Islamic Approaches To Peace

Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam
Islamic Approaches
to
Peace and Conflict
Resolution
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Islamic Approaches to Peace and Conflict Resolution

Introduction
By Abdul Aziz Said, Nathan C. Funk, and Ayse S. Kadayifci
(summary by Nayla SAMMOUR SAWAYA)
In a world where boundaries between cultures, religions and civilizations
have collapsed, there is a profound need for cross-cultural and multireligious studies of peace.
Non-western approaches to peace and conflict resolution are important not
only for the development and refinement of existing theories derived in the
Western cultural context, but also for the promotion of cross-cultural
dialogue and understanding.
WESTERN AND ISLAMIC APPROACHES TO PEACE
In the dominant western conception, peace is associated with the absence
of war or organized violence and justice with an absence of gross
violations of human rights. Peace is maintained through the threat of
coercion and the institutionalization of regulations and decision-making
procedures. Peace and conflict resolution are thought about in terms of
rational order or problem solving predicated upon reason.
Peace occupies a central position among Islamic precepts, where it is
closely linked to justice and human flourishing. Indeed, peace signifies an
additional presence of human dignity, economic well-being and ecological
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balance. Peace in Islam begins with God; God is peace, for peace (alsalam) is one of the most beautiful names of God.
A COMMUNALLY EMBEDDED APPROACH TO CONFLICT
RESOLUTION
From western perspective, conflict is viewed as natural and potentially
positive, and not merely as a source of instability and threat; attempts to
merely suppress conflict through coercive power and authoritative rules are
viewed with disfavour in contrast to attempts to broker durable, mutually
beneficial resolutions to problems, satisfying the interests of competing
parties in a win-win solution.
Muslim approaches to conflict resolution draw on religious values,
traditional rituals of reconciliation and historical practices of communal
and inter-communal coexistence.
These mechanisms aim to empower family groups and community
members to participate in matters of common concern, strong emphasis is
placed on linkages between personal and group identity.
PROBLEMS OF REPRESENTATION
While Muslim writers assert that Islam can contribute to international
peace and human dignity, Islam has been viewed as an actual or potential
problem, and research questions have been framed around threat
perceptions rather than potentially positive aspects of intercultural
encounter.
Given the extent to which narratives of confrontation have defined the
parameters of popular as well as academic literature on Islam, much
contemporary debate about Islam revolves around issues of representation
and misrepresentation.
Karl Marx and Max Weber both studied non-Western cultures and
presumed that because of the unique power of Western innovations in
technology, social organization and production, the West was
unambiguously on the cutting edge of history and that to study Islam was
to study the human past.
Thus, it is assumed from the nineteenth century that the separation of
religious and political authority is good not only for both religion and
politics but also that public dialogue about matters of spiritual or religious
significance is either dangerous or simply unacceptable.
Operating within the framework of such assumptions, social science has
tended to ignore the vigorous Islamic revivalist movements, to explain
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them away, or to identify them as atavistic reactions to modernization. The

focus has been largely on the more militant expressions of Islamic identity,
and on the extent to which they constitute a threat to Western interests.
The dominant frame of reference is the confrontation vs. compatibility.
The future development of cross-cultural inquiry is of considerable
importance in so far as it can help to provide both fresh contributions to
theories of conflict resolution and constructive channels for the perennial
religious impulse. Studies of Islamic approaches to peace and conflict
resolution provide new angles of insight into universal human dilemmas,
as well as important supplementation to studies to recognize contemporary
Islamic activism not as backward-looking rejection of the modern world,
but as deeply felt expression of cultural identity and a critique of domestic
as well as international political orders.
FIVE ISLAMIC APPROACHES TO PEACE
- Power Politics: Peace through Coercive Power
Based on pessimistic reading of human nature, Islam is used as a language
for legitimation of power and authority and for the preservation or social
order; threats to a given political order are often framed as a threat to
Islam. The power-political approach views peace as an absence of war, and
underscores political necessities created by the restlessness of political
subjects and the threatening posture of external enemies.
- World Order: Peace through the Power of Law
Peace is a condition of order defined by the presence of such core Islamic
values as justice, human dignity, cultural coexistence and ecological
stability, and not merely by an absence of direct violence. A situation in
which these values are not present may be characterized as disorderly,
unstable and un-Islamic.
- Conflict Resolution: Peace through the Power of Communication
Traditional Islamic approaches are explored: reconciliation, methods of
mediation and arbitration. These methods affirm a restorative conception of
peace and justice, encompassing notions of compensations for losses,
attentiveness to issues of face or social esteem, renunciation for the sake
of the whole and forgiveness.
- Non-Violence: Peace through Will Power
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Adherence to Islam requires non-violent solidarity against oppression, the

promotion of renewal through broad-based social movements and training
for programs of direct non-violent action. Only a linkage of just ends with
just means can secure authentic justice, peace and human dignity.
- Transformation: Peace through the Power of Love
This approach defines peace as a condition of all embracing harmony
perceived through the inward renewal and transformation of human
consciousness. The cultural community is the context and the receptacle of
human realization; renewal takes place within each person through inward
cleansing and loving surrender to the divine.
The purpose of this study is to suggest new ways of organizing knowledge
about Islam, within the context of emerging global perspectives on the
promotion of human solidarity and the full utilization of cultural and
spiritual resources for the advancement of peace.
Theory of the State Chapter 1
By Majid Khadduri
(summary by Wioletta STOPA)
SOCIETY AND THE STATE
Muslim thinkers, inspired by Greek predecessors believe that man is a
social animal: he can live only as a member of society. No individual,
except God - Allahu ahad - can live alone; men were created to live
together. To Muslim thinkers, from the Prophet Muhammed to Ibn
Khaldum, the individuals rights and obligations were always defined in
terms of the community interests.
In the Quran it is often referred to as a distinct nation (umma) or a
brotherhood, bound by common obligation to a superior, divine
authority. The conception of the umma or brotherhood constituted the basis
of the Islamic community. The greater emphasis seemed to have been
attached to the group; the individual counted for little by himself. Only
through the family, clan or cavitas, to which the individuals belonged,
could they claim the right to protection by means of custom or social
mores.
Not only is Society regarded as indispensable for the survival of man, but
also inherent in it is the concept of authority. The Islamic conception of
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umma presupposes the existence of a set of divine commands, endowed by

a Supreme Legislator, constituting its fundamental law or constitution.
This is regarded as absolutely necessary since society without authority
was impossible.
THE JURIDICAL BASIS OF THE STATE
The foundation of the Islamic social polity was made on the basis of a
compact of agreement, being understood that this agreement was by no
means one between two equals. It was a compact of submission which
reflects the nature of Allahs covenant with man.
Was the Islamic state based on a single-contract theory or two contracts?
According to al-Farabi and Hobbes, the isolated individuals agreed on a
universal contract of submission to a ruler who is vested at once with
exclusive power. Only the possession of sovereignty resided with Allah,
while its exercise was instructed to rule with justice. Allah accordingly was
the titular head of the state and its source of governing authority;
Muhammad was its head of government. The position of Muhammad as
the executive head of the governing authority was filled by a caliph, but
not his prophetic function of communication and promulgating the divine
law. The caliph declared that he was merely to administer and enforce the
divine law. The caliphs powers were derived from and limited by the
divine law; only his appointment was made by the people.
THE DIVINE UNIVERSAL NOMOCRACY
It is to be noted that in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam god never had been
regarded as the immediate ruler of this subjects; only his representatives on
earth were the real executives. Hence the divine law, regarded as the source
of governing authority, was the essential feature in the process of control
under these systems. According to the definition of nomocracy which is
defined as a system of government based on a legal code; the rule of law
in a community, Israelite, Christian and Islamic states, which were based
on divine legal orders, can be called nomocracies. The universal
nomocracy of Islam, like the Republica Christiana in the West, assumed
that mankind constituted one supra-national community, bound by one law
and governed by one ruler. While Islam tolerated Christianity and Judaism
as religion, Islamdom and Christendom, as two universal states, could not
peacefully coexist.
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Foundations and Purposes of Political Authority Chapter 2

