Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
SELECTED
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
IN PHYSICS
R.GLADKOVAand N.KUTYLOVSKAYA
Selected
in Physics
Mir Publishers
Moscow
Ha aHBAUUCKOM Jl3blKe
P r i n t e d in th e U n io n o f S o v i e t S o c i a l i s t R e p u b l i c s
ISBN 5-03-000908-6
Contents
Preface
10
19
24
37
50
62
68
78
87
106
132
141
148
153
155
169
178
195
211
217
243
Contents
251
260
263
269
276
288
A ppendices
297
Answers
330
Preface
Chapter I
11
12
Worked Problems
Problem 1. D eterm ine the am ount of substance (in moles)
contained in (a) 1 kg of mercury, and (b) 5.6 dm 3 of oxygen
under norm al conditions.
Given: m x = 1 kg is the mass of m ercury, V0 = 5.6 dm 3 =
5.6 X 103 m3 is the volume of oxygen under norm al condi
tions. From tables, we find the m olar mass of m ercury,
M x = 200.6 X 10~3 kg/mol, the m olar mass of oxygen,
M 2 = 32 X 10"3 kg/mol, and the density of oxygen under
normal conditions, p0 = 1.43 kg/m 3.
F ind : the am ount of substance v x in 1 kg of m ercury and
the am ount of substance, v2, in 5.6 dm 3 of oxygen under
normal conditions.
Solution. The am ount of substance in 1 kg of m ercury
can be determ ined as follows:
v41 = m Ji Ni I i%
= 200.6
onn ax 10-3 kg/m
,;
s- = 4.98 mol.
ol
PqFq
M2
13
QO0 -^ 53 kg ;
32 X 10-3 k g /m o l
x 102.
14
|~43
i f f
x 32 x
10-3 kg/mol ^ 29
26 x 10~3 k g/m ol
6.022 x 10*s m ol"1
_ 4 32 y
jQ"26 kff
g
15
1 8 x l 0 ~ 3 k g/m ol
1 X 103 k g /m 3
1 . 8 x 1 0 5 m 3/m o l _ ^
6.022 x l O 23 m o l" 1
q 3 x jQ -2 8
m 3
16
3 / t T T at
n i^ A ,
X 1 0 " 3 m 3/m ol
6 0 2 2 x 1023 m o l-1 ~
t ,^ 2 2 .4
d y
./-VQ
OQ
m*
i - v ,
453 m/s
n a
i _a
~ 7"55 x 10* s-1 =
X
m,
t = g-P453
* 10~8
, m = 1.3 x 10~10 s
m /s
6 ^ l < d . Tg1 S F
17
X 45*
f c * 2 .1 1
1 0 - k e ., / S.
Answer. The mean free path and the mean free tim e are
6.0 X 108 m and 1.3 X 10"10 s respectively. The mean
momentum of a nitrogen molecule is 2.11 X IQ-23 kg-m /s.
Questions and Problems
1.1. W hat experim ental facts clearly confirm the random
nature of m olecule m otion and the relationship between the
intensity of this m otion and the tem perature?
1.2. W hy is diffusion in liquids much slower than it is in
gases?
1.3. W hat physical process occurs when the surface of a
solid is painted?
1.4. Common sa lt placed in w ater is uniform ly d is trib u t
ed over the entire volume a certain tim e after being added.
Kxplain this phenomenon.
1.5. W hy do gauge blocks
(Johansson blocks) stick together
when their end faces are brought
in contact (Fig. 2)?
1.6. W hat phenomenon is reF ig . 2
sponsible for gluing solids?
1.7. One of the largest nuggets of gold, w ith a mass of
62.3 kg, was found at the m outh of the Amazon river. How
much substance is contained in it?
1.8. Determ ine the mass of 1 kmol of carbon, nitrogen,
and helium .
1.9. W hat is the mass of 50 m ol of oxygen?
1.10. How m any molecules are contained in 32 kg of
oxygen and in 2 g of hydrogen?
1.11. W hat is the volume occupied by 7 X 1028 molecules
of carbon dioxide under norm al conditions?
1.12. D eterm ine the am ount of substance contained in 6 g
of carbon dioxide. How m any molecules constitute th is m ass?
1.13. W hat is the volume occupied by 0.6 x 1023 atom s
of graphite? The density of graphite is known.
2-0530
18
2. V elocities of M olecules
19
20
'U
v = 1 / SRT . ~ j.6 1/
V Mx
~ 1,0 V
M
SRT
t ijry
/~ R T
1.73 J /
M .
2 IT
2 _
'4 n0 ^ k o 0
This gives
p = w0&7\
where k = R / N A = 1.38 X 10~23 J/K is the B oltzm ann
constant.
The m ean values of the kinetic energy of translatory m o
tion of molecules of different gases at the same tem perature
2. V elocities of M olecules
21
mzvlms2
( .nusequently,
Lrmsi __ 1 / mo2
VTmS2
V '""I
Worked Problems
Problem 8. Determ ine the mean value of the kinetic ener
gy and the root-m ean-square velocity of helium molecules
under norm al conditions.
Given: the pressure and tem perature of helium under nor
mal conditions are p 0 = 1.013 X 106 Pa and T 0 = 273 K
respectively. From tables, we find the m olar mass of h e li
um, M = 4 X 103 kg/mol, the Boltzm ann constant k =
1.38 x 10~23 J /K , the Avogadro constant N A = 6.02 X
I023 m ol1, and the density of helium under norm al condi
tions, p0 = 0.18 kg/in3.
Find: the m ean kinetic energy of a helium m olecule, E k,
and the root-m ean-square velocity of helium molecules, v Tm6.
Solution. We express the mean kinetic energy of a helium
molecule in term s of the tem perature: 2?k = (3/2) k T 0. For
monatomic gases like helium , this w ill be the to ta l kinetic
energy of molecules:
= |x
,-y.
2E N A
M
- / ,x x^
x, S lgg I -
m/8'
22
'
. ,, q 27
^ A
99-8 X 103 Pa X 60 m 3
1.38 X 1 0 -23 J/K X 300 K
2. V elocities of M olecules
23
24
or
Pl^
25
P2
or
= i-
26
x i0 x W
Ap = (1.0 0.86)
Pa = 0.86
x 106 Pa,
27
V), or
Pi
whence
v = -Er r - y "
m - 2 m
or
TT = T 7 T ^ F (C harles ,aw)-
1i~
V i h. T
AF
rri
1 1~
^ l X l
O Q fi
If
0.0035F!
28
^ 2 n it =
F io x
F ln it *
Let us w rite the param eters of the two states for the oxy
gen and nitrogen in SI units:
for oxygen
state
state
Fsox = 3 X lO"3 m3
state
state
FJnit = 1 X 10-2 m 3,
P2nit = ?
' ^ 2ox
P in itF m it
P2m==
V'tnit
2 X IV
P a X 3 X 10 3 m 3
v 105 P t
0 t ^
Pa,
Do
Pa.
Finally, we obtain
p = 0.6 X 105 P a + 2.1 X 105 Pa = 2.7 X 106 Pa.
Answer. The pressure of the gas m ixture in the cylinders
is 270 kPa.
Problem 14. The air in a balloon at a tem perature of
20C and a pressure of 99.75 kPa has a volume of 2.5 1.
W hen the balloon is immersed in w ater at a tem perature of
5C, the air pressure in it increases to 2 X 106 Pa. W hat is
the change in the volume of the air in the balloon?
29
state 2
p 2 = 2 X 105 Pa,
V2 = ?
T 2 = 278 K.
P2V2
T2
w hen ce
Pi Vi T2
T iP2
9.975 X 104 Pa x 2.5 X 10"3 m 3 X 278 K
293 K X 2 X 105 Pa
AV = 2.5 X 10-3 m3 -
= 1.2
10 3 m3.
30
T x = 300 K,
state 2
Po = 1.013 X 105 Pa,
T0 = 273 K,
Vo = ?
PqVq
T0
whence
T/
P \V \T
T iPo
T/
11.8 X 106 Pa X 0.6 m 3 X 273 K
ao a
3
Vo=
300 K X 1.013 X 105-Pa-------= 6 3 6 m
31
From V0 and p0, we can determ ine the mass of the oxygen:
m = p0F 0, m = 1.43 kg/m3 X 63.6 m3 = 91 kg.
Answer. The volume of the oxygen under norm al condi
tions is 63.6 m3, the mass is approxim ately 91 kg.
Remark. The problem can be solved by using the equation
PjF, = ^ R T X, from which we first determ ine the mass
ni = ^H 1 !
We can find the gas volume from the density
of the oxygen under normal conditions:
Vq =
m /p 0 .
and
R T 2.
Pi _
p2
7*1
o.5r 2
whence
Pi
Pi
0-5 P l T 2
Tx
192.4 x 104 Pa
32
P = RT
YX\f
Jt^. ^ 1
, where
whence
= 0.17 kg/m 3.
0.2
0.1
<5
-
___________ i____________
0.7
Fig. 3
OA
Vm*
F ig. 4
33
34
35
36
F ig. 6
F ig. 7
37
38
0 ).
n = -----------
39
Cgiv = ccm c (T 0 ).
T he ca lo rim eter and w ater receive h eat, and their t e m
perature rises from T l to 0 :
<?rec = cama ( 0 71,) - f c wm w ( 0 -
T l),
or
Qrec = (c*ma + cwm w) (0 Tj).
P roceed in g from th e energy co n servation law , we equate
th e h ea t g iv e n off by the copper cy lin d e r and the heat re
ceiv e d by the ca lorim eter and w ater: (?p iv = (?rcc- C onse
q u en tly , ccm c (T 0 ) = (cama + c wm w) ( 0 T,). W e o b
ta in ed the hea t b alance e q uation from w hich we deter
m in e cc:
mc ( r - 0 )
~ 3 8 4 J /( k g - K ) .
The ab so lu te error is
Ac = cc c lab,
Ac = 384 J /(k g -K ) 380 J /(k g -K ) ~
T he re la tiv e error is
Ac
4 J/(kg-K)
4 J /(k g -K ).
41
'cThe
TOca,h(e
- 7'w)).
eat balance
equ a tio n is
r crn./?tra|8 cca;mr.nTwA ll the term s co n ta in in g 8 can be transferred to the righthand sid e of the equation:
c Jm 171 -j- c wm w f w 4 cca,m.ra|7w = c wm w8 4- c tm i8
T Ccalmcal^*
42
c \ m \ T i 4~
~t~ c c a l /yic a l ) ^ w
c i m i ~r c w m w ~r c c a l m c a l
4 6 0 x 0 . 5 x 3 7 3 + ( 4 1 9 0 x 0 .1 5 + 3 8 0 X 0 .2 ) 285
4190 x 0 .1 5 + 4 6 0 X 0.5 + 380 x 0.2
x -+J-kg^-K^-kg
r l ;K: I;kr K
^ 30 7
k,
= 34c.
43
(^m
^l)*
a result of the
QM coal*
S u b s t i t u t i n g th e n u m e r ic a l v a lu e s , w e o b ta in
, .^ 0/ ^ 20%
2.05 X 107 J /k g
x 70
kg
44
S ~~
2----- gh
m from
both sides:
AT
,
v
18 K
45
R A7*,
46
47
49
50
5. Properties of Vapours
51
52
Ps
100%.
53
5. Properties of Vapours
x 104 J
54
Whence
( r b - r ) + m steam _
= 208.
Answer. About 208 kg of charcoal are spent.
Problem 28* 200 kg of steam at a tem perature of 373 K are
passed through 4 t of w ater at a tem perature of 293 K . To
w hat tem perature w ill the w ater be heated? Energy losses
should be neglected. Graph the function t = / (Q).
Given: raw = 4 X 103 kg is the mass of the w ater, T w =
293 K is the tem perature of the w ater, msteam = 200 kg is
the mass of the steam , r 6team = 373 K is the tem perature of
the steam . From tables, we take the specific heat of w ater,
cw = 4187 J/(k g -K ) ~ 4190 J/(kg*K ), and the specific la
ten t heat of vaporization of w ater, r = 2.26 X 106 J/k g .
Find: the tem perature 0 a t the end of the process.
Solution. W e have here a heat exchange: steam a t its boil
ing point (which equals its condensation tem perature) gives
to w ater the am ount of heat Qt = rrasteam and is converted
into w ater a t the same tem perature (during condensation, as
in boiling, the tem perature rem ains constant). The w ater
obtained from the steam is cooled from T h to 0 , liberating
the am ount of heat Q2 = Cw^steam (^steam ) Since the
final tem perature 0 is the same for all com ponents, the in
ternal energy of the cold w ater increases by Q = cwm w X
(e - rw).
@1 4
Q2
Qi o r
f^ s t e a m 4 ^w ^steam (^ s te a m
= cwm w (0 T w).
We transform the heat balance equation rem oving the pa
rentheses and gathering the term s containing the unknown
tem perature on the right-hand side:
rtfls te a m
( ^ w ^ w 4" ^ w ^ s te a r n )
whence
q
__
cw (mwf 'msteam)
5. Properties of Vapours
55
_
~
o o o if
^
A
or 0 = 49C.
Figure 10 shows the tem perature versus the am ount of
heat, t = f (iQ). The tem perature rem ains unchanged over
segment A B (the evolution of heat during condensation
occurs due to a decrease in the poten
tia l energy of interaction between
the m olecules). The tem perature of
condensate falls from ^steam to 1
over segment BC (cooling the con
densate liberates heat). The tem per- A
ature of the cold w ater increases
from T to 0 over segment CD (the <
process involves the absorption
of heat).
Answer. The final tem perature 0
Fi- 10
is approxim ately 49C.
Problem 29. 1.5 1 of w ater at 20C are poured into an a lu
m inium pot whose mass is 600 g and put on an electric hot
plate whose efficiency is 75% . In 35 m in the w ater boils and
20% of it is converted into steam . W hat is the power of the
hot plate?
Given: m a = 0.6 kg is the mass of the alum inium pot,
F = 1.5 1 = 1.5 x 103 m3 is the volume of the w ater,
t0 = 20C is the in itia l tem perature of the w ater and the
pot, t] = 75% = 0.75 is the efficiency of the hot plate,
t = 35 X 60 s is the duration of the process, and m stea m =
0.2m w is the mass of the steam formed. From tables, we
take the boiling point of w ater,
= 100C, the specific
heat of alum inium , ca = 880 J/(k g -K ), the density of w ater,
p = 103 kg/m 3, the specific heat of w ater, cw ~ 4190
J/(kg-K ), and the specific late n t heat of vaporization for
water, r = 2.26 X 106 J/kg.
Find: the power P of the hot plate.
Solution. The am ount of heat required to heat the w ater in
the pot and to convert part of it into steam (which w ill be
5a
*o) 4 c w m w (^b
^o) 4 ^ s t e a m r
0 .2 x 1 .5 kg x 2 .2 6 x 106 J/k g
0 .7 5 X 35 x 60 s
7 QA w
/OU
5. Properties of Vapours
57
lute hum idity of the air, pa . Using the form ula B 1 = pa/p Si
for relative hum idity, we obtain
!>a = BiPsi = 0.7 X 17.3 X 103 kg/m 3 = 12.1 X 10"3 kg/m 3.
Using Table 6, we find th a t a vapour having a density of
12.1 X 10"3 kg/m 3 is saturated a t 14C. Consequently, the
dew point is 14C.
In order to answer the second question, we m ust use the
same table. The saturated vapour density at 11C, i.e. the
m aximum density, is p S2 = 10 X 10-3 kg/m 3. Before the
dew precipitates, the mass of the air in the room is
=
(>aF, and after th at, m 2 = pS2 ^* Consequently, the mass of
the vapour precipitated in the form of dew is
Am = m x m2, Am = paF p S2V = V (pa p s2),
Am = 60 m3 (12.1 X 103 kg/m 3 10 X 103 kg/m 3)
= 126 x 10-3 kg.
Since the absolute h um idity at 11C is the m axim um ad
m issible density a t this tem perature, the relative h u m id ity
is B 2 = 100%.
Answer. The dew point is 14C, the mass of the condensed
vapour is 126 g, and the relative hum id ity is 100% .
Problem 31. The relative hum idity of air a t a tem perature
of 16C is 54% . W hat is the reading of the w et-bulb therm o
m eter of a psychrom eter? W hat is the absolute h u m id ity of
the air?
Given: B = 54% = 0.54 is the relative hum idity of the
air and t = 16C is the air tem perature. From tables, we
take psl6 = 13.6 X 10~3 kg/m 3.
Find: the reading w of the w et-bulb therm om eter and the
absolute hum idity of the air, pa.
Solution. We shall use Table 20. In the first colum n, we
find 16C (the reading of the dry-bulb therm om eter). From
the same row, we take a relative hum idity of 54% . I t lies
in the column for which the tem perature difference between
the readings of the dry-bulb and the wet-bulb therm om eters
is 5C. Consequently, t t w = 5C, whence
fw = f - 5C, t w = 16C - 5C = 11C.
In order to find the absolute hum idity, we w rite B =
Pa/Psie from which
Pa =
^ P s i 6*
58
pM
~ Pa ~RT~ '
5. Properties of Vapours
GO
5. Properties of Vapours
HI
62
6. Properties of Liquids
63
= AS
The u n it of surface tension is the joule per m etre squared
(J/m 2). Surface tension can also be defined as the ra tio of
the force F acting in the surface (force of surface tension) to
the length I of the boundary of the liquid surface:
a - F/L
In th is case, a is expressed in newtons per m etre (N/m).
A liquid is term ed w etting if the forces of interm olecular
interaction between a solid and the liquid are stronger th an
the forces acting between the liquid molecules. The m eniscus
(curved surface of the liquid) is concave for w etting liquids,
and the w etting angle 0 (i.e. the angle between the m eniscus
and the surface of the solid) is acute. For nonw etting liquids,
the meniscus is convex, and the w etting angle 0 is obtuse.
The curved surface of a liquid produces an additional
pressure (called Laplacian pressure)
2a
P ad
2a
n
cos 0 .
pgR
2a
Worked Problem*
Problem 33. A fram e in the form of equilateral triangle
w ith sides 4 cm long is carefully placed on the surface of
water. W hat force keeps the fram e on the surface? W hat
6 or,
F 1 = 6 x 0.072 N/m x 4 x 10 ~2 m
= 1.73 x 10 ~2 N.
6. Properties o f Liquids
65
66
Pir
i, _
2 x 0 .0 7 2 N/m
_ n q w *n-a
1 _ 103 kg/m3x 9.81 m/s* x 1 .5x 1 0 -3 m
m.
= ________________2 x 0 . 4 7 N /m ________________ ^
1 .3 6 X 1 0 4 k g /m 3 x 9.81 m /s2 X 1 .5 x 1 0 - 3 m
4 7
10~3 m
11K
6. Properties of Liquids
67
68
69
70
la te n t heat of fusion:
k = Qlm.
The specific late n t heat of fusion is measured in joules per
kilogram (J/kg).
In order to m elt a crystalline substance, heat m ust be spent
to heat it to its m elting point and to convert it into a liquid:
Q = cm (T m T) -f- km.
W orked Problems
Problem 36. D eterm ine the elongation of a copper rod hav
ing a length of 6 m and a cross-sectional area of 0.4 cm 2
under the action of a force of 2 kN.
