Chapter 4

Protective transformers
by N.h,shton, revised by E.J.Mellor

4.1

4.1.1

General

Introduction

This chapter deals with instrument transformers, both current and voltage intended
for the operation of protective relays. Such transformers are necessary for the reasons explained in Chapter 2, that is, to isolate the voltage and current coils of the
relays from the high voltages of the power system, and to supply standard values of
current and voltage to the relays, for example 5A or 1A for current coils and 110 V
for voltage coils, thus enabling standard relays to be 'matched' to any power system.

4.1.2

Basic transformer principles

It is assumed that the student is already familiar with elementary transformer

theory to the extent that he understands that when an alternating current flows in
the primary winding, that current creates a magneto-motive force (m.m.f) which
results in an alternating flux in the core, which, in turn, induces an electromotive
force (e.m.f) in the primary winding and in any other windings wound on, or linked
with, the core.
A transformer, consisting of a core of magnetic material on which are wound
two windings, can be operated in two basic modes, shunt and series.
In the shunt mode, as in power or voltage operation, a voltage is applied to the
terminals of the primary windings, which, since the inducted e.m.f, in the primary
winding is sensibly equal to this applied voltage, determines the magnitude of the
core flux and, therefore, for a given sectional area of core, the flux density in the
core. With no burden (load) connected to the secondary terminals the current
flowing in the primary winding will be that necessary to excite the core. With a
burden connected to the secondary terminals current will flow in the secondary
winding, its value depending on the impedance of the burden, and additional

248

Protective transformers

current will flow in the primary winding depending on the turns-ratio of the transformer. The ampere-turns (a.t.) of the primary winding always exceed those of the
secondary winding by the amount necessary to excite the core.
In the series mode, that is, in current operation, the primary winding is
connected in series with the power system whose relatively high impedance determines the magnitude of the primary current and a component of this current
excites the core to the flux density necessary to induce in the secondary winding an
e.m.f, sufficient to drive the secondary current through the total impedance of the
secondary circuit.
In power and voltage transformers, therefore, the core flux density is substantially
constant under normal operating conditions; but in current transformers it is
dependent on the magnitude of the p ~ a r y current and the impedance of the
secondary circuit.

Ip

Rp

Rs

|S
f

le ]
Vp

Fig. 4 . 1 . 2 A

I-"s

]
Vs

Equivalent circuit for a transformer o f 1/1 turns ratio and negligible leakage flux

Fig. 4.1.2A shows a simplified equivalent circuit for a two-winding transformer

of 1/1 turns ratio, the leakage inductances having been omitted, (See Section 4.2.4).
In voltage operation we are interested in the magnitude and phase differences
between the primary and secondary voltages F'p and V s, caused by the currents Ip
and Is. flowing in the primary and secondary windings, the resistances of which are
denoted by R p and R s, respectively.
In current operation, however, we are not usually interested in these voltage
relationships at all but in the relationship between the primary current lp and the
secondary current I s. It will be noted that these currents differ by the amount of
the core exciting current I, which is, of course, a component oflp.

4.2

Steady-state theory of current transformers

4.2.1

Equivalent circuit, vector diagram, errors

Referring to Fig. 4.1.2A it will be seen that the errors of a current transformer are
caused by a component of the primary current being utilised to excite the core,

Protective transformers

249

with the result that only the remainder of the primary current is available for
'passing on' to the secondary circuit. Thus, for a 1/1 turns ratio, I s =Ip - I e where
Ie is dependent on the induced e.m.f. E s (equal to Is(Rs + ZB)), and on the exciting
impedance Ze. In th~ circuit R s is the resistance of the secondary
winding and Z a the impedance of the secondary burden.
Treating Ze as a linear impedance, the vectorial relationship between the fundamental frequency currents are typically as in Fig. 4.2.1A. This shows that the
vector difference between Ip and Is is Ie, and that It, the component ofle in phase
with Ip, constitutes the current (magnitude) error and Iq, the component of Ie in
quadrature with/p, results in the phase error 0. The relative values of the current
error component I, and the phase error component Iq depend on the phase
displacement of Is and Ie, the current error being a maximum and the phase error
zero when Is and le are in phase, that is when the total impedance of the secondary
circuit and the exciting impedance Ze are of like power factor. Under
such conditions the current error of a transformer with no turns correction, that is,
with its turns ratio equal to the nominal current ratio, is equal to the fundamental
frequency component of the exciting current (usually expressed as a percentage of
the primary current).
Composite error: This term is defined in connection with protective current
transformers in BS 3938 : 1973.

Es

Vs

tp

Fig. 4.2.1A Phasor diagram for circuit of Fig. 4.1.2,4

'Composite error' is the r.m~. value of the difference between the ideal secondary current and the actual secondary current, including the effects of phase displacement and harmonics of the exciting current. In a c.t. with negligible leakage
flux and no turns correction, that is, with turns ratio equal to the nominal current
ratio, composite error corresponds to the r.m~. value of the exciting current
(usually expressed as a percentage of the primary current).

250

Protective transformers

Again referring to Fig. 4.1.2A., ifZe was in fact a linear impedance the vectorial
error I e of Fig. 4.2.1A would be the composite error. In practice the magnetising
impedance Ze is non-linear, with the result that the exciting current le contains
some harmonics of the fundamental frequency which increase its r.m.s, value and
thus increase the composite error. This effect is most noticeable in the region
approaching saturation of the core.
It will be noted that the composite error is greater than the vectorial error, the
current error or the phase (quadrature) error. For example, if a transformer with no
turns correction had an exciting current, in terms of primary current of 5% fundamental frequency component plus 5% harmonics, the composite error would be
x/(52 + 52) = 7.07%. The vectorial error would be 5% the current error would not
exceed 5% and the phase error would not exceed 5 centiradians, that is, 2-87
degrees.
It should also be noted that composite error, because it includes harmonics,
cannot carry a plus or minus sign.
4.2.2

I n f l u e n c e o f the core, m a g n e t i c materials and m a g n e t i s a t i o n curves

It has been shown that the errors of a current transformer (c.t.) result from the core
exciting current, so it is obviously of first importance when considering the
performance of a c.t. to be able to calculate or measure the exciting current.
2.0

(~)

~.

f
(a)

1.0

e-

- (c)

0.5

0.5

1.0

1,5

Exciting Force - ( A T / c m r.m.s.)