by Ibn Khaldun
(summary by Sotirios PETROVAS)
The article is an arrangement from An Arab philosophy of History:
Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis (1332-1406). It
is a series of political theory considerations
STATE AND SOCIETY
State is to society as form is to matter. State and society cannot exist
without one another. Any disturbance of either of them will cause a
disturbance in the other (e.g.: downfall of empires; the change of ruler is
not disturbing, for each successor resembles his predecessor. The true force
which operates on society is solidarity and power, both persist through
successive rulers. If solidarity vanishes, the whole ruling class disappears.
SOCIAL SOLIDARITY IS BASED ON KINSHIP
Solidarity is based on blood ties or other relationship that has the same
effect; indeed, all men are concerned by the injury inflicted on their next of
kin, and resent the oppression of their relative. Even with a distant degree
of kinship, there is a widespread knowledge of kinship.
SOLIDARITY IN TRIBES
Characteristics of men: aggressiveness and lust for power. The state or
the rulers restrain their subjects from attacking each other and preserve
them from oppression, unless it be the oppression of the state itself.
External aggression is warded off by a defence which can succeed only
when men are united by a strong solidarity arising out of kinship.
SOLIDARITY IS THE BASIS OF SOVEREIGNTY
The end of solidarity is sovereignty. Solidarity is what makes men unite
their efforts and defend themselves. But every society needs a restraint, a
chief who will keep men from injuring each other the chief must have a
powerful support, otherwise he will not be able to carry out his function.
This domination is called sovereignty, which exceeds the power of a
simple leader followed by others whom he cannot compel. The sovereign
ruler has such power. A leader will always to try to turn his rule into
sovereignty, as power is the desire of mens souls.
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SOLIDARITY IS THE BASIS OF KINGSHIP

Kingship and dynasties can only be founded upon solidarity; victory
goes indeed to the side with the most solidarity and whose members are
most ready to die for each other. But kingship is fought over with much
competition, war occurs. And the masses are not aware of this struggle as
they have forgotten the origin of their ruler, whose power is consolidated
and no longer based upon social solidarity.
NATURE OF KINGSHIP
It is a position natural to mankind. Man can only survive in groups, and
if they co-operate it is therefore impossible to survive in a state of
anarchy, without a sanction which restrains them from mutual aggression.
This sanction is provided by a strong king.
CONCENTRATION OF AUTHORITY
It is in the nature of states that authority becomes concentrated in one
person. Why? Because of solidarity, formed by the union of many groups,
from which emerges a leading family. A prominent individual is at the head
of this family. He will then have pride and soon think himself as a god.
Were there many rulers, the result would be chaos.
TERRITORIAL LIMITS OF THE STATE
Each state has appointed territories that it cannot exceed; its functions
thereon are to protect against enemies, enforce orders, raise taxes, awe the
population, etc. The state is stronger at the centre than at the periphery, the
centre being like a heart, if it is defeated, all provinces will be wiped out.
RELIGION AS THE BASIS OF THE EMPIRE
A dominion can only be secured by victory, and victory goes to the side
with more unity of purpose and solidarity. Religious fervour can put aside
the competitiveness and jealousy felt by the embers of the group by turning
them towards the truth, a truth they are prepared to die for. Inversely, when
religious fervour weakens and gets corrupted, religion ceases to play a role
and victory belongs to the more cohesive side.
SPIRITUAL AND TEMPORAL POWERS
Kingship arises out of the necessary association of human beings and is
based on coercion, which is an animal tendency. Stemming from his aims
and desires, the orders of the king may soon become unbearable burdens
for the subjects, who will feel the need to rebel themselves. It is therefore
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imperative to impose political laws. The state cannot establish or

consolidate itself without them. Laws are founded on reason.
The laws laid down by God are useful for both this and for the after life,
for men are not created for this world of vanity and evil whose end is death
and annihilation. Religion leads to happiness in the afterlife and divine
laws seek to prescribe the conduct of men in all affairs. The state is
therefore patterned on religion. Aspects that arise from the sole
requirements of statecraft are blameworthy as they lack the light of God.
Political law reflect apparent, worldly interests, whereas Gods aim is the
salvation of mankind. It is therefore imperative to have the people conform
themselves to religious laws in matters concerning both worlds. Thus
Kingship is founded on reason for the proportion of worldly interests. The
Caliphate is the ruling of the people according to the insight of religious
dictates and worldly matters derived from them. The caliphate is thus a
guardian of religion and a director of worldly affairs in the light of that
religion.
SPIRITUAL AND TEMPORAL POWERS IN ISLAM AND
CHRISTIANITY
A chief is needed to lead men towards advantageous things and keep
away from harmful ones. This is the Kings objective.
Islam, as all-inclusive, calls for the Jihad, which is obligatory for
infidels. In other religions, holy war is permissible for self defence only,
and religious leaders do not concern themselves with worldly affairs. These
religions do not demand dominion over other peoples, but merely the
establishing of their faith among themselves.
The Ottoman Jihad Fatwa of November 11, 1914 - Chapter 3

By
(summary by Senem YAZAK)
In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the central
powers and to legitimate this effort enjoin Muslim support beyond the
boundaries of the Empire, the official mufti pronounced a jihad fatwa. The
jihad fatwa was a legal ruling declaring that the Ottoman war policy was
consistent with Sharias rules defining the parameters of righteous military
struggle and that the support for the Empires jihad was incumbent
(obligatory) upon all Muslims whether they lived under the Ottoman rule
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or under the rule of the Allied powers. This illustration of the use of Islam
to advance the interests of a state created fear in Europe.
Islamic Jurisprudence and Modern Needs: the Challenge of Renewal Chapter 4