Given: I = 6 m is the length of the rod, S = 0.4 x
10 4 m 2 is its cross-sectional area, and F = 2 X 103 N is
the applied force. From tables, we take Y oungs m odulus
for copper E = 130 x 109 Pa.
Find: the elongation A/ of the rod.
Solution. We shall solve the problem using H ookes
law -y - =
a, or - y - =
, whence
ai
FI
ES
XJ
2 x 103 N X 6 m
130 X 109 Pa X 0 .4 X 104 m 2
9 Qv
X
ia .
0
m*
71
mg
<*u
250 kg X 9.81 m /s2 x 4 ^
1.1X 10 Pa
e==
1.1 X 10 Pa
4 x 7 X 1010 Pa
10~ '\
(t 0 f,),
72
334960 J
~ 335 k J,
and Q 4 is the am ount of heat required to evaporate the w ater
Q 4 = r m , Qt = 2.26 x 106 J/k g x 0.8 kg = 1.808
x 106 J ~ 1810 k J.
The to ta l am ount of heat is
Q = 16.72 kJ + 260 kJ + 335 kJ + 1810 kJ
~ 2420 k J.
Answer. In order to convert 0.8 kg of ice into steam , an
energy of 2420 kJ = 2.42 MJ is required.
Problem 39. A certain am ount of steam a t 100C is in tro
duced into a vessel containing 0.5 kg of w ater and 20 g of
ice at 0C. As a result, all the ice is m elted, and the w ater is
heated to 19C. Find the mass of the steam . The heat capac
ity of the vessel should be neglected. Plot the graph of
t = f {QY
Given: m w = 0.5 kg is the mass of the w ater, m, ==
0.02 kg is the mass of the ice, t 0 = 0C is the in itia l tem
perature of the w ater and ice, 0 = 19C is the tem perature
established in the vessel, and stoam = 100C is the tem per
ature of the steam . From tables, we take the specific late n t
h eat of vaporization (condensation) for w ater, r = 2.26 X
106 J/k g , the specific heat for w ater, c = 4187 J/(kg*K ), and
the specific la te n t heat of fusion for ice, % = 3.35 x 105 J/kg.
Find: the mass w steam of the steam .
Solution. To solve the problem , we m ust w rite the heat
balance equation. The steam delivered to the vessel con
tain in g w ater and ice condenses, lib erating heat Ql =
rmsteam- The w ater obtained from the steam is cooled
from Jsteam = 100C to 0, liberating heat Q 2 = m s1eamX
(*steam 0)- Thus, the heat given a w a y i s ^ giv = Qx + Q2.
73
The received heat (?rec is the sum of the heat spent to m elt
the ice,
and the heat spent to heat the cold w ater
and the w ater obtained from m elting ice: ()4 = c (m{ + m w) x
(0 *<,) Consequently, Qrec = Q 3 + QA.
According to the energy conservation law, Qglv = Qrec.
Let us w rite the heat balance equation and determ ine
the mass of the steam :
r^ s te a m + <steam (*steam - 6 ) = X lflj + C (m{ + m w ) (0 -
t0) ,
m steam
r + c (*steam 9)
74
the m elting point for cast iron, t 2 = 1150C, and the specific
la te n t heat of fusion for cast iron, X = 9.7 X 104 J/kg.
Find: the mass
of the m olten cast iron.
Solution. The am ount of heat (^useful required to heat the
cast iron and m elt it can be determ ined from the form ula
^useful = cmx(t 2 *1) +
On
the other hand, the
useful heat is ju st 2 0 % of the spent heat, i.e. 2 0 % of the
heat liberated by burning the coal: rj = ^ - ful , where
vspent
m i1 =
!i /k
l eg
550 J /(k g -K ) x 1130 K + 9 .7 xX|!
104J
= 11070 kg& ~
1 1 .1
t.
75
T m) + rj.
76
77
78
79
to
l$to
a 0-
Since the value of a is very sm all, we can use the form ula
h = h (1 4
where At = t 2 tx, and l 2 and lx are the lengths of the
body at these tem peratures.
Solid three-dim ensional bodies (like a cube or a sphere)
and liquids are characterized by a coefficient of volum e
expansion
a
AF
The coefficient of volum e expansion is also m easured in
reciprocal kelvins (K _1).
By analogy w ith linear expansion, the volum e of a body
at any tem perature can be expressed as follows:
Vt = V 0 (1 + p*).
For two nonzero tem peratures, we can w rite
V 2 = Vj (1 + pAf),
where At = t 2 tx.
The following relation can be established between the
coefficient of lin ear expansion and the coefficient of volum e
expansion: p
3a.
The densities of solids and liquids also change as a resu lt
of heating. As the volum e increases due to heating, the
density decreases:
n
P
1 + PA*
80
'
Worked Problems
Problem 42. A g uitar is tuned in a room at 293 K , the length
of its steel string being 0.7 m. W hat will be the change in
the length of the string outdoors where the tem perature is
263 K ? W hat w ill the additional m echanical stress be?
W hat are the elastic force and the po ten tial energy of the
elastically deformed string? The cross-sectional area of the
string is 0.85 mm2.
Given: lY = 0.7 m is the in itia l length of the strin g ,
T x = 293
K
is the in itia l tem perature, T 2 = 263K
tem perature outdoors, and S = 8.5 X 10 -7 m 2 is the crosssectional area of the string. From tables, we take the coeffici
ent of linear expansion for steel a = 1.2 x 10 " 5 K _1, and
Y oungs m odulus for steel E = 2.2 x 1011 Pa.
Find: the absolute decrease AI in the length of the strin g ,
the additional m echanical stress a , the elastic force F , and
the p o tential energy E p of elastically deformed string.
Solution. As the tem perature decreases, the length of the
strin g decreases by A I. The value of AI can be determ ined
from the form ula
AI = ZjCtA 7\
where A T = T 2 7 \,
AI = 0.7 m x 1.2 x 10 - 5 K " 1 ( - 3 0 K)
= 2.52 x 10 ~4 m ~
0.252 mm.
p=
F=
/x
AZ. Since
81
E-^ 1 = a, we have
F = 7 .9 2 x 1 0 7 P a x 8 . 5 x l 0 - 7m 2 ~ 67
N.
Know ing the elastic force and the decrease in the string
length, we can determ ine the energy of the elastic deform a
tion of the string:
67 N x 2 . 5 2 X 1 0 - 4 m
~ 8.4 X 10- 3 J.
T 0)],
F 2 = F 0 [1 + p (T 2 -
T 0) l
or
Po
6-0530
82
x 1.2 x
10 "5
K _1 x 525C)
83
84
*5
86
Chapter II
Fundamentals of Electrodynamics
9. ELECTRIC FIELD
\Q i\ \Qt \
4ae0
er2
4jte0 er2
88
4^
gr
(Pl ~
d
U
~
d '
qiS
c = ~~T~
9. E lectric Field
89
1 1
cT + 'cT Jp
W orked Problems
Problem 45. A conducting sphere bearing a charge of 1.8 x
10 -8 C is brought in contact w ith two sim ilar spheres, one of
which has a charge of 0.3 X 10 8 C and the other is neu
tra l. How w ill the charge be d istrib u ted among the spheres?
W hat w ill be the force of in teractio n between two such
spheres in vacuum at a distance of 5 cm from each other?
Given: ^ = 1.8 x 10 ~8 C, Q 2 = 0.3 x 10 -8 C, and
@3 = 0 are the charges of the spheres before they are
brought in contact, and r = 5 x 10 ~2 m is the distance at
which two spheres interact. From tables, we take the elec
tric constant e 0 = 8.85 X 10 " 12 F/m and the p e rm ittiv ity
of vacuum , e = 1 .
Find: the electric charges @',
and @' of the spheres
after they have been brought in contact and the force F of
e lectrostatic in teraction between two spheres.
Solution. W hen the spheres are brought in contact, some of
the charges neutralize each other since they have opposite
signs. The rem aining charge w ill be equally d istributed
between the three spheres:
^
/v
/v
VI V2 V3
Yl
1.8xl08 C0.3x10 8C
= 0.5
10 8 C.
90
F= 9
t*
*= 9 x 10 m/F = 9 x 10 ^ 1 ,
4;ie0
10* N m 2/C 2
9 X 1 0 -5
N-
10. 2
in.
9. E lectr ic Field
91
QiQz
4JIC.I
er2
and the tension F t in the thread (Fig. 156). Since the spheres
10
tb]
*5
,K
L/
*t\
Fig. 16
are at rest, the equation for the forces acting on the first
sphere has the form F t + F G = 0. Hence
Ft = G - P ,
3 x 1 0 -8 C X 2 .4 X 1 0 -7 C
10-2 m 2
^ 1.31 x 102N.
92
J?i = 9 x 10m
= 10.8 x 10 V/m.
In order to determ ine the resu lta n t field stren gth, we first
add the vectors directed along the same stra ig h t line (Fig. 16b)
E 1 = E i E 2 = 10.8 x 10 V/m - 3.6 x 10 V/m
= 7.2 X 10 V /m ,
= E 2 + E t = 3.6 x 10 V/m + 3.6 x 10 V/m
= 7.2 x 10 V/m .
The required re su lta n t vector E can be found using the
parallelogram rule (Fig. 16c). In the case under considera
tion, we can use th e P ythagorean theorem since we have
a right-angled triangle:
E = V 2(7.2 x 10 V/m)? = 10-2 x 10 V/m,
93
9. E lectric Field
<p2 = y 3 =
9 X 108m /F
= 7 -2 * 104 V,
tp4= - 7 . 2 x 104V.
The potential at point O is
=
<Pl +
^3 ~
94*
= 2.88 x 105 V.
Answer. The field strength at the centre of the circle is ap
proxim ately 107 V/m , and the field potential is 2.9 X 105 V.
Problem 49. Two point charges of 2.64 x 10~8 and 3.3 X
109 C are in vacuum at a distance of 0.6 m from each other.
W hat work m ust be done to bring the charges closer to
25 cm?
Given: Qx = 2.64 x 10~8 C, Q 2 = 3.3 X 10 9 C are the
electric charges, rj = 0.6 m is the in itia l distance between
the charges and r 2 = 0.25 m is the separation between the
charges after they are brought closer. From tables, we take
the electric constant e0 = 8.85 X 1012 F/m and the perm it
tiv ity of vacuum , e = 1.
F in d : the work A required to bring the charges closer to
gether.
Solution. We assume th a t the charge Qx produces an elec
tric field and the charge Q 2 is moved in the field. Then the
work of external forces done to bring the second charge closer
to the first is
A = Qs (<Pl <p2)>
94
where (px and (p2 are the electric potentials of the points be
tween which charge
Q 2 is moved:
y
w _
ffi
_____ 2.64 x l 0~8 C
411606^
4ji8.85x10-12 K/mx0.6 m
(p =
_____ 2.64xlQ~8 C
95Q y
4jie0er2
4^8.85 X10"12 F/mx 0.25 m
#
We can now find the work:
A = 3.3
ly
the
ja -is r
9. Electric Field
95
Problem 51. A voltage of 90 V is applied to a parallelplate air capacitor w ith a plate area of 60 cm2. The charge on
the capacitor becomes 1 0 '9 C. D eterm ine the capacitance of
the capacitor, the energy stored in it, and the separation
between the plates.
Given: S = 6 x 103 m 2 is the area of a plate, U = 90 V is
the voltage across the plates, and Q = 10~9 C is the charge
on the capacitor. From tables, we take the electric constant
e 0 = 8.85 X 10-12 F/m , and the p e rm ittiv ity of air e = 1.
Find: the capacitance C of the capacitor, the energy W
stored in the capacitor, and the separation d of the plates.
Solution. Using the form ula C = Q/U, we determ ine the
capacitance of the capacitor:
^
10' C
90 V
~ 1 .1
10- F ~ 11 pF.
T his gives
w = 10-9Cx90V = 4
10_8 J
r l _ 8 . 8 5 x l 0 - 12F / m x 6 x l 0 - 3 m 2 ^
(l1.1 X 10-11F
1 0 -3 m
m-
96
Cl
lb)
C,
+o-
C2
+ l h
(C)
Ct
+ o-
-oF ig. 18
Cl
Cf = T li7 ;^ " 3 iIf,+ 4 7 F C1 = -9 2 M'F The capacitors C5 and Cl are connected in parallel. There
fore, th eir equivalent capacitance is
Cn =
c5 +
cm
2
, w
l x i c r 6 F x 2 5 x l0 4 V2
1.3 x 10"3 J.
9. Electric Field
97
98
9. Electric Field
99
have equal negative charges. They repel each other and move
ap art to 12 cm, form ing an angle of 22. D eterm ine the num
ber of electrons on each ball and the tension in the threads.
Show the forces acting on the balls on a diagram . W ill the
tension in the threads change if the charges in te rac t in
zero-gravity?
9.21. Two point charges of 5.0 x 10~9 and 1.5 x 10-8 C
are 4.0 cm ap art in vacuum . D eterm ine the force w ith
which these charges will act on a third charge of 1.0 X 109C,
located at the m idpoint of the line connecting the charges.
9.22. A charge of 1.57 x 1 0 '8 C is transferred to a m etal
sphere of radius 5 cm. W hat is the surface charge density on
the sphere?
9.23. The surface charge density of a conducting sphere
is 5 x 10"5 C/m 2. D eterm ine the m agnitude of the charge
on the sphere if its radius is 8 cm.
9 .2 4 . Two electric charges, one of which is tw ice the o th
er, in te rac t at a distance of 0.60 m in vacuum w ith a force
of 2.0 m N. C alculate the m agnitudes of charges. A t w hat
distance in kerosene will the in teractio n between the
charges be the same?
9.25. W hat is the ra tio of the electrostatic force of rep u l
sion between two electrons to th e ir g rav itatio n a l attrac tio n ?
9.26. D eterm ine the p e rm ittiv ity of kerosene if two equal
like charges in te rac t in vacuum w ith th e same force at a dis
tance of 0.283 m as in kerosene a t 0.20 m. Assum ing th a t
the force of in teractio n in kerosene is 3.0 X 102 N, deter
mine the m agnitudes of the charges.
Electric field strength
9.27. Do the electric field vector and the vector of the
force exerted on a charge by an electric field always have the
same directions?
9.28. W hy is a m etal cap som etim es put on a vacuum
tube?
9.29. Can electric charges be separated on (a) a conductor,
(b) a dielectric?
9.30. A cylindrical conductor is attached to a conical
conductor w ith the same base area. W hat can be said about
th e electric field strength near various points on the surface
of the resu lta n t conductor?
7
100
9. Electric Field
101
60
60
&
0
F ig. 19
102
403
9. Electric Field
Capacitance.
capacitor
Capacitors.
The
electrical
energy
in a
104
9. Electric Field
105
F ig . 22
<-2
II-------------IH
HI II II
G G G
F ig . 24
ii
3
C2
c,
HI IH
o
i!>
F ig . 25
100
107
Mi
R0*T
R+ r
108
S /r .
we have
-^ser ~ Rn
The voltage drop for a series connection is proportional
to the resistances:
Ul = B
U2
R2 *
109
where n is the num ber by which the scale of the instrum ent
is m ultiplied (Fig. 26).
To measure voltage, a voltm eter is connected in parallel
to the region of the circuit across which the voltage is being
-i|r
*S
F ig. 20
F ig. 27
111
cnS
The current can be determ ined from the form ula I = U /R,
where R should be expressed in term s of the length and the
cross-sectional area: R = pUS. S u b stitu tin g the expression
for current into the form ula for velocity, we obtain
vs
p le n S
p le n
3.6 V
1 .2 x l0 7 Q - m x 2 0 m X l.6 x l0 " 19 C x 4 .0 x l 0 28m~3
/w,
U 2 = 150 V - 53 V = 97 V.
are equal
113
A R = p0^ - 2a<j,
AR = 1.2 x
x 2 x 0.004 K i x 30 K
~ 1.2 k2.
Answer. The resistance of the wire has increased by about
1.2 k2 as a result of the change from w inter to sum m er tem
peratures.
Problem 57. C alculate the resistance of the circuit in
Fig. 29a.
Given: the resistances R x = 62, R 2 = 52, R 3 = 4 Q ,
i?4 = 12 2, and R 5 = 8 2 of the resistors.
Find: the total (equivalent) resistance R of the circuit.
Solution. W hil^ solving problem s where loads are con
nected in series and in parallel, it is expedient to replace
-^3-^4
l ~' Rs + Ri
4 Q x l2 Q
4Q +12Q
(Fig. 296).
R esistors R x and R 2 are connected in series, and their
equivalent resistance is i? IX = R 2 + R j, R u = 5 2 +
3 2 = 8 2 (Fig. 29c).
8 053 0
R esistors
and R 5 are connected in p arallel, and hence
th e ir equivalent resistance is
D
n
=
Rn + Rb >
8 Q X 8Q
8 Q+ 8 Q =
(Fig. 29 d).
R esistance R ul can be determ ined in a different way:
R u i = R u /2 = 4 2.
The required resistance /? is
R =
-(- i?m ,
i? = 6 2 + 4 2 = 10 2
(Fig. 29*).
Answer. The to ta l resistance of the circuit is 10 {2.
Problem 58. W hen a current source w ith an emf of 4.2 V is
connected to a nickeline wire 10 m long and having a d iam
eter of 1.0 mm, the current in the circuit is 0.6 A. D eter
m ine th e internal resistance of the current source.
Given: the emf % = 4.2 V of the current source, I =
10 m is the length of the nickeline wire, d = 1.0 X 103 m
is the diam eter of the wire cross section, and I = 0.6 A is
the current in the circuit. From tables, we find the re sistiv ity
of nickeline, p = 4.2 X 10~7 Qm.
F ind: the internal resistance r of the current source.
Solution. We shall solve the problem hy using Ohm s law
for a closed circuit:
R-
whence
I
The external resistance R can be determ ined from the for
m ula R (yl/S. Considering th a t S = ndVk, we obtain
n
4pZ
nd*~"
4 x 4 . 2 x l0 " 7 Q -m x l0 m _ r / n
3 .1 4 x l . 0 x l 0 - 6m2
Then
-5.4 2 = 1.6 2.
Answer. The in ternal resistance of the current source
is 1.6 2.
Problem 59. A b a tte ry of cells w ith an emf of 3 V and an
internal resistance of 0.25 2 supplies power to a circuit
115
= 3 A.
* sh = - ^ = 0 . 2 Q .
Re
Rs.
1 v
n
117
cn
0.01 AX 19.8
B s = 49 x 19.8Q ~ 970Q.
Answer. In order to measure current, the galvanom eter
m ust be shunted by a resistor w ith R sh = 0.2 2. To m easure
voltage, a series resistor w ith re
sistance R s
970 2 should
be
connected to the galvanom eter.
Problem 61. How should two g a l
vanic cells having an emf of 1.45 V
each and an in tern al resistance of
0.4 2 each be connected in order to
obtain the m axim um current when
the circu it is closed w ith an ex ter
nal resistance of 0.65 2?
Given: n = 2 is the num ber of
cells in the b attery , % = 1.45 V is
the emf of a cell, r = 0.4 2 is the
internal resistance of a cell, and R = 0.65 2 is the resist
ance of the external circuit.
F ind: /ser, the current for the series connection and the
current / par for the parallel connection of the cells.
