WHAT IS TERRESTRIAL NAVIGATION?

It is the method of navigation used by mariners that uses landmarks as

reference points, ship's stability, fuel consumption and ship's speed along
with tides and currents. This is the opposite of celestial navigation, which
plots positions in relation to the stars.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
LATITUDE
Latitude (shown as a horizontal line) is the angular distance, in degrees,
minutes, and seconds of a point north or south of the Equator. Lines of
latitude are often referred to as parallels.
LONGITUDE
Longitude (shown as a vertical line) is the angular distance, in degrees,
minutes, and seconds, of a point east or west of the Prime (Greenwich)
Meridian. Lines of longitude are often referred to as meridians.
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF TERRESTRIAL NAVIGATION
It is used to determine the ship's position using terrestrial landmarks
such as lighthouse, bouys, islands and other fix objects.
A lighthouse is a tower, building, or other type of structure designed to
emit light from a system of lamps and lenses, and to serve as a
navigational aid for maritime pilots at sea or on inland waterways.
A bouy is a distinctively shaped and marked float, sometimes carrying a
signal or signals, anchored to mark a channel, anchorage, navigational
hazard, etc., or to provide a mooring place away from the shore.
Basic principles of terrestrial navigation
Outline and Structure
3. Basic principles of terrestrial navigation
3.1 Dead Reckoning
3.2 Proximity Systems
3.3 Distance based Navigation
3.4 Distance difference based Navigation
3.5 Distance ratio based Navigation
3.6 Angle-of-arrival based Navigation
3.7 Signature based Navigation
3.8 Cooperative navigation in radio and sensor networks
Dead Reckoning
Dead reckoning is the process of estimating one's current position
based upon a previously determined position, or fix, and advancing that
position based upon known speed, elapsed time, and course.
Measurements of speed: odometer, e.g. wheel sensor or inertial
sensor (accelerometer)
Measurement of course: compass or inertial sensor (gyroscope)
Dead reckoning has been used in many applications like e.g. marine
navigation, air navigation
Proximity Systems
Proximity positioning systems are also known as signpost or beacon
systems, the position estimates for an object are determined from its
proximity to fixed detection devices
Examples for detection devices: magnetic sensors, radio transmitter,

Simplest positioning system

Either self- or remote positioning
Time Based Approach Summary & Pros/Cons
Basic Idea of Time-Based / Time-of-Arrival (TOA) approach:
Measurement of propagation time between APs and MS
Knowledge of propagation speed of radio wave (speed of light in
vacuum)
Assumption of LOS to calculate distance between APs and MS
Pros:
Quite accurate
Moderate complexity
Cons:

Clocks of all APs and MS have to be accurately synchronized if

single trip measurements are used
Round trip measurements consum double the number of radio
resources
In NLOS scenarios measured propagation time is too long and does
not allow to draw conclusions about the required geometric distance
Path-loss Based Approach Summary & Pros/Cons
Basic Idea of Path-loss Based / Signal Strength Approach:
Measurement of received power Pr of signal exchanged between
APs and MS
Knowledge of transmitted power Pt of signal
Calculation of instantaneous path loss / gain using Pr and Pt
Calculation of mean path loss / gain to eliminate the influence of
slow fading
Assumption of LOS and propagation model incl. its parameters and
to calculate distance between APs and MS
Pros:
Low complexity
Cons:
Sensitive to slow and fast fading as well as model errors
Low accuracy, accuracy decreases with absolute distance to be
estimated
Averaging over fading only possible if sufficient movement of MS
Parameters and of the propagation model have to be known
Transmitted power Pt has to be known which is critical if power
control is applied
In NLOS scenarios measured path loss does not allow to draw
conclusions about the required geometric distance
Phase Difference Based Approach Summary & Pros/Cons
Basic Idea of Phase Difference Based Approach :
Exchange of two-tone signal between APs and MS
Measurement of zero-phase difference between both tones at
receiver
Time synchronization between APs and MS
Calculation of distance based on zero-phase difference
Pros:
High accuracy
Medium complexity
Robust to fluctuations in amplitude of received signal (level fading)
Cons:
Signals of two frequencies necessary
Ambiguity of distance estimate coarse distance estimate
necessary as input
Sensitive to imperfect time synchronization
In NLOS scenarios measured path length does not allow to draw
conclusions about the required geometric distance
Time Difference Based Approach Summary & Pros/Cons
Basic Idea of Time-Difference / Time-Diff. Of. Arrival (TDOA)
approach:
Measurement of propagation time between APs and MS
Knowledge of propagation speed of radio wave (speed of light in
vacuum)
Assumption of LOS to calculate distance differences between APs
and MS
Clocks of MS does not have to be accurately synchronized to the
clocks of APs, single trip measurements are possible
Pros:
Quite accurate
Moderate complexity
Cons:
More APs necessary than in distance based approaches
In NLOS scenarios measured propagation time is too long and does
not allow to draw conclusions about the required geometric distance
Distance Ratio Approach Summary & Pros/Cons
Basic Idea of Path-loss Ratio Based / Signal Strength Ratio
Approach:
Measurement of received power Pr at APs of signal exchanged
between APs and MS
Interpretation of received power as instantaneous path loss / gain
Calculation of mean path loss / gain to eliminate the influence of
slow fading