By AbdulHamid, A.AbuSulayman
(summary by Farida OMAR)
Before, the Muslim world was the center and master of the civilized world.
Today, the Muslim world is weak, relatively backward, frustrated, suffering
from internal tensions, full of conflicts, and controlled and abused by
foreign powers.
Muslims are often regarded as a problem in world politics.
Question: How did such a state of affairs come about?
How can the Muslims alter this condition?
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS
Islam appeared in the early 7th century.
The Prophet is the descendant of Ishmael (son of Abraham).
The Prophet Muhammad recieved the wahy (the revelation) that he has
been appointed Messenger of Allah.
The wahy recorded in the Quran constitutes the first source of the
Shariah.
Shariah = the revealed Will of Allah through the Prophet regarding the
conduct of all human life on earth.
Sunnah (way) = reported sayings, actions
Fiqh = Muslim jurisprudence (systematic deduction of law).
Usul = source and methods of Muslim jurisprudence.
By the end of the 10th century, the number of recognized schools of
jurisprudence had been reduced to 4. Since then, Muslim thought has been
= Taqlid.
19th century modernists introduce the Ijtihad = use of human reason in the
elaboration of Islamic Law.
TRADITIONALISM AND WESTRENIZATION
With Taqlid Muslim thought, technology, social system is stagnant.
Europe develops new ideas and methods. 7th century Europe had
surpassed the Muslims.
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Closer contact with Europe Muslim authorities aware of the need to

learn and adapt European technology cooperation in the military
sector/education in Europe.
problems: religious sector of the society versus secular sector
polarization of education between religious and secular areas.
Ulama Muslim theologician and learned man.
Religious education symbol of a rigid set of historical religious
traditions
Secular education absorbed European ideas and attitudes.
Consequences of this dichotomy: isolation of the Ulama, separation of the
bureaucracy and government from the people, polarisation of the
traditionalists and secularists.
SIYAR: A SOURCE OF LAW
Islamic Shariah = the divine will revealed to the Prophet pertaining to the
conduct of human life in this world.
Usul al-fiqh = the science of deducting and extrapolating rules and
injunctions from their sources in the data of revelation.
Fiqh = body of rules and injunctions deduced from the Quran total sum
of legal decisions and opinions written by Muslim jurists.
Siyar = conduct of the Muslims in their relations with the non-believers.
(e.g.: with the Dhimmis, the non-Muslim subject of a Muslim state).
Definition of Law: Islamic sense: set of value-oriented guidelines toward
the divine purposes of Allah. Islamic law is normative rather than
prescriptive and is designed for moral education and legal enforcement.
Western sense: body of rules and directions accepted and approved for
enforcement by nations. E.g: treaties, legislation, custom, moral and
religious commitment.
CONCLUSION
Contemporary Muslims feel the urge to reexamine the works of fiqh in the
light of modern needs and challenges in conformity with with the spirit and
goals of the Shariah.
Opinions of jurists = not law but just a source of law.
With respect to international relations, the Islamic works of fiqh and siyar
concerning Jihad must be analysed.
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Islam as an Ethical Tradition of international relations - Chapter 5

By Mohammed Muqtedar Khan
(summary by Sarra SEFRIOUI)
This article explores the ethical traditions of Islam in order to examine its
potential as a source that would help precipitate ethical and peaceful, as
opposed to political and conflictual, relations between nations, faiths, and
cultural groups. While using philosophical and ethical categories borrowed
from the Western epistemes, this paper in a way reintroduces Islam as an
ethical tradition. Given the significance that Islamic sentiments and Islamic
symbolism have for a billion people and over fifty nation states, this paper
recommends the inclusion of Islamic traditions in discourses whose
concern is the proliferation of ethical consideration in international and
intercultural relations. Having said that, the paper proceeds to elaborate
foundations for an Islamic ethic of international relations.
The contemporary resurgence of islam has focus attention on political and
revolutionary dimensions of Islam in the post cold war era, as theorists of
international relations exploit the opportunity to develop the ethnical
dimensions of international thought, Islamic contributions to this project
are not in the proportion to its potential as a source of ethical tradition and
an influence of the behaviour of states in the international arena.
States in the international system can be construed as Islamic states, not on
the basis of their political organization but on the religious beliefs on their
population.
Islam plays a major role in determining the political legitimacy of
leadership and policies in Muslim societies (whether they are absolute
monarchies: Morocco, Saudi Arabia).
According to the authors opinion, the concept of religion requires a
sophisticated treatment. Religion was defined in opposition to the secular
in a way that privileges the secular as forward looking and liberating and
undermines the religion as backward, traditional and incarcerating.
Islam is a value system which covers comprehensively the scared and the
secular. It is not a value that applies to the personal and spiritual sphere of
human existence. Islam claims to have its own framework that offers
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procedures and processes for developing institutions that can cater to the
secular sphere.
Terry Nardin has elaborate a systematic study of ethical involving both the
authority of traditional beliefs in the Quran and Sunna and allowing
sufficient room for independence judgement and reasoning: ijtihad that
oppose ethical arguments such as those of the Mutazilities and Asharites.
It is difficult to define Islam as a way of life that gives meaning and
purpose to life, or as a civilization. Considering Islam as ethical tradition
is a useful way of understanding Islam, it is constituted by the Sharia (the
constitution of Islam) and ethics.
the Quran is the book in which muslums believe was revealed to the
prophet muhammed, and the sunna is the collection of sayings, deeds and
sanctions made by the prophet himself.
THE NATURE OF ISLAMIC ETHICAL TRADITION
There are three broad categories of ethical traditions:
Deontological ethics: privilege rules, means duties and obligations.
Utilitarian ethics: give primacy to ends and consequences.
Aristotelian: character and motive.
There are central debates about authority and limits of human agency to
exercise independent reasoning in interpreting religious authority. It is a
debat about the role of reason in understanding Islamic obligations.
Challenging the Mutazilites main ethical thesis that man is the creator of
this actions, the asharites contended that God was the author of all action
and nothing happened without his consent.
The largely utilitarian interpretation and application of Islamic ethical
considerations can be seen in the political discourse of contemporary
Islamic resurgence. Their focus is to realize Islamic law and social ethics in
Muslim states.
In modern world, of nation states, with its global interdependence,
separation of politics and ethics, it would be extremely difficult unilaterally
ethical in political pursuits. Also, Islamic terrorism and militancy is a
response to a western hypocrisy.
ISLAMIC ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL TRADITIONS
Schaybany, is the articulator of the theory of international relations. At the
time of the Arabic domination of Spain, Morocco, Egypt and Turkey.
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The sources of Islamic law means that law-making was not only based on
interpretation of the authoritative texts, but had became a more complex
process involving an empirical reality and necessities besides
traditionalism.
The mediaeval Islamic conception of the international arena looks very
similar to the realist, neorealist and neorealiberal visions of international
relations, but there are several differences.
For the realists, anarchy implies complete absence of any central authority.
Shaybanis theory is the only systematic theory of international relations
advanced from an Islamic perspective tempred by the political conditions
and also by the needs of empire, for by the time Islam was not just an idea
or a philosophy but an empire and a civilization.
In the light of the modern development in international relations, we do
need a modern Islamic theory of international politics.
CONCLUSION
It is in the analysis of contemporary international relations that the hiatus
between the proliferation of normative discourses and the paucity of
empirical analysis becomes apparent in the Islamic scholarship.
Most scholar in the international relations treat the treaty of Westphalia as
the moment that marks changes in the character of human civilization this
starting point of international relations as we know it today is generally
accepted.
In fact the current system of nation states and international relations based
on the principal of the state sovereignty did not become globalize until
after the process of decolonization was complete.
The author at the end expresses that it is hopefully initiate a practice which
will hold Muslim states accountable to the principles of Islamic ethics to
protect both Muslims and non Muslims. Criticism and opposition will be
the first step toward the development of an Islamic ethical tradition in the
contemporary international relations.
Islamic Ethics in International Society - Chapter 6
By Sohail Hashmi
(summary by Senem YAZAK)
Hashmis article observes a very important subject which is highly debated
nowadays. He talks about the place of Islamic ethics in international
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society and tries to refute the western approach to Islamic law and ethics.
He starts by arguing that Western and Islamic civilizations have common
origins and history although their relations are dominated by confrontation.
He suggests there is a need to disentangle Islamic ethics from medieval
Islamic law (shariah) this plea runs throughout his chapter. This is
necessary for Westerners to understand the role of Islamic ethics in
international society.
International politics focus on civilizations and Hashmi argues that
international society consists of civilizations that clash rather than
cooperate. Islamic civilization is the biggest threat to international order.
But he finds necessary to emphasize the fact that Islamic civilization is not
a monolithic force; it is in a state of flux and the current Islamic revival is a
response to a world order shaped by the West.
Hashmis main concern and strategy in bridging the gap between classical
Islamic legal tradition and modern international law is to take the Quranic
message as a moral code upon which a legal system can be constructed.
The author reminds us that the Quran is the source of Islamic ethics and
that its ethical framework is presented as of universal applicability. To
describe better how ethics take place in Islam, he talks about two
approaches: ethical objectivism favored by Mutazillites and ethical
voluntarism as argued by Asharites.
The Mutazillites represent the earliest school of Islamic jurisprudence
where legal judgment was based on reason, namely ethical objectivism.
According to this approach, revelation should be supplemented by reason;
right and wrong are independent of Gods will
Then, there is another approach where legal interpretation is based on
analogy. The jurist should deduce law through analogy with cases of the
Quran. These are the Asharites who defend that Gods power cant be
subject to any objective ethical values.
For the Asharites, the emphasis is on the particular aspect of Quranic
revelation rather than universalistic. Human beings could gain true
knowledge of right and wrong through strict adherence to Gods revealed
will.
To enforce the analogy between the Mutazillites and the Asharites, Hashmi
talk about the difference between the modernist and fundamentalist
approach. Although they are both based upon claims of Quranic
authenticity, there exist significant differences between them.
The modernist approach is the rationalist one to Islamic reform, arguing
that Quranic messages should be seen as a moral code upon which a legal
system can be constructed. The fundamentalist approach on the other hand,
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is the interpretation saying that the Quran ends with the confirmation of
divine law. The duty of the Muslim community is to apply this law. There
is one Islam and there is no other meaning of Islam
Hashmi also analyzes the challenges that the modern international world
system poses to contemporary Islamic thought and argues that the
international norms accepted by Muslim states have not been addressed in
modern Islamic political thought. He also examines such key issues as
justice, human rights, democracy, distributive justice, and diversity from
the point of view of an Islamic political body.
For example in the field of human rights, he poses the question: is there a
conception of human rights in Islam? and answers that the discriminatory
provisions of Sharia are based upon specific verses that were held by
jurists to be legal injunctions. He adds that modern Muslims must return to
the full ethical context of the Quran in order to derive new legal
injunctions. For him the full ethical context leads us to the principle of
equity and reciprocity. In the domain of democracy, although the West
argues that democratic institutions lack in Muslim countries, the idea of the
author is that Muslim societies are influenced by the spread of democracy
throughout the world and organizations adopting democracy spread in
Muslim countries too.
Pointing to the disillusionment of Muslim intellectuals and leaders with
Western political ideals and their disturbingly poor implementation and
failure in the Islamic world, Hashmi concludes by emphasizing the positive
role that religion has played in building a just and moral human habitat. He
argues that religion has been the most uniting force for human beings in
moral community for motivating them towards constructive behavior.
Although religion can make international order difficult; it can contribute
to the evolution of a universal, representative, just society.
Conflict Resolution in an Islamic Context: Some Conceptual Questions Chapter 7
By Mohammed Abu-Nimer
(summary by Louis DENISTY)
Since the 1990s, scholars and practitioners have applied Western
conflict resolution theories and other intervention models like cultural
diversity or coexistence to Middle Eastern countries. This study seeks to
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ask some basic questions regarding conflict resolution in an Islamic