Fig. 4.2.2A 5 0 Hz magnetisarion curves

(a) Hot-rolled non-oriented silicon steel
(b) Cold-rolled oriented silicon steel
(c) Nickel-iron (80% nickel)

2.0

Protective transformers

251

The excitation or magnetisation characteristics of a c.t. depend on the crosssectional area and length of magnetic path of the core, the number of turns in the
windings and the magnetic characteristics of the core material. Fig. 4.2.2A shows
typical magnetisation curves for three core materials commonly employed in
instrument transformers, namely (a) hot-rolled non-oriented silicon steel, (b) coldrolled oriented silicon steel, (c) nickel-iron. The curves show the exciting force
(m.m.f.) in r.m.s.a.t./cm (ampere-turns per cm length of magnetic path) against
peak flux density Bmax in tesla of net-sectional core area. It will be seen that at
low flux densities (a) has the lowest permeability and (c) the highest permeability,
whereas (b) comes in between but has an outstandingly high permeability at high
flux densities. A characteristic lying between those of the individual materials can
be obtained by building composite cores of two or more materials.
The core peak flux density Bmax can be calculated from the formula

E~
n/,na3

4.44TsAr

where E s = the secondary e.m.f, in volts

Ts = the number of turns in the secondary winding
A = the net core section in sq. metres
and
f i s the frequency.
Reference to Fig. 4.1.2A shows that E s = ls(R s + ZB), where Z B is the impe.
dance of the external secondary circuit or the burden, so that for a constant burden
Z B the core flux density varies directly as the secondary current. It will thus be
apparent from Fig. 4.2.2A that as the primary, and therefore the secondary,
currents are increased, a point is reached at which the core material starts to
saturate and the exciting current becomes excessive, thus resulting in excessive
current error. The exciting current is, of course, equal to the m.m.f, in a.t./cm
multiplied by the length of the core path (in cm) and divided by the number of
turns in the winding to which it is referred, either primary or secondary.
Reference to Fig. 4.2.2A shows that if the flux density at rated secondary
current is 0.1 Tesla a c.t. with a nickel-iron core to curve (c) would have good
accuracy up to five times the rated current. If, however, cold-rolled silicon steel
with characteristics to curve (b) is used, the accuracy would be reasonably good up
to 10 or 15 times the rated current although not as good below five times rated
current as it would be with core material to curve (c).
Fig. 4.2.2B shows typical curves relating primary to secondary current using the
materials whose magnetisation characteristics are given in Fig. 4.2.2.A.
When considering the performance to be expected from a given c.t., the exciting
current can be measured at various values of e.m.f. For this it is usually more
convenient to apply a varying voltage to the secondary winding, the primary
winding being open-circuited. Fig. 4.2.2C shows a typical relationship between
secondary e.m.f, and exciting current determined in this manner.
The point Kp on the curve is arbitrarily called the knee-point, and is defined as

252

Protective transformers

/
15

/I

//

I0

(c)

?.
0

S
N.mher

Fig. 4,2,2B

of

times

rated

10
primary

15

current

Typical performace curves with the magnetic materials o f Fig. 4.2.2,4

300

200

100
t,..

E
==
e-

/
100

200

3O0

Secondary exciting current (mA)

Fig. 4.2.2C

Magneti$ing curve for a c.t. turns-ratio 500/1; secondary resistance 2 ~

Protective transformer8

253

the point at which an increase of 10% in the exciting e.m.f, produces an increase
of 50% in the exciting current.
From the information given in Fig. 4.2.2C the percentage exciting current,
which is equal to the maximum composite error in a c.t. with no turns correction
and negligible leakage flux, can be calculated for any operating condition.
For example, with a burden impedance of 15 [2 (15 VA at 1 A)of0,8% power
factor, the total secondary circuit impedance, adding the 2 fi winding resistance
vectoriaUy, would be approximately 16.6f~ and the secondary ean.f, at 1 A (500 A
primary current) would be 16.6 V. At 10 times this current E s would be 166 V
(assuming no saturation) and the exciting current approximately 70 mA, which is
0.7% of the ideal secondary current of 10 A. This means that the current and
composite errors would not exceed 0.7% and the phase error could not exceed 0,7
centiradians equal to 0.7 x 34.38 = 24 rain. (Note: With a burden power factor of
0.8 lagging, the phase error would be unlikely to exceed 10 rain because the
exciting and secondary currents would be almost in phase, See Fig. 4.2.1A).
At 7500 A primary current the secondary ean.f, would be approximately 250 V,
giving an exciting current of 200 mA which is 1.33% of the nominal secondary
current of 15A.
4.2.3

Single-turn primary current transformers

ToroidaUy wound ring core c.t.s are commonly used because they can conveniently
be mounted on a bushing in switchgear or a power transformer, which then serves
as an insulated single-turn primary. At low primary currents, however, it may be
difficult to obtain sufficient output VA at the desired accuracy because, not only
is a large core section required to induce the required secondary e.m.f, in the small
number of secondary turns associated with the single-turn primary, but also the
exciting a.t., and, therefore, the errors, are large as a percentage of the small value
of primary a.t. available. In particular, this effect is pronounced when the core
diameter is made large in order to fit over a large diameter h.v. bushing, because
this increases the length of the flux path and hence the a.t. necessary to excite the
core.

