEThesupplycablesheathandarmouringmayservethepurposeofthisearthconductorprovidedthat
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theyarebondedtothesupplysourceearth,neutralormidvoltagepointandmeetthe50percentconductivity
requirement.
Iftheprovisionofsuchanearthterminalisimpracticable,thenitisimperativethattheearthelectrodesatthesupply
sourceandconsumerspremisesaremaintainedsuchthattheirresistancetothegeneralmassofearthisaslowaspossible,for
example,lessthan2,andappropriateearthfaultprotectionisprovided.
Inallcases,theaimshouldbetomaintainearthelectroderesistance,aslowasispracticable,takingaccountofthesite
conditions,forexample,soil/rockresistivity.Except,however,fortheinstancequotedabove,theachievementofalow
resistanceisnotsoimportantasadequatebondingofallexposedmetallicpartsbacktothesupplysourceneutralormidvoltage
pointearthelectrode.
Themainssupplysystemneutralormidvoltagepointsshouldbeearthedatonepointonlyandinthecaseofmines,this
shouldbeonthesurface.Theconnectiontoearthmayeitherbeasolidconnectionorviaanimpedancetolimittheprospective
earthfaultcurrentandinthecaseofimpedanceearthedsystems,suitableearthfaultprovided,thatis,capableofdetectingthe
restrictedflowoffaultcurrent.
Noswitchorcircuitbreakerorfuseshouldbeplacedinanyearthingconductor,althoughaninterlockedchangeover
linkingdeviceisallowedincertaincaseswheretwoormoreearthelectrodesareprovided.Suchadevicewouldbeusedtoallow
periodictestingofanelectroderesistancetothegeneralmassofearth.
31.3
ApparatusEarthingatCoalandOtherMinesEverymetalliccoveringofanycableshouldbeearthed.Thismay
beconsideredasformingpartoftheearthingconductorexceptinthecaseofflexibletrailingcableswherespecificearthing
conductorsmayalsoberequired.
Earthingconductorsinstalledforthatpurposeshouldhaveaconductivitythroughout(includingjoints)ofnotlessthan
halfthatoftheconductorhavingthegreatestcurrentcarryingcapacity,towhichthatearthconductorisrelatedandshould
haveacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan14mm2,inthecaseofflexiblecableworkingatlessthan125V,thecrosssection
areaneednotbegreaterthan6mm2alsoaflexiblecableonthesurfaceoftheminesupplyingaloadlessthan3kWneednot
haveanearthconductorlargerthanthepowerconductors.
Cablesincorporatingsteeltapearmour(unlesssupplementingsteelwire),aluminiumarmourorcoppersheathed(mineral
insulated)cablesareunsuitableforusebelowground.Generallysingleordouble,steelwirearmouredcablesareused.Theuseof
paperinsulatedleadcoveredcableisalsodiscouragedfromusebelowgroundowingtothepoormechanicalstrengthofthe
paperinsulatingmaterial.
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Thefollowingarereleasedfromtherequirementstobeearthed,whenusedsolelyatthesurfaceofthemine:
a. anylampholder,thatis,efficientlyprotectedbyacoveringwhichisinsulatedorearthedandmadeoffireresisting
material
b. anyhandheldtoolthatisdoubleinsulated
c. anyportableapparatusworkingatlessthan50Vdcor30Vacand
d. anyothernonportableapparatusworkingatlessthan250Vdcor125Vac.
Inthecaseofelectricalcircuitsusedforcontrol,interlockingandindicatinginstruments,theregulationsallowonepole
oftheauxiliarytransformersecondarywindingservingthesecircuitstobeconnectedtoearthasanalternativetomidpoint
earthing.
Wheremobileapparatuscontainingitsownsourceofelectricity,forexample,mobilegeneratorsetsanddieselelectric
vehicles/cranes,isusedonthesurface,thenanexceptionisrequiredfromthepresentregulationsiftherequirementtoearth
thesetothemainearthelectrodeisimpracticable.However,thebondingtogetherofallexposedmetallicpartsisrequired.
Newregulationsareproposedwhich,itishoped,willeliminatethisanomallybycallingforallpartsofsuchapparatusto
besecurelybondedtogethertopreventdangerandrelextherequirementtoconnectthestructuretothemainearthsystem.
Belowground,whereselfcontainedmobileapparatusisused,forexample,batterylocomotives,theseshouldbeoperated
astotallyinsulatedsystems(toavoidsparksbetweenmetalpartsoftheapparatus).Warningsystemsshouldbeprovidedtogive
anindicationofleakagetoframe.
Atplacesbelowground,whereflammablegasmayoccurinquantitytoindicatedanger(usuallydeemedtobeplaces
where025percent
72
flammablegascouldbepresentinthegeneralbodyofair),thenlimitationofthemaximumprospectiveearthfault
currentiscalledforonpowersystemsworkingatvoltagesbetween250and1200V(therangeofvoltagenormallyusedforcoal
windingmachineryservedbyflexibletrailingcables).Inthesecases,themaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrentshouldbe
limited(normallybyimpedanceearthing)to16Aatvoltagesbetween250and650Vandto2Aatvoltagesbetween650and1
200V.Ineithercase,theswitchgearcontorllingthecircuitshouldbeabletodetectandcutoffthesupplyofelectricitywith
lessthanonethirdofthemaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrentflowing.
NOTETheratiobetweenmaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrentandprotectionsettingsisknownasthe
trippingratio.Inpracticeithasbeenfoundthatinordertotakeaccountofvoltagedepressionsoccurringwhena
shortcircuitcoincideswithanearthfaultthetrippingratioshouldbesettoatleast5:1.Multipointearthingofa
powercircuit(sometimesreferredtoasaninsulatedorfreeneutralsystem)isallowedatanyplaceinamine,
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includingplaceswhereflammablegasmayoccur,providedthatatransformerisusedwhichhasameanstocutoff
thesupplyandpreventdangershouldabreakdownoccurbetweentheprimaryandsecondarywindings.Inthese
systemsthemaximumprospectiveearthfaultcurrentdoesnotusuallyexceed2Aandswitchgearissettotripat
lessthanonefifthofthisvalue.
Signallingandtelephonecircuitsmaybeconnectedtoearthwheresafetyisenhancedandthemethodofconnectionis
approvedbytheconcernedauthorityforthattypeofapparatus.