context.
Three objectives can be identified in the application of Western
conflict resolution models: -Teaching and exporting Western perceptions of
conflict resolution to Middle Eastern and Islamic groups, assuming that
they are more developed and effective.
-Exploring alternatives to learn how to control radical groups within
the existing conflict management frameworks of their countries.
-Acquiring more knowledge of the background of Islamic
movements, utilizing it to legitimize new tools of conflict management and
settling political and religious differences among political, social and
religious groups.
To implement Western approaches, we must first remember that
Islamic societies have beliefs, customs and a history that are the bases of
conflict resolution processes. To study and understand the Islamic
societies approach implies that the researcher will not ignore or impose his
cultural basis. He will integrate social patterns to the appropriate concept
and to his experience. We also must acknowledge that there are some
techniques of the West that cannot be applied in the Middle East.
As a field of study, conflict resolution is grounded in a Western
context, and was stimulated by management techniques derived from the
study of organizations, the introduction of problem-solving workshops,
interest-based negotiation and mediation, the redirection of religious
leaders to peacemaking, the emergence of ADR (Alternative Dispute
Resolution) and of interpersonal dispute practices.
The main processes of conflict resolution are conciliation, facilitation,
mediation, negotiation, arbitration and problem-solving.
Middle Eastern procedures are not defined as disciplinary approaches
but those techniques are practiced as traditional processes, to settle
interpersonal, community and inter-religious disputes for hundreds years.
Negotiation is an integral part of the individuals life (souk) but also of the
social organization (the Kadi is also a mediator and arbitrator).
There is no basis for implementing Western strategies in an Islamic
context without adjusting such processes according to local experience. We
can describe three categories of conflict resolution. The actual application
of each of these processes is generally different:
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-Conflict resolution levels and processes implemented in both

cultures.
The assumption, practices and roles of the third party are totally different;
in their definition but also in the aspects of life concerned, wider in the
West, in areas like labor and organizational management or environmental
concerns. The West has a distinctive and professional approach that does
not exist in Islamic societies where conflict resolution is used only where
traditional norms legitimize such actions. It points out that practices from
the West could enrich the process of professionalization and
institutionalization of the conflict resolution field in Islamic societies.
-Basic assumptions in conflict resolution
Western and Middle Eastern approaches to conflict resolution illustrate the
sometimes profound differences between the two cultures. In the Western
context, conflict is normal, positive, and can bring growth and creativity,
based on cooperative frameworks. Any conflict is managed through
rational planning, with legal formality and procedures, leading to a written
agreement that is task-oriented. In the Middle Eastern context, conflict is
negative and dangerous, and brings destruction. Group affiliation is the
most central identity, in a process in which social norms and hierarchical
procedures prevail over legal forms, characterized by emotion and
spontaneity, leading to a relationship-oriented outcome.
-Third party roles
The main features in the West of a third party are professionalism,
impartiality, a focus on the individuals interests, needs and rights,
conformity to legal procedures and the objective of achieving a fair deal
for both parties. The distinctive features in the Middle Eastern context are
the age of the intervener, the political and military power, religious
affiliation, the knowledge of the customs and norms. The mediator can
have a direct or indirect interest in the dispute. This contributes to his
credibility, which is very important.
The teaching of conflict resolution in the Middle East must be performed
by people who know the history, social values and local norms of Islamic
societies.
There are various obstacles to this implementation. Western
frameworks assume a different approach to power relations. Stress is
placed more on common interests and implies a desire to live alongside the
- 18 -
other party and manage interactions peacefully. The Western approach is