4.2.4

Flux leakage

In the foregoing, flux leakage effects have been assumed to be negiibfle, which
fortunately is substantially true for a ring core with uniformly wound secondary
winding and centrally positioned primary conductor which does not bend round
the outside of the core at a small radius. In wound primary c.t.s, particularly when
the primary and secondary windings are not closely coupled, there may be
considerable leakage flux adding to the mutual flux in the parts of the core where
the influence of the m.m.f, due to the primary a.t. predominates over that due to
the opposing a.t. of the secondary winding, so that the core flux density is non,
uniform along the core flux path. An extreme example of this effect, chosen merely

254

Protective transformers

for illustration, is shown in Fig. 4.2.4A, where the primary and secondary windings
are positioned on two opposite limbs of a rectangular core. It will be seen that
1oakago flux SL adds to the mutual flux SM in the left-hand portion of the core on
which the primary coil is, wound. Even in designs with concentric primary and
secondary windings, such as the shell-type core illustrated in Fig. 4.2.4B, the
leakage flux passing between the primary and secondary windings and returning to
increase the flux density in the outer limbs and yokes of the core is appreciable.
'

~ *._.-

l.: i

.~

iC

Fig. 4 . 2 , 4 A

Flux leakage in wound-primary current transformer

,11

Fig. 4,2.4B

q~m

q}l-

Flux leakage in wound-primary current transformer

Ip

Rp

XI. I

X i. 2

Rs

Is

t le I

Vp

Fig, 4,2.4C

P_/

Equivalent circuit including flux leakage effects

ZB

Protective transformers

255

Under conditions such as these, the performance can not be calculated without
a detailed knowledge of the flux distribution throughout the core, since, in order to
arrive at the total exciting current which constitutes the error in current transformation, it is necessary to assess the sum of the exciting a.t. required for the various
values of flux density existing along the core flux path. Fig. 4.2.4C shows a simplified equivalent circuit which takes such flux leakage into account. In theory the
core flux path would have to be divided into an infinite number of small lengths
and the flux density and exciting a.t. calculated for the flux density of each length
In Fig. 4.2.4C, however, the core is considered in three zones having flux densities
corresponding to induced e.m.f.s Ep, Ei (intermediate) and Es for the three zones
indicated in Fig. 4.2.4A. These zones have exciting impedances Zel, Ze2 and Ze~
taking exciting currents Iel, Ie2 and les respectively. The effects can be reduced
by increasing the core section in the parts of the core carrying the leakage flux,
and in shell-type cores such as that shown in Fig. 4.2.4B it is beneficial to increase
the section of the outer limbs or yokes to obtain a flux density comparable with
that in the centre limb of the core.
This subject is very involved and cannot be treated adequately here, but it might
be noted that the concept of representing flux leakage by so-called 'secondary
reactance', which is considered to add to the burden and therefore to increase the
flux density throughout the core, is completely erroneous, and cannot be applied
satisfactorily for core flux densities outside the linear portion of the magnetisation
characteristic, that is at low and high flux densities.
Although, in general, leakage flux should be avoided in protective c.t.s, it can be
beneficial in c.t.s for the operation of metres, instruments and certain forms of
protection for the following reasons:
In a c.t. supplying a resistive burden the additional core exciting current due to
the leakage flux leads the exciting current due to the mutual flux by 90 degrees,
Thus the total exciting current is brought more nearly into phase with the primary
current, and this reduces the phase error, while the reduction in secondary current
magnitude, due to the same effect, can be compensated by an increase in turns
correction, that is a reduction in the number of secondary turns.
Secondly, an increase in leakage flux is accompanied by a decrease in the mutual
air flux, so that at primary currents above the value at which the core saturates the
increase in secondary current, for a given increase in primary current, is reduced.
Thus in c.t.s with high leakage flux the secondary current is more effectively
limited at high system fault currents and this affords protection to the windings and
movements of instruments, meters and relays.
4.2.5

Balancing windings and eddy-current shielding

It has been shown in the previous Section that when leakage flux links the primary
winding and not the secondary winding the resultant increase in exciting current
results in a reduction of secondary current, that is in a negative current error, When
part of the secondary winding is much more closely coupled with the primary

266

Protectivetransformers

winding than the remainder of the secondary winding, so that some core flux links
both the primary winding and the more closely coupled part but not the loosely
coupled part of the secondary winding, a counter effect occurs which tends to
increase the secondary current above the nominal value. This is shown in Fig. 4.2.5A
where a ring core with a uniformly spaced secondary winding is linked with an
unsymmetrically disposed prhnary winding, 0L being the leakage flux.
Severe leakage flux effects, whether resulting in positive or negative current
errors, are undesirable in c.t.s required for certain forms of balanced protection. In
wound primary transformers these effects are under the control of the c.t. designer
and can be minimlsed by suitable disposition of the windings. Also, in the majority
of applications where ring core c.t.s with uniformly spaced secondary windings are
mounted on bushings, the spacing of the neighbouring phase conductor, which

d) i.