31.4
ApparatusEarthingatMiscellaneousMinesandQuarriesEveryearthingconductorshouldhavean
equivalentcrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan14mm2exceptthisrequirementdoesnotapplytoanearthingconductor,thatis:
a. themetalliccoveringofacable,whichshouldhaveconductancenotlessthanhalfthatofthelargestcurrentcarrying
capacityconductorinthatcable
b. oneoftheconductorsinamulticoreflexiblecableusedtosupplyportableapparatus,inwhichcasetheearthconductor
hastobeequalincrosssectionalareatothatofthelargestcurrentcarryingconductorand
c. apartofanoverheadlineonthesurfacewhichshouldhaveacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan12mm2.
Everycableatamiscellaneousmineorquarryoperatingatvoltagesexceeding250Vdcor125Vac,otherthan
flexiblecablesandthosenotrequiredtobecoveredbyinsulatingmaterial,shouldbeprotectedthroughoutbyasuitable
metalliccoveringthathastobeearthed.Metalliccoveringisdefinedintheregulationsanditshouldbenotedthatthis
doesnotincludeanymetalsotherthanironorsteel,thereforecableswitharmouringsormetalliccovermadeofsoft
metalssuchasaluminiumandcopper(MICCcable)cannotbeusedonthesepremiseswherethevoltagesexceed250V
dcor125Vac.
Whereacableisprovidedwithaleadsheath,inadditiontotherequiredmetalliccovering,theconductanceofthelead
sheathmaybetakenascontributingtothatofthemetalliccovering.Forsuchinstallations,plumbedjointshavetobeused
wheretheleadsheathisjointedorterminated.
Whereflexiblecableisusedtosupplyportableapparatusatvoltagesexceeding250Vdcor125Vac,suchcableshouldbe
protectedbyoneofthefollowing:
a. Ametalliccovering(flexiblewirearmouring)thatenclosesalltheconductorsandhavingaconductanceofnotlessthan
halfthatofthelargestcurrentcarryingconductor,orwherethisisimpracticable,havingaconductancenotlessthanthat
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ofa14mm2crosssectionalareacopperconductor.
b. Ascreenofwirestoenclosealltheconductors(collectivelyscreenedtypecable)havingaconductancenotlessthanthat
ofa14mm2crosssectionalareacopperconductor.
c. Ascreenofwiresarrangedtoindividuallyencloseeachconductor(individuallyscreenedtypecable),otherthantheearth
conductor.CablesofthisconstructionforuseinquarrieshavetobeapprovedbyHSE.Formiscellaneousmines,the
screensshouldeachhaveaconductanceofnotlessthanthatof6mm2crosssectionalareacopperconductor.
Whereflexiblecablesareusedwithportableapparatusatquarriesandthesizeoftheconductorissuchastomake
theuseofonemulticorecableimpracticable,singlecorecablesofsuchconstructionandbondedinsuchamanneras
HSEmayapprove,maybeused.
32.STREETLIGHTINGANDOTHERELECTRICALLYSUPPLIEDSTREETFURNITURE
NOTEStreetfurnitureincludesfixedlightingcolumns,illuminatedtrafficsigns,bollardsandother
electricallysuppliedequipmentpermanentlyplacedinthestreet.
32.1
Inallcasesthelocalsupplyauthorityshouldbeconsultedbeforedesignworkonnewstreetfurnitureiscommencedto
ascertainthetypeofsystemthatwillsupplythenewinstallation.
32.2
StreetfurnituremaybefedfromthecircuitprotectedbyaTNSsystemandinsucharrangementsasupplycablewith
separatephase,neutral
73
andprotectiveconductorisrequired,thatis,anSNEcable.Thewiringontheloadsideoftheprotectivedeviceinthe
unitshouldconsistofseparatephase,neutralandcircuitprotectiveconductors.Exposedextraneousconductivepartsofthe
itemofstreetfurniturebeingsuppliedshouldbebondedtotheearthingterminalwithintheequipment.Theearthingterminal
isitselfconnectedtothesupplyprotectiveconductor.
32.3
AnalternativemethodofsupplyingandprotectingstreetfurnitureisbymeansofaTCSsystem.Insuchcases,a
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combinedneutralandearthconductorcableisnormallyused,thatis,aCNEcable.
32.4
Wiringontheloadsideoftheprotectivedeviceintheunitsbeingsuppliedshoulduse,unlessaspecialapprovalhasbeen
obtained,separatephase,neutralandcircuitprotectiveconductors.Exposedextraneousconductivepartsshouldbebondedto
theneutralterminalbyaconductorwithacopperequivalentcrosssectionof6mmorthesameasthatofthesupplyneutral
conductorifthisisless.Thisrequirementdoesnotapplytosmallisolatedmetalpartsnotlikelytocomeintocontactwith
exposedmetallicorextraneousmetalpartsorwithearth,forexample,smallmetallicdoorsanddoorframesinconcreteor
plasticsunitsshouldnotbesoconnected.
32.5
Inthecaseofcircuitsfeedingmorethanoneitemofstreetfurniture,forexample,bylooping,anearthelectrodeshould
beinstalledatthelastorpenultimateunitandthiselectrodeshouldbesuchastomaketheresistancetoearthoftheneutralat
anypointlessthan20beforetheconnectionofanycircuitprotectiveorbondingconductorstotheneutralterminal.Should
theprovisionofoneelectroderesultinnotmeetingthe20requirementotherearthelectrodesequallyspacedalongthe
circuithavetobeinstalled.Alternatively,theearthelectrodemaybeomittedifitispossibletoconnecttheneutralatthe
ultimateunittoaneutralconnectedtoadifferentsupplysystem.
Therearetwofurtherpossibilitiesthatmayarise:
a. wherethesupplysystemisTNCbutwherethelightingauthoritywishestouseSNEcableintheinstallationanddoesnot
wishtousethesupplyauthoritysCNEconductorasafaultpath,and
b. wherethesupplyauthoritydoesnotprovideanearthterminal.