based on acknowledging the legitimacy or differences in beliefs and
interests. It is not compatible with the fundamentalist groups who see
themselves as supreme in their beliefs and wishes. Such an approach to
conflict resolution could be rejected as have been other exported Western
ideas, especially without any adaptation.
We must also examine conflict resolution considering the religious
and historical texts such as the Quran, Sharia and Hadith. Arabi also deal
with power disparity between the parties involved in a conflict.
Researchers should also consider Islamic society itself. It is important to
distinguish processes at the interpersonal or community level and those
involving policy making and political groups interactions. One of the
limitation of scholars is that they mainly focus on the second level. The
indigenous processes could be used to bridge gaps on the local level but
also between Middle Easterners and Westerners.
Having looked at all the obstacles to imposing a Western model of
conflict resolution in the Middle East, we can see the pressing need to first
examine the principles and procedures that exist within the Islamic society.
An Islamic model for political conflict resolution: Tahkim (Arbitration) Chapter 8
By Ahmad S. Moussalli
(summary by Federica GALLI)
The practice of arbitration is still widespread in Middle Eastern and
Muslim societies and indeed it is historically rooted in the pre-Islamic
period.
Conceived as an instrument of dispute resolution in a region that continues
to be one of the most troubled spots on earth, the Tahkim emerged as a
cheap mechanism employed among tribes to put an end to their conflicts.
The arbitrator, whose most important qualifying merit was justice, was
presumed to be a wise and fair person appreciated for his or her superior
moral qualities and with a wide knowledge of tribal customs. Arbitration,
however, was not a job and this made it dependent on people themselves
who were free to decide whether to recur to it or not in case of dispute.
- 19 -
When Islam finally gained a central role in the framework of government,

many practices related to pre-Islamic arbitration became part of the Islamic
law as customary law, provided that no contradiction would rise and
although no executive power was recognized to arbitrators, submission to
their arbitration was considered as a moral imperative that very often led to
the execution of arbitral settlements.
Muhammad gained legitimacy both as a political leader and a final
arbitrator, the latter being a role that he started exerting even before his
prophethood. As disposed by the Constitution that both Muslims and nonMuslims signed, he was designated as the chief political administrator and
legal authority that had to be referred to in case of conflicts that could not
be handled otherwise.
Being recognized as the political leader by the entire community, which
did not just include Muslims, Muhammad disposed that political
judgements be subject to legal enforcement, however, when it came to
arbitration on religious affairs, his arbitrations were never subject to legal
enforcement. Non-Muslims were allowed to choose the method of
arbitration in their legal, social and religious affairs, Muslims were not.
The Prophets authority was therefore restricted with regard to the religious
dimension, but definitely wide when considering his political role.
Tahkim however was not limited to economic, social, religious and political
affairs but it could be applied to private law as well.
Muhammads arbitration was reinforced by what God revealed to him, with
revelation being deemed as the final and divine arbitrator.
After Muhammads death, arbitration did not lose its legitimacy and it was
transferred to the entire community, ummah, which was to confer it to the
new leader, the caliph; a new political institution which made Tahkim one
of its characteristics.
Moreover, the community also had religious power in the sense that it
could interpret the divine text, a prerogative that was rooted in the need to
unify the different interpretations of the Quran that were eventually
leading to the split of the ummah. No one in the community claimed to be
the inheritor of Muhammads power. Members of the ummah consulted
first with the caliph and then decisions became binding as soon as they got
the approval of the people through consensus. All the process was based on
arbitration.
Arbitration thus continued to be exerted, but its results were far from being
unquestioned to the point of creating serious frictions. The Khawarij,
- 20 -
comparable to nowadays fundamentalists, for instance, refused arbitration

by demanding the pure application of the Quran. They did not accept any
human interpretation, and their position was deeply questioned by those
who, on the contrary, argued that although the Quran was to be considered
the highest arbitrator it did not speak for itself and therefore needed a
human interpreter. The arbitrators spoke for the Quran.
In the years that followed arbitration kept on being exerted though doubts
arose on whether to consider its results as binding or not.
Later on, arbitration became more politicized and progressively started
playing a less relevant role.
Arbitration had therefore proven to be effective as long as no religious
implications intervened. The difference between the first Islamic state and
the period that followed the Prophets death, lay exactly in Muhammads
capacity to act both as a national arbitrator and as a religious authority.
This made it possible for him to solve disputes and arbitrate although his
religious authority was not unanimously accepted, with the Jews being part
of the community as well.
This means that when dealing with conflict resolution involving religious
groups, the divine element of the conflict must be taken into account and
then deconstructed into its political components. On this basis arbitration
can later work as a method to solve conflicts.
Nowadays political rule does not represent the divine will because the
legislative power is given to the community through arbitration. The
ummah is the sovereign whose application of the divine will is not limited
to an individual or a groups interpretation. No individual or group can
claim exclusive rights to interpretation, government or arbitration except
by way of delegation.
Arbitration rests on the contractual authority of the people with the
government. The legitimacy of arbitration could be restored to deal with an
even wider set of issues both at the internal as well as at the international
level.
Rituals of Reconciliation: Arab-Islamic Perspectives - Chapter 9

By George E. Irani and Nathan C. Funk
(summary by Diana CAKULE)
- 21 -
Can we use Western conflict resolution techniques in the Middle East? This
technique was usually greeted with distrust in Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt etc.
At the same time the US model of conflict resolution is accepted primarily
for facilitation of the process of peace and situation normalisation between
Israel and its Arab neighbours.
In the Middle East, still, the peace process is a superficial phenomenon and
diplomatic agreements are linked to capitulation or pacification.
As a result theoreticians and practitioners started focusing on cultural
differences, rituals and reconciliation processes. In particular, mediators
can integrate some principles and symbolic practices in Middle East
reconciliations methodologies such as sulh (settlement) and musalaha
(reconciliation).
The basic assumption made by Western conflict resolution theorists is that
conflicts can and should be fully resolved. Arab-Islamic culture is less
optimistic, saying that conflicts may be intractable. US-based approaches
espouse that conflict erupts either because of different interpretations
regarding data, issues, values, interests and relationships or because of
unsatisfied human needs it means that there is a positive and also a
negative dimension.
Non-Western cultures often consider Western assumptions about conflict
resolution provocative and they may find them difficult to accept and apply
to their own circumstances. They are likely to be sensitive to the lack of
correspondence between the principles and practices promoted by Western
conflict resolution professionals and the actual conduct of Western nation
states in the international system.
In conflict resolution, communication skills are very important. In many
conflicts, the art of listening is drowned out by arguments and the neverending struggle to get ones own point across first. Listening is not
equivalent to ignoring, it is preparing to respond it is a Western approach!
But can we use it in the Middle East? In heart-to-heart conversations, for
example in Lebanon, people frequently interrupt each other with
expressions of empathy, of support. It is not a rude interruption; it simply
means that people are very expressive. In another example, in some rural
areas of Lebanon, if you dont talk, it means you are dull; the more you
talk, the more it is assumed you know.
- 22 -
Also, we have to note another difference between Western and nonWestern approaches.
Lebanese representatives think that conflict
management is better than conflict resolution. It is impossible to
completely solve conflicts; the existence of conflicts goes together with
human existence.
Western techniques in Arab-Islamic societies are adopted by businessmen,
bankers and engineers. But still, for most people, conflict resolution is
handled by the state controlled courts.
Another aspect of cultural difference is the role of gender in society. For
example, in Lebanon, the majority of social workers are women. But in
conflicts involving couples, men refuse to deal with social workers. Also,
in the case of divorce children stay with their father.
Arab states dont have individuals with rights and duties, they have
individuals belonging to communities. In resolving conflicts we have to
take in account the towns/villages aspect.
THE ROLE OF RITUALS
Rituals, ceremonies, customs are a part of the culture. There is a close
connection between rituals and communicative behaviour, especially
concerning efforts to control, reduce and resolve conflict.
The largest contrast between Western and non-western conflict resolution
is that the Western approach underscores the primacy of individual choices
in facilitation of the process, whilst the traditional Arab-Islamic process is
communally oriented. In Western mediation, the practitioner is a neutral,
unaffiliated outsider, but in the Arab-Islamic approach the third party has
connections to the major disputants, as well as good relations with the
community (age, experience, status, leadership). Similarly, in Western life
the responsibility lies with the participants, but in Arab-Islamic world it is
guaranteed by the communal leader.
The Western third party relies on guidelines, experience and legal texts but
in Arab-Islamic situations it is based on sacred texts, religious ideals,
history and traditions.
The goals of the Western process are pragmatic, trying to achieve a win-towin scenario that will delete the past and commence a new page in history.
In contrast, the Arab-Islamic process is continuity-oriented; history is the
source of stability, it shapes the future. Also in the Western world we solve
our own problems, whilst the Arab-Islam approach integrates family and
community in this matter.
- 23 -
The Western process includes very structured problem resolution