Fig4,2,A
,

Flux leakage in a ring core with a co#centrated primary winding

~~~II~M

Fig4,2.6B
.

Parallel connection o f balancing windings

Secondary

Protective transformers

257

forms the return loop of the primary winding, is such that up to the values of fault
current envisaged the leakage flux effects are of little or no consequence. However,
there are certain applications where the fault current may be extremely high and
the effect of the proximity of the return conductors is not readily accessable by the
c.t. designer, and in such instances it may be necessary to employ balancing windings
or eddy-current shielding to reduce the leakage flux to an acceptable level.
The arrangement o f balancing windings is shown diagramatically in Fig. 4,2.5B,
This consists of a number of uniformly disposed windings connected in parallel and
having identical turns. The illustration shows the balancing windings wound over
the secondary winding but it may be convenient to locate the balancing windings
next to the core.
The action of balancing windings is as follows. With uniform flux throughout the
core, that is, no flux leakage, equal e.m.f.s are induced in all the windings and
because the windings are in parallel no current flows in them. When flux leakage
occurs the flux is no longer uniform throughout the core and unequal e~n,f.s are
therefore induced in these windings, resulting in circulating currents and local
m.m.f.s which counteract the unbalanced mJn.f.s responsible for the flux leakage,
thus reducing it.
The secondary winding itself may be arranged to perform the balancing function
by forming it from a number of parallel connected coils but, since this would
require each coil to have a large number of turns of Free wire, it is usually preferable
to employ separate balancing windings each of a few turns of a condu0tor of
comparatively large section. The number of turns in the balancing windings b
unimportant, the lower limit being a single turn for each, connected in parallel by
heavy copper rings. It is an obvious step from such an arrangement to enclose the
core in a split tubular sheath of conducting material; the gap at the split prevents
it forming a short-circuited turn on the core. In effect this is an infinite number of
single-turn coils connected in parallel and is more correctly termed an eddy-current
shield.
ES
h

Fig, 4.2.6A

lp

Wave-shapes o f primary current Ip core flux and induced e.m.f. Ea with open,
circuited secondary winding

258
4.2,6

Protectivetransformers
Open-circuit secondary voltage

It is shown in Section 4.2.2. that the e.m.f, induced in the secondary winding is
that required to drive the secondary current through the total impedance of the
secondary circuit, and that the core flux inducing this e.m.f, is provided by a small
difference between the primary and secondary a.t. With the secondary circuit open,
however, there are no secondary a.t.s to oppose those due to the primary current
and the whole of the primary a.t. act on the core as an excessive exciting force,
which might drive the core into saturation on each half-wave of current. Typical
flux and Induced e.m.f, wave shapes for this condition are shown in Fig. 4.2.6A and
it will be seen that the high rate of change of the flux ~ in the region of the primary
current zero induces an e.m.f., E s of high peak value in the secondary winding. With
rated current in the primary winding this peak value may be as low as a few
hundred volts in a small measuring c.t. with a 5A secondary winding, but it might
reach many kilovolts in the case of, say a 2000/1A protective c.t. with a large core
section. With system fault currents flowing through the primary winding even
higher voltages would be induced. Such voltages not only constitute a hazard to the
insulation of the c.t. itself and to connected instruments, relays and associated
wirIng, but also to life. It is thus important to prevent this condition arising and if
the secondary circuit has to be broken for any reason, it is essential first to shortcircuit the secondary terminals of the c.t. with a conductor securely connected and
capable of carrying the c.t. secondary current.

4.2.7

Secondary currents, burdens and connecting lead resistance

A standard rated secondary current of 5 A has been in use for many years. In applications for which the resistance of the leads between the c.t. and the instruments
or relays results in an excessive VA burden, rated secondary currents of 2 A or even
1 A have to be used. For example, if a c.t. is required to supply relays taking 10 VA
through a loop lead resistance of 0.1 I2 the total burden at 5 A is 10 + 52 x 0.1
= 12,5 VA, and a c.t. with a standard output rating of 15 VA would be satisfactory.
If, however, the lead resistance, due to the distance between the c.t. and relays, is
2[2, the output required at 5A would be 10 + 52 x 2 = 60 VA which would require
an excessively large and expensive transformer. By using 1 A rated secondary
current the output required would be reduced to 10 + 12 x 2 = 12 VA which could
be provided by a e.t. of reasonable dimensions and cost.
These lower rated secondary currents, however, should not be used indiscriminately because they require an increased number of secondary turns with some
increase tn dimensions and cost. Further, their use, particularly with c.t.s of high
rated primary currents results in increased transient and secondary open-circuit
voltages. Fortunately, at the higher primary currents, say in excess of 1000 A,
comparatively high VA outputs are readily obtained, even with single-turn primary
c,t.s and an intermediate value of rated secondary current such as 2 A may be used.

Protective transformers

259

Auxiliary c.t.s are sometimes used to reduce the current in high resistance leads
but the auxiliary c.t. itself imposes an additional burden of several VA on the main
c.t. and tends to offset the reduction in burden caused by the reduced current in
the leads.

4.2.8

Test windings

To test the overall operation of a c.t. and its associated instruments or relays, it is
necessary to inject current into the primary circuit from a test supply transformer.
In certain situations, for example where a ring c.t. is mounted over the bushing of
high voltage equipment, it may be difficult or inconvenient to inject into the main
primary circuit, and test primary windings would be required. Test windings are
usually rated at 10A, corresponding to the rated primary current, and are usually
insulated from the secondary windings and earth to withstand a 2 kV one-minute
test. They are usually short-time rated, capable of carrying their rated current for
an hour without overheating.
When using a test primary winding it is essential to ensure that the main primary
winding is not short-circuited through any of the system connections and,
conversely, when the c.t. is energised normally through its main primary winding,
the test winding must be open-circuited. It is desirable to earth one terminal of the
test winding when not in use.

4.3

4.3.1

Current transformers for protection

Saturation of the core and ratio on overcurrents. BS 3938

Unlike measuring c.t.s, which are required to be accurate over the normal working
range of currents, protective c.t.s are usually required to maintain their ratio up to
several times the rated primary current, although in many applications their
accuracy at currents below the rated value is unimportant. It has been shown in
Section 4.2.2 that at some value of primary current above the rated value, the core
will commence to saturate, resulting in an increase in secondary current error. The
value of primary current at which this error reaches or approaches a certain limiting
value is termed the accuracy limit primary current.
C.t.s. for most forms of protection are covered by BS 3938 : 1973 and guidance