Solution. In order to find out which is the best way to
connect the circuit, we determ ine the currents for the cells
in series and in parallel and com pare them :
,
y ser
par
n%
T _
R + nr ser
R + r/n J Par
2x1.45 V
0.65 Q + 2 x ll.4 Q
145 V
OA
1 7A
118
or I
I" ^2^2 =
(2)
r2.
(3)
r _
2 V 0.n5Axl(MQ
1OOQ+ 50Q
no a
0.02 A = 0.03 A.
119
121
122
Contacts
I-------- 1
I
I
$
F ig. 32
123
Fig. 34
Fig. 35
125
wires and the currents are indicated in Fig. 37. The generator
voltage UBC is 575 V.
10.57.
D eterm ine the voltage drop across a railw ay track
if an electric locom otive is 800 m from the cable connecting
500A
1Q00A
SOOA
800A
F ig . 38
srx r x
r -r
R,=1.SSi
f t'T J ?
KS=2Q
in
t_ r
tLj
t j
2~
Fig. 39
Fig. 40
10.60.
Determ ine the resistance of a sta rte r rheostat con
sisting of two series-connected sections. In the first section,
22 coils are connected in two parallel groups, each of which
contains 11 series-connected coils. In the second section*
45 coils are connected into
three parallel groups of 15 se
ries-connected coils each. The
coils are made of ferro-alum inium
high-resistance ^alloy
wire 1.6 m long and 3 mm in d i
am eter.
Fig. 41
10.61. The lighting circuit
of a tram car consists of two
parallel groups each containing five series-connected bulbs.
D eterm ine the to tal current in the circuit and in the groups
if the resistance of each bulb is 220 Q and the voltage in the
circu it is 550 V.
10.62.
Incandescent lam ps, w ith a resistance of 440 Q
each, are connected to a circuit at a voltage of 220 V as
r<8h
-C=D
Fig. 42
Fig. 43
shown in Fig. 41. D eterm ine the to tal resistance of the lam ps
and the current and voltage in each lam p.
10.63. W hat w ill the change in the voltage and current in
the lam ps (see Problem 10.62) be if one of the lam ps fuses?
10.64. The arm ature w inding in a locom otive m otor con
sists of 924 copper rods 1 m long each. The rods are d istrib
uted equally among four parallel branches (Fig. 42). De
term ine the resistance of the arm ature w inding for a current
of 352 A, assum ing th a t the current density is 5 A/m m 2.
10.65. Figure 43 presents a circuit diagram . The voltage
UAB is 120 V. D eterm ine the resistance of the circuit, the
unbranched current, and the current in each resistor.
127
F ig. 45
128
Ohm's
law for
129
1.2 A. Determ ine the emf and the internal resistance of the
current source.
10.84. A d.c. generator w ith an emf of 150 V and an in te r
nal resistance of 0.3 2 supplies voltage to 20 incandescent
lam ps having a resistance of 240 2 each and connected in
parallel. The resistance of the leads is 2.7 Q. D eterm ine the
voltage across the generator term inals and
across the lam ps.
10.85. The emergency lam ps of a tram
car are fed by an accum ulator battery
having an emf of 48 V and an internal
resistance of 0.2 2. Ten lam ps having a
resistance of 39.5 2 each are connected as
shown in Fig. 47. Determ ine the current
in each lam p and in the leads.
10.86. A circuit contains 20 parallelF ig. 47
connected bulbs. The current through a
bulb is 1 A. The resistance of the wires
connecting the load w ith a generator is 0.2 2. W hat m ust the
emf of the generator be for the voltage across the bulbs to
be 220 V? The internal resistance of the generator is 0.05 2.
10.87. Three electric m otors and ten parallel-connected
incandescent lam ps are connected to a generator w ith emf
+
o
130
each bulb 0.5 A. The distance I between the sta tio n and the
workshop is 0.5 km. The internal resistance of the generator
is 0.1 2 and the voltage across its term inals is 220 V. De
term ine the emf of the generator and the cross-sectional
area of the copper leads if the adm issible voltage drop in
them is 8% .
10.89. Determ ine the counter emf of a tractio n m otor if
the resistance of its windings is 0.1 2 and the voltage in the
circu it is 550 V a t a current of 150 A.
10.90. Determ ine the emf of a generator w ith an in tern al
resistance of 0.05 2 and the counter emf of a m otor if the
current in the circuit is 100 A, the voltage across the gen
erator term inals is 225 V, and the resistances of the m otor
w inding and the leads are 0.2 and 0.1 2 respec
tively.
10.91. The circuit diagram of a d.c. m otor is shown in
Fig. 49. The voltage in the circuit is U = 550 V, and the
current is / = 102 A. The resistance of the arm ature circuit
is R a = 0.1 2, th a t of the parallel excitation w inding
R ex = 150 2, and th a t of the rheostatic controller R r =
125 2. D eterm ine the current in the parallel excitation
w inding when the rheostatic controller is com pletely on, and
the counter emf if the electric m otor is started w ithout a
s ta rte r rheostat.
10.92. Four loads having a resistance of 10 2 each are con
nected to an accum ulator battery having an emf of 48 V
and an in ternal resistance of 0.25 2. Determ ine the current
through the b attery if the loads are connected (a) in series,
(b) in parallel, and (c) in two parallel branches containing
two series-connected loads each.
10.93. One of two cells has an emf of 1.45 V and an in ternal
resistance of 0.5 2 and supplies voltage to a circu it w ith an
efficiency of 90% , w hile the other cell has an emf of 2 V and
an in tern al resistance of 0.5 2 and operates w ith an effic
iency of 80% in an identical circuit. D eterm ine the current
in the two circuits.
10.94. An accum ulator w ith an emf of 1.45 V produces
a current of 0.5 A in a conductor whose resistance is 2.5 2.
D eterm ine the short-circuit current.
10.95. D uring a short circuit, the current from a source of
1.8 V is 6 A. W hat m ust the external resistance be for the
current to be 2 A?
131
2 ?
0.004 2. D eterm ine the emf and the voltage across the te r
m inals of the b a tte ry if the current in the circu it is 20 A.
10.106.
W hat is the reading of a voltm eter connected to
the term inals of a battery consisting of three series-connected
alk alin e accum ulators, each w ith an emf of 1.2 V and an
in te rn al resistance of 0.3 2? The external circu it consists
Fig. 50
F ig. 51
133
Worked Problems
Problem 63. An electric m otor operating for 5 h is driven
at the m ains voltage of 380 V and a current of 35 A. The
resistance of the m otor w inding is 0.5 2. D eterm ine the
am ount of energy consumed, the am ount of heat liberated
in the w inding during the operation, and the m echanical
work done by the m otor.
Given: U = 380 V is the voltage at the m otor term inals,
/ = 35 A is the current, R = 0.5 2 is the resistance of the
m otor w inding, and t = 5 h = 5 X 3600 s is the operation
tim e.
F ind: the energy A consumed by the m otor, the am ount
of heat Q liberated in the w inding, and the m echanical
work A mechSolution. The energy consumed or the to ta l work done by
the curren t can be determ ined from the form ula
A = IU t,
A = 35 A x 380 V X 5 x 3600 s
~ 2.4 x 108 J .
134
4 . 9 x l 4 N x.55 m/sXl00% _
7<io/ox380V
ACXA a
1U1A.
135
4nQx^aXinU
~ 1 -5 x 10*J.
136
= 9.5 x 10'* m.
gives t) =
T\U*
= 12 min.
Answer. I t takes 12 m in to boil the water.
137
Fig. 53
139
140
141
Mi
k2
rii
* n2
M%
142
U Spol
R
Worked Problems
Problem 68. A m etal article is electrolytically plated w ith
a silver layer 20 pm thick. How long did the electrolysis
require for a current density of 2.5 X 103 A/cm 2?
Given: h = 20 pm = 2 X 10~5 m is the thickness of the
silver layer, and / = 2.5 X 10~3 A/cm 2 = 25 A/m 2 is the
current density. From tables, we find the electrochem ical
equivalent of silver, k = 1.118 X 10' kg/C, the density of
silver, p = 10.5 X 10s kg/m 3, the valency of silver, n = 1,
the m olar mass of silver, M = 108 x 10~3 kg/m ol, and the
Faraday constant F = 9.65 X 104 C/mol.
F in d : the tim e t of the electrolysis.
Solution. 1st method. We solve the problem using F a ra
d a y s first law m = k i t . This gives t = m l k l . The mass and
the current can be determ ined from the form ulas m = pSh
and / = j S . S u b stitu tin g these qu an tities into the form ula
for tim e, we obtain
.
ph
kj
l ~
1^1
mFn
m =
-rrr
v
ft I t , whence t = in
/ The mass and the current
can be determ ined as before: m = p F = pSh and / = jS .
This gives
, _
phFn
~Mj~
._
1 0 .5 X 1 0 3 k g/m 3 X 20 x l 0 6 m x 9 .6 5 X l 0 4 C /m ol _ y c n n g
108 X 103 k g/m ol X 25 A /m 2
143
M (U %) t
n ~
mFR
,
'
yV
(5 .2 V - 0 . 7 V )3600 s _
? 5 ^ 1Q22
1 . 5 Q x l . 6 x l O - "C b- / : ) X 1 U
144
145
tu tin g this q u a n tity into the form ula for power, we obtain
p
p
(ft/)2
07
146
147
148
149
150
1 0 -19
C x
3 x
10-18J.
151
6 .2 X 10"2 m
3 .2 9 X 1 0 -4 m 2/(V*s) X 1 s
1 0 -2 m 2 =
0.2 uA,
r
= 188 V/m.
Answer. The satu ratio n current is 0.2 pA, and the electric
field stren g th is 188 V/m.
Questions and Problems
13.1. U nder the action of an ionizer, a gas has become a
conductor. A charged electroscope placed nearby sta rts to
discharge rapidly. W hy does the discharge cease after the
ionizer is rem oved?
13.2. Figure 56 shows a dependence of the current through
a gas on the applied voltage. W hat processes correspond to
Va
F ig. 56
F ig. 57
152
153
per cm3 of atm ospheric air near the E a rth s surface due to
rad io a ctiv ity of soil and cosmic rad iatio n . The separation
between two electrodes is 8 cm. D eterm ine the sa tu ra tio n
current density between the electrodes for singly charged
ions.
13.21. The work function of barium oxide electrons is
1.0 eV. W hat m ust the m ean free p ath of the electrons in
a p arallel-plate capacitor be for the electrons to ionize the
barium atom s? The field strength between the plates is
3 X 105 V/m . The field should be treated as uniform .
13.22. The satu ratio n current in an air-filled tu b e is
2 X 1010 A at an electric field strength of 30 V/m between
the electrodes. The overall m obility of m onovalent ions is
3.29 x 10~4 m2/(V -s), and the area of plane electrodes is
100 cm2. D eterm ine the num ber density of the ions.
13.23. D eterm ine the overall m obility of hydrogen ions
if the satu ratio n current density is 2.8 x 10"10 A/m 2 at a
field strength of 1.2 kV/m and a num ber density of ions of
104 cm -3.
14. ELECTRIC CURRENT IN SEMICONDUCTORS
155
156
form ula
F= a
rm
/l/a *
2:la
'
15. Electromagnetism
157
m 2nr '
2r
'
] x
158
p
F ~
4j i X lO"7 H /m X 1 (150 A )* 50 m _ n 7 r
2 n x 0 .3 m
159
B = 4/ vA -x T0 . ?5 mx lj- = 1.4 T.
160
x 10 7 H /m
1 .5 A X 3 0 0 0
0 .3 m
= 1.9 x 10-* T.
161
Pmag
jir2
0 .3 1 4 A - n > 2
3 .1 4 X 10-2 m 2
in
The m axim um torque can be determ ined from the form ula
^m ax =
Pm ag^
BQ
2 X 4 .6 X 10~19 C X 40 V
kg
4.67 X 40~27
v
= 4.4 x 105 m/s.
0T
. 6 ' x
n n9Q w
u
"
2jir
163
jl is
'FT
Fig. 63
164
Ld
0
n
F ig. 65
Fig. 66
165
A/
M
/ V ----------------IT'.
My
F ig. 69
'/V
Iz
Cf
Fig. 70
167
the perm eability of iron if the m agnetic flux through the core
is 2 X 10-4 W b.
15.40. An electron flies into a uniform m agnetic field as
shown in Fig. 71. D eterm ine the direction of the force acting
on the electron at the in itia l m oment. W hat w ill its tr a
jectory be?
15.41. An electron moves in a uniform m agnetic field a t a
velocity of 1.0 X 104 km /s at rig h t angles to the m agnetic
induction vector. D eterm ine the force
+ + + + +
acting on the electron for a mag+ + +
+ +
netic field strength of 150 A/m.
g
x V
3
15.42. An electron flies into a uni+ + + + +
form m agnetic field w ith induction
+ + + + +
9.1 x 10-5 T. The electron velocity
is 1.9 X 107 m/s and at rig h t angles
F ig. 71
to the m agnetic induction vector. De
term ine the radius of the circle in
which the electron will move, the period, and frequency
of its revolution.
15.43. The Lorentz force exerted on an electron by crossed
electric and m agnetic fields is determ ined by the form ula
F l = eE + evB. W hat m ust the direction and m agnitude
of the electron velocity be for it to move uniform ly in a
straig h t line?
15.44. An electron flies into a uniform m agnetic field
w ith induction 2.5 X 10~3 T and moves in a circle of radius
40 cm. The electron velocity vector forms an angle of 90
w ith the direction of the m agnetic field. D eterm ine the k i
netic energy of the electron.
15.45. An electron having a velocity of 8.8 X 107 m /s
flies into a uniform m agnetic field of induction 6.28 X
102 T. The angle between the velocity and m agnetic induc
tion vectors is 30. D eterm ine the radius and the lead of the
helical trajectory of the electron. Use the charge-to-mass
ratio of the electron, to the th ird significant digit.
K
15.46. Two identical, singly charged ions fly at different
velocities into a uniform m agnetic field. W hat w ill the
periods of their revolution be?
15.47. An electron and a singly charged ion fly at the
same velocity in to a uniform m agnetic field. W hat w ill the
periods of their revolution be?
169
170
/? + r *
0.2Q + 0.1Q
(b)
If the conductor moves a t a velocity v in a uniform
m agnetic field, an emf , is induced in it. If the conductor
is a part of a closed circuit, then a current is induced in it
w ith a direction determ ined by the right-hand rule. In the
problem under consideration, the induced current is directed
171
against the current I v Ohms law in this case has the form
r _ 8 -# i
hy *- - + r
Sirtce Jf, = Blv, we obtain
, _
% Blv
R+r
i2 _
0 .9 6 V 1 .6 T X 0 .6 in X 0 .5 in /s
A a v
0.2Q + 0.1Q
- l . o A.
172
2 x 0 . 9 4 2 V x 0 .1 4 s
_
0 .1 2 T X 3 .1 4 X 1 0 - 2 m 2
2exM
fljuf2
gs
A/
$ s &t
I2- I 1
10 V x 0 .1 s
10 A 5 A
n o T-T
w
2
/ 2
are
2 *
w = wt - Wi = - ^ L
J. (II - If),
173
10 A X 1000
0 .5 m
5 x 103 m2
Fig. 74
Fig. 75
16.2.
W hen the poles of a horse-shoe m agnet are closed
w ith an arm ature (Fig. 75), the pointer of the galvanom eter
is deflected. W hy?
174
tb)
+
N
Fig. 76
(/>)
(cj
to
w w w w
- ! > cL Z .
Q 1 Z
I Z Z D
M M M H
Fig. 77
175
Fig. 78
Fig. 79
176
177
12 - 0 5 3 0
Chapter III
or
(o =
2JT./T.
VUg.
179
12*
180
= 2t.
181
Hence V = Xco.
To find the am plitude of the acceleration, we m ust dif
ferentiate the velocity equation
= - Fo) sin (<ot + <p0)
or
2ji rad/s
3 x 2 n rad
= 0.33 Hz, 7 =
= 3 s,
V
V = 1.2 m x
A = - 1.2 m x
+ - ^ r a d = 3.14 rad,
182
kx2
o ?
ip
kO
mv2
o
183
0 .1 k g x O .O l m 2/s 2 = 5 x 1Q_4 j
= 4.55 x lO-2 J,
A _ y r2x 4.55x10-2
100 N /m
CO / 100 ]
V
0.1 kg
N /m
3.017
= 3.017 x lO-2
=31.6 rad/s,
=arc sin 0.9945 = 1.4658 rad.
184
tb)
(c)
Fig. 81
185
a = 538',
186
17.10.
The angular velocity of the drive wheel of an au
tom obile is 30 rad/s. W hat is the frequency and the period
of m otion of the engine piston on direct gear?
\r=0
Fig. 82
187
, z2 = 0.4cos 1-5 jt ( * + 4 ) *
(co-f 7 jt) ,
x 2
3 ji) .
188
189
190
Fig. 84
Fig. 85
upon by the elastic force of the spring and the force of g rav
ity. W ill the loads oscillations be harm onic? W hat effect
does the force of g rav ity mg have?
17.49. One end of a spring w ith a constant of 50 N/m
is fixed, and a 1-kg load is suspended from the other end.
D eterm ine the vib ratio n frequency of such a pendulum .
17.50. The period of vibrations of a spring pendulum is
0.25 s. W hat is the spring constant if the mass of the load
is 200 g?
17.51. A body of mass 0.5 kg fixed to a spring stretches it
by 1 cm at rest. W hen it is displaced by 3 cm downwards and
released, it sta rts v ib rating harm onically. D eterm ine the
am plitude, circular frequency, period, and in itia l phase.
W rite the equation of m otion.
17.52. A body of mass 800 g is fixed to a spring w ith con
sta n t 40 N/m and vibrates as shown in Fig. 85. The am pli
tude of vibrations is 2 cm. W hat is the energy of vibrations?
D eterm ine the m axim um velocity and acceleration.
17.53. The m otion of a body whose mass is 2 kg is de
scribed by the equation
x = 0.8 sin | nt + - y ) .
D eterm ine the energy of the v ib ratin g body. How does the
energy depend on the in itia l phase?
17.54. A load of mass 1 kg is suspended from a spring
w ith constant 1000 N/m and placed in a rocket th a t is
191
cos
0.1 ji j
192
193
Fig. 87
Fig. 88
194
195
^m ax
]/2
13 *
__ f m a x
V2
196
*
(DC *
The reactance of a circuit containing a capacitor, a re
sistor, and an inductance coil in series is given by
X = X L Xc,
while the im pedance is
z = y m + ( x L - x cyi .
The relation between Z, /?, and X is presented graphically
by a triangle (Fig. 89), i.e. obeys the rules of geom etric com
position. The angle (p in the figure is
the phase difference between current
and voltage.
Using the am plitude and effective
values, we can w rite Ohm s law for
an a ltern atin g current, i.e.
F1&* &9
jj
__
II
17
k'max
In the presence of a reactance, the current in the c irc u it
is not in phase w ith the voltage. If we assume th a t the in i
tial phase of the current is zero, the voltage across the induc
tive reactance leads the current by Jt/2, while the voltage
across the capacitive reactance lags behind the current by
Jt/2. Therefore, only in an ohmic resistance do the current
and voltage oscillate in phase. Hence, a lte rn a tin g currents
and voltages cannot be added algebraically, as was the case
for direct current. The com position is carried out using
vector diagram s in which the emf, voltage, and current are
depicted by vectors em erging from the origin and form ing
w ith the abscissa axis an angle equal to the in itia l phase.