(separate the person from the problem) which leads to a formal, written
agreement. In contrast, the Arab-Islamic approach prioritizes the issues
harmony, solidarity, dignity and prestige.
Sulh and musalaha
One of the most important unofficial responses to conflict in Middle
Eastern societies is sulh and musalaha, which are often simply called
sulh. Suhl and musalaha has its origins in tribal and village contexts,
although not legitimated by Middle Easter states. Today it is used in some
rural areas of Lebanon where state control is not very strong. In Jordan
however, the ritual of sulh is officially recognised.
The purpose of sulh is to end conflict and hostility, so that parties can
conduct a relationship in peace and amity. It is a form of legal contract.
In general, there are two types of sulh processes: public sulh (treaties
between two countries to suspend fighting and to establish peace for a
specific time period) and private sulh (when both the crime and the guilty
party is known and the purpose is to make sure that revenge will not take
place leading to another conflict). The most common condition is to forget
what happened and to initiate new and friendly relations. The mediators in
this process are called Jaha who gain the esteem of the community. But
the sulh ritual is not a zero-sum game!
Conclusions: The application of Western style conflict control, reduction
and resolution in the Middle East can be effective but we can never forget
about the importance of traditional methods and rituals!
The non-violent Crescent: Eight Theses on Muslim Nonviolent Actions

Chapter 10
By Chaiwat Satha-Anand (Qader Muheideen)
(summary by Charlotte BENNBORN)
This chapter suggests that Islam is not the cause of violence but that it in
fact contains - within its 5 pillars - the fundamentals for non-violent
actions.
- 24 -
Jihad is sometimes considered the sixth pillar of Islam. Generally

translated as holy war, it tends to conjure up images (among nonMuslims) of desperate acts by irrational and fanatical people who want to
impose their world-view on others. However, the Quran states let there
be no compulsion in religion. It can be argued that historically, in Arab
conquests, especially in Southeast Asia, Islam seemed to stress continuity
rather than conflict with previous cultures.
The purpose of Jihad is to put an end to structural violence. Jihad is the
command of Allah and the traditions of Prophet Mohammad that demand
continuous personal re-examination in terms of ones potential for
achieving peace and moral responsibility. Jihad can be differentiated
according to the direction (inner and outer) and method (violent and nonviolent). There is greater Jihad and lesser Jihad. Greater Jihad is an inner,
individual struggle against ones own weaknesses and inner evil. Lesser
Jihad, is fought against external enemies to eliminate evil within the
ummah (community). The inner and greater jihad guides the lesser Jihad
in both its objectives and conduct. Jihad places war and violence in the
moral realm, indicating that fighting has its limits. The Quran states that;
Fight in the cause of Allah
Those who fight you,
But do not transgress limits;
For Allah loveth not transgressors. (2:190)
Fighting in the cause of God in Islam is basically synonymous with
fighting for justice.
According to the Quran and the Sunnah (secondary source of Islamic law
after the Quran), the lives of non-combatants are sacred. In addition,
unnecessary destruction of an enemys crops or property is also strictly
forbidden.
Clearly, modern warfare which includes nuclear and atomic weapons
violates these principles as they kill indiscriminately. Similarly, terrorism
fails to distinguish among its victims.
The author proposes that because Muslims cannot use violence the way it
is used in contemporary society (because it invariably involves
indiscriminate killing of innocent people), the community must explore
non-violent ways of conducting Jihad (the struggle against injustices). The
- 25 -
author suggests that this still means taking action (albeit non-violent)
jihad can be performed by the heart, the tongue or the hand,
The author uses the example of protests staged by Muslims in response to
the massacre of civilian Muslims in Southern Thailand in the mid-1970s.
He outlines Five Pillars of Muslim Nonviolent Action as the reason for
their successful, non-aggressive action.
1. The protestors possessed the will to disobey - without which no
nonviolent action can be realised. Muslims are willing to disobey
because for them there is no other authority than Allah, not even the
state.
2. These Thai Muslims were courageous despite severe repression by
the state. Because they submitted to Allah alone, they did not have to
fear any mortal.
3. Muslim discipline enabled the gathering, the protest march. Muslims
are disciplined in their everyday life; they pray five times a day.
4. The concept of ummah (community) is very strong among Muslims
5. Islam repeatedly encourages action.
The author claims these pillars correspond well with the sacred Five Pillars
of Islam
Shahadat a vow that proclaims there is no god but God and Muhammad
is His messenger
Salat Prayers at specific times five times a day from sunrise to sunset,
each preceded by proper ablution (the practice of using ritual washing as
one part of a ceremony to remove sin or disease)
Zakah compulsory religious tax that every Muslim has to pay
Sawm Fasting in the month of Ramadan every year by abstaining from
food and drink from sunrise to sunset while purifying both the tongue and
the heart in the process
Hajj Pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca at least once in a lifetime if
one can afford it
A practicing Muslim should possess the potential for disobedience,
discipline, social concern and action, patience and willingness to suffer for
a cause, and the idea of unity all of which a crucial for successful
nonviolent action
Thus, the eight theses on Muslim non-violent action are suggested as a
challenge for Muslims and others who seek to reaffirm the original vision
- 26 -
of Islam so that the true meaning of peace the absence of both structural
as well as personal violence - can be obtained.
1. For Islam, the problem of violence is an integral part of the Islamic
moral sphere
2. Violence, if any, used by Muslims must be governed by rules
prescribed in the Quran and Hadith
3. If violence used cannot discriminate between combatants and noncombatants, then it is unacceptable in Islam
4. Modern technology of destruction renders discrimination virtually
impossible at present
5. In the modern world, Muslims cannot use violence
6. Islam teaches Muslims to fight for justice with the understanding that
human lives, as parts of Gods creation are purposive and sacred
7. In order to be true to Islam, Muslims must utilise non-violent action
as a new mode of struggle
8. Islam itself is fertile soil for non-violence because of its potential for
disobedience, strong discipline, sharing and social responsibility,
perseverance and self-sacrifice, and the belief in the unity of the
Muslim community and the oneness of mankind.
Nonviolence, Ethics and Character Development in Islam Chapter 11