32.6
Inbothofthesecases,thelightingauthorityshouldprovideitsownprotectiveearthingelectrodeandthesystemwillbe
theTTsystem.Careisnecessarytoensurethatboththeinitialandcontinuingimpedanceofthefaultpathissufficientlylowto
ensuretheoperationoftheprotectivedeviceontheoccurrenceofafaultinthefixtures.Theneutralearthelectrodeatthe
supplytransformerisanimportantpartofthefaultloopbutitsresistancetoearthisnotunderthecontrolofthelighting
authority.Insuchcircumstances,considerationshouldbegiventotheuseofresidualcurrentdevicestoensuredisconnection
offaultyequipment.
Theuseofmetallicstreetlightcolumnsorthemetalcarcassesofcontrolunits,etc,asprotectiveearthelectrodesisnot
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recommended.
33.EARTHINGOFCONDCTORSFORSAFEWORKING
33.1
GeneralThisclausedealsonlywiththebroadprinciplesoftheearthingofconductorsforsafetypurposes.Itis
intendedtocoverthesafetyearthingofbothlightandheavycurrentequipmentandisgenerallyapplicabletohighvoltage
equipmenthowever,insomecircumstancesitmay,whererequired,beappliedasanadditionalsafetyfeaturetolowvoltage
equipment.Whereapplicable,theuseofsafetyearthsshouldbepartofoverallsafesystemofwork,whichwillincludeisolation,
lockingoff,permitstoworkorsimilardocumentsandliaisonbetweenpartiesincontrolofthesuppliesandincontrolofthe
work.Toensurethatasafesystemofworkisclearlysetout,asetofdetailedrulesandprocedureswillbenecessaryineach
particularcase.
33.2
SafetyEarthingWhenmaintenanceorrepairwork,etc,istobeundertakenonorneartohighvoltageapparatusor
conductors,precautionsinconnectionwithsafetyearthingshouldbetakengenerallyasindicatedbelow.Allphasesor
conductorsofanyapparatusormaintobeworkedonshouldbemadedead,isolatedandearthedandshouldremainearthed
untilworkiscompleted.Dueregardshouldbetakenofchangingconditionsduringtheprogressofworkwhichmaynecessitate
revisionofearthingarrangementstoensurethecontinuousofsafetymeasures,forexample,ifaconnectionismadetoanother
sourceofsupply,whilstworkisinprogress,thenadditionalearthswouldbenecessaryasworkproceeds.
Safetyearthingequipmentmaybeavailableaspermanentequipment,suchasearthingswitches,aspartofpermanent
equipmentsuchasprovisionforintegralearthingofacircuitbreaker,orasportableearthingequipmentsuchasportable
earthingleads.Allsuchequipmentneedstoreceiveregularmaintenanceandshouldbeinspectedbeforeuse.
Whereverpossible,initialearthingshouldbecarriedoutviaacircuitbreakerofothersuitablefaultrateddevice.
Earthingleadsshould,ineverycase,beofadequatecrosssectionalareatocarrywithsafety,duringthetimeofoperation
oftheprotectivedevices,themaximumshortcircuitcurrentthatmayflowunderfaultconditions.Ifpossible,theyshould
eitherbeflexible,braidedorstrandedbarecopperconductorsoraluminiumconductorssuitablyprotectedagainstcorrosionand
mechanical
74
damage.Innocase,evenfortheearthingoflightcurrentequipment(forexample,highvoltagetestingequipment),
shouldthecrosssectionalareaoftheearthingleadbelessthan6mm.
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Ithasbeenfoundinsomecasesthata70mm2copperequivalentearthingleadisthelargestthatcanbeconveniently
handled.Insuchcases,wherealargersizeofleadisnecessarytocarrywithsafety,themaximumshortcircuitcurrentthatcan
occur,itmaybenecessarytouseanumberofleadsof70mm2orothersuitablesizeinparallel.
Beforeearthingleadsareapplied,itshouldbeverifiedthatthecircuitisdeadand,whereapplicable,atestbymeansofa
suitabletypeofvoltageindicatorshouldbeapplied(theindicatoritselfbeingtestedimmediatelybeforeandafterverification)
beforeapplyingearthconnections.
Earthingleadsshouldfirstbeefficientlyboltedorclampedtothepermanentearthingsystemortoasubstantialelectrode
oflowresistance.Shouldnoconvenientpermanentearthelectrodebereadilyavailable,asubstantialcopperearthspikedriven
wellintothegroundcanbeutilizedtoprovideaquickandconvenienttemporaryearthelectrode.
Whilstsuchaspikeisnotgenerallyadequateasaprimarysafetyearth,itwillgiveadegreeofprotectionagainst
energizingbyinduction.
Earthingleadsshouldthenbesecurelyboltedorclampedtoapparatusofconductorstobeworkedonandthese
connectionsshouldberemovedinallcasesbeforetheearthingleadsaredisconnectedfromtheearthelectrodeorearthing
system.
Asuitableinsulatedearthingpoleordeviceshouldbeusedtoapplyearthingleadstoapparatusorconductorsonwhich
workistobeundertaken.
Earthingleadsshouldbekeptasshortaspossibleandbeplacedinsuchapositionthattheycannotbeaccidently
disconnectedordisturbedwhilstworkisinprogress.
33.3
PrecautionsRelatingtoApparatusandCablesInthecaseofswitchgear,phasesofthesectioninwhichthe
workistobedoneshouldbeshortcircuitedandearthedtothesameearthingsystem.Selfcontainedorportableapparatusis
generallyavailableforthispurpose.Whereverpossible,automatictrippingfeatnresofcircuitbreakersshouldberendered
inoperativebybeingdisconnectedfromthetrippingbatterybeforethecircuitbreakerisclosedandthebreakeroperating
mechanismshouldbelockedintheclosedposition.
Withtransformers,ifthereisanypossibilityofanywindingbecominginadvertentlylive,theterminalsofallwindings
shouldbeearthedsothatnodangerfromshockcanoccur.Whentheneutralpointsofseveraltransformersareconnectedtoa
commonbar,whichisthenearthedthrougharesistanceofanarcsuppressioncoil,theneutralpointofanytransformerthatis
tobeworkedonshouldbedisconnectedanddirectlyearthedaswellasthephaseterminals.
Whenliquidearthingresistorsaretobeworkedon,particularlywhentheyaredrainedforworkinside,thecentral
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electrodeshouldbeshortedtothetankandnotearthedremotely.Thisisespeciallyimportantwheretwoliquidresistorsare
locatedsidebysideandoneremainsincommissionwhiletheotherisopenedformaintenance.