The average power lib erated in an a.c. circuit is
cos <p IU COS (p.
In electrical engineering, the concepts of active, reactive,
and to ta l power are introduced. The active power P is asso
197
= P X L or Q = P X C.
cos <p = - j - = - j - .
W orked Problems
Problem 89. A resistor w ith resistance 20 S2, a coil w ith
inductance 0.0398 H , and a capacitor w ith capacitance
159 pF are connected in series to a generator. D eterm ine the
voltage across the circuit com ponents and in the en tire cir
cuit. W hat is the phase difference between the voltage and
the current? D eterm ine the im pedance of the circuit. W hat
will happen if the capacitive and inductive reactances are
equal? The frequency of the alte rn a tin g current is 100 Hz
and the current is 2 A. P lot the vector diagram .
198
V b 2+ ( x l - x c)2= V R 1 + (<*>
i/ojC)2.
199
The geom etric sum of the three vectors w ill give the to ta l
voltage in the circuit. F irst we compose the vectors directed
along the vertical, and as a result obtain a voltage triangle
(Fig. 916) from which we can easily find the voltage and the
phase difference:
UX = UL - U C,
v=
V U r + u \ = I V R* + (coL - 1/C)2,
tan < p =
coZ, 1/coC
Ux
F ig. 91
from the form ula co^ = 1!(LC). Then the impedance of the
circuit a tta in s its m inim um value and is equal to the resis
tance: Z R , while the current a tta in s its m axim um value.
This phenomenon is known as voltage resonance, and o)0
is the resonance circular frequency.
S ubstitu tin g in the num erical values, we obtain
UR = 2 A x 20 2 40 V,
UL = 2 A x 2ji x 100 s '1 x 0.0398 H - 50 V,
Uc = 2 A/(2ji x 100 s"1 x 159 x 10~4 F) = 20 V,
U = V (40 V)2 + (30 V)2 = 50 V,
X L - X c = 2ji x 100 s '1 x 0.398 H (2n X 100 s
x 1.59 x 10-4 F )- = 15 Q,
tan <p = 15 Q/20 Q = 0.75, <p= 3652',
Z = | / ^ + (Xl - Z c)2 = - ^ - = - ^ = 25 Q.
200
201
U = I l V R 2 + <*2L \ tan(pL = - ^
C/coC,
tan <pl
V 1+ tan2 <PL
coL______
V R 2+ 22
Y 1+ tan2 <pL
\ f /?2+ (02L2
wL
l/i? 2+ (o2L2
2^2
the origin. The next vector is plotted from the end of the
preceding one. The resu ltan t vector then connects the ori
gin of the first vector to the end of the last one. For our prob
lem, such a construction yields a current triangle (Fig. 95),
the calculations rem aining the same.
If one of the param eters to, C, or L of the circuit is varied,
the to ta l current and the phase angle (p w ill change. For
Fig. 95
Fig. 96
UuC:
] / i ? 2 +
ioL
co2 / , 2
j / / ? 2 +
cd
2L
= wo =
'
203
UR
URC
/ = -51Z r =
rj
whence Z = ~RC
80 V
= 6.35 A,
2 ji X 20 s-1 X 0.1 H
=
/ (1 Q)2 + (2 ji X 20 s1 X 0.1 H )2
ggy
2jx V 0 A H X 7.5 X 10 F
2ji V L C
The impedance is
Z
QX 7.5 XlO-4 F
"
133
204
whence
R = U l/P b =
= 288 2.
n .
, R = 0.5Z = Q.5Vr R * + ( X c - X L) \
2n x 50 Hz X 546 Q
The im pedance is
Z = Y (288 Q)2 + (546 2 47.1 2)2 = 576 2.
Let us now find the current in the circuit
'- X .
' - S S - * * *
205
o
206
207
208
based on the current axis. P lot the graphs of the current and
voltage.
18.27. P lo t the voltage vector diagram if an a.c. circuit
contains (a) a capacitor, (b) a solenoid. P lo t the graphs for
the currents and the voltages.
18.28. P lo t the vector diagram for the voltages of the a.c.
subcircuits operating at frequency 50 Hz and consisting of
the following components connected in series
(a) C = 1.33 x 103 pF, R = 2.4 2,
(b) L = 3.18 x lO"2 H, R = 17.3 2.
18.29. P lo t the graphs of voltage and current in the com
ponents of the circu it in Problem 18.28.
18.30. P lo t the vector diagram s of the voltage for the
follow ing com ponents when connected in series (a) L =
0.03 H and C = 2 X 10~4 F, (b) L = 4.95 x 102 H, C =
398 pF and R = 7.55 2. The altern atin g voltage frequency
is 50 Hz.
18.31. P lo t the voltage graphs for the com ponents of the
a.c. circu it in Problem 18.30.
18.32. Using vector diagram s, prove the form ula for the
reactance of a subcircuit consisting of a capacitor and an
inductance coil.
18.33. Using vector diagram s, prove the form ulas for the
im pedances of series-connected R , C and L in an a lte r
nating current.
18.34. An a.c. circuit a t voltage 120 V and frequency 50 Hz
is connected to series-connected (a) R 60 2, L =
0.255 H, (b) R = 3.8 2 and C = 2.27 X 10~3 F, and (c)
L = 0.0764 H and C = 398 pF. De
/
term ine the impedance, current, and
voltages on the com ponents of the
L
circuit. P lo t the vector diagram s.
18.35.
An a.c. voltage of 220 V
and frequency 50 Hz is applied to
series-connected (a) R = 5 2, L =
F ig . 98
0.135 H , and C = 75 pF, (b)
R = 30 2, L = 0.2 H , and C =
97 pF. Determ ine im pedance, current, and voltage across
the components of the circuit. P lot the vector diagram s.
18.36.
An a.c. generator of voltage 36 V (Fig. 98) is con
nected in parallel to (a) R = 3 2, X L = 4 2, (b) R = 1 2
X c = 2 2, and (c) X c = 2 2, X L = 4 2. The frequency of
209
210
211
trie fields energy into the energy of the m agnetic field and
back is observed in an oscillatory circuit, viz. a circuit con
tain in g a coil and a capacitor (Fig. 101). The resistance of
the oscillatory circuit m ust be low, otherwise the energy of
the electrom agnetic field w ill be converted into heat, and
the oscillations in the circuit w ill soon cease.
I Under these conditions, the period of the
- i-f
^ 3 natu ral electrom agnetic oscillations is
f
T = 2nVLC,
and the frequency is
Fig. 101
T
2ji y i c
An open oscillatory circuit em its waves of the w avelength
X = c T , or X = c/v,
where c is the velocity of electrom agnetic waves equal to
the velocity of light in vacuum .
The velocity of propagation of the electrom agnetic waves
depends on the properties of the m edium , viz.
= / Lie, whence
213
T 2 =-- 2n V ~LC2,
10"6 s.
3.97
10*6 s = 1191 m,
214
= 5.37 A,
7may c = 7max.
215
216
Chapter IV
Optics. Fundamentals
of the Special Theory of Relativity
20. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS
F ig. 104
F ig. 105
F ig. 106
219
Here a and a' are respectively the distances from the object
and from its image to the m irror. The m inus sign indicates
that the m irror is convex, and the plus sign corresponds to
a concave m irror.
The linear m agnification is given by
*2, i-
=
* sin ecr
=
.
n
C1
n
d v ,
221
s
Fig. 109
Fig. 110
223
1 ,1
a + a'
X
f=
Bz
1_
/
j
T /=
P - l | P 1
I + pz
3 X 2.6 m
9 -1
1 _ P2 l
/
pi
r> n r
= a 9 7 5 m-
224
a'
/= - -
a'
~ ~ T
_
, ,
ha'
0.12 m X 0.35 m
0.84 m
= 0.05 m,
h' 0.05 m.
A nsw er. The object is 0.84 m from the m irror, and the
image is 5 cm high.
Problem 97. The Sun forms an angle of 60 w ith the h o ri
zon. D eterm ine the length of the um bra at the bottom of an
opaque vessel illum inated by
sun light. The height of the
vessel is 25 cm. W hat w ill the
change in the length of the
um bra be when w ater is poured
into the vessel to a height of
20 cm (Fig. 112)?
Given: H 25 cm is the
height of the vessel, cp = 60
is the a ltitu d e of the Sun
F ig. 112
above the horizon, h = 20 cm
is the height of the w ater colum n. From tables, we take the
refractive index for w ater, n = 1.33.
Find: the length l x of the um bra a t the bottom of the em pty
vessel and the change AI of the length of the um bra in the
vessel w ith w ater.
Solution, W e use e to denote the angle formed by the d i
rection of incident rays w ith the vertical wall of the vessel.
I t can be seen from the figure th a t the angle of incidence
e and the altitu d e of the Sun
are related: e + (p = Jt/2,
e = 9060 = 30.
The rays propagate in the em pty vessel along a straig h t
line (along^4Af), and the length I of the um bra can be calcuH
225
B ut CD = ON.
incident ray and the ray emerging from the slab: 6 = CD.
From the triangle A C D , we have 8 = i4C sin (e e '),
A C = ft/cos e '. Consequently,
c
ft sin (e e')
c o se '
0.03 m X 0.29
0.88
Answer. After passing through the slab, the ray rem ains
parallel to the incident ray but is displaced by 9.9 mm*,
e ' = e.
Problem 99. An object of height 6 cm is set a t rig h t angles
to the optical axis of a double-convex lens of optical power
5 D and 25 cm away from the
lens. Determ ine the focal
length of the lens, the position
of the image, the linear m ag
nification of the lens, and the
height of the image formed by
it.
Given: h = 0.06 m is the
height of the object, CD = 5 D
is the optical power of the lens,
and a = 0.25 m is the dis
tance between the object and
F ig. 113
the lens.
Find: the focal length / of
the lens, the distance a from the image to the lens, the
linear m agnification p, and the height h ' of the image.
Solution . Given the optical power, we can determ ine the
focal length of the lens:
f - w - r D = -2m Let us construct the image of the object (Fig. 114). By
choosing an appropriate scale, we can determ ine the re
quired q u antities from the diagram accurately enough.
227
fa
af
-----r** &
/r ---a 1 a
0.2 m X 0.25 m
a = --------0.05
?r?vc------= 1 m.
m
1m
0.25 m
#
*
Fig. 114
228
fe' = + ^ - 0 . 3 m = |0 .0 6 |m .
0.8 m
A f
Af
F ig. 116
m ine the positions of the lens and its foci. Is the lens con
verging or diverging? C onstruct the image of the object.
Solution. We draw a ray from A to A ' . I t intersects the
principal optical axis a t the optical centre of the lens. We
229
, J_
/l
i
a\
0.3 cm x 0.31 cm
/ifli
9.3 cm.
at
0.31 c m 0.3 cm
i /i
Remark. To avoid cumbersome num bers, we shall express
all q u a n titie s in centim etres:
a x
9.3 cm
0.31 cm
30.
Eyepiece
F ig. 118
231
_ 1
fi
<h
1
a'2
1
/3
_ 1
5cm
26.25cm
a . The distance
form ula
,
af
a f 9*
0 .3 5 m X 0.25 m
n -n r -------- c\ OC----I)
.ihmm0.25
0 mm
0.35
from th e
A Q r
~
O .o 7 0 m .
l = a ^-------- ^
a oc
i 0 .875m 0.35 m
Z= 0 .3 5 n H --------- ^
A oj
0.61m .
233
F ig. 120
F ig. 121
234
235
F ig. 122
F ig. 123
F ig. 124
237
238
index of glass is 1.5. D eterm ine (1) the displacem ent of the
ray and (2) the p ath length of the ray in the p late.
20.59. A light ray is incident a t rig h t angles on a rig h tangled glass prism (Fig. 125). W hat w ill the p a th of the
ray be afterw ards?
20.60. How m ust two right-angled prism s be arranged in a
periscope? Draw the lig h t p a th in it.
20.61.* Two parallel rays 1 and 2 are incident on a glass
right-angled prism (Fig. 126). Trace the lig h t p ath after
wards.
20.62. A lig h t beam is incident along the norm al on a
lateral face of a prism w ith an angle of refraction of 30
F ig. 125
F ig. 126
F ig. 127
ig. 127). D eterm ine the angular displacem ent of the beam
as a result of its passage through the prism if its refractive
index is 1.8.
20.63. A ray incident on the la te ra l face of a glass prism
w ith an angle of refraction of 30 emerges from it a t 30.
The refractive index of glass is 1.5. Determ ine the angle of
incidence of the ray.
20.64. A ray is incident on a late ra l face of a glass prism
along the norm al and emerges from the prism at 25 from the
direction of the incident ray. The refractive index of glass
is 1.5. W hat is the angle of refraction of the prism?
20.65. The angle of refraction of a prism is 60. A lig h t ray
emerges from the prism a t the sam e angle as it is incident
on it. The refractive index of the prism is 1.5. D eterm ine the
angle by which the ray is deflected from its in itia l direction
as a result of its passage through the prism .
20.66. The angle of refraction of a prism is A. A lig h t beam
is deflected by an angle 6 upon passing through the prism .
239
F'
to
00
>
Fig
Screen*
it
\
f
F ig . 129
240
F ig. 130
241
242
243
AO)
AQ
= 4 ji sr.
R * ~
h-
i?!
E = -R \
or J - I L
Ur
Rl
Worked Problems
Problem 104. Two lam ps w ith lum inous inten sities of
200 and 300 cd are suspended from 3-m high poles (Fig. 133).
The distance between the lam ps is 4 m. D eterm ine the illu
m inance on the ground a t points A , B , and C.
245
200 cd
9 m2
2 2 .2
lx.
If
can be
h
.. .
h
cos e = =
r
seen
from
the
figure
th a t
\ / h 2+ l2
i2
2A
1,2 _I
ti
72
h2 -{-l2
,o
9
y, / Vh 2r- 7j -~ 12
300 cd x o
3m
ouuca
m
t?
2A
o r
25m2
r ""
5
m
701-
'
IX .
11
12
EB= -^ -c o s e + f c f ,
ri
200cd A C
fl = ^
300cd
QO 4 ,
r 0.6 + - ^ r - = 38.11x.
11
-f1
r2
jp
rl
Therefore,
ij. =
or A
B ut
=
r2 =
.
247
i V h
1 m V 25~cd
A nK
- *-=-, r t =
= 0.25 m.
1^/i + V /*
j/25 cd + ]/225 cd
5 .^ 10? ~ 3
0.25
sr = 0.5 lm.
on a sur
248
nance of the inner surface of the sphere and the total lum i
nous flux em itted by the source.
21.4. D eterm ine the lum inous flux passing through a su r
face of area 20 cm 2 located 5 m from a 100-cd point source
of light. The rays are incident normal to the surface.
21.5. The average illum inance in Leningrad during a
sum m er night (when the Sun does not sink deep below the
horizon) is 1 lx, while the illum inance during a m oonlit
night is 0.1 lx. W hat are the lum inous fluxes incident on the
Mars Field in Leningrad which covers an area of 0.1 km 2?
21.6. An incandescent lam p (w ithout a shade) of lum i
nous in ten sity 25 cd is suspended 80 cm above a table. De
term ine the illum inance on the table.
21.7. The lum inous in ten sity of the lam p in a photograph
ic enlarger is 15 cd. Determ ine the illum inance on a piece
of photographic paper if the enlarger is 30 cm above it and
only 15% of the lum inous flux is used.
21.8. An incandescent lam p in a room produces an illu
m inance of 28 lx at one wall and 7 lx on the opposite wall at
the same level. W hat is the ratio of the distances between
the lam p and the walls?
21.9. W hen w ill the illum inance under a lam p be higher:
for a lum inous intensity of 120 cd 3 m away or for a lum i
nous in ten sity of 25 cd 1.2 m away?
21.10. P arallel rays incident a t an angle of 25 produce
an illum inance of 54 lx. A t w hat angle of incidence will the
illum inance of the surface be 45 lx?
21.11. Before a sunset, sun light is incident on the sur
face of the E a rth a t an angle of 81. Compare the illu m i
nances produced on the surface of the E arth and on a
vertical w all facing the Sun.
21.12. The m axim um illum inance th a t can be created by
sun light on the surface of the E arth is 1 0 8000lx. How far
from the Sun is the planet Mars when the m axim um solar
illum inance on its surface is 48000 lx?
21.13. W hy does snow m elt more quickly on sunlit
slopes than on su n lit horizontal areas?
21.14. W hen parallel rays are incident on an object alo rg
the norm al to its surface, the illum inance is 70 lx. W hat
w ill the illum inance of the surface be if the object is turned
so th a t the angle of incidence is 60?
21.15. An electric bulb of lum inous in tensity 150 cd is
249
250
Fig. 135
I from the screen. W ill the illum inance change if the lum i
nous in ten sity and the distance from the light source are
both increased rc-fold?
21.30. A light source of 40 cd is placed between a screen
and a plane m irror 0.5 m from the screen (Fig. 135). The
distance between the screen and the m irror is 1.2 m. D eter
m ine the illum inance of the screen where the lig h t ray is
incident along the norm al. Assume th a t the m irror is per
fectly reflecting.
21.31. A lam p used for p rin tin g photographs had lu m i
nous in ten sity 50 cd and was placed 1.2 m from the photo
graph. The exposure tim e was 3 s. W hen the lam p b urnt
out, it was replaced by another lam p of 40 cd placed 1 m
from the photograph. D eterm ine the exposure tim e for the
new lam p.
251
where k 1 ,
2,
, ....
I
I#
I
I
I
I
0 , ft ,
* . ,(Ljd
Fig. 137
253
4.0
:0 .7 5 x 10-6 m.
3 x 108 m /s
~
1.8 X 108 m /s
1.7.
F ig. 139
255
5 ,0 , 5 ,0 = I .
Th<,n
. _
(2 .2 X 10" m )a
2 x 2 .2 m
1.1
X 1 0 6 m .
5 .5 X 10-7 m
256______
(2k + 1), or 2d +
whence d = A - .
whence
*=
kR
(7-2 x
l 0 ~3m )2
6 x 12 m
= 7.2 x 10~7 m.
257
tan <p
K = k
1.6
or
dhi
*=
r ~~n
kl
'
7.57 X lO " 7 m.
258
rent plate w ith parallel faces, altern atin g dark and yellow
fringes can be seen against the background of the flame. The
same pattern can be observed in reflected light (by placing
the plate behind the flame). How can this effect be ex
plained?
22.4. Oil spots on the surface of sunlit w ater are rainbow
coloured. W hy? W ill the p attern change if the surface is
illum inated by m onochrom atic light?
22.5. Rays from two coherent light sources of w avelength
0.5 |Lim and w ith a path difference of 0.5 mm arrive a t a
certain point in space. W ill the interference be constructive
or destructive at this point?
22.6. Red light of wavelength 760 nm from two coherent
sources is incident on a screen, form ing an interference p a t
tern of red and dark fringes. Determ ine the path difference
of the rays if four half-waves fit into it. W hat type of
fringe (red or dark) is formed for such a path difference?
22.7. A soap bubble displays all the colours of the ra in
bow in sun light. W hy?