Assumption of LOS and propagation model incl. its parameters to

calculate the distance ratios between APs and MS
Pros:
Low complexity
No information about MS antenna gain and/or MS transmission
power Pt are necessary if measurement in uplink
Cons:
Sensitive to slow and fast fading as well as model errors
Low accuracy, accuracy decreases with absolute distance to be
estimated
Averaging over fading only possible if sufficient movement of MS
Parameters of the propagation model has to be known
In NLOS scenarios measured path loss does not allow to draw
conclusions about the required geometric distance
Angle of Arrival based Approach Summary & Pros/Cons
Basic Idea of Angle of Arrival (AoA) based Approach:
Measure radiated signals at either MS or APs with multi-antenna(s)
or directive antenna(s)
Determine AoA of radiated signals at either MS or APs
Assuming direct radio propagation along the LOS use geometrical
relationship and known position of APs and AoA to determine position of
MS
Pros:
Only 2 or even 1 (hybrid) APs necessary for positioning
No accurate synchronization / timing necessary
Not sensitive to slow or fast fading, no influence of fading on
positioning accuracy
Cons:
In NLOS scenarios measured AoA does not allow to draw
conclusions about real geometry
Utilization of multi-antennas / directive antennas at APs and/or MS
necessary
Medium accuracy, accuracy decreases with absolute distance
between MS and Aps
Based Localization: Principle
offline:
store signatures for sufficiently many reference points of
the scenario in a data base
online:
comparison of currently measured signature with entries
in data base
best match gives the most probable position of the MS
Signature based Approach Summary & Pros/Cons

Basic Idea of Signature based Approach / Fingerprinting:

Characterize Observation area with respect to signature (e.g. CM)
and setup database (offline step)
Measure current signature for positioning (online step)
Compare measured signature with database to determine position of
MS
Pros:
Well suited for scenarios with multi-path environment even if no LOS
is available
CMs are especially unique in multi-path non line-of-sight (NLOS)
scenarios
CCC is well suited for comparing CMs
achievable localization accuracy quite promising even if considering
a single BS
robust with respect to disturbed estimates of CIRs
Cons:
For accuracte positioning large database necessary
Setup of large database and comparision with large database
complex
Setup of database needs accurate models or complicated
measurement campaigns
Impact of changes in the environment / weather on database has to
be compensated
Radio- and Sensor Networks
A sensor network is a network of several similar tiny nodes which
communicate with each.
The communication takes place without additional infrastructure and
is ad-hoc
Examples: measurement systems, monitoring, military applications
(smart dust),
Positions of some Nodes may be known (Beacon Nodes, here:
APs), positions of other nodes are a priori not known
Cooperative Positioning Summary & Pros/Cons
Basic Idea of Cooperative Positioning:
Use information of distances between nodes in a network to
determine position of nodes
Use beacon node for absolute alignment and initialization
Improve position accuracy by redundant measurements
Pros:
High positioning accuracy in large networks
Usable in partly connected networks
Centralized and Decentralized positioning possible
Cons:
Communication Resources quite large
In NLOS scenarios measured distances do not allow to draw
conclusions about real geometry