in the application of c.t.s is given in Appendix B of this British Standard. Accuracy
classes 5P and 10P are intended to apply to c.t.s for simple forms of protection,
such as the operation of overcurrent relays and trip coils, and of low-impedance
earth-fault relays with time-lag characteristics. These classes specify limits of
current error at rated primary current and limits of composite error at the 'accuracy
limit primary current'; in addition the phase displacement at rated primary current

260

Protective transformers

is specified for Class 5P only. The ratio between the accuracy limit primary current
and the rated primary current is known as the 'rated accuracy limit factor', the
standard factors being 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30. For convenience, the limits of errors
for classes 5P and 10P are given in Table 4.3.1A below.
In passing, it might be noted that a c.t. rated at 15 VA provides an output of
about 6 kVA at 20 times the rated current.
Table4.3.l.A

Accuracy
class

BS3938:1973 Limits of error for accuracy Class 5P and ClasS lOP

Current error at rated

primary current

Phase displacement at
rated primary current
minutes

centiradians

%
5P
10P
4.3.2

+1
+3

+60

+1.8

Composite error at
rated accuracy
limit primary
current
%
5
10

Trip-coil operation

Class 10P will generally be sufficiently accurate for this purpose, but the question
of VA rating and saturation factor may present some problems. Trip coils are
usually so constructed that a considerable change in the impedance of the coil
results from the movement of the coil plunger, the impedance at the conclusion of
the operating stroke being several times that at the commencement of the operation. This means that the burden imposed on the c.t. may change from, say, 10 VA
to 40 VA, referred to the rated secondary current; for example, 0 4 to 1.6 fZ for a
5 A c.t. during the operation of the trip coil. Fortunately, the current required to
operate the device usually decreases with the armature movement and the application of a constant voltage somewhat in excess of the 'pick-up' voltage will usually
result in firm operation. The c.t. should be capable of supplying this voltage
without saturation of its core and should have the required accuracy, say Class 10P
at the nominal operating (pick-up) current of the trip coil. For a trip coil operating
in the overcurrent range, between 100 and 200% of the c.t. rated current, a VA
rating corresponding to the low impedance or unoperated position of the trip coil
plunger and a rated accuracy limit factor of 5 will usually be adequate.

4.3.3

Overcurrent-relay operation

For the operation of instantaneous overcurrent relays the c.t. requirements are
similar to those for trip coils, and Class 10P accuracy with a rated accuracy-limit
factor of 5 should again be adequate. For overcurrent relays with inverse-time

Protective transformers

261

characteristics, however, Class 10P accuracy should be specified together with a

rated accuracy-limit factor corresponding to the maximum overcurrent at which
reasonable accuracy of the relay time characteristic is required.
When considering the VA rating to be specified, account must be taken of the
reduced impedance of the relay on its higher current settings and any further reduction in impedance which may occur due to saturation of the relay magnetic
circuit at currents in excess of the nominal setting values.
4.3.4

Earth-fault relays with inverse-time characteristics

To ensure adequate phase-fault stability and accurate time grading, relays of this
type with low settings, when connected in the residual circuit of a three-phase set
of c.t.s, usually require c.t.s of Class 5P accuracy. This is because on the occurrence
of an earth fault the earth-fault relay is shunted by the exciting impedances of three
c.t.s. (four if there is a neutral c.t.). The primary current to operate the relay is
calculated by adding the relay operating current to the sum of the secondary
exciting currents of the three (or four) c.t.s, the whole being multiplied by the c.t.
turns ratio. It is thus essential to employ c.t.s with low exciting currents to secure
reasonably low earth-fault settings. These are characteristic of Class 5P.
4.3.5

Relay settings and primary operating currents

In considering the settings of low4mpedance earth-fault relays it should be borne

in mind that, since the operating VA of the relay will be approximately the same
value for all its settings, a lower current setting will require a correspondingly higher
operating voltage and thus a higher exciting current in the c.t. or c.t.s. There is
thus an optimum relay setting which results in the minimum primary operating
current or earth-fault setting. This is obtained approximately when the relay operating current and the sum of the exciting currents of the parallel connected c.t.s
are equal; in other words, when the percentage primary operating current is
approximately twice the percentage relay setting. To illustrate this point typical
current values are given in Table 4.3.5A from which it will be seen that, for the
particular case considered, the 20% relay setting results in the lowest overall earthfault setting of 38%.
Table 4.3.5A
Relay setting-per cent of c.t. rated
secondary current
Sum of c.t. exciting currents,per cent of
rated current
Earth-fault setting-per cent of c.t. rated
primary current

50

40

30

20

10

10

13

18

35

58

50

43

38

45

Note. The relay and exciting currents are added arithmetically because they are

approximately in phase

262

4.3.6

Protectivetransformers

Current transformers for balanced differential protective schemes

Class X current transformers: This class is included in BS 3938:1973 to cover protective c.t.s for use in applications where the required characteristics of the c.t.s
cannot conveniently be expressed in the terms used for classes 5P and 10P.
The performance of class X c.t.s of the 'low-reactance type', that is having
negligible leakage flux, is specified in the following terms:
(a) rated primary current
(b) turns ratio
(c) knee-point e.m.f.
(d) exciting current at the knee-point e.m.f, and/or at a stated percentage thereof.
(e) resistance of the secondary winding, corrected to 75C or the maximum
service temperature, whichever is the greater.
Standard values for (b), (c),(d)and (e) are not prescribed. The actual value of
(c) shall not be less than that specified, while the actual values of (d) and (e) shall
not exceed the specified values. The error in (b) shall not exceed -+0.25%.
Class X c.t.s for balanced protective schemes: In differential protective schemes
the characteristics of the c.t.s are most conveniently specified in the terms of class
X. In general there are two or three modes of operation to be considered, for
example through-fault conditions when the protective gear is required to be stable,
and faults within the protected zone when the c.t. has to be capable of operating
the relay and supplying current to other c.t.s which may be in idle shunt. This
means that operation has to be considered not only at greatly different primary
currents, but also with widely different secondary circuit impedances. Also the
shunting impedance of the secondary winding, in both the saturated and unsaturrated states of the core, may have to be considered. Due allowance usually has to
be made for d.c. components in the primary current as will be shown later.
The most satisfactory method is to specify the characteristics required of such a
c.t. in terms of turns ratio, secondary winding resistance and exciting currents at
appropriate values of secondary e.m.f. These requirements are usually specified to

Fig. 4.3.6A

Restricted earrh-fau/t protection of power transformer windings

Protective transformers

263