22.8. Determ ine the radius of the second dark Newton
ring in reflected Ught if a plano-convex lens w ith the radius
of curvature 8 m and a flat plate (Fig. 140) are illum inated
by a m onochrom atic light w ith a wavelength of 640 nm.
22.9. An instrum ent for observing New tons rings is il
lum inated by a m onochrom atic red light. The radius of the
third dark ring is found to be 2.8 mm. D eterm ine the wave
length of the red light if the radius of curvature of the plano
convex lens is 4 m.
22.10. The air gap in an instrum ent for observing New
to n s rings (see F ;g 140) is filled w ith water. W hat w ill the
change in the radii of the interference rings be?
22.11. W hat is the antireflection coating of objectives
based on? W hy do objectives have a bluish-violet tinge in
reflected light?
22.12. The distance between two coherent m onochrom at
ic point light sources is 1.5 cm. The sources are located at
36 m from a screen so th a t the line connecting them is p aral
lel to the plane of the screen. Determ ine the w avelength of
the light if the separation between adjacent interference
fringes is 1 . 8 mm.
22.13. A plano-convex lens w ith a radius of curvature of
8 m is put on a flat transparent plate. W hen the system is
259
261
262
263
265
= ^ - (i+ p )>
15 J
Pl
Set ~
2 xx 10~4
10- m2
m 2 X 3 x 108 m /s x 60 s
266
Pi = 8-4 x lO 6 Pa.
M h - ,
.
6.62 X 1 0 -34 J -s X 3 X 108 m /s
Q Q om
= 3 -3 2 X 1 0 7 m = 3 3 2 n m *th = --------- 3.74 X l ie x i o ^ 9 J
mek
267
U =
268
24.12. The work function for cesium is 1.9 eV. D eterm ine
the m axim um wavelength of light at which a photoelectric
eSect is observed.
24.13. D eterm ine the m axim um w avelength of light
which m ay cause the extrinsic photoeffect from nickel if the
work function for nickel is 4.5 eV.
24.14. The work function for platinum is 6.3 eV.
W ill photoeffect be observed for a rad iatio n of w avelength
1 0 " 7 m?
24.15. L ight of w avelength 500 nm is incident on the sur
face of silver. W ill the silver become charged or will it re
m ain neutral? If it gets charged, w hat is the sign of
the charge? The photoelectric threshold for silver is
261 nm.
24.16. The m axim um w avelength of rad ia tio n th a t can
produce a photoelectric effect in platinum is 234 nm. De
term ine the m axim um kinetic energy acquired by the elec
trons due to rad iatio n of w avelength 2 0 0 nm.
24.17. W hat is the energy of electrons detached from the
surface of copper irradiated by light of frequency 6 X
10 16 Hz if the work function for copper is 4.5 eV?
24.18. W hat is the velocity of the electrons knocked out
of sodium irrad iated by light of w avelength 6 6 nm? The
work function for sodium is 4 X 10 19 J.
24.19. The photoelectric threshold for a certain m etal is
690 nm. D eterm ine the work function for th is m etal and
the m axim um velocity acquired by its electrons due to ra
diation of w avelength 190 nm.
24.2 0 .1
W hat is the m axim um velocity acquired by photoelectrons knocked out of m olybdenum by rad ia tio n of fre
quency 3 x 1020 Hz? The work function for m olybdenum
is 4.27 eV. Is the classical form ula applicable in this
case?
24.21.
If the surface of a m etal is successively exposed to
rad iatio n of w avelengths 350 and 540 nm , the m axim um ve
locities of the photoelectrons w ill differ by a factor of two.
D eterm ine the m etals work function.
269
V i-v 't/c *
following relation:
m=
1/1 v*/c*
mnv
u
j / l v 2/ c 2
;. = v' + v
l + yiv/c2 9
Worked Problems
Problem 114. A rocket moves w ith a velocity equal to
of the velocity of light in vacuum relative to a sta tio n a ry
pbserver. W hat is the change in the length of a 1-m long
steel ruler and the density of the steel of which it is made in
the rocket (in the direction of motion) w ith respect to the
observer? How much tim e will elapse according to the clock
of the statio n ary observer if six years have passed according
to the clock in the m oving rocket?
0 .6
271
/ = l m y/~ 1
= 0.8 m.
___________________________
___
l 0S
P '
Therefore
p=-r=fe-The tim e for the statio n ary observer w ill be dilated and is
defined by the form ula
t=
] / 1 V2/ c 2 '
t=
= 7.5 years.
Answer. The length of the ruler for the statio n ary observer
is 0.8 m, the density of steel is 1.2 X 104 kg/m 3, and the
tim e period is 7.5 years.
Problem 115. The rest energy of a proton is approxim ately
938 MeV. D eterm ine the rest mass of the proton and the
mass and velocity of protons to which a kinetic energy of
70 GeV has been im parted in an accelerator.
Given: E 0 = 938 MeV is the rest energy of the proton,
E k = 70 GeV is the kinetic energy of a proton acquired in
the accelerator. From tables, we take the velocity of light
in vacuum c = 3 X 108 m/s.
Find: the rest mass m Po of the proton, the mass m p of the
proton after the acceleration, and the velocity v of the pro
ton as a result of the acceleration.
1.67 x 10 27 kg.
nro
_j_ i
whence
1 .1 2 x 10 -
1.5x lO - 1 J
H aving determ ined the mass of the proton after the accel
eration, we can find its velocity:
whence
v =c
1.67x l O ' 27 kg
1.26 X 10-25 kg
) = 0.99c.
273
term ine the velocity w ith which the rockets approach each
other according to (a) classical m echanics and (b) the theory
of re la tiv ity .
Given: vl = v 2 = 0.8c are the velocities of rockets relativ e
to the sta tio n a ry observer on the E arth .
Find: the velocity u cl at which the rockets approach each
other according to classical m echanics and u rel, the veloc
ity according to re la tiv ity , as well as the difference Au in
these velocities.
Solution. According to classical m echanics, we have
u cl = vx +
u c\ ^
0 .8 c
0 .8 c
1 . 6 c.
V1+ V*
1 + -M L
C2
i I -64c
C2
Chapter V
P (473)^
where m is the mass of a nucleon and r is the radius of the
nucleus.
The positive charge of a nucleus is determ ined by the
product of the atom ic num ber Z of the elem ent in the Pe
riodic T able and the elem entary charge, and hence depends
on the num ber of protons in the nucleus.
The mass of a nucleus depends on the num ber of nucleons
in it. The u n it of mass of an atom , viz. atom ic mass un it
(amu), is equal to 1 / 1 2 of the mass of the carbon atom !|C.
The atom ic mass u n it can be expressed in SI units:
1 amu = 1.66057 x 10 " 27 kg.
277
278
iX 2 + * H e ,
0 -decay,
z +JX 2 +
In 2 _
0.693
Worked Problems
Problem 117. The radioactive waste from nuclear power
plants contains the radioactive strontium isotope JJSr which
has a half-life of 28 years. Over w hat period w ill the am ount
of strontium decrease by a factor of four?
Given: Sr is the strontium isotope, and T l/2 = 28 years
is its half-life.
279
0.693 4
T
AN
N0
0.693 X 1 year
30 years
n noQ
-693
T
0.693
7 Q w 4A-10 - i
30 x 365 X 24 x 3600 s
S
280
12M g
+ [H
281
IJAI + J H e - ^ X + X
E quating the charge and mass num bers on the left- and
right-hand sides (as in Problem 120), we conclude th at the
new nucleus is th a t of phosphorus. In its final form, the reac
tion is
A i+ ;H e -;;p + > .
Problem 122. D eterm ine the mass defect and the binding
energy of the nucleus of a nitrogen atom. W hat is the
binding energy per nucleon?
Given: 4*N is the nucleus of the nitrogen atom . From ta
bles, we take the rest mass of a neutron m n = 1.00867 amu,
th e mass of the nitrogen atom mN = 14.0067 amu, the mass
of a hydrogen atom mH = 1.00797 amu, the velocity of
light in vacuum c = 2.99792 X 108 m /s, and 1 amu =
1.66056 x 10 - 27 kg.
Find: the mass defect Am, the binding energy AE of the
nucleus of a nitrogen atom , and the binding energy per nu
cleon AE /A .
Solution. The mass defect is the difference between the
sum of the rest masses of the free protons and the neutrons
constituting a nucleus on one hand and the mass of the
nucleus on the other, i.e.
Am = Z m p + N m n mx ,
where mx is the mass of the nucleus, mx = m^ Z m .
The expression for the mass defect can be considerably
simplified if instead of the sum of the masses of protons we
282
m V ^ 102.4 MeV.
283
1 year = 3.15 X 107 s is the tim e for which the nuclear fuel
consum ption is being determ ined, m = 1.8 X 105 kg is the
mass of the uranium charge of a reactor. From tables, we take
the Avogadro constant N A = 6.02 X 1023 m ol"1, the m olar
mass of uranium M = 235 X 10 ~3 kg/m ol, and th e energy
liberated as a resu lt of the fission of a 235U nucleus, E
200 MeV.
F ind: the efficiency q of the power u n it, the mass m 1 of
uranium consumed and the fraction m j m of the consumed
uranium .
Solution. The efficiency of a un it is defined as the ra tio of
the electric power of the un it to the therm al power of a
reactor:
r, = ^ 1 0 0 % ,
t) =
J x i S -w
100% = 31.3%.
mi = m v N ,
1
or m i =
P it
-g ,
1294 kg
1.8 x 1 0 s kg
p. j-w-v-
284
285
per second. D eterm ine the charge of this rad ia tio n in cou
lombs.
26.17. D eterm ine the radius and nuclear density of he
lium and uranium -238 atom s.
26.18. W rite the reaction for the direct transform ation of
actinium -227 into francium-223. W hat type of a radioactive
decay is it?
26.19. W hat will happen to the uranium-237 isotope dur
ing p-decay? W hat will the mass num ber of the new ele
m ent be? To which side of the Periodic Table will the nuc
leus be shifted? W rite the reaction equation.
26.20. A beryllium nucleus is formed by the reaction
between a lith iu m nucleus and a deuteron. W hat particle is
liberated in the process? W rite the nuclear reaction equa
tion.
26.21. The age of the objects discovered during an arche
ological dig is determ ined from the isotopes of a certain ele
m ent the objects contain. D eterm ine the charge and the
mass num ber and identify the elem ent from the following
nuclear reaction:
*JN+ i - * 4 x + lp.
26.22. W hat are the resu lta n t nuclei after the a - and
P-decay of xenon?
26.23. Two y-quanta are formed by the an n ih ilatio n of
an electron and a positron. Assum ing th a t the masses of the
electron and the positron are the same, determ ine the energy
of the y-radiation and its frequency.
26.24. The presence of explosives in the luggage of air
passengers can be detected using nuclear physics. An explo
sive norm ally contains nitrogen isotopes w ith mass num
bers 14 and 15. As a result of bom bardm ent by neutrons,
nitrogen isotopes w ith mass num bers 15 and 16 are formed.
The la tte r isotope is radioactive and em its y-quanta th a t
can be detected. W rite the equation of the nuclear reaction.
26.25. W hat m ust the energy of a y-quantum be for it to
be convertable into an electron-positron pair?
26.26. I t is established th a t a proton is em itted during
the bom bardm ent of an alum inium isotope by helium nuclei
w ith the form ation of a new nucleus. W rite the equation for
the nuclear reaction and id entify the new nucleus.
286
287
Chapter VI
289
\N
Z,
Nadir
Fig. 148
Fig. 149
equinox (Fig. 147). The most rem ote points from the equa
tor are passed by the Sun on the 22nd of June and on 22nd
of December, which are known as sum m er and w inter sol
stices respectively. The ecliptic passes through tw elve con
stellations of the Zodiac, nam ely Pisces, Aries, Taurus,
G em ini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, L ibra, Scorpio, S ag ittariu s,
Capricorn, and A quarius.
The position of a sta r on the celestial sphere is deter
mined by two coordinates: its declination 6 and right ascen
sion a (Fig. 148).
The large circle of the celestial sphere passing through the
celestial poles and a given sta r is known as the declination
circle, while the angular distance from the celestial equator
to the star, measured along the declination circle is known
as the declination of the star. D eclinations are positive to
19-0530
290
8,
291
Newton refined K eplers th ird law for com paring the masses
of celestial bodies:
m x + m % T j 2 __ R j 2
4
7*34
i?34
292
u n it
be
and
(pc),
293
m 'Sun^Earth^Earth
a Earth
m Earth m M o o i r M o o n
aMoon
- .
msun7^ arth - = 4
m Eartli* M o o n
^
aMoon
Hence
x
m Earth
flM o o n
1 Moon
1 Earth
-1QOOOO
Answer. The ratio between the masses of the Sun and E a rth
is about 330000.
Problem 125. Determ ine the mean distance between the
E a rth and the Moon using the following data: (1) the hori
zontal parallax of the Moon is p = 0.57', and (2) an elec
trom agnetic signal sent to the Moon from the E a rth returns
in 2.56 s. W hat is the m ean velocity of m otion of the Moon
round the E a rth if the sidereal m onth is 27.3 days long?
Given: p = 0.57' is the horizontal parallax of the Moon,
t = 2.56 s is the tim e required for the electrom agnetic sig
nal to traverse twice the distance from the E a rth to the
Moon, T = 27.3 days = 27.3 X 3600 x 24 s is the sidere
al m onth. From tables, we take the mean radius of the
E arth /?Earth = 6370 km and the velocity of light c =
3 X 105 km /s.
Find: the distance d from the E a rth to the Moon and the
mean velocity v of the Moon in its orbit.
Solution. 1. The horizontal p arallax of the Moon is defined
as the angle at which the radius of the E a rth is seen from
294
~ 384380 km.
2.
A radio signal sent to the Moon w ill be reflected by its
surface and retu rn to the E arth . We know the tim e in which
the radio signal covers twice the distance from the E a rth to
the Moon. Therefore,
300000 k m /s X 2.56 s
~ 384000 km.
295
296
Appendices
1.
2.
c
c
G
g
N
=
=
=
=
a
331.46 m /s
2.998 X 108 m /s
6.67 X 1 0 -n N *m2/k g 2
9.807 m /s2
= 6.022 X 102S m o l-i
Vm = 22.4 X 1 0 -3 m 3/m ol
N r = 2.687 X 102* m -3
R = 8.314 J /(m o l -K)
k = 1.381 X 1 0 -23 J/K
F - 9.648 X 104 C/mol
A lum inium
Amber
Brass
Brick
2.7
1.1
8.5
1 .5
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
Cast iron
gray
w h ite
7 .0 X
7.5 X
298
Appendices
Concrete
C onstantan
Common salt
Copper
Cork
D iam ond
E b on ite
Germ anium
Gold
G raphite
Ice (0C)
Iridium
Iron, steel
Lead
M anganin
Mica
2.2
8.9
2.1
8.9
0.24
3.5
1.2
5.32
19.3
2.1
0.9
22.4
7.8
11.4
8.5
2.8
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
N ichrom e
N ick el
N ick elin e
Oak
Paraffin
P latin u m
Porcelain
Rubber
S ilv er
Snow
Tin
T ungsten
Uranium
W indow g la ss
Zinc
8.3
8.9
8.8
0.8
9.0
21.5
2.3
0.94
10.5
0.2
7.3
1.93
19.0
2.5
7.1
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 102
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
L i q u i d s (at 293 K)
A cetone
A n ilin e
B enzene
Carbon bisulphide
Copper sulphate so
lu tio n (saturated)
E th y l (m ethyl) a l
cohol
E th y l ether
G lycerine
Kerosene
Mercury (at 273 K)
0.8
1.02
0.85
1.26
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 103
1.15 X 103
0.79
0.71
1.26
0.8
13.6
X 103
X 103
X 103
X 10
X 103
N itrobenzene
Oil
castor (m ineral)
transformer
v egetab le
Petrol
Petroleum
Turpentine
W ater
at 277 K
heavy
sea
1.2 X 103
0.92
0.89
0.93
0.7
0.9
0.87
X
X
X
X
X
X
103
103
103
103
103
103
1.0 X 103
1.06 X 103
1.03 X 10s
Gases
1.17
1.29
0.77
1.78
0.6
1.98
3.21
0.18
Hydrogen
K rypton
M ethane
Neon
N itrogen
O xygen
Propane
X enon
0.09
3.74
0.72
0.9
1.25
1.43
2.01
5.85
A lum inium
Brass
B rick
880
380
750
Cast iron
Cement
Concrete
550
800
920
A ppendices
Copper
G lass
G old
Ice (snow)
Iron, ste e l, n ick el
Lead
N ap h th alen e
Paraffin
380
840
125
2090
460
120
1300
3200
299
P la tin u m
Sand
S ilv er
Sulphur
T in
W ood (spruce, pine)
Zinc
125
970
250
712
250
2700
400
Liquids
E th y l alcohol
E th y l eth er
G lycerine
Iron
Kerosene
2430
2330
2430
830
2140
M achine o il
Mercury
Transform er o il
Turpentine
W ater
2100
125
2093
1760
4187
A ir
A m m onia
Carbon d iox id e
H eliu m
1000
2100
880
5200
H ydrogen
N itrogen
O xygen
W ater vapour
14300
1000
920
2130
J /k g
Solid fuel
9.3
3.1
1.5
3.03
8.3
3.0
Brown coal
Charcoal
Chocks
Coke
Firewood
Gun powder
X
X
X
X
X
X
106
107
107
107
106
106
Coal
A -l grade
A-2 grade
D onetsk
E kibastuz
Peat
2.05
3.03
2.55
1.63
1.5
X
X
X
X
X
Liq u id fuel
D iesel
E th y l alcohol
Fuel o il
4 .2 X 107
2.7 X 107
4 .0 X 107
Kerosene
N aphtha
P etrol, petroleum
4.4 X 107
4 .3 3 X 107
4 .6 X 107
Gaseous f u e l
3.7 X 106
1.64 X 107
3 ,5 5 x IQ7
Producer gas
Town gas
5.5 X 106
2,1 X 107
300
Appendices
5. B oilin g P oint and Specific L atent Heat of V aporization
S u b s ta n c e
A cetone
Air
A m m onia
E th y l alcohol
E th y l ether
Freon-12
Iron
Mercury
P etrol
Turpentine
W ater
heavy
ordinary
T, K
t , c
329.2
81
239.6
351
308
243.2
3023
630
423
433
56.2
192
33.4
78
35
29.8
2750
357
150
160
374.43
373
J /k g
r, <
5.2
2.1
1.37
8.57
3.52
1.68
5.8
2.85
3 .0
2.94
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10*
10*
106
105
10*
106
104
10*
10*
10*
2.06 X 106
2.26 X 10
101.43
100
10
5
-4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
P, k P a
0.260
0.401
0.437
0.476
0.517
0.563
0.613
0.653
0.706
0.760
0.813
0.880
0.933
1.000
1.066
1.146
1.226
1.306
1.399
1.492
1.599
1.706
p x io ~ 3,
<, c
k g /m 3
2.14
3.24
3.51
3.81
4.13
4.47
4.80
5.20
5.60
6.00
6.40
6.80
7.30
7.80
8 .3 0
8.80
9.40
10.0
10.7
11.4
12.1
12.8
'
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
40
50
60
80
100
120
160
200
p,
kPa
1.813
1.933
2.066
2.199
2.333
2.493
2.639
2.813
2.986
3.173
3.359
3.559
3.786
3.999
4.239
7.371
12.33
19.92
47.33
101.3
198.5
618.0
1554
pXlO"3,
k g /m 3
13.6
14.5
15.4
16.3
17.3
18.3
19.4
20.6
21.8
23.0
24.4
25.8
27.2
28.7
30.3
51.2
83.0
130.0
293
598
1123
3259
7763
301
Appendices
A lu m iniu m
B rass
Brick
C ast iron
Concrete
Copper
Iron
Lead
S teel
130
200
17
220
t, c
P, M Pa
10
100
151
0 .0 0 1
0.1
0.49
r,
M J /k g
<, &c
P.