By Karim Douglas Crow
(summary by Charlotte BENNBORN)
The article focuses on how there is a need for a new tactic in the way we
approach the importance of religion in conflict resolution and nonviolence.
The Arabic language does not have a specific term for the notion of
nonviolence, however the author highlights that there are a number of
concepts that embrace aspects of the idea of nonviolence. He proposes that
it is through these concepts of ethics and character development that nonMuslims can gain a deeper understanding of Islam and Muslims
themselves can grasp the concept of nonviolence.
Today there are two main trends in the analysis of the relevance of religion
in nonviolence and conflict resolution;
- 27 -
Apologies are being made for historical events involving particular

faiths which has lead to generalisation and idealisation of complex,
contemporary realities
Major religions selectively take on board the more favourable aspects
of higher universal values, whilst attempting to extract essential
attitudes and practices supporting current efforts to encourage nonviolence on the ground.
The author proposes that there should be a third approach to religion
beyond apologies for or appeals to the religious past. This may in turn
allow a deeper understanding of Islam regarding notions of integrity,
intelligence and ignorance and in this way, toward deeper understanding of
nonviolence in the heritage of Islam.
There is no specific term for the notion of nonviolence in the Arabic
language. It is often denoted through expressions such as;
al unf; no force, no violence or no-vehemence
sabr; Stems from the root for patience and fortitude
Nonetheless, there are concepts that embrace aspects of nonviolence.
One reason for the lack of the concept of nonviolence in Muslim teachings
comes from unfamiliarity with the textual and conceptual bases of the
term.
What has until now inhibited a proper grasp of Islamic teachings on peace
and conflict is a blind-spot among non-Muslims concerning the real nature
of Islamic thought and practice. This is rooted in the events of Medieval
times as well as ignorance. Today it is exasperated by efforts to demonise
Islam as the antithesis to Judaeo-Christian-Hellenistic cultural values
which stems from the threat posed by Muslim fundamentalism and the
exploitation of the term terrorism by certain governments.
Misconceptions of Islam also stem from the failure of many Muslims to
actively promote an intelligent presentation of their own tradition in a
language and in a manner accessible to the masses and understandable in
the contemporary mentality of the world.
The author suggests that the growing Muslim Diaspora in Europe and
North America, alongside the longstanding Muslim minority communities
- 28 -
in India, China and South East Asia may be the place to find a fresh
approach to promoting an understanding of Islam.
A popularised tradition which has a profound impact on the formation of
values at all levels of society is the religious teachings which centre on the
discipline of the akhlaq (virtuous character traits). These originate from the
Quran and the hadith (sometimes referred to as hadith-based ethics). This
states that within a person, there is an internal psychological dualism not
a body/mind dualism. There is a dichotomy between a persons al aql
(intelligence and self restraint) and al-hawa (passion, whim or
desire). Aql is also opposed to jahl (folly or ignorance). Aql reflects
wisdom in the sense of moral self-restraint and harmonious conduct in a
social communal context, while jahl signifies all that is perverse and
discordant in the person leading to inner blindness, conflict and social
disorder. In other words, the dialectic notion of aql-jahl can be said to be
fundamental in leading one ultimately toward a human predisposition
toward nonviolence as a poised spiritual trait.
The cultivation of character traits remains the basis for the individuals
personal engagement with God in service and devotion, and for lovingkindness and charity in the self-sacrificing service of ones fellows.
Relevant character traits in Islam include;
Ihsan; putting the good and the beautiful into practice
Ikhlas; purity of sincerity or the internalisation of works and faith
Taqwa; God-mindfulness, as the perfection of works and faith
The above traits show that the refinement and cultivation of a persons
emotional life was conceived to be the axis balancing the realisation of
human possibilities both in a social setting and within the self.
The core of Islamic ethical practice consists of an amalgam of knowledge
the moral transformation of the personality through a process of
grooming.
Peter Brown, and observer of the reciprocity between Islam and other
world religions observes that the counter balancing core of Islamic
authority and traditions stems from how it is effectively internalised and
passed onto others.
- 29 -
The traditional aspects of Islam then, call for self-restraint and the
transformation of animal impulses that will cease to be heard only when
violence loses its force for suppressing our internal stirrings to transform
our self and our world. The author writes that the vitality of this tradition
has not been exhausted, despite the irascible vehemence of the
fundamentalists whose angry roar fills our ears drowning out the quiet hum
of the veritable practitioners of Islam
Nonviolence in Islam: The Alternative Community Tradition - Chapter
12
By Rabia Terri Harris
(summary Nayla SAMMOUR SAWAYA)
Islam makes no distinction between church and state . There is
scarcely any such entity as an Islamic church, and an Islamic state has
always been a controversial institution.
THE PROPHETS JIHAD
Jihad means struggle or effort, it is traditionally divided the Greater
Struggle, the inward effort of confronting our lower nature and the Lesser
Struggle, the outward effort of confronting social injustice. It includes
teaching and the active pursuit of a culture of peace, as well as resistance to
oppression.
There is no license in Islam for any war that falls outside the bounds of the
divine commandments and prophetic practice.
THE LIFE OF THE PROPHET
To understand the problems of interpreting the Islamic tradition and
applying this tradition to contemporary political issues, the life of the
Prophet must be considered and the role of the lesser struggle against
social injustice in it should be examined.
The first task of Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, was to persist with
unwavering endurance in the face of an increasingly bitter communal
repression.
Al-Husayn is known in Islamic tradition as the Prince of Martyrs; he died
willingly in pursuit of the best work of faith. The Massacre of Kerbala
horrified the Muslim world, religiously delegitimized the early states
authority, made irrevocable the great sectarian schism Sunni and ShiI
- 30 -
Islam, and sowed a seed of conscientious opposition to power deep into the
fertile ground of the Muslim spiritual tradition.
Al-Hallaj is another martyr. Muslims proponents of non-violence are faced
with a dilemma. Muslims know that unarmed resistance to oppression
draws the eternal blessing of Allah and manifests a sublime and noble soul.
The question is, is armed resistance a reliable tool for removal of
oppression?
ISLAMIC JUST WAR THEORY
The Prophet has clearly taught Muslims that power is not what the ego
takes it to be, and the winning is not necessarily a visible satisfaction.
Power and victory are with God alone, and God is neither a banner nor an
abstraction. Without a wider understanding of power among Muslims that
parallels the Prophetic understanding, oppressor will merely succeed
oppressor and the secret of the Prophets victory will remain a secret.
NONVIOLENCE: RETURN TO THE REPRESSED
Several interpretations:
- Unarmed struggle has been superseded by armed struggle, which is now
obligatory upon then faithful until Islam is acknowledged everywhere.
- The armed struggle is superior, but must wait, for practical reasons, upon
the accumulation of sufficient military power.
- Armed struggle is only a branch, which dies if torn from its root for it is
only unarmed struggle that teaches reliance on God. The assumption here
is that power, by essence, is non-coercive.
Muslim proponents of non-violence can challenge the world peace
community to reconsider its fundamental goal. Is the universal core of nonviolence the quietism, which is appropriate to some spiritual traditions, or
is it to struggle for justice in a just fashion with the goal that our current
opponents might gladly become our future allies?
Peace in the Sufi Tradition: An Ecology of the Spirit Chapter 13