Whenworkistobecarriedoutonequipmentthatiscapableofcapacitivelystoringelectricalenergy,forexample,cables
andcapacitors,suchequipmenthastobedischargedtoearthpriortoworkcommencing.As,insomecircumstances,charge
canreappearonsuchapparatuswithoutreconnectingittoasourceofsupply,itisimportantworkthattheequipmentshould
remainearthedwhilstisinprogress.Thecuttingofacableduringthecourseofworkmaydisconnectconductorsfromsafety
earthsandprecautionsshouldbetakentopreventthishappening.
33.4
PrecautionsRelatingtoOverheadLinesAfteralinehasbeenmadedead,isolated,dischargedandearthedatall
pointsofsupply,aworkingearthshouldbesecurelyattachedtoeachphaseofthelineatthepointorpointswhereworkistobe
carriedout.
Theprovisionofaworkingearthentailsaconnectiontoacontinuousearthwireortoatemporaryearthelectrode,the
resistanceofwhichneednotbelow.Theapplicationofearthstoallphaseconductorswill,inadditiontoearthingthe
conductors,applyashortcircuittoallphases.
Theconnectionoftheearthingleadtoeachconductoroftheoverheadlineshouldbemadeusingasuitablemechanical
clampplacedroundtheconductorbymeansofaninsulatedearthingpolewhichcanalsobeutilizedtosecuretheclamptight
roundthelineconductor.Whenitisrequiredtoremovetheworkingearthfromtheline,themechanicalclampcanbe
unscrewedandreleasedfromtheconductorbymeansofthisrod.Evenwhenanoverheadlineisearthedateachpointof
supply,itisnecessarytoplaceaworkingearthateachandeverypositionwhereworkisbeingcarriedoutonthelineon
accountofthedangerofthelinebecomingenergizedbyinductionfromotherpowerlinesandtosafeguardagainstthecharging
ofthelinebyatmosphericdisturbances.Wheretheworkentailsbreakingaconductor,forexample,onthejumperata
sectioningpoint,itisnecessarytoprovideaworkingearthonbothsidesoftheworkingpoint.
33.5
SafteyEarthingofLowVoltageConductorsInsomecircumstances,itmaybenecessarytoapplysafetyearthing
tolowvoltageconductorsinordertopreventdanger.Suchcircumstancesmayinclude,forexample,workoncapacitorsorwork
onbareoverheadcranetrolley
75
wires.Wheretheearthingoflowvoltageconductorsisadopted,thenthegeneralprinciplessetoutin33.2,33.3and
33.4shouldbeappliedanddueconsiderationshouldbetakenoffaultcurrentlevels(whichcanbeashighorhigherthanon
highvoltagesystems),whenthesizeofearthconductorischosen.
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34.MAINTENANCEOFEARTHELECTRODES
34.1
Itisrecommendedthatperiodicalchecktestsofallearthelectrodesshouldbecarriedout.Recordsshouldbemaintained
ofsuchchecks.
34.2
Whereearthleakagecircuitbreakersareemployed,acheckshallbekeptontheassociatedearthelectrodebyperiodically
operatingthetestingdevicewhichisembodiedintheearthedleakagecircuitbreaker.
34.3
Theneighbouringsoiltotheearthelectrodeshallbekeptmoist,wherenecessary,byperiodicallypouringwaterthrougha
pipewherefittedalongwithitorbypouringwaterintheimmediatevicinityoftheearthelectrode.
34.4SubstationsandGeneratingStations
34.4.1
Recordsshallbekeptoftheinitialresistanceofsubstationandgeneratingstationearthelectrodesandofsubsequenttests
carriedout.
34.4.2
Normallyannualmeasurementofearthresistanceofsubstationshallbecarriedoutbutlocalcircumstancesinthelightof
experiencemayjustifyincreaseordecreaseinthisintervalbutitshouldnotbelessthanonceintwoyears.
34.4.3
Periodicalvisualinspectionofallearthelectrodeconnection,whereveravailable,shallbecarriedouttoensuretheir
rigidityandothersignsofdeterioration.
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34.4.4
Inruralsubstations,particularlythoseconnectedtooverheadhighvoltageandlowvoltagelines,greaterrelianceshould
beplacedontheelectrodesystem,andthereforefacilitiesfortestingtheresistanceoftheelectrodetogeneralmassofearth,
annuallyorasrequiredbyexperience,shouldbeprovided.
34.4.5
Whereinstallationsareearthedtoametalsheathofthesupplycable,itshallbeverifiedperiodicallythattheearthfault
loopisinasatisfactorystate.
34.4.6
Whereaninstallationisearthedtoacablesheathwhichisnotcontinuoustothesubstationneutral(thatis,thereisan
interveningsectionofoverheadlinewithoutearthwire),asupplementaryelectrodesystemmaybenecessary.Theadequacyof
theelectrodesystemshallbecheckedinitiallybyanearthfaultlooptest.
34.4.7
Theneighbouringsoiltotheearthelectrodeshallbekeptmoist,wherenecessarybyperiodicallypouringwaterthrougha
pipewherefittedalongwithitorbypouringwaterintheimmediatevicinityoftheearthelectrode.
SECTION10MEASUREMENTSANDCALCULATIONS
35.CALCULATIONOFEARTHFAULTCURRENTS
35.0
GeneralThemagnitudeofthecurrentthatwillflowintheeventofalinetoearthfaultonanearthedsystemis
determinedbytheimpedancefromthesourcetothefaultplustheimpedanceoftheearthreturnpath,includingthe
impedancesofearthingtransformers,resistorsandreactors(seeIS:57281970*).Forinterconnectedsystems,thecalculation
ofthecurrentmaybecomplicated.
35.1ResistanceEarthing
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35.1.1
Whenasinglelinetoearthfaultoccursonaresistancegroundedsystem,avoltageappearsacrosstheresistornearly
equaltothenormallinetoneutralvoltageofthesystem.
35.1.2
Tnlowresistancegroundedsystems,theresistorcurrentisapproximatelyequaltothecurrentinthefault.Thusthe
currentispracticallyequaltothelinetoneutralvoltagedividedbytheresistanceinohms.Thissimplemethodisonlysuitable
whentheearthfaultcurrentissmallcomparedto3phasefaultcurrent.