2.47
2.26
2.11
197.4
346
347.15
1.47
15.7
22.1
M Pa
r , M J /k g
1.95
0.9
0
Argon
E ther
E th y l alcohol
H elium
H ydrogen
K rypton
N eon
N itrogen
Oxygen
W ater
X enon
B o ilin g p o in t,
*, C
te m p e r a tu r e
* c r
-1 2 2 .4
193.8
243.1
267.9
241
63.62
228.7
147.1
118.4
374.15
18.76
186
35
78
269
-2 5 3
193
246
196
183
100
108
p re s s u re
Pc r x l U 5, P a
48
35.6
63
2.25
12.8
54.27
26.9
33.5
49.7
221.3
57.64
10. Melting Point and Specific Latent Heat of Fusion for Some
Solids at Melting Point
S u b s ta n c e
A lum inium
Cast iron
gray
w hite
Tm
*m
K J /k g
932
659
3 .8 X 105
1423
1473
1150
1200
9.7 X 104
1.3 X 105
A ppendices
302
10.
Copper
Gold
Iron
Lead
M ercury
N aphthalene
Silver
S teel
Sulphur
T in
T ungsten
W ater, ice
W ater, heavy
W oods m etal*
Zinc
K J /k g
1356
1337
1803
600
234
353
1233
1673
385.8
505
3683
273
276.82
341
692
1083
1064
1530
327
-3 9
80
960
1400
112 .8
232
3410
0
3.82
68
419
1.8
6.6
2.7
2.5
1.25
1.51
8.8
2.1
5.5
5.8
2.6
3.35
3.16
3.2
1.18
105
104
105
104
104
105
104
105
104
104
104
105
105
104
105
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
11.
A cetone
Castor o il
Copper su lp h ate so lu tio n
E tner
E th y l alcohol
G lycerin e
Kerosene
0.024
0.033
0.074
0.017
0.022
0.059
0.024
0.470
0.045
0.029
0.040
0.027
0.072
Mercury
M ilk
Petrol
Soap solu tion
T urpentine
W ater
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10-5
10 - 5
1 0- 6
io -5
10- 6
1 0- 5
1 0- 5
10- 7
1 0- 6
Gold
Invar*
Iron, steel
Lead
N ick el
P latin u m
P la tin ite
Tin
T ungsten
Zinc
1.4
6
1.2
2.9
1.28
9
9
2.1
4
2.9
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Appendices
303
1.2
1.1
1.6
5.0
1.0
1.8
1.0
1.0
X
x
X
X
x
X
x
X
1 0- 3
i o -3
10- 3
10- 4
io -3
10- 4
io -3
1 0- 3
Sulphuric acid
Transform er o il
W ater at
5-10C
10-20C
2Q-40C
40-60C
60-80C
80-100C
5.7 X 10- 4
6 .0 X 10- 4
5 .3
1.5
3.02
4 .5 8
5.87
7.02
X
X
X
X
X
X
10- 5
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-4
1.0006
1.055
2.8
84
2.7
3.7
5-10
39
1.0003
3.2
2.0
8-9
6-9
Paraffin
Petrol
P orcelain
Rubber
R u tile
Sh ellac
Sulphur
Transform er o il
Vacuum
W ater
W ater at 0C
W ax
W axed paper
2.2
2 .3
4-7
2-3
130
3.6
3 .6 -4 .3
2 .2- 2 .5
1
81
88
5.8
2.0
X
X
X
X
X
108
10- 8
1 0 ~5
10- 7
IO" 8
x
X
X
X
X
X
io -6
IQ- 8
10- 8
1 0- 7
10- 7
10"7
N ick el
N ick elin e
Nichrom e
Osmium
P latin u m
R heotan
S ilv er
S teel
T in
T ungsten
Zinc
7.3
4 .2
1.05
9.5
1.05
4 .5
1.58
1.2
1.13
5 .3
5.95
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
10- 8
10- 7
1 0- 6
10- 8
10- 7
1 0- 7
10- 8
10- 7
1 0- 7
10- 8
10- 8
0.002
0.000005
0.000008
0 .Q002
N ick elin e
R heotan
S teel
T ungsten
0.0001
0.0004
0.006
0.0050
304
A ppendices
17. E lectrochem ical E q u ivalen t for Some Substances, fc, kg/C
A lum inium
Calcium
Chlorine
Chromium (bivalent)
Copper
bivalen t
m onovalent
Gold
H ydrogen
Iron
bivalen t
trivalen t
9.32 X 10-8
2.077 X 10"7
3.67 X 10-7
2.79 X 10-7
3.29 X 10-7
6.6 X 10-7
6.81 X 10-7
1.045 X 10-8
2.89 X 10-7
1.93 X 10-7
1.074 X 10-6
1.26 X io - 7
2.072 X 10-6
Lead
M agnesium
Mercury
N ick el
b ivalen t
triv a len t
Oxygen
P otassium
S ilv er
Sodium
Zinc
3.04 X io - 7
2.03 X io - 7
8.29 X 10-8
4.052 X io - 7
1.118 X 10-6
2.383 X i o - 7
3.388 X io - 7
1.36
1.0003
1.59
1.50
1.63
1.46
2.42
1.36
G lycerine
Ice
M ethyl alcohol
Quartz
Rock sa lt
Sugar
S y lv ite
Turpentine
W ater
1.47
1.31
1.33
1.54
1.54
1.56
1.49
1.51
1.33
1.5
1 .6- 1.8
Hydrogen
H elium
L ithium
B erylliu m
Boron
Carbon
Isotope
:h
?h
?H
?He
He
?Li
7Li
?Be
JBe
*|C
Mass
1.00783
2.01410
3.01605
3.01603
4.00260
6.01513
7.01601
8.00531
9.01219
11.00930
12.00000
Element
Carbon
Oxygen
Fluorine
A lum inium
Phosphorus
Radon
R adium
Uranium
N ep tu n iu m
P lu ton iu m
Mass
Isotope
ic
10
t9i?
s*1
13A 1
2!e2Rn
2iR a
2i}|u
%u
2B N p
29Pu
13.00335
15.99491
18.99843
26.98153
29.97867
222.01922
226.02435
235.04299
238.05006
237.04706
239.05122
isotope.
Appendices
305
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
0
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
21.
82
83
84
84
85
86
86
87
87
88
88
88
89
89
90
90
90
90
91
91
91
91
92
92
92
92
92
92
93
93
93
2 0 -0 5 3 0
45
48
68 51
69 54
70 56
72 58
73 60
74 61
75 63
76 64
76 65
77 66
78 68
79 69
79 70
80 71
81 71
81 72
82 73
82 74
83 74
83 75
83 76
84 76
84 77
84 77
85 78
85 78
85 78
86 79
86 79
63
65
28
32
35
39
42
45
47
49
51
53
54
56
57
59
60
61
62
64
64
65
10
11
11
16
20
24 10
28 14
32 19
35 23
37 26
40 28
42 31
44 34
46 36
48 38
49 40
51 42
52 44
54 45
55 47
56 48
58 50
66 59 51
67 60 52
68 61 54
69 61 55
69 62 56
70 63 57
71 64 58
71 65 59
72 65 59
72 66 60
73 67 61
6
10
14
18
21 11
24
26
29
31
33
36
37
39
41
43
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
14
17
8
20 11
23 14
25 17
27 20
30 22
32 24
34 26
35 29
37 30
39 32
40 34
42 36
43 37
44 38
45 40
47 41
48 42
49 43
50 44
6
9
12
15
17
10
20 13
22 15
24 18
26 20
28 22
30 24
31 26
33 27
34 29
36 30
37 32
38 33
39 34
P a ra m a g n etics (p >
Air
A lu m in iu m
O xygen
liq u id
Tungsten
1)
1.00000038
1.000023
1.0000019
1.003400
1.000176
D ia m a g n e tic s
B ism u th
Copper
G lass
H ydrogen
W ater
(p <
1)
0.999824
0.999990
0.999987
0.99999993?
0.999991
306
A ppendices
F e rrom ag ne tic s
2000
3000
8000
15000
80000
22.
6.37
5.9 8
5.52
106 m
1024 kg
X
103 k g /m 3
105 km /h
6.95 X 108 m
1.98 X 1030 kg
1.74 X 10 m
7.33 X 1022 kg
X
1.49
1011 m
3.84
108 m
27.3 d ays
23.5
Appendices
307
S ta r
8 co. 8 8 8 8 8 8
Tauri (Aldebaran)
O rionis (R igel)
A urigae (Capella)
O rionis (B etelgeuse)
C anis M ajoris (Sirius)
Gem inorum (Castor)
Lyrae (Vega)
C ygni (Deneb)
1.06
0.34
0.21
0.92
1.58
1.99
0.14
1.38
Declina
tion 0
R ig h t a sc e n sio n a
4
5
5
5
6
7
18
20
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
h
31 m in 54 s
12.1 m in
13 m in
52.5 m in
42.9 m in
31.4 m in
35 min
39 m in
+ 4557'
815'
+ 4557'
+ 724'
1639'
+ 32
+ 3841/
+ 4506'
?H
?H
iH e
He
3Li
Li
|B e
4!B
|C
*3C
14N
ifO
ll 0
?IA1
iJs i
?5P
2I?Rn
22|B a
2932BU
23|U
293JPu
2 9*
E b, M e V
E h/ A , M e V
2.2
8 .5
7.7
28.3
32.0
39.2
58.2
64.7
76.2
92.2
97.1
104.7
127.6
131.8
225.0
255.2
250.6
1708.2
1731.6
1783.8
1801.7
1806.9
1.1
2.83
2.57
7.075
5.33
5.60
6.47
6.47
6.93
7.68
7.47
7.47
7.975
7.75
8 .33
8.51
8.35
7.69
7.66
7.59
7.57
7.56
Appendices
308
Prefix
Factor
lOl8
hexa
peta
tera
109
giga
1Q15
101?
10
103
103
H
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
deci
cen ti
m illi
micro
nano
pico
fem to
atto
101
io - 1
1 0 -3
io - 3
1 0 -6
1 0 -9
10-12
10-15
10-18
n
P
f
a
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
radians
0
0.0175
0.0349
0.0524
0.0698
0.0873
0.1047
0.1222
0.1396
0.1571
0.1745
0.1920
0.2094
0.2269
0.2443
0.2618
0.2793
0.2967
0.3142
0.3316
0.3491
Sine
0.0000
0.0175
0.0349
0.0523
0.0698
0.0872
0.1045
0.1219
0.1392
0.1564
0.1736
0.1908
0.2079
0.2250
0.2419
0.2588
0.2756
0.2924
0.3090
0.3256
0.3420
Tangent
0.0000
0.0175
0.0349
0.0524
0.0699
0.0875
0.1051
0.1228
0.1405
0.1584
0.1763
0 1944
0.2126
0.2309
0.2493
0.2679
0.2867
0.3057
0.3249
0.3443
0.3640
Appendices
309
r a d ia n s
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
0.3665
0.3840
0.4014
0.4189
0.4363
0.4538
0.4712
0.4887
0.5061
0.5236
0.5411
0.5585
0.5760
0.5934
0.6109
0.6283
0.6458
0.6632
0.6807
0.6981
0.7156
0.7330
0.7505
0.7679
0.7854
0.8029
0.8203
0.8378
0.8552
0.8727
0.8901
0.9076
0.9250
0.9425
0.9599
0.9774
0.9948
1.0123
1.0297
1.0472
1.0647
1.0821
1.0996
1.1170
1.1345
1.1519
66
S in e
T angent
0.3584
0.3746
0.3907
0.4067
0.4226
0.4384
0.4540
0.4695
0.4848
0.5000
0.5150
0.5299
0.5446
0.5592
0.5736
0.5878
0.6018
0.6157
0.6293
0.6428
0.6561
0.6691
0.6820
0.6947
0.7071
0.7193
0.7314
0.7431
0.7574
0.7660
0.7771
0.7880
0.7986
0.8090
0.8192
0.9774
0.8387
0.8480
0.8572
0.8660
0.8746
0.8829
0.8910
0.8988
0.9063
0.9135
0.3839
0.4040
0.4245
0.4452
0.4663
0.4877
0.5095
0.5317
0.5543
0.5774
0.6009
0.6249
0.6494
0.6745
0.7002
0.7265
0.67536
0.7813
0.8098
0.8391
0.8693
0.9004
0.9325
0.9657
1.0000
1.036
1.072
1.111
1.150
1.192
1.235
1.280
1.327
1.376
1.428
1.483
1.540
1.600
1.664
1.732
1.804
1.881
1.963
2.050
2.145
2.246
310
Appendices
27. S in es and T angents of A ngles from 0 to 90 (cont.)
A n g le
d e g re e s
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
r a d ia n s
1.1694
1.1868
1.2043
1.2217
1.2392
1.2566
1.2741
1.2915
1.3090
1.3265
1.3439
1.3614
1.3788
1.3963
1.4137
1.4312
1.4486
1.4661
1.4835
1.5010
1.5184
1.5359
1.5533
1.5708
S in e
0.9205
0.9272
0.9336
0.9397
0.9455
0.9511
0.9563
0.9631
0.9659
0.9703
0.9744
0.9781
0.9816
0.9848
0.9877
0.9903
0.9925
0.9945
0.9962
0.9976
0.9986
0.9994
0.9998
1.000
T angent
2.356
2.475
2.605
2.747
2.904
3.078
3.271
3.487
3.732
4.011
4.331
4.705
5.145
5.671
6.314
7.115
8.144
9.514
11.43
14.30
19.08
28.64
57.29
oo
Q u a n titie s a p p e a rin g in f o r m u la s
U n its
Kinematics
r = r (<)
x = x (<). y = y (t)
s = s(t)
m
s
m
m
Uniform motion
r r = vf
x x 0 = uxt
y
y0= V
m
m
A ppendices
311
F o r m u la
| r | = x = s =
vt
U n its
Ar
At
v = lim ^
is the
m otion
m ean
v e lo c ity
of variab le
m /s
m /s
A f-0
In vector form
a = const
a is the acceleration
= V0 +
tit
m /s2
m /s
m /s
In scalar form
= "o* +
=
Vy
Xq
+ ayt
V0 y
= v0x +
_ jO
2
ayt2
y y0 = voy +
2
i>* yj = 2 as
Free fall
=
gt
m /s2
m
- !4
II
h=
"o *
gt
II
*
Appendices
312
Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in fo r m u la s
U n its
Curvilinear motion
v is the lin ear v e lo c ity
R is the radius of rotation
v = 2nR f
co = 2ji/
to = v/R
ac = vVR
ac = co2/?
p = mlV
p is the d en sity
m is the m ass
V is th e volum e
m /s
m
H z, s _1
rad/s
m /s2
Dynamics
k g/m 3
H
m3
a = Ftm
Ft = A mv
N
N *s
k g * m /s
C onservation of m om entum
mv = con st
N ew ton s third law
7712 ^ 2
P = mg
F G mim*
r2
Fc = mv2/R
Fc = mco2/?
Fei = kx
Ff
= ilN
N
N
N /m
N
N
A = FS cos a
A = FS for a = 0
J
A is the m echanical work
a is the an gle betw een the direction deg
P = A lt
P = Fv
P is the power
P is the m ean power
"v is the m ean v e lo c ity
Appendices
313
= mv2/2
E p = mgh
Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s
U n its
J
J
1spent-
A c -
^ useful
n ~ M ~P
no = * x /V m
m0 = M /N jl
F0 = J *
0 n aP
- v . 4npATA
X = viz
m o l-1
k g /m o l
m~3
m3/ m ol
hg
m3
m
m /s
m olecu les
X=
y 2nd2,
ettn o
s _1
deff is
the
effectiv e
diam eter
of
m olecule
P =
3",lo
p is the pressure
Pa
m /s
J /K
K
p = n0kT
E\r == ~ kT
p v = w RT
P iV i
Ti
^ |^ = c o n st
*2
J/(m ol*K )
m ol
Appendices
3i4
Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in fo r m u la s
U n its
Pa
Pa
J
or ffiven off as it co o ls
c is the specific heat
J/(kgK )
Q is the h eat g iv en off as fu el burns
J
q is the specific heat of com b u stion J/k g
Q = qm
of fuel
__ Quseful 1 0 0 %
vspent
Psat
B = --^ a
^sat
p
o=
kg
Q = rm
B =
100%
%
k g/m s
k g /m 3
Pa
Pa
N /m
N
m
surface
A
a = AS
m2
surface
2a
h =
pL = 2 o / r
m
m
Pa
Appendices
315
F o r m u la
Q = km
U n its
liberated
during
J /k g
D eform a tion s
a =-
Pa
N
m2
form ed body
H ookes law
o = E -j-
e = M /l
E p = F M /2
E is the Y ou n gs m odulus
Pa
m
m
J
T h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n o f bodies
SI
l0S T
l 0S T
I = l 0 (1 + a A T )
S = S 0 (1 + 2aA T)
V -V 0
perature
AT* is the change in tem perature
S 0 is the surface area o f th e body a t
273 K
S is th e surface area of the body a t an y
tem perature
m
m
K
ma
m2
AV
ft y A f "
A T $ *s
coeft*c *en t
volu m e exp an sion K ~l
V = V 0 (1 + ft AT)
V is th e vo lu m e of th e body a t any tern- m3
perature
V 0 is the volu m e of the body at 273 K
m3
Po
1 +f t AT
k g/m 3
k g /m 3
316
A ppendices
28. B asic Form ulas in P h ysics ( co nt .)
Q u a n titie s a p p e a rin g in f o r m u la s
F o r m u la
U n its
E lectrostatic s
Q ly Q 2j . .
n
Q n are
electric
charges
C oulom bs law
I Qi J J.ff2 y f
F = -t~ ^
4ne0
E = F /Q t
Q
4jte0er2
(p =
W /Q t
(P = 4Jie~er~
er2
p o in t electric charges
(?i Qz are electric charges
C
r is the separation betw een the charges
m
e0 is the electric co n sta n t
C/(N *m2)
e is th e p e r m ittiv ity of the m edium
E is the electric field stren gth
N/C
Q i is a test charge in the field
C
V
U is the v o lta g e
is the work done by th e electric
field to m ove a charge from one p oin t
in the field to another
V
J
IS
charge
^7 = <px
A = QU
E = - ^ j-
V /m ,
N/C
V
p o in ts in th e field
C = Qltp
C = Q /U
C=
G GtS
W = C U 2!2
a lo n g th e field lin e
C is the cap acitan ce
cap acitor
S is the area of a p la te
d is th e th ick n ess of a d ielectric
W is th e energy of the cap acitor
m2
m
J
Appendices
317
F o r m u la
U n its
/ = Q it
I = envS
I enuES
I
e
n
u v/E
I
i~ ~ s
R = p -j-
A /m 2
m2
Q
Q*m
m
m2
Q
Q
K _1
= -ft
,
318
A ppendices
28. B asic Form ulas in P h y sics (cont.)
Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in fo r m u la s
F o r m u la
Ran =
**
n is the
for R x =
= ...