By Abdul Said and Nathan C. Funk
(summary by Gary SETTE)
- 31 -
The Sufi understanding of peace is rooted in tawhid, the principle of unity

that provides a fertile soil for Islamic faith and spirituality. Islam
underscores the unity of God, the unity of humanity, and ultimately the
unity of existence. If unity is the truth or essence of Islam, humans and
other creatures approach this truth through harmony. The strength of Islam
is its capacity to reconcile seeming opposites and harmonize diversity until
the underlying unity is perceived and disharmony returns to peace.
TAWHID: AN AFFIRMATION OF WHOLENESS
The unity of Existence
The message of peace and unity expressed in the Sufi tradition applies to
the inner person, to society, and to the cosmos. Islam is the process of
submission to God, through which the part the human microcosm becomes reconciled with the Whole, with the Universe or macrocosm.
Tawhid then, is a conception whose reality enters into human life at many
levels.
From a Sufi perspective, tawhid expresses the Islamic ideal of the
fundamental unity of all humankind and of all life, and rejects a vision of
reality rooted in exclusiveness. Universalism and tolerance is the core of
Islam. At the heart of this message of universalism in Islam lies respect for
cultural pluralism. The unity of humankind is not premised on uniformity.
Rather, unity embraces a myriad of cultural differences. Sufism emphasizes
respect in inter-religious relations, and condemns racial and ethnic
discrimination.
The Practice of Peace
To experience peace, the seeker must become passive with respect to the
divine yet active with respect to the world. Peace requires not only outward
human effort, but also a spiritual attitude of receptivity and continual
inward cleansing. Purification of the self, remembrance of the divine and
proper attention to relationships creates a space for the presence of peace to
manifest. The essential theme of the Quranic revelation is surrender to and
integration in God, suggesting a world view premised on universalism and
pluralism. Sufism recognizes that intoxication with modern technology and
the nationalist imperatives of the nation-state system have overridden
traditionalist imperatives for cultural diversity. They also affirm the clear
preference in Islam for non-violence over violence, and forgiveness over
retribution.
- 32 -
ECOLOGICAL HARMONY: UPHOLDING THE PATTERN OF EXISTENCE
The Role of the Human Being within Creation

Sufi perspectives on ecology mirror their perspectives on peace. Though
human beings posses a special dignity, they are ultimately at one with the
rest of creation through surrender to the presence of the divine. All created
things are Muslim, in the sense that they live in submission
to God. Both human beings and other creatures are part of a single
harmonious order. While human beings share with non-human creations
the common condition of submission, they are also endowed with special
privileges and responsibilities which reflect their actual capacities. The
Earth and its resources are placed in the care of human beings as
custodians for their preservation, development and enhancement. The Sufi
tradition links the stature and dignity of the human being to acceptance of
responsibility, self-effacement, and active pursuit of knowledge. Ignorance
of the divine and failure to live in a way which activates the higher
faculties of the human being results in an actual loss of existential freedom
and stature. A person who fails to subdue and efface his or her ego can do
far more harm to creation than a predatory animal. Animals which act upon
their instincts incur no blame, but human beings who fail to respond to the
grace of their Creator with gratitude and service risk great loss to
themselves and to others. Eventually, humans are absolutely free internally;
externally they are limited in their powers and rights in relation to God,
nature and fellow human.
The Sacral Dimension of Nature
Nature is a mirror of God; nature is filled with the signs of God.
Remembrance of God, and concomitant recognition of the presence of the
divine in the ecological harmonies of nature, is the surest guarantee of both
human well-being and harmony between humanity and non-human
creations.
IMPLICATIONS OF THE SUFI OUTLOOK
- 33 -
Sufi teachings suggest that peace exists with harmonization of the human
being. Contemporary wars and environmental crises offer a warning that
modernization and the celebration of technology are no substitutes for the
sustainable and balanced development of human societies and
personalities. Islam does not demand the sacrifice of the material needs of
humanity for transcendent aims nor does it sanctify the worship of the
means of earthly subsistence. Islam does not oppose the spiritual to the
material, but rather underscores the spiritual as the context of the material.
Eventually, in the contemporary world, there is a need to renew the Sufi
understanding of tawhid (unity).
Weapons for the Battle Within Chapter 14
By M. R. Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
(summary by Gary SETTE)
What was given to Islam? God gave formal prayer to Islam as a weapon
for this world and the next. He ordained that the fifty times of prayer be
made into five. We must use these weapons of prayer to fight the inner war
and eliminate the enmity and hatred within ourselves. We must dispel our
base desires, our prejudices, our religious and racial differences. Pride,
jealousy, and all other evils must be fought with this weapon.
In addition to the five-time prayer, God ordained five obligatory duties to
the Muslim community. The first obligatory duty is to surrender to Allah
with absolute faith. The second duty is to worship Allah alone, without
thinking for a moment that He might have any equal or partner. Charity,
fasting, and pilgrimage were three other duties made obligatory for those
who had not fully comprehended the first two duties.
Beyond these five outer weapons, Allah has also given six inner weapons,
which the Sufis have explained. You may find them in your eye, your
nostril, your ear, your tongue, and your heart. We who are in Islam must
understand and act in accordance with both the inner and outer duties.
Those who do not govern peoples hearts, but instead rule over the earth,
really govern in hell. Pride is hell, and the attractions of earth, gold, sensual
pleasures, and possessions are advertisements that lure us to the seven
hells. To overcome those hells we must begin to govern hearts with good
qualities, with prayer, and with worship.
The wars we are engaged in today are being fought for the sake of
conquering nations, capturing countries, and killing and vanquishing
- 34 -
others. This is not the kind of war that true Islam wages. We must realize
that it is not right for us to harbour hatred.
Enmity cannot be overcome with enmity. Hostility cannot be overcome by
hostility. Vengeance cannot be overcome by vengeance. Jealousy cannot be
overcome by jealousy. Hatred cannot be overcome by hatred. It is our own
satanic qualities that must be overcome with inner patience, contentment,
trust in God, giving all praise to God. Once we understand what the true
weapons of Islam are, we will never take a life, we will not murder, we will
not even see any brother separate from ourselves.
But over the last hundred years some people of Islam and of other religions
have changed. Faith has decreased to the point where many say God does
not exist. The satanic qualities of jealousy, vengeance, anger, sin, and pride
have come into us. We must strengthen our faith and using the weapons of
the five-time prayer and of patience, contentment, trust in god, and praise
of God. If everyone in the community of Islam understand this and tried to
establish peace, tolerance, and patience, that alone would bring peace to
the world. The weapons of peace and tranquillity will grant us victory no
matter what enmity, what hostility, threatens us.
- 35 -

Islamic Approaches To Peace

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Islamic Approaches To Peace

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Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam

Peace and Conflict Resolution in Islam