35.2
Inaresistanceearthedsystemwithasinglelinetoearthfault,theearthfaultcurrentmaybecomputedfrom:
Image
where
Ig
= earthfaultcurrentinA,
X1
= system+vesequencereactancein/phaseincludingthesubtransientreactanceoftherotatingmachines,
X2
= vesequencereactanceasforX1,
X0
= zerosequencereactanceasforX1,
Xn
= reactanceofneutralgroundingreactor,
XGP = reactanceofgroundreturncircuits,and
E
= linetoearthvoltageinV.
InmostindustrialandcommercialsystemswithoutinplantgeneratorX2=X1.
*Guideforshortcircuitcalculations.
76
35.3SolidEarthing
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35.3.1
Inthiscase,thefaultcurrentcanbecomputedfrom:
Image
36.MEASUREMENTOFEARTHRESISTIVITY
36.1ResistivityoftheSoil
36.1.1
Theresistivityoftheearthvarieswithinextremelywidelimits,between1and10000ohmmetres.Theresistivityofthe
soilatmanystationsiteshasbeenfoundtobenonuniform.Variationoftheresistivityofthesoilwithdepthismore
predominantascomparedtothevariationwithhorizontaldistances.Widevariationofresistivitywithdepthisdueto
stratificationofearthlayers.Insomesites,theresistivityvariationmaybegradual,wherestratificationisnotabrupt.Highly
refinedtechniquesforthedeterminationofresistivityofhomogeneoussoilisavailable.Todesignthemosteconomicaland
technicallysoundgroundingsystemforlargestations,itisnecessarytoobtainaccuratedataonthesoilresistivityandonits
variationatthestationsite.Resistivitymeasurementsatthesitewillrevealwhetherthesoilishomogeneousornonuniform.In
casethesoilisfounduniform,conventionalmethodsareapplicableforthecomputationofearthresistivityWhenthesoilis
foundnonuniform,eitheragradualvariationoratwolayermodelmaybeadoptedforthecomputationofearthresistivity.
36.1.2
Theresistivityofearthvariesoverawiderangedependingonitsmoisturecontent.Itis,therefore,advisabletoconduct
earthresistivitytestsduringthedryseasoninordertogetconservativeresults.
36.2TestLocations
36.2.1
Intheevaluationofearthresistivityforsubstationsandgeneratingstations,atleasteighttestdirectionsshallbechosen
fromthecentreofthestationtocoverthewholesite.Thisnumbershallbeincreasedforverylargestationsitesofit,thetest
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resultsobtainedatvariouslocationsshowasignificantdifference,indicatingvariationsinsoilformation.
36.2.2
Incaseoftransmissionlines,themeasurementsshallbetakenalongthedirectionofthelinethroughoutthelength
approximatelyonceinevery4kilometres.
36.3PrincipleofTests
36.3.1
Wennersfourelectrodemethodisrecommendedforthesetypesoffieldinvestigations.Inthismethod,fourelectrodes
aredrivenintotheearthalongastraightlineatequalintervals.AcurrentIispassedthroughthetwoouterelectrodesandthe
earthasshowninFig.33andthevoltagedifferenceV,observedbetweenthetwoinnerelectrodes.ThecurrentIflowinginto
theearthproducesanelectricfieldproportionaltoitsdensityandtotheresistivityofthesoil.ThevoltageVmeasuredbetween
theinnerelectrodesis,therefore,proportionaltothefield.Consequently,theresistivitywillbeproportionaltotheratioofthe
voltagetocurrent.Thefollowingequationholdsfor:
Image
where
resistivityofsoilinohmmetre,
distancebetweentwosuccessiveelectrodesinmetres,
voltagedifferencebetweenthetwoinnerelectrodesinvolts,
currentflowingthroughthetwoouterelectrodesinamperes,and
depthofburialofelectrodeinmetres.
36.3.1.1
Ifthedepthofburialoftheelectrodesinthegrounddisnegligiblecomparedtothespacingbetweentheelectrodes,then
Image
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36.3.1.2
Earthtestersnormallyusedforthesetestscomprisethecurrentsourceandmeterinasingleinstrumentanddirectlyread
theresistance.ThemostfrequentlyusedearthtesteristhefourterminalmeggershowninFig.33.Whenusingsuchamegger,
theresistivitymaybeevaluatedfromthemodifiedequationasgivenbelow:
p=2SR(3)
where
resistivityofsoilinohmmetres,
distancebetweensuccessiveelectrodesinmetres,and
meggerreadinginohms.
36.4TestProcedure
36.4.1
Attheselectedtestsite,inthechosendirection,fourelectrodesaredrivenintotheearthalongastraightlineatequal
intervals,s.Thedepthoftheelectrodesinthegroundshallbeoftheorderof10to15cm.Themeggerisplacedonasteadyand
approximatelylevelbase,thelinkbetweenterminalsPIandCIopenedandthefourelectrodesconnectedtotheinstrument
terminalsasshowninFig.33.Anappropriaterangeonthe
77
instrumentisthusselectedtoobtainclearreadingsavoidingthetwoendsofthescaleasfaraspossible.Thereadingsare
takenwhileturningthecrankatabout135rev/min.ResistivityiscalculatedbysubstitutingthevalueofRthusobtainedinthe
equation(3).Incasewheredepthofburialismorethan1/20thofspacing,equation(1)shouldbeusedinsteadof(3).
36.4.2
CorrectionforPotentialElectrodeResistanceIncaseswheretheresistanceofthepotentialelectrodes(thetwoinner
electrodes)iscomparativelyhigh,acorrectionofthetestresultswouldbenecessarydependingonitsvalue.Forthispurpose,
theinstrumentisconnectedtotheelectrodesasshowninFig.34.Thereadingsaretakenasbefore.Thecorrectionisthen
effectedasfollows.