R lt R 2, /?3, . .
= /?n
U n its
R n are
the
resis- 12
tances
p i
"** r
of a cur- V
rent source
R is the resistan ce of the ex tern al cir- 12
cu it
r is the resistan ce of the internal c irc u it 12
Ohms law for a sub circu it co n ta in in g an em f
U _
I = -----5 ----Jti
A = IU t
A = I*Rt
A =
U2
- 5 t
it
P = IU
P = PR
P = U*!R
P q = 1%
P\ = P 0 P r
% is the counter em f
t is the tim e
rent source
P \ is the power of the load in a closed
circu it
on electrod es
G eneralized law
1 M
m =
Q
is
UqU /./ a/
P = nZ
2na
kg/C
kg/m ol
C/mol
n is the valen cy
Electromagnetism
F is the force of in teraction betw een
N
p arallel current-carrying conductors
/ j and 1 2 are the currents in the conduc- A
tors
jx is the p erm eab ility
p 0 is the m agnetic con stan t
H /m
a is the separation betw een the con- m
ductors
A ppendices
319
F x = B I l sin a
Fa = B Il
for sin a = 1
A = IB AS
A = I AO
* s tr =
~2n
I
B clr =
27
n
B sol
/o)
~
^sol
HoH
fiSol5
= no(i/r
FL = B v e sin a
Q u a n titie s a p p e a r in g in f o r m u la s
U n its
T
m
Electromagnetic induction
S = -
AO
At
% is the induced em f
Wb
s
320
A ppendices
28. B asic Form ulas in P h ysics (cont.)
Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s
F o r m u la
AO
At
# s t r = B l v sin a
= CO
A/
= L
At
L I2
W =
$ s tr
Units
V
V
m
of t h e . circu it
O s c illa tio n s a n d W aves
v =
co =
<p =
<p =
1I T
2jt/ T = 2jiv
cot
cot + <p0
2* Y -
T = 2 k V m !k
co~ V
f
m
k = vT
s
Hz
rad/s
rad
rad
m
m
T
is the period of o sc illa tio n s of a
s
sim p le pendulum
Iis the len g th of the pendulum
m
g is th e free fa ll acceleration
m /s2
T is the period of ela stic v ib ra tio n s
s
rad/s
A l t e r n a t i n g cu rre n t
e = #<> sin(* +
u =
V
V
V
V
A ppendices
321
F o r m u la
7 = 70/ | / 2
U = U 0I | / 2
# =
/2
coc
zjivc
X c = 7 r = o - r
Units
A
A
A
V
V
*s
ca p a citiv e reactance of th e
Q
circu it
v is th e a ltern a tin g current frequency
Hz
X L = 0)7/ = 2jxvL
X l is the in d u ctiv e reactance of the
Q
________________ circu it
Z = Y R 2- \ - ( X l X c )2 Z is the im pedance of the circu it w ith Q
series-con n ected com ponents
R is the resistan ce of the circ u it
Q
cos <p = R l Z
cos qp is the power factor
P = U I cos <p
P is the a ctiv e power
W
7 and U are the effective current
A, V
and v oltage
Q = U I sin qp
Q is the reactive power
var
S = Y p2 +
to ta ^ power
VA
U2
N 2
.
,
= k
k is th e transform ation ratio
N x and N 2 are the num bers of turns in
the prim ary and secondary
U-i and U 2 are v o lta g e s across the p riV
m ary and secondary of the transform er
x c
s
of an o sc illa to r y circu it
k is the len g th of the electrom agn etic m
w aves
c is the v e lo c ity of lig h t in vacuum
m /s
Geometrical optics
n =
cfv
n2*1 =
2 1 -0 5 3 0
m /s
I *s
re^a t^ve refractive in d ex
e is the angle of in cid en ce
e' is the angle of refraction
deg
deg
322
Appendices
28. Basic Form ulas in P h ysics (cont.)
F o r m u la
2,1 =
m /s
m edium
v2 is th e v e lo c ity of lig h t in the second m /s
m edium
icr is the critica l angle of to ta l internal deg
reflection
V2
1/ n
1 , 1
~T~~a+ ~ar
len s (mirror)
a ' is the d istan ce from the im age to the
len s (mirror)
O is th e o p tica l power of a len s
<t> = 1/ /
ID
t
U n its
sin
Q u a n titie s a p p e a r i n g in f o r m u la s
~T
m
D
mirror
) is the lin ear m agnification
P = x
m
m
Photometry
oII
O is the lu m in ou s flux
Q is the lu m in ou s energy
cDtot = 4 j t /
/ = CD/co
I is the lu m in o u s in te n sity
E = 0 /5
E is the illu m in a n ce
lm
J
lm
cd
sr
lx
E =
//r2
E ~ E 0 cos a
m
lx
or
i? =
cos a
deg
m
d is the g ratin g con stan t
<p is the angle to the diffraction m a x i deg
mum
k is the spectral order
A ppendices
323
F o r m u la
st
>
II
CO
J
J *S
kg
me= x
U n its
k g*m /s
II
o.
- I'
ll
Pa
J /(m 2 -s)
m v2
|
(fl
b)2 =
a 2 } 2 a b -j- 6 2,
(a b )2 = a 2 2a& + 62,
a~^b >
b dh V b2 4ac
Appendices
324
or
+ 9 = 0,
4.
knowns:
{a 2x - \ - b 2y =
S o lv in g th is equation , we ob tain
ci&g c2b 1
a xb2 a2b i
S u b stitu tin g x into the exp ression for y, w e find th at
fljCj
V~ 1*2
Appendices
325
1 +8
= 1 e,
1
1 e = 1+ 8,
( l + s ) * = l + 2e,
(1 e)2= 1 2e,
(l + e)3 = l + 3e,
(1 e)3= 1 3e,
Y T + l= i+ .,
v <
T hese form ulas y ield q uite accurate resu lts. For exam p le, le t us
calcu late Y 1/3.96:
i /J L ^
V
3.96
iY/ kI
T 0.04
-04 j
j / j (j
1
2 11
0.01 j
1 0.005
2 V 1 0.01
= - i - (1 + 0.005) = 0.5025.
Geometry
1. G iven a right trian gle w ith sid es a and b and h y p oth en u se c.
Then
a2 + b2 = c2#
326
A ppendices
The area of a circle of radius r is
S = Jir2.
3.
a re
S ~ 4nr2,
V = nr3.
S = 2nr (r + h),
V = nr2h.
Trigonometry
1 . The trigonom etric fu n ction s of
angles are
sin (a + P)
= sin a
sin (a P)
= sin a
cos (a + P)
= cos a
cos (a P)
= cos a
p + cos a sin P,
P cos a sin p,
p sin a sin P,
p + sin a sin p.
2 cos2 = 1 + cos a .
4. The sum and the difference of the fu n ction s are
a + P cos
a
sm a +I sin
p
= 2o sin
a - T
si n a si n p = 2 cos
si n
>
a
a + P
a p
cos a + cos P = 2 cos
cos
. a+ P . a P
cos a cos p = 2 sm
s m ^ .
A ppendices
327
tan a
y f 1 -j* tan2 a
cos a =
----] / 1 + tan 2 a *
sin B
sin C
where A , B , and C are the an gles opposing sid es a , 6, and c resp e c tiv e ly .
7. For 8 < 1 , w e have
sin e = e,
cos e = 1 ,
tan e = e.
8 . Som e d eriv a tiv es and integrals:
( x n ) ' =
i n - 1 ,
~n+i
* d x = T + T '
JifL-m ui,
sin x d x = cos x,
cos x dx = sin x.
P e r io d s
PERIODIC TABLE
cc
II
G r o u p s
s
o
II
o f
IV
111
(H )
L i
6.94,
L it h iu m
N a
III
B e
2s* i
2 *? 2
2
M g
12
24.305
3s1 a
2
19 , Ca
IV 3 9 .0 9 8 .
VI
3 2p*
2
13
A l
2698154
8
2
A lu m in iu m
8
8
2
4*2
C a lc iu m
21
Ga
Z in c
ie 87.62
85.467a
5s'
8
2
R u b id iu m
8 4p1
2
88.9059
ii
5*2 8
S t r o n t iu m
2
G a lliu m
Y ttr iu m
5
A g
V II is
Cs
,1 7 9
IX
,i
6*>
8
2
A U
196.9665
Fr
X
(2231
Hg
8 0
18
200.59
Ssa
M e rc u ry
87 j Ra
226.0254
8 8 ,s
tl
F r a n c iu m
114.82
8 5p
2
. d
^ iu m
In
R a d iu m
32
7s
2 2
L a n th a n u m
,8
8 6p*
.3 2
5 0
8 5 P2
2
A c iin iu m
82
5 6P
, Ku
8 9 1
2
4 8
Sn
T in
33
749 216
a 4p3
2
A r s e n ic
Nb
4 * ,;
929064
p b
is
4045s* 8
N io b iu m
2
,|5 1
Sb
!S
1217s
8 5P# * a2
A n t im o n y
Ta
a
2
a
2
A S
1!
7 2
la 180.9479
5076*7
H a f n iu m
23
, ,n
3 0 34 *2
V a n a d iu m
Ge
H8 6 9
18
12271
4d*5*2 a
Zirconium
2
2 04 37
, 30.97376
50.9415
91-22
Tl
_
T h a lliu m
Ac**
...
e
S ilic o n
18
72.59
a 4p2
2
G e r m a n iu m
Hf
,2 81
15
s
a 3p3
2
P h o s p h o ru s
2 2 } V
57 2
56 j
is 138.905s
Is 178.4,
50*6*7
8
6*7 8
B a r iu m
a
2
La*
Ba
5 M 06s' Gold
^
.
C a d m iu m
56 i
S 137.33
C e s iu m
8 5 s?
1!
14.0067
5 2p3
2
N itr o g e n
S i
28.085s
4790
T it a n iu m
In
2 4 8
11241 !s
!!
Silver
V III 1 329054
C d
2 4 8
107.868
8 5 *1
2
14
4
39 2 Zr
40*5 *2
12.011
C a rb o n
T i
69.72
18
8 4*
2
4
2p*
2
8
3p2
2
4 4 9 5 5 9 3d*4*2 J
S c a n d iu m
2
B o ro n
), Sc
,
, s 40.08
4s1 8
P o t a s s iu m
2
3*7
M a g n e s iu m
_
S o d iu m
B
10.81
B e r y lliu m
11
22.90977
9.01218
7 3
5 036*2 a
T a n t a lu m
2
.1 8 3
B i
2072
ii
2089804
Lead
B is m u t h
104
86p3
r,' aa.
1 0 5 ,?
32
32
6 037*2
1 26,1
6 d > 7 ,>
K u r c h a to v iu m 2
8
2
LANTHANIDES
Pr 59 1 Nd 6oi Pm6 1 1 Sm62i Eu63! Gd84?
Ce 5 8 1 140.9077
J
151.96s , 5
4f 6 s
8 Shies 'I
4f3 6s2 8 ,442<;-6, -s
Gadolinium 2
Cerium
2 Europium
** ACTINIDEJ |
Jh904 Pa
91 j
9 2 j
2 3 2 .0 3 8 1 32 2 3 1 .0 3 5 9 32
5f26dVs 2
60?7s2 8
Thorium
2 Protactinium ? Uranium
2 37 048232
5f 4 6d'7s2 '5
Neptunium j Plutonium
5f 7s
Americium
2 Curium
OF THE ELEMENTS
elements
VI
VII
VIII
H
O xygen
16
8 3p s
2
24
5 1 .9 9 6
8
2
Mo
42
9 5 9 4
5 p 4 TT e llu r iu m
2
7 4
i8
5d46s 2 8
T u n g s te n
2
jl i 84
Po
209
P o lo n iu m
18
0
Fe
5 5 .0 4
Co
r
3de4s7 8
2
Ir o n
3d74s2 8
C o b a lt
2
Br
43
T e c h n e tiu m
836
,! 5 4
S
8
131.30
4d05s1
R h o d iu m
2
75
76j2 lr
192.2?
J OS
1 9 0 .2
5dfi6 s 2 8
O s m iu m
2
77 j
,
5d 6s
i r id iu m
2
8
2
At
Xe
Uranium
..
78
18
Rn
12221
^
R adon
922f-lDistribution
n.
Xenon
5d*6s2 B
P la t in u m
2
86
Atomic moss
Pt
1 9 5 .0 9
12101
8 6p5
2
A s ta tin e
completed sublevels
w e i
s , i
P a lla d iu m
2
I o d in e
5 d 56 2 8
R h e n iu m
2
\] U
K ry p to n
5p
1 8 6 .2 0 7
,285
1
Kr
8 3 .0 0
48
4 d 75s 8
R u t h e n iu m
2
Re
28
3 4 .4 ,1 2
Rh 4s.SPd
44;
f
S 1029055
1269045
8 5p*
2
N ic k e l
8 4p6
2
] Ru
70
58
is
ia 1 01.07
Ar
3 9 .9 4 s
A rg o n
Ni
27
5 8 .9 3 3 2
7 9 .9 0 4
4 d 5 ss2 e
Distribution of electrons
N eon
8 4 PS
2
B r o m in e
127 6 0
13
Te ,53
,s 5 2
1 0 3 .8 s
Sd^s2 8
M anganese
2
\i. Tc
989062
4d 5s1 8
M o ly b d e n u m 2
25
5 4 .9 3 0 0
Se is,35
634
A
7 0 .9 6
8 4P
2
S e l e n iu m
2p
0 3p
C h lo r in e
Mn
13
3 d s4s'
C h r o m iu m
Ne
20.17c
C l
35 453
S u lp h u r
Cr
10
8
2
F l u o r in e
17
3206
3p 4
He
4 .0 0 2 8 0
H e liu m
18998403
7 2p*
6
8
2
1 5 .9 9 9 4
, 5
is2
H y d ro g e n
6 2p
1 .0 0 7 9
1s*
of electrons
by levels
Yb 7 0 1 Lu 7 1 5
T
b 65j Dy66 1Ho 6 7 1 Er 88j Tm69l
9 34 3 S173.0,
158.9254 2 162.56
2
174.907
2
167.2e
2 ,6 8 4
6s
0
5d'6s 1
Thulium
Lutetium
Ytterbium
Hofmium
Erbium
Terbium
Dysprosium
4 f 96 s 2 0
2
4 f 6 s 2
4 f ,26 s 2 8
2
4f
8
2
2 Menrlelevium
Answers
Answers
331
Fig. 153
3 .1 2 . A bout 3.5 kP a. 3 .1 3 . 513 K. 3 .1 4 . 1.62 m ol, 195 kP a. 3 .1 5 .
3 MPa. 3 .1 6 . 58 X 10-3 k g/m ol, 2.2 X 1025. 3 .1 7 . 932 K . 3 .1 8 . H yd ro
gen. 3 .1 9 . I l l kg. 3 .2 0 . 606 K. 3 .2 1 . 73.3 M Pa. 3 .2 2 . A bout 105 Pa.
3 .2 3 . 1.2 k g/m 3. 3 .2 4 . 0.46 kg/m 3, 9 .6 X
1021 m -3,
444 m /s.
3 .2 5 .
28 X P
IO-3 kg/m ol, nitrogen. 3 .2 6 . 1.66 kg.
3 .2 7 . 0.7 M Pa. 3 .2 8 . 2 X 105 Pa. 3 .2 9 .
See F ig. 153. 3 .3 0 . 53. 3 .3 1 . See F ig. 154;
(1) in joules, (2) isotherm 2 for the second
equation w ill lie further from the F -ax is
since it corresponds to a higher tem per
ature. 3 .3 2 . 296, 963, and 17.6 g. 3 .3 3 .
See Fig. 155. 3 .3 4 . Isobar 1 corresponds
to the process occurring at a higher pres
sure. An arbitrarily chosen tem perature
T 1 corresponds to tw o va lu es Vx and V2 0
V
of the volum e, and hence to two v a lu es
p x and p 2 of pressure. B ut the product of
F l*
pressure and volum e at a con stan t tem
perature is con stan t, i.e . pxV1 = p 2Va. Therefore, volu m e V1 on
isobar 1 corresponds to a higher pressure. 3 .3 5 . The gas lea k s. 3 .3 6 .
8.5 1. 3 .3 7 . To 225 K. 3 .3 8 . B y 82 K. 3 .3 9 . See F ig. 156. 3 .4 0 .
38.3 kN .
4 .1 . 250 J. 4 .2 . 380 J. 4 .3 . A lu m in iu m , 1.9. 4 .4 . 4187 J, 460 J. 4 .5 .
The specific heat of copper is larger than th at of alu m in iu m , the sp e
cific heat of lead is the sm a llest of the three. 4 .6 . Copper w eig h t w ill
be heated to a higher tem perature. N o, it does n ot. 4 .7 . The energy
required to heat a gas at con stan t pressure is spent both to increase
the internal energy of the gas ana to do work of exp an sion . 4 .8 .
25.5 MJ. 4 .9 . 1 kg. 4 .1 0 . 1.73 X 108 J. 4 .1 1 . 1026 J. 4 .1 2 . 86 1.
332
Answers
(a)
IV
Ic)
Fig. 155
Answers
333
critica l sta te, the specific la ten t heat of vap orization is zero for a ll
liq u id s. 5 .1 3 . 300 J. 5 .1 4 . The energy liberated during the conden
sation of w ater vapour is about eigh t tim es more than th a t lib erated
during the condensation of mercury va
pour. 5 .1 5 . 11.3 MJ, 2.1 MJ. 5 .1 6 . 4.0
k J. 5 .1 7 . 2.6 X 105 J. 5 .1 8 . 100 g. 5 .1 9 .
36.6C. 5 .2 0 . 53 kg. 5 .2 1 . A bout 10C.
5 .2 2 . 71.6G. 5 .2 3 . A bout 3.3 kg, see
F ig. 157. 5 .2 4 . 84 kJ. 5 .2 5 . 2.25 X
106 J/kg, 0.01 X 106 J /k g, 0.44% . 5 .2 6 .
334 g. 5 .2 7 . 2.32 kJ. 5 .2 8 . 0.04 m3.
5 .2 9 . 17 m in. 5 .3 0 . 51.8 kg. 5 .3 1 . 6.5 kg.
5 .3 2 . 35% .
5 .3 3 . 10~2 k g/m 3, 78% .
5 .3 4 . 19.4 X IO" 3 kg/m 3, 22C. 5 .3 5 .
17.3 X 10- 3 kg. 5 .3 6 . 1C. 5 .3 7 . At
about 7C. 5 .3 8 . 9.4 mg, 65% . 5 .3 9 . To
284.5 K. 5 .4 0 . 9.4 X 1 0~3 k g/m 3, 48% .
5 .4 1 . A t 4C. 5 .4 2 . 18C. 5 .4 3 . 60% ,
about 11 g. 5 .4 4 . 17G, 13C. 5 .4 5 . 19C,
the relative h u m id ity increases. 5 .4 6 .
0.4 m3. 5 .4 7 . It decreases to 54% . 5 .4 8 .