the c.t. designer by the protective gear application engineer, but invariably the
secondary winding resistance and the e.m.f.s are interdependent and cannot be
decided until the c.t. is designed.
An example commonly met is that of four c.t.s with parallel connected
secondary windings operating a high-impedance relay to provide a restricted earthfault scheme for a power transformer winding, the circuit being as Fig. 4.3.6A. The
rated current may be 1000 A and the maximum through-fault current 15 kA, and
the prescribed primary operating current for an in-zone fault may have to be not
greater than 25%, that is 250 A.

15 k A

Fig. 4.3.6B

Through-fault condition

The first requirement to consider is stability under the conditions shown in

Fig. 4.3.6B. In order to be sure of stability under transient conditions it is usual to
design on the basis that the core of one of the two c.t.s through which the fault
current flows may be fully saturated. The secondary winding of this c.t. can then
be regarded as a resistance which, in series with the leads to the relay, constitutes a
path shunting the relay through which the other c.t. drives a current equal to the
fault current divided by the c.t. turns ratio. With a turns ratio of 500/1 the ideal
secondary current would be 30A with 15 kA in the primary circuit. Assuming the
resistance of the pair of leads between the relay and the 'saturated' c.t. to be 1 f~
the voltage appearing across the relay would be 30(1 + Rs), where R s is the
secondary winding resistance. If it were practicable to make R s equal 0.5 ~2 the
voltage across the relay would be 45 V and a relay operating voltage of 50 V would
ensure stability. If, however, R s could not conveniently be made less than 2 12 the
relay operating voltage would have to be not less than 90 V and an operating
voltage of, say, 100 V would be selected.
The second requirement to be considered is the operation of the relay on an
in-zone fault as shown in Fig. 4.3.6C. To ensure speedy operation of the relay it
is usually desirable to make the knee-point e.m.f, of the c.t. magnetising curve not
less than twice the relay operating voltage, so that with R s = 0.5 ~2 the knee-point

I I.

Fig. 4.3.6C

Condition for an earth-fault in the protected zone

264

Protective transformers

e.m.f, must not be less than 100 V, but with R s -- 2 12 the minimum knee-point
e.m.f, would be 200 V.
A typical magnetising curve for a c.t. having the latter characteristics is shown in
Fig. 4.2.2C from which it will be seen that at the relay operating voltage of 100 V
the exciting current is 40 mA.
Referring to Fig. 4.3.6A it will be seen that if each c.t. requires 40 mA exciting
current (referred to the secondary winding) and the relay operating current is 10
mA then the primary current I f to trip the relay is equal to 500(10 + 4 x 40)x 10 -3
= 85A which is well below the prescribed maximum of 250 A. The knee-point e.m.f
of the curve Fig. 4.2.2C is approximately 240 V which is more than double our
relay operating voltage. This voltage would correspond to a flux density (Bmax) in
the core of, say, 1.2 tesla which, from formula (i) in Section 4.2.2 would require a
net core section of 18 cm 2 and, if we assume a core space-factor of 95%, the
required gross core section would be about 19 cm 2 .
Considering next the desired exciting current of 40 mA, this corresponds to
40 x 500 x 10 "~ = 20 a.t; and if we assume a mean core diameter (for a ring type
c.t.) of 12.7 cm the length of the magnetic path will be 40 cm. Thus a core material
requiring an exciting force of 0.5 a.t/cm at Bmax equal to 0.5 tesia would be
needed. This corresponds to curve (a) of Fig. 4.2.2.A.
A further requirement for through-fault stability in such differential schemes is
identical or closely similar turns ratios for all the c.t.s, concerned. In the example
given above, the ratio of the primary operating current to the maximum throughfault current is 85/15000 or 0.57%, which could well be produced by a small
difference in the turns ratios of two or more c.t.s and thus cause operation of the
relay on a through-fault. To ensure a safe margin the permissible difference in
turns ratio between any two c.t.s of such a balanced group is usually specified
to be half this amount, that is 0.28% in the example above, which, with a nominal
turns ratio of 500/1 would mean a maximum difference of one turn.

4.3.7

Simple transient-state theory

When a system fault occurs the fault current almost invariably contains a transient
d.c. component, and for certain balanced schemes of protection it is desirable that
the c.t.s should maintain their a.c. ratio under such fault conditions. Fig. 4.3.7A
shows the currents, induced e.m.f, and core flux conditions in an ideal c.t. with a
1/1 turns ratio, as indicated in the simplified equivalent circuit where R is the total
secondary circuit resistance and Le the exciting inductance (compare Fig. 4.1.2A).
It will be seen that the maximum flux in the core, due principally to the need for
flux to induce the transient unidirectional component of E s, is several times the
alternating flux which would be the only flux required if there were no d.c.
component in the primary current.
It can be shown that when L e is infinite the maximum transient flux is governed
by the degree of asymmetry of the primary current and by the primary circuit
time-constant T~,, in other words, by the area shown shaded in the upper curve.

Protective transformers
Ip

265

Is

lp (als Is ind ,Es in an ideal c.t.)

_yvv'

Tp

--I

Total flux

,'
/

fMuaxX

provide

/Iternatintz flux

4L /n\ /

A\ / A-7
.(,~

\/\/
~.J

Fig. 4.3.7A

Transient flux to

~=J

~ . J

%-J

alternating

flux

Transient current and flux conditions

With maximum asymmetry and a resistive secondary circuit, the ratio of the maximum flux to the peak alternating flux is approximately equal to the X / R ratio of
the primary circuit, that is of the power system up to the fault position. However,
when L has a finite value, as in practice, the d.c. component o f I s becomes less than
that of 1t, by the amount of the d.c. component o f l e . Thus the d.c. component of
E s and the unidirectional flux required to produce it are reduced.

266

Protective transformers

For the c.t. to maintain accurate a.c. transformation under such conditions its
core section must be large enough to accommodate the total flux without saturation of the core material. A practical method of determining the required core
section is to calculate the secondary e.m.f, corresponding to the steady-state maximum fault current and to multiply this e.m.f, by the system X/R ratio to give the
required knee-point e.m.f, of the c.t. A total flux excursion corresponding to a
knee-point e.m.f, derived in this way is in practice not attained because (a) the
maximum theoretical magnitude of d.c. component of the fault current is never
attained, (b) as already explained, the d.c. component of exciting current reduces
the flux excursion, sometimes by as much as 50% and (c) the inductive component
of the secondary burden requires no unidirectional e.m.f.
However, the upward swing of the total flux may, in unfavourable circumstances,
commence from a remanent flux due to previous magnetisation, thus reducing the

Es

V
Prospective flux
t
I

I
I

s ~1~

--r

Saturation
level

~J

Fig. 4.3,7B

Effect o f core saturation on flux and secondary e . m . f and current

Protective transformers

267

flux excursion which the core can accommodate without saturating. This possibility
prevents the designer from reducing the core section to take advantage of the
factors (a), (b) and (c) above.
The effect of saturation in a c.t. with insufficient core section is shown in Fig.
4.3.7B. The flux reaches the saturation region during one of the positive excursions