36.4.2.1
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LetthereadingsofthemeggerbeRpwiththeconnectionsasshowninFig.34andtheelectrodespacinginmetres.Ifthe
uncorrectedvalueofsoilresistivityispandtheresistanceofthevoltagecircuitoftheinstrumentusedtoobtainR(asindicated
insidethescalecoverofthemeter)isRv,thecorrectedvalueoftheearthresistivitywouldbe:
=(Rv+Rp)/Rv
36.5TestingofSoilUniformity
36.5.1
Duringthecourseofabovetests,itwouldbedesirabletogetinformationaboutthehorizontalandverticalvariationsin
earthresistivityoverthesiteunderconsiderationforthecorrectcomputationoftheresistivitytobeusedinthedesign
calculations.Theverticalvariationsmaybedetectedbyrepeatingthetestsatagivenlocationinachosendirectionwitha
numberofdifferentelectrodespacings,increasingfrom2to250metresormore,preferablyinthesteps2,5,10,15,25and50
metresormore.Iftheresistivityvariationsarewithin20to30percent,thesoilinthevicinityofthetestlocationmaybe
considereduniform.Otherwiseacurveofresistivityversuselectrodespacingshallbeplottedandthiscurvefurtheranalyzedto
deducestratificationofsoilintotwoormorelayersofappropriatethicknessorasoilofgradualresistivityvariation.The
horizontalvariationsarestudiedbytakingmeasurementsinvariousdirectionsfromthecentreofthestation.
36.6ComputationofEarthResistivityofUniformSoil
36.6.1
Whentheearthresistivityreadingsfordifferentelectrodespacingsinadirectioniswithin20to30percent,thesoilis
consideredtobe
FIG.33CONNECTIONSFORAFOURTERMINALMEGGER
FIG.33CONNECTIONSFORAFOURTERMINALMEGGER
FIG.34TESTCONNECTIONTOMEASURETHESUMOFTHEPOTENTIALELECTRODERESISTANCES
FIG.34TESTCONNECTIONTOMEASURETHESUMOFTHEPOTENTIALELECTRODERESISTANCES
78
uniform.Whenthespacingisincreasedgraduallyfromlowvalues,atastage,itmaybefoundthattheresistivityreadings
ismoreorlessconstantirrespectiveoftheincreaseintheelectrodespacing.Theresistivityforthisspacingisnotedandtaken
astheresistivityforthatdirection.Inasimilarmanner,resistivitiesforatleasteightequallyspaceddirectionsfromthecentre
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ofthesitearemeasured.Theseresistivitiesareplottedonagraphsheetintheappropriatedirectionschoosingascale.Aclosed
curveisplottedonthegraphsheetsjointingalltheresistivitypointsplottedtogetthepolarresistivitycurve.Theareainsidethe
polarresistivitycurveismeasuredandequivalentcircleofthesameareaisfoundout.Theradiusofthisequivalentcircleisthe
averageresistivityofthesiteunderconsideration.Theaverageresistivitythusobtainedmaybeusedforthedesignofthe
earthinggridandothercomputationsandtheresultswillbereasonablyaccuratewhenthesoilishomogeneous(seeFig.35).
FIG.35POLARCURVE
FIG.35POLARCURVE
37.MEASUREMENTOFEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE
37.1
FallofPotentialMethodInthismethodtwoauxiliaryearthelectrodes,besidesthetestelectrode,areplacedat
suitabledistancesfromthetestelectrode(seeFig.36).AmeasuredcurrentispassedbetweentheelectrodeAtobetestedand
anauxiliarycurrentelectrodeCandthepotentialdifferencebetweentheelectrodeAandtheauxiliarypotentialelectrodeBis
measured.TheresistanceofthetestelectrodeAisthengivenby:
Image
where
R
resistanceofthetestelectrodeinohms,
readingofthevoltmeterinvolts,and
readingoftheammeterinamperes.
37.1.1
Ifthetestismadeatpowerfrequency,thatis,50c/s,theresistanceofthevoltmetershouldbehighcomparedtothatof
theauxiliarypotentialelectrodeBandinnocaseshouldbelessthan20000ohms.
NOTEInmostcases,therewillbestraycurrentsflowinginthesoilandunlesssomestepsaretakento
eliminatetheireffect,theymayproduceseriouserrorsinthemeasuredvalue.Ifthetestingcurrentisofthesame
frequencyasthestraycurrent,thiseliminationbecomesverydifficultanditisbettertouseanearthtester
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incorporatingahanddrivengenerator.Theseearthtestersusuallygeneratedirectcurrent,andhaverotarycurrent
reverserandsynchronousrectifiermountedonthegeneratorshaftsothatalternatingcurrentissuppliedtothetest
circuitandtheresultingpotentialsarerectifiedformeasurementbyadirectreadingmovingcoilohmmeter.The
presenceofstraycurrentsinthesoilisindicatedbyawanderingoftheinstrumentpointer,butanincreaseor
decreaseofgeneratorhandlespeedwillcausethistodisappear.
37.1.2
Thesourceofcurrentshallbeisolatedfromthesupplybyadoublewoundtransformer.
37.1.3
Atthetimeoftest,wherepossible,thetestelectrodeshallbeseparatedfromtheearthingsystem.
37.1.4
Theauxiliaryelectrodesusuallyconsistof125mmdiametermildsteelroddrivenupto1mintotheground.
37.1.5
Allthetestelectrodesandthecurrentelectrodesshallbesoplacedthattheyareindependentoftheresistanceareaof
eachother.Ifthetestelectrodeisintheformofrod,pipeorplate,theauxiliarycurrentelectrodeCshallbeplacedatleast30m
awayfromitandtheauxiliarypotentialelectrodeBmidwaybetweenthem.
37.2AlternativeMethod
37.2.1
Themethoddescribedin37.1maynotgivesatisfactoryresultsifthetestelectrodeisofverylowimpedance(oneohmor
less).Thisappliesparticularly,whilemeasuringthecombinedresistanceoflargeinstallations.Inthesecases,thefollowing
methodmaybeadopted.
37.2.2
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Twosuitabledirections,atleast90degreesapart,arefirstselected.Thepotentialleadislaidinonedirectionandan
electrodeisplaced250to300metresfromthefence.Thecurrentleadistakenintheotherdirectionandthecurrentelectrode
locatedatthesamedistanceasthepotentialelectrode.Areadingistakenunderthiscondition.Thecurrentelectrodeisthen
movedoutin30mstepsuntilthesamereadingisobtainedforthreeconsecutivelocations.Thecurrentelectrodeisthenleftin
thelastforegoingpositionandthepotentialelectrodeismovedoutin30mstepsuntilthreeconsecutivereadingsareobtained
withoutachangeinvalue.Thelastreadingthencorrespondstothetruevalueofearthresistance.