1.21 kg, 271 g. 5 .4 9 . 2.33 kPa. H i n t . p s = p a/ , p a can be determ ined
from the eq uation of state: p a = m R T / M V , p s = m R T / M V B . 5 .5 0 .
12.3 X 10 ~3 k g/m 3, about 48% . H i n t . Solve the problem by using
the equation of state.
6 . 1 . The surface tension changes: it decreases when soap is placed in
w ater and increases when sugar is placed. 6 .2 . Under the action o f
the forces of surface tension, a p ellet acquires the shape for w hich
the surface area is at a m inim um . 6 .3 . Y es, it w ill. 6 .4 . W ater is
a n on w ettin g liq u id for a surface covered w ith grease. 6 .5 . See answer
to P roblem 6.4 . 6 . 6 . T h is is done to create c o n d itio n s in w h ich the
solder is w ettin g. 6 .7 . A n o n w ettin g liq u id . 6 . 8 . T h is is done in order
to prevent m oisture from risin g in the ca p illa ries of the b u ild in g w a lls
6 .9 . The presence of ca p illa ries in caked so il m akes it p o ssib le for
w ater to rise closer to the surface. 6 .1 0 . See answer to Problem 6 .9 .
6 .1 1 . 9.6 X IO*3 N . 6 .1 2 . 8.4 X 1 0" 3 N . 6 .1 3 . 1.37 X 1 0 -3 and
0.12 N .6 .1 4 . 1.56 X 1 0 ~3 N , tow ards the w ater. 6 .1 5 . 0.105 N . 6 .1 6 .
1.44 X 10- 4 J. 6 .1 7 . 7.2 X 10"4 J. 6 .1 8 . 3.15 X IO" 2 N /m . 6 .1 9 .
0.022 N /m , e th y l alcoh ol. 6 .2 0 . 2.9 cm . 6 .2 1 . 2.56 mg. 6 .2 2 . 15 mg.
6 .2 3 . In the test tube of pure w ater. 6 .2 4 . 1.14 X 103 k g /m 3. 6 .2 5 .
0.7 cm .
7 .1 . Strong h eatin g m ay recry sta llize ste e l, w hich m akes its m echan
ical properties w orse. 7 .2 . The shape of the sin g le cry sta l w ill change.
7.3. Glass is b r ittle . 7.4. T h e m eltin g p o in t of lead is considerably
low er than the m eltin g p o in ts of other m etals. 7 .5 . Lead can be m elted
by h eating it in a h erm etically sealed vessel w ith w ater. The temper
ature of the w ater can then be raised con sid erab ly above the m eltin g
p oin t of lead. 7 .6 . In sum m er, the tem perature of the la y ers of air
c lo se to the surface of the E arth is above 0C, and sm all ice c ry sta ls
formed in the upper cold la y ers of the atm osphere m elt on th eir w ay
334
A nswers
to the ground. Larger cr y sta ls have no tim e to m elt and reach the
ground in the form of h a il. 7 .7 . The m eltin g p oin t of the m ixture of
snow and com m on sa lt is low er than 0C, and hence snow m elts even
below 0C. 7 .8 . 0.4 cm . 7 .9 . 1.5 mm, 7.5 X IO-4. 7 .1 0 . 4 mm, about
1.4 J. 7 .1 1 . It w ill decrease by a factor of four. 7 .1 2 . 9 mm. 7 .1 3 .
3 X 107 Pa. 7 .1 4 . 1.07 X 1011 Pa. 7 .1 5 . 5 X IO" 3 m. 7 .1 6 . 9.4 kN .
7 .1 7 . 25. 7 .1 8 . 7.5 cm 2. 7 .1 9 . A bout 4 .2 km . 7 .2 0 . 3 J. 7 .2 1 . 0 .3 mm.
A nswers
335
336
Answers
9 .9 0 .
4 Tf F
F r2
9 .9 1 . C = ~ ;
Ar
for
A nswers
337
- r ri ~ t - 2-r r
= 1.24 A .
22 0 530
338
Answers
2.24 X 1022. 12.15. 4.13 X 1 0~3 kg, 1.88 X 1022, 1.26 X 1022. 12.16.
11.8 kg. 12 .1 7 . 64.5 G J, 0.12 Q. 12 .1 8 . 278 A /m 2. 1 2 .1 9 . 9.6 5 , 18.4 g.
Iron is liberated at the cathode and chlorine a t the anode. P o sitiv e
m etal ion s m ove to the cath od e, w h ile n eg a tiv e ch lorin e ions m ove
to the anode. 12.20. 9.4 h. 12.2 1 . 52 m in. 1 2 .2 2 . 2.6 X 104 kW h,
520 rubles. 12 .2 3 . 4 .5 kg. 1 2 .2 4 . 12.5 h. 1 2 .2 5 . 2.7 X 109 m /s.
12 .2 6 . 312 K . 12.27. N o, it w as n ot. A correction of 0.1 A is required.
12 .2 8 . 1.045 X IO' 8 kg/C, 2.38 X 10 7 kg/C, 1.26 X 10" 7 kg/C.
1 2 .2 9 . 50 C, 56 m g. 1 2 .3 0 . A bout 29 W . 1 2 .3 1 . 369 m g. H i n t . See
F ig. 161. The area of the trapezium is equal to the am ount of e le c
tr ic ity p a ssin g through th e electro ly te from the m om ent w hen the
current sta rts changing. 1 2 .3 2 . A bout 28.2 A /m 2. 12 .3 3 . 1.9 X 1022.
1 2 .3 4 . PoI =
U -
R = 0.8 V.
A nswers
339
F ig. 162
F ig. 163
340
Answers
s [
81
>
>
Fig. 164
1.5 mm . 15.33. 800, 280. The p erm eab ility of steel decreases. When
the m agnetization of a ferrom agnetic a tta in s saturation, the m agnetic
in duction increases on ly due to increasing m agnetic field strength.
1 5 .34. 0.5 T, 1.5 mW b. 1 5.35. 7.9 X IO" 7 Wb. 1 5 .3 6 . 2 X IO"4 Wb,
2.4 X 10- 4 J. 15.37. 144 m W b. 15.38. 7.2 X 10"4 W b. 15.3 9 . 0 .2 T,
fa)
lb)
Ld Id
FI
Fig. 165
FI
Fig. 166
100. 15.40. A t the in itia l m om ent, the force is directed v er tic a lly
downwards; a circle. 15.41. 3 .0 X IO-16 N. 15.42. 1.2 m, 4 .0 X 10" 7 s,
2.5 M Hz. 15.43. The v e lo c ity vector must be perpendicular to the
plane co n ta in in g vectors E and B. B y h y p o th esis, the electron m oves
u n iform ly in a straigh t lin e, and hence F h = 0, v = E l B . 15.4 4 .
1.4 X IO*14 J. 15.45. 3 .9 m m , 4 .4 cm . 1 5 .4 6 . T %1 = T i2. 15.47.
Ti > T c.
1 6 .1 . An em f w ill be induced in th e case (a). 1 6 .2 . W hen the p oles
o f the m agnet are connected (disconnected), the m agnetic field in
duction changes, w hich lea d s to the em ergence of an induced current.
1 6 .3 . From N to M \ from M to N . 1 6 .4 . An em f is induced when the
fram e enters the m agnetic field or lea v es it since in th ese cases the
m agnetic flux piercing the fram e changes. 1 6 .5 . N o. 1 6 .6 . The current
induced in the upper part of the frame is directed aw ay from us in
the cases (a) and (d) and tow ards us in the cases (b) and (c). 16.7. The
A nswers
341
342
Answers
variable since the restoring force varies all the tim e. 17.2 9 . Y es, they
w ill. 17.30. The alum in iu m ball w ill com e to a h a lt first. 17.31. The
acceleration for the am p litu d e value of the d isp lacem en t is m axim al
and in the equilibriu m p osition is m in im al. The v e lo c ity has the
m axim um valu e in the eq u ilib riu m p osition . 17.32. F = m g sin a =
6.93 X IO" 2 N . 17.33. 204 g. 17.34 . 303. 17.35. The period of o sc illa
tion s of a pendulum depends on the free fall acceleration w hich is
different at different la titu d es. 17.36. The len gth of the pendulum
becom es sm aller w ith decreasing tem perature and hence tne period
changes (the clock w ill be fast). The correct pace can be restored by
changing the len gth of the pendulum by d isp la cin g its load . 17.3 7 .
The period w ill double. 17.38. The len gth of the pendulum should be
reduced by a factor of 6 .0 5 . H i n t . B y h y p o th esis, the periods of the
pendulum on the Earth and on the Moon m ust be the sam e. E xp ressin g
the p eriods by the form ula T = 2 n
l /g for the co n d itio n s on the
Answers
343
Answers
344
(c)
F ig. 174
_/v
Fig. 175
345
Answers
vib ration s. 17.71. E lastic forces. 17.72. The v elo c ity of propagation
of sound depends on tem perature and pressure. 17.73. An acou stic
w ave propagating in the rail is p a rtia lly reflected from the surface
of the rail inw ards, and hence the in te n sity of the sound does not
atten uate as rap id ly as in the spherical w ave p ropagating in air.
17.74. The sound w ill not be detected. 17.75. The v ib ra tio n s of the
tu n in g fork are transm itted through the surface of the ta b le w hich
is m uch larger than the surface of the tu n in g fork. 17.7 6 . The sound
from the tu n in g fork in con tact w ith the tab le w ill die aw ay sooner
since the energy of the tu n in g fork is spent on the vib ra tio n of the
tab le. 1 7.77. 22.7 cm -11.3 cm . 17.7 8 . 0.66 m. 17.7 9 . 0.5ji rad. 17.80.
The air colum n in the cap w ill start vib ra tin g . 17 .8 1 . 1545 H z. 1 7 .8 2 .
6 cm . 17.83. The frequency of the sound w ill increase. 17.84. 1445 m /s,
3638 m /s. 17.85. The v alu es of v and T w ill not change, w h ile k w ill
increase by a factor of 14.7. 17.86. 1200 m . 17.87. 2.04 mm, 5.1 mm.
17.88. 3 km . 17 .8 9 . 13.2 s. 17.90. 2 X IO" 3 %, 6 cm .
18 .1 . 0.02 s, 100 tim es. 1 8 .2 . 4.24 A. 1 8 .3 . N o, it can n ot. 1 8 .4 . 177 V,
314 rad/s. 1 8 .5 . 63.8 A, (314* + j i / 4 ) rad, j i / 4 rad, 50 H z. 1 8 .6 . 0,
126.6 V, 179 V, 89.5 V. - 1 5 5 V, 179 V , 126.6 V, 0. 1 8 .7 . - 3 A,
1.5 A. 1 8 .8 . (a) If the plane of the fram e is perpendicular to the m ag
netic field lin es, (b) if tne plane of the fram e is p arallel to th e m agnetic
field lin es. 1 8 .9 . 5 X IO-4 V. 18.10. The induced em f w ill not ch an ge.
18.11. (a) The induced em f decreases by a factor of 1.3125; (b) increases
by a factor of 1.19; (c) increases by a factor of 1.143. 1 8 .1 2 . 120.
18.13. 0.046 T. Hint. The begin n in g of o sc illa tio n s of the em f corre
sponds to the p osition of the fram e in w hich its plane is perpendicular
to the m agnetic field lin es. 18.14. 0 . 1 5 j i V, 2 0 j i rad/s, 0.1 s, j i / 4 rad,
e = 0 . 1 5 j i sin j i (20* 0 .25). 18.1 5 . The im pedance of the conductor
increases sixfold; the im pedance is equal to the resistan ce of the con
ductor. 18.16. 4 Q, 3 Q. 18.1 7 . 152.6 Q. 18.1 8 . The resistan ce w ill be
in fin itely large. 1 8.19. 31.8 Q, 0.53 Q. 1 8 .2 0 . 531 Q. 1 8 .2 1 . 18.5 Q.
18.22. 28.2 A. 1 8 .2 3 . 50 jxF. 1 8 .2 4 . 127 V, 179 V. 1 8 .2 5 . U c = 16 V,
U L = 96 V, 200 H z. Hint. The answ er is obtained by so lv in g the two
equations: X L X c = U / I 1 and X L /2 2 X C = U H 2. 1 8 .2 6 . See
Fig. 176. 1 8 .2 7 . (a) See F igs. 177a and 6 , (b) see F igs. 177c and d.
18.28. (a) See F ig. 178a, (b) see Fig. 178 h. 18.29. (a) See F igs. 179a
and 6, (b) see Fig. 179c. 1 8 .3 0 . (a) See F ig. 180a, (b) see F ig. 1806.
18.31. (a) See F ig. 181a, (b) see F igs. 1816 and c. 18.3 2 . See Fig. 180a
to Problem 18.30. 18.3 3 . See F ig. 1806 to Problem 18.30. 18.3 4 . (a)
100 Q, 1.2 A, 72 V, 96 V, see F ig. 182a, (b) 4 Q, 30 A, 114 V , 42 V,
see F ig. 1826, (c) 16 Q, 7.5 A, 180 V, 60 V, see Fig. 182c. 1 8 .3 5 . (a) 5 Q,
44 A, 220 V, 1866 V, 1866 V , see Fig. 183a, (b) 42.4 Q, 5.2 A, 156 V,
327 V, 171 V, see F ig . 1836. 18.36. (a) 12 A, 9 A, 15 A, 0 .8 , see
F ig. 184a, (b) 36'A , 18 A, 40.25 A, 0.894, see F ig. 1846, (c) 18 A, 9 A,
20 A, 0, see Fig. 1,84c. 1 8 .3 7 . (a) 6 A, 12 A, 12 A, 6 A, 1, see F ig. 185a,
(b) 4 A, 3.6 A, 7,5 A, 6 A, 0.6 7 , see F ig. 1856, (c) 9 A, 18 A, 6 A, 15 A,
0 .6 , see Fig. l5c. 18 .3 8 . The inductance should be increased by
0.184 H; 120 V / H i n t .
= = = = =
j/ / ? 2 + o)2/,2
we obtain
2 3 -0 5 3 0
= iC ?
2
Answers
346
.(b)
(a)
^ m a x~ Irn at R
Fig. 176
(a)
/-K/2
Uc =/(Lc
Fig. 177
/
C2
(b )
ULsIcuL
O^er1_____ .
Uk-IR
I
Fig. 178
347
A nswers
(b)
9^
u*
Fig. 179
(a)
(b)
fy'/cul
ur u.
Uc'f-r
LUC
Fig. 180
(bj
(c)
(a)
n
U*UL -UC
Fig. 182
348
Answers
R + Ml
the equation
V ( /? +
A /? ) 2 +
to2 ( L +
A L )2
VR* +
H ence
co2Z/2.
L
1
'
A L = & R ~ = A/? TT? 1 8 .3 9 . 17.3 Q, 0.04 H . 18.40. U R =
R
0) (/ o
32 V , U L = 48 V , U c = 32 V , tft ot = 36 V , 2634', see Fig. 186.
1 8 .4 1 . 1594 fiF. 18.42. H yd rau lic turbines cannot ensure the required
(a)
(V
/j"
Uf=U
Uc
F ig. 183
(0
r<
Ic-h
1*
1'
F ig. 184
(o)
A
F ig. 185
A nsw ers
349
Q.
= 2.3 m H .
350
Answers
F ig. 190
Fig. 192
Answers
351
19.5
cm . 2 0 .1 6 . See F ig. 191. 2Q.17. 1.2 m . 2 0 .1 8 . 10.5 cm , 21 cm .
2 0 .1 9 . 20 cm from the mirror. 2 0 .2 0 . 20 cm . 2 0 .2 1 . 24 cm , 1 .7 .
2 0 .2 2 . 60 cm , 40 cm . 2 0 .2 3 . 0 .2 m from the mirror. 2 0 .2 4 . 14 cm .
2 0 .2 5 . The field of v isio n can be increased by u sin g c o n v ex m irrors.
F ig. 193
F ig. 195
Fig. 197
Fig. 194
Fig. 196
F ig. 198
352
Answers
F ig. 201
able if the th ick n ess of the g la ss is nonuniform . 2 0 .5 8 . 2.65 cm , 5 cm .
2 0 .5 9 . See F ig. 197. 2 0 .6 0 . See F ig. 198. 2 0 .6 1 . See F ig. 199. 2 0 .6 2 .
34. 2 0 .6 3 . 17. 2 0 .6 4 . 3 5 3 0 \ 2 0 .6 5 . 38. 2 0 .6 6 . n ^ s i n "4 ^ 6- :
sin . 2 0 .6 7 . 8 D, 2 D. 2 0 .6 8 . 4 D, 2.5 D. 2 0 .6 9 . 25 cm , 20 cm ,
50 cm . 2 0 .7 0 . It w ill be d ivergin g if the transparent m edium in
w hich the len s is placed is o p tic a lly denser than the m aterial of the
len s. 2 0 .7 1 . See F ig. 200. 2 0 .7 2 . The brightness of the im age w ill be
reduced, see F ig. 201. 2 0 .7 3 . See F ig. 202. 2 0 .7 4 . T hey should be
arranged so th at the foci of the len se s coin cid e. 2 0 .7 5 . 30 cm from the
len s, th e im age w ill be real and reduced by a factor of tw o. 2 0 .7 6 .
10 cm , 30 cm , 20 cm , and about 17 cm . 2 0 .7 7 . (1) The h eigh t of the
im age decreases, (2) the im age is real, inverted, and fu ll-sized , (3) the
object should be betw een the focu s and the lens. 2 0 .7 8 . 10 cm , 10 D.
2 0 .7 9 . See F ig. 203. In order to determ ine the op tica l centre 0 , we
Answers
353
Fig. 2 0 2
F ig. 2 0 3
Answers
354
sy stem .
2 0 .9 6 .
A bout
^convex*
A nswers
355
he
1 7
S0 o l7u taio n .
C
h^
= AA - \I
mvl _ t
2
~A '
he
T[
m V \
jjj,
mvf
m V
Tf l _C = ^A +1
he
mv|
7h _C _ . m- V1 l =
/ 1
1 \
356
A nswers
Answers
357
TO T H E
READER
A COLLECTION OF QUESTIONS
AND PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS
L.A. Sena
The C o lle c tio n contains more than 400 questions and problems
covering all the sections of the physics course. A ll questions and
problem s have detailed answ ers and solutions. For th is reason the
tw o m ain sections of the book, Q uestions and Problems and A ns
w ers and Solutions, have identical headings and num bering: each
chapter in the first section has a corresponding chapter in the
second, and the num bering of answ ers corresponds to the number-*
ing of problems.
A special feature of the C o lle c tio n is the draw ings and diagram s
for m ost of the questions and answers. The diagram s use a variety
of scales: linear, sem ilog, log-log, and quadratic.
A rrangem ent of the m aterial in this C o lle c tio n corresponds to
the structure m ost com m only used in college physics textbooks. One
exception is the questions and problems involving the special
theory of relativity. T hese are placed in different chapters, starting
from the one dealing w ith m echanics.
The C o lle c tio n is intended for the self-instruction of students of
technical colleges.
^ ma j
NOMf
1
Magnitude
ana smaller
Magnitude 2
ION
5lar
** cLusters
=
Nebulae
Vernal
equinox
Autumnal
equinox
r-r'.-! Constellation
boundaries