of primary current and the saturated exciting inductance Le (Fig. 4.3.7A) shunts
most of the primary current Ip, thus distorting the secondary current I s to the wave
shape shown. During the negative excursions of current, however, the flux is required to reduce and so the core becomes unsaturated during this negative current
and for part of the following positive current excursion before becoming saturated
once more, and so on. As the d.c. component of the primary current decays the
negative excursions of the current and flux become greater, and the core eventually
runs out of saturation during the complete cycle, when the secondary current
becomes normal again.
As explained in Section 4.3.6 certain systems of protection are not adversely
affected by saturation and it is unnecessary to take special measures in this connection. It is, however, the duty of the protective gear application engineer to decide
for which forms of protection and under what conditions of operation the c,t,s
should not saturate.

4.4

4.4.1

Construction of current transformers

Basic types

Current transformers can be divided into two major types, the single-turn (bar)
primary and the multi-turn wound.primary.
In the former the primary conductor may form part of the c.t. assembly, in
which case it must be suitably insulated to withstand the system voltage to earth
where it passes through the c.t. core and secondary windings. Such a c.t. is shown in
Fig. 4.4.1A, the primary insulation of synthetic resin bonded paper being suitable
for service on a 12 kV system.
The majority of single-turn primary c.t.s make use of an insulated conductor
provided as part of other equipment such as bushings of switchgear or power
transformers, and the c.t. is merely a ring core with a toroidally wound secondary
winding.
Wound primary c.t.s may have the primary and secondary windings arranged
concentrically, the secondary winding invariably being the inner winding since it is
advantageous to keep the resistance of this winding as low as possible, or, in designs
intended primarily for operating instruments, meters and simple overcurrent relays,
the primary and secondary windings may be disposed on different limbs of the
core. Such an arrangement results in minimum weights of windings, and the flux
leakage effect resulting from this loose coupling reduces the phase error and limits

268

Protective transformers

Fig. 4,4,1A Double.secondarybar-primary current transformer

(GEC HighVoltage SwitchgearLtd.)

Fig. 4.4,1B

12k V cast resin insulated wound-primary current transformer

(GEC High VoltageSwitchgear Ltd.)

Protective transformers

Fig. 4.4.1C

269

12k V current transformer with cast resin insulated primary winding

(GEC High Voltage Switchgear Ltd.)

the secondary current produced by high primary overcurrents. Typical 12 kV

designs are shown in Figs. 4.4.1 B, C and D.

4.4.2

F o r m s o f cores

The simplest form of core is the ring, composed either of hot.rolled silicon steel
stampings or, more usually in recent years, of spirally wound strip of cold-rolled
grain-oriented steel or of nickel-iron alloy.

270

Protective transformers

Fig. 4.4,1D

12k V current transformer with butyl rubber insulated primary winding

(GEC High Voltage Switchgear Ltd.} "

Cores for wound-primary c.t.s are usually assembled from stampings of E, I or

L-shape depending on whether the core is a simple rectangle or of the three-limb
shell.type, but C-cores of bonded cold-rolled grain-oriented steel are also employed.
Some typical shapes are shown in Figs. 4.4.2A, B, C, D and E.
Cores of grain-oriented materials should be arranged as far as possible with the
flux direction along the grain as indicated in Fig. 4.4.2C. This requirement is
satisfied completely in wound-strip ring cores and in cut C-cores (Fig. 4.4.2E)

4.4,3

Windings and insulation

(a)

Primarywindings (wound primary current transformers): These usually take

the form of edge-wound copper strip because this method of winding results in

II Ii

Fig. 4.4,2A

1-shape

Fig. 4.4.2B

L-shapestampings

Protective transformers

271

coils best capable of withstanding the electromagnetic forces produced by high

values of primary current. The inter-turn insulation may consist of split washers of
pressboard or similar material, of tape applied to the individual turns or a coating
of resinous materials.

Fig. 4.4.2C

E- and I-shape
stampings

Fig. 4.4.2D
Large and small
E stampings

Fig. 4.4,2E Cut C-core

Basic forms of high voltage c.t.s

The major insulation to earth of c.t.s for use up to 12 kV service, may be

formed by taping the primary winding with varnished cloth tape or, more usually in
modern designs, by enveloping the winding in cast-resin or moulded butyl rubber.
The non-resilient nature of cast-resin necessitates some means of permitting the
expansion of the primary winding, which occurs in a fraction of a second during the
passage of a fault current, without imposing a strain on the cast-resin sufficient to
case cracking. There are various ways of accomplishing this, some protected by
patents. Rubber-like compounds are usually sufficiently resilient not to require this
precaution.
(b) Secondary windings: These are usually wound from round or rectangular
section wires of enamelled copper. Coils for assembly on to cores built up of stampings are usually machine wound with paper between layers, the coil being subsequently varnish impregnated and insulated overall with press-paper wraps and tape,
Ring cores are insulated by means of pressboard washers and wraps, covered
with varnished cloth or plastic tape, or they may be encased in split channel-section
cases of moulded insulation, or coated with resinous compound. The toroidal winding is frequently carried out by hand but where large numbers of turns are required,
or a large number of identical windings are to be wound, toroid winding machines
are usually employed. Multi-layer windings are usually insulated between layers
with varnished-cloth tape and the winding taped overall and reinforced with
washers and wraps of pressboard.

272
4.4.4

Protective transformers
High.voltage current transformers

Separately mounted post-type c.t.s suitable for outdoor service are frequently
required for use in conjunction with air blast circuit-breakers. There are three basic
forms of construction, shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4.4.4A, B and C. In type A,
the cores and secondary windings are contained in an earthed tank at the base of a
porcelain insulator and the leads of the full-insulated primary winding are taken up
to the top helmet through the procelain insulator. In type B, the cores and windings
are mounted midway inside the porcelain housing, usually with half the major
insulation on the primary winding and the other half on the secondary winding and
cores, This form of construction is limited in the volume of cores and windings
which can be accommodated without the diameter of the procelain insulator becoming uneconomically large, but for two or three cores and secondary windings of
modest output it offers a compact arrangement. In type C, the cores and secondary
windings are housed in the helmet or live-tank and the earthed secondary leads
brought down the insulator. This form of construction is particularly suitable for
use when high primary currents are involved as it permits the use of a short bar
primary conductor with consequent easing of the electrodynamic and flux leakage
problems. The major insulation may be wholly on the secondary windings and cores
or partially on the primary conductor, while the secondary leads require insulating
to withstand the system voltage where they pass through the bases of the live-tank
and down the porcelain bushing.
The major insulation of such current transformers is usually oil-impregnated