79
FIG.36METHODOFMEASUREMENTOFEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE
FIG.36METHODOFMEASUREMENTOFEARTHELECTRODERESISTANCE
38.MEASUREMENTOFEARTHLOOPIMPEDANCE
38.1
Thecurrent,whichwillflowunderearthfaultconditionsandwillthusbeavailabletooperatetheoverloadprotection,
dependsupontheimpedanceoftheearthreturnloop.Thisincludesthelineconductor,fault,earthcontinuityconductorand
earthinglead,earthelectrodesatconsumerspremises,andsubstationsandanyparallelmetallicreturntothetransformer
neutralaswellasthetransformerwinding.Totesttheoverallearthingforanyinstallation,dependingforprotectiononthe
operationofovercurrentdevices,forexample,fuses,itisnecessarytomeasuretheimpedanceofthisloopunderpracticalfault
conditions.Afterthesupplyhasbeenconnected,thisshallbedonebytheuseofanearthloopimpedancetester.Theneutralis
usedinplaceofthephaseconductorforthepurposeofthetest.Theopencircuitvoltageofthelooptestershouldnotexceed32
volts.
SECTION11DATAPROCESSINGINSTALLATIONS
39.EARTHINGREQUIREMENTSFORINSTALLATIONSOFDATAPROCESSINGEQUIPMENT
39.1General
39.1.1
Section11coversthespecialrequirementsfortheconnectionofdataprocessingequipmenttotheelectricalpower
installationofbuildings,wherethedataprocessingequipmenthasearthleakagecurrentexceedingthelimitspecifiedinIS:
104221982*forequipmentconnectedviaaplugandsocket.
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Theserequirementsareintendedtoensurethesafetyofpersonalinthepresenceofsuchleakagecurrent.
TheserulesapplytotheinstallationuptothepointofconnectionoftheequipmentasshowninFig.37.
Theserulesdonotconsiderinstallationsforwhichtheinfluenceoflightningphenomenamayexist.
Theserulesdonotconsidertheinterconnectionofequipmentondifferentsupplyandearthingsystemsbydata
transmissionlines.
39.1.2
Therequirementsofthissectionmayalsobeappliedwhereinstallations,otherthandataprocessingsuchasthosefor
industrialcontrolandtelecommunicationsequipment,carryhighleakagecurrentduetoradiofrequencyinterference
suppressionfilteringrequirements.
NOTERadiofrequencyinterferencesuppressionfiltersfittedtodataprocessingequipmentmayproduce
highearthleakagecurrent.Insuchcases,failureofcontinuityintheprotectiveearthconnectionmaycausea
dangeroustouchvoltage.ThemainpurposeofthisCodeistopreventthishazard.
*Requirementsandtestsforsafetyofdataprocessingequipment.
39.2Definitions
39.2.1
DataProcessingEquipmentElectricallyoperatedmachineunitsthatseparatelyorassembledinsystems,accumulate,
processandstoredata.Acceptanceanddivulgenceofdatamayormaynotbeelectronicmeans.
39.2.2
LowNoiseEarthAnearthconnectioninwhichthelevelofconductedinterferencefromexternalsourcesdoesnot
produceanunacceptableincidenceofmalfunctioninthedataprocessingorsimilarequipmenttowhichitisconnected.
NOTEThesusceptibilityintermsofamplitude/frequencycharacteristicsvariesdependingonthetypeof
equipment.
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39.2.3
HighLeakageCurrentEarthleakagecurrentexceedingthelimitspecifiedinIS:104221982*forequipmentconnected
viaaplugandsocket.
39.2.4
GeneralInstallationRequirementsTherequirementsofthisclauseapplywhereequipmenthavinghighleakagecurrent
isconnectedtoanytypeofpowersystem.TherequirementsapplytotheinstallationasshowninFig.37.
80
FIG.37EQUIPMENTINSTALLATIONBOUNDARIES
FIG.37EQUIPMENTINSTALLATIONBOUNDARIES
AdditionalrequirementsaregivenforITandTTsystemsin39.2.4.4and39.3.
NOTE1OnTNCsystems,wheretheneutralandprotectiveconductorsarecontainedinasingleconductor
(PENconductor)uptotheequipmentterminals,leakagecurrentmaybetreatedasloadcurrent.
NOTE2Equipmentnormallyhavinghighearthleakagecurrentmaynotbecompatiblewithinstallations
incorporatingresidualcurrentprotectivedevices,aswellasthestandingresidualcurrentduetoleakagecurrent.
Thepossibilityofnuisancetrippingduetocapacitorchargingcurrentsatswitchonshallbeconsidered.
Equipmentshallbe:
a. stationary,and
b. eitherpermanentlyconnectedtothebuildingwiringinstallationorconnectedviaindustrialplugsandsockets.
NOTE1Industrialplugsandsocketsarcexamplesofsuitableplugsandsockets.Plugsandsocketsfor
generalusearcnotsuitable.
NOTE2Itisparticularlyimportantforequipmentwithhighleakagecurrentthatearthcontinuityshould
becheckedatthetimeitisinstalledandafteranymodificationtotheinstallation.
Itisalsorecommendedthatearthcontinuitybecheckedthereafteratregularintervals.
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Additionally,whereleakagecurrentmeasuredinaccordancewithIS:104221982*exceeds10mA,equipmentshallbe
connectedinaccordancewithoneofthethreealternativerequirementsdetailedin39.2.4.1to39.2.4.3.
NOTELeakagecurrentmeasurementsprescribedbyIS:104221982*includelikelyundetectedfault
conditionswithintheequipment.
39.2.4.1
Highintegrityearthconnections
NOTETheaimoftherequirementsdetailedbelowistoprovidehighintegrityearthconnectionsbyusing
robustorduplicateconductorsinassociationwithpermanentconnectionsorrobustconnectors.