paper, in some constructions with interleaved stress control foils, and examples
using this form of insulation are shown in Figs. 4.4.4D, E, F, G and H. An alternative method of insulating for high voltages employs a gas, such as sulphur-hexafluoride, usually at a pressure in the region of two or three atmospheres. Unlike oil,
such a gas is capable of withstanding high voltages between electrodes spaced

I
Fig. 4.4.A

Fig. 4.4.B

Fig. 4.4.C

Protective transformers

Fig, 4.4,4D 525 k V, 2000A hairpin

orimary current transformer with several
secondary windings (GEC High Voltage
Swltchgear Ltd.)

273

Fig. 4.4,4E 245k V "cross-col/" t y p e c u r r e n t

transformer with series paraZlel primary links
(GEC High Voltage Switchgear Ltd,)

several inches apart without intervening barriers of solid insulation, so that

constructional problems are concerned with the rigid positioning of the high voltage
and earthed electrodes and the provision of a housing capable of withstanding the
required gas pressure.

274

Protective transformers

Fig. 4.4.4F 245 k V live

tank current transformer
with oil.impregnated paper
insulation
IGEC
High
Voltage Switchgear Ltd.)

4.5
4.5.1

Fig. 4.4.G

420k V, 4000,4 hairpin-primary current

transformer (GEC High Voltage Switchgear
Ltd.)

Testing of current transformers

Error measurements

The simplest direct method of measuring current magnitude errors is to use two
ammeters, one measuring the primary current and the other the secondary current,
and provided the required degree of accuracy is not high this method is satisfactory,
and can even be used at currents up to several times the rated values.

Protective transformers

275

Fig. 4.4.4H 420 kV, 4000,4 five tank current transformer employing SF 6 gas hJsulation
(GEC High Voltage Switchgear Ltd.)

When small errors of less than 1% are to be measured, and when both magnitude
and phase errors are to be measured, some form of comparison with a standard
current transformer is necessary and bridge circuits, electromagnetic comparators,
or differential ammeter methods are then employed.
Current transformers, of the uniformly wound ring core type for use with bar
primary arrangements resulting in negligible leakage flux, may have their current
errors assessed by the indirect method of measuring the exciting current taken by
the secondary winding with an applied voltage equal to the induced e.m.f, under
specified burden and current conditions. As explained in Section 4.2.1, the current
error in such a current transformer, with no turns correction, cannot exceed the
percentage exciting current.
So-called high-reactance current transformers, in which the effect of flux leakage
is appreciable, normally have their composite errors measured by a direct method
(see Appendix J of BS 3938). A high-reactance current transformer is defined in
BS 3938 (Appendix K) as one in which, with a turns ratio equal to the rated
current transformation ratio, the composite error measured by a direct test at the

276

Protective transformers

rated accuracy limit primary current exceeds 1.3 times the percentage exciting
current measured when the rated accuracy limit e.m.f, is applied to the secondary
winding. This e.m.f, is taken as that required to pass the rated accuracy limit
secondary current through an impedance equal to the vectorial sum of the impedance of the rated burden and the resistance of the secondary winding. For a number
of current transformers of the same design BS 3938 (Appendix J) permits the
composite errors to be derived from a comparison of their exciting currents with
the exciting current of an identical current transformer of which the composite
error has been measured by a direct test.

4.5.2

Turns ratio tests

There is no simple and positive method of measuring turns ratio on a completed

current transformer. The usual method is to measure the current magnitude error
at about the rated current with a low value of secondary burden. The accuracy of
measurement depends on the magnitude of the component of the exciting current
affecting the current error-see Section 4.2.1-for example there would be no
difficulty in detecting an error of one turn in 100 turns, but with 500 or more
turns in the secondary winding and a current error component of exciting current
in the region of 0.25 to 0.5%, it might be difficult to decide whether a measured
current error of -0.5% was due to exciting current alone or due in part to an error
in turns ratio.
A more accurate assessment of turns ratio error can be made by measuring the
current error at about the rated primary current with two or three different values
of unity power-factor burden. These errors are then plotted against the corresponding values of total secondary circuit impedance, that is including that due to
the secondary winding resistance, and extrapolated to zero burden to give the error
in turns ratio (See BS 3938, Appendix M.)
Because of these difficulties the specified maximum turns ratio error should not
be less than that required to ensure correct operation of the protective gear.

4.5.3

Exciting current

For most protective schemes it is necessary to measure the exciting current at one
or more values of secondary e.m.f. This is accomplished quite simply by applying
the appropriate voltage, and measuring the current taken by the secondary winding,
the primary and any other windings being open-circuited. In some cases an excitation curve may be required and sufficient measurements are then made to enable
the curve to be plotted. When it is only desired to check that the knee-point e.m.f.
is not less than a certain value that value is applied and the exciting current
measured. A voltage 10% higher is then applied when the exciting current measured
should not exceed that measured at the knee-point e.m.f, by more than 50%.

Next Page
Protective transformers
4.5.4

277

Current transformers for balanced differential protective schemes

As stated in Section 4.3.6 it is often possible to prove the suitability of c.t.s fol
such schemes by measurements of exciting current and turns ratio. In some
instances it may be desirable to carry out a balance test between pairs of c.t.s as
shown in Fig. 4.5.4A. If the object of the test is to prove that the two c.t.s have the
same or similar turns ratio the burden. RB is kept to a minimum, but if the object
is to prove the combination of turns ratio and exciting current balance, the burden
R B would represent that expected in service. The ammeter A measures the spill or
out-of-balance current. The primary current may be either the rated value for turns
balance tests or the relevant through-fault current for turns and exciting current
balance tests.

RB

Fig. 4.5.4A

RB

Connections for balance test

Balance tests with a relay in place of the ammeter are sometimes performed, but
such tests prove the combination of the c.t.s and the relay and are not strictly tests
of the c.t.s themselves.

4.5.5

Polarity

Various methods are used by manufacturers to prove that the terminal markings
are correct. When such a check is necessary to prove the polarity on site it can be
carrie~l out as follows. Connect the positive terminal of a low voltage d.c. supply,
such as a small battery, to the c.t primary terminal bearing the lowest sufFLx
number and the negative of the supply to the other primary terminal. Connect the
negative terminal of a d.c. voltmeter to the c.t. secondary terminal bearing the
lowest sufFLx numeral and the positive terminal of the voltmeter to the other
secondary terminal. On breaking the d.c. supply the voltmeter will give a positive
deflection if the terminal markings are correct.

4.5.6

Insulation tests

Routine insulation tests specified in BS 3938 consist of applying for one minute the
appropriate 50 Hz voltage to the primary or secondary winding, all windings