Protectiveconductorsshallcomplywiththefollowing:
a. Whereindependentprotectiveconductorsare,thereshallbeoneconductorwithacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan1
mm2ortwoconductorswithindependentterminations,eachhavingacrosssectionalareaofnotlessthan4mm2
81
b. Whenincorporatedinamulticorecabletogetherwiththesupplyconductors,thesumtotalcrosssectionalareaofallthe
conductorsshallbenotlessthan1mm2andtheprotectiveconductorsshallcomplywithSection2
c. Whenincorporatedinamulticorecabletogetherwiththesupplyconductors,thesumtotalcrosssectionalareaofallthe
conductorsshallbenotlessthan1fmm2andtheprotectiveconductorsshallcomplywithSection2
d. Wheretheprotectiveconductorisinstalledin,andconnectedinparallelwithametalconduithavingelectricalcontinuity
accordingtorelevantIndianStandardspecificationonconduitsforelectricalpurposes,aconductorofnotlessthan2.5
mm2shallbeusedand
e. Rigidandflexiblemetallicconduits,metallicductingandmetallicscreens,andarmouringwhichmeettherequirementsof
Section2.
Eachconductorspecifiedin(a),(b),(c)and(d)shallmeettherequirementsofSection2.
39.2.4.2
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EarthintegritymonitoringAprotectivedeviceshallbeprovidedwhichwilldisconnecttheequipment,intheeventofa
discontinuityoccurringintheearthconductor,withinthevoltage/timelimitsprescribedbyrelevantstandards.
TheprotectiveconductorsshallcomplywithSection2.
NOTETheaimoftherequirementsdetailedaboveistomonitorthecontinuityoftheprotectiveearth
connectionandprovidedmeansofautomaticsupplydisconnectionincaseoffailure.
39.2.4.3
UseofdoublewoundtransformerEquipmentshallbeconnectedtothesupplyviaadoublewoundtransformerofother
unitsinwhichtheinputandoutputcircuitsareseparated,suchasmotoralternatorsets(see40).
ThesecondarycircuitshouldpreferablybeconnectedasaTNsystembutanITsystemmaybeusedwhererequiredfor
thespecificapplication.
NOTETheaimoftherequirementsaboveistolocalizethepathoftheleakagecurrent,andminimizethe
possibilityofabreakincontinuityinthispath.
39.2.4.4
AdditionalrequirementsforTTsystemTherequirementsbelowensurethattheleakageinnormaloperationofall
equipmentprotectedbyoneandthesameprotectivedeviceislessthanhalfofthatrequiredtooperateearthfaultprotective
devicesfortheinstallationcircuit.
a. ThetotalleakagecurrentI1(inamperes),theresistanceoftheearthelectrodeRA(inohms)andthenominaloperating
residualcurrentoftheprotectivedevice/n(inamperes)shallberelatedasfollows:
Image
b. Iftherequirementsof(a)cannotbemet,therequirementsof39.2.4.3shallapply.
39.3AdditionalRequirementsforITSystems
39.3.1
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ItispreferredthatequipmentwithhighleakagecurrentisnotconnecteddirectlytoITsystemsbecauseofthedifficulty
ofsatisfyingtouchvoltagerequirementsonafirstfault.
Wherepossible,theequipmentissuppliedbyaTNsystemderivedfromthemainssupplybymeansofadoublewound
transformer.
Whereitispossible,theequipmentmaybeconnecteddirectlytotheequipmentmaybeconnecteddirectlytotheIT
system.ThismaybefacilitatedbyconnectingallprotectiveearthconnectionsforequipmentusingtheITsystemdirectlytothe
powersystemearthelectrode.
39.3.2
BeforemakingdirectconnectiontoanITsystem,installersshallensurethatequipmentissuitableforconnectiontoIT
systemsaccordingtothedeclarationofthemanufacutrer.
39.4SafetyRequirementforLowNoiseEarthingConnections
NOTEItmaybefoundthattheelectricalnoiselevelsontheprotectiveearthingsystemofbuilding
installationscauseanunacceptableincidenceofmalfunctiononadataprocessingequipmentconnectedtoit.
39.4.1
Whatevermeasuresaretakentoprovidealownoiseearthingconnection,itisrequiredthatexposedconductivepartsof
dataprocessingshallbeconnectedtothemainearthingterminal.
NOTETheuseofseparateearthelectrodesforsimultaneouslyaccessibleexposedconductivepartsisnot
permitted.
ThisrequirementshallalsoapplytometallicenclosuresofClassIIandClassIIIequipment,andtoFELVcircuitswhen
theseareearthedforfunctionalreasons.
Earthconductors,whichservefunctionalpurposesonly,neednotcomplywithSection2.
39.4.2
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OtherSpecialMethodsInextremecases,ifthesafetyrequirementsof39.4.1arefulfilledbutelectricalnoiseonthe
mainearthingterminaloftheinstallationcannotbereducedtoanacceptablelevel,theinstallationhastobetreatedasaspecial
case.
Theearthingarrangementhastoprovidethesamelevelofprotectionasisgenerallyprovidedbytheserequirementsand
particularattentionshouldbegiventoensurethatthearrangement:
a. providesadequateprotectionagainstovercurrent
82
b. preventsexcessivetouchvoltagesontheequipmentandensuresequipotentialbetweentheequipmentandadjacentmetal
workorotherelectricalequipment,undernormalandfaultconditionsand
c. meetstherequirementsrelatingtoexcessiveearthleakagecurrent,ifappropriate,anddoesnotinvalidatethem.
40.EXAMPLEOFTHEUSEOFTRANSFORMERS
40.1
TransformerincorporatedinorAttachedtoUnitThetransformershallbeconnectedinaccordancewithFig.
38inordertoconfinetheearthleakagecurrentinconductorswithintheunit.
NOTENofurtherspecialinstallationmeasuresarenecessary.
40.2
MethodofConnectingTransformersPhysicallySeparatefrom,UnitsTheneutralpointforthesecondary
circuitshallbeconnectedtoearthatthetransformerandtheearthconnectionsbetweentheequipmentandthetransformer
shallcomplywiththerequirementsof39.2.4.1or39.2.4.2.
ConnectionsshallbeasshowninFig.39.
FIG.38METHODSOFCONNECTINGDOUBLEWOUNDTRANSFORMERSSITUATEDWITHINORATTACHED
TOSINGLEUNITS
FIG.38METHODSOFCONNECTINGDOUBLEWOUNDTRANSFORMERSSITUATEDWITHINORATTACHEDTO
SINGLEUNITS
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83
FIG.39METHODOFCONNECTINGPHYSICALLYSEPARATEDTRANSFORMERS
FIG.39METHODOFCONNECTINGPHYSICALLYSEPARATEDTRANSFORMERS
84
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