Properties of Polynomial Functions:

Given that f(x) and g(x) are polynomials with real coefficients, the following are true:
Poly1 - Division Algorithm: If polynomial f(x) divided by polynomial D(x) results in quotient Q(x)
with with remainder R(x), then we may write
f(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x).
Note that this is the same result that applies to zero degree polynomials, i.e. real and complex

numbers. For example, if 42 5 = 8 with remainder 2, then 42 = 58 + 2. We used the division result
to write the dividend 42 in terms of quotient and remainder.
Note: Dividing both sides of f(x) = D(x)Q(x) + R(x) by Q(x) gives us f(x)/D(x) = Q(x) + R(x)/D(X), the
result of f(x) divided by a divisor polynomial D(X). So in the previous example, we write the result of

division as 42 5 = 8 + 2/5.
Note: This Division Algorithm, applied to polynomials, implies that we can divide out polynomial f(x)
by D(x) uses the same division method used for real numbers. Divide leading term of f(x) by leading
term of D(x) to obtain a quotient.Multiply the quotient by the divisor D(x). Subtract the product from
like terms of f(x). Carry Down the next term.Repeat this division process until the degree of the last
leading term is less than that of the leading term of the divisor D(x). The remainder is placed over the
divisor as a fractional part of the answer.
Note: The shortcut process Synthetic Division, used to divide f(x) by (x-c), is nothing more than
shorthand for polynomial division. Justification is left as an exercise.
Poly2 - Remainder Theorem: If f(x) is divided by (x - c) with remainder r, then f(c) = r.

Poly3 - Factor Theorem: f(x) divided by g(x) results in h(x) with zero remainder if and only if g(x) is
a factor of f(x).
Poly4 - Properties of a Polynomial Zero: x = a is a zero of a polynomial f(x) if f(a) = 0.
Furthermore, if x=a is a zero, then

(x - a) is a factor of f(x) and division by (x-a) results in remainder = 0.

Also f(x) may be written as f(x) = (x - a)Q(x) where Q(x) is the result of dividing f(x) by Q(x).

(a, 0) is an x-intercept of the graph of f(x) if "a" is a real zero,

Poly5 - Leading Terms of Polynomial Function Graphs: If f(x) is a polynomial, it's leading term
will determine the behavior of the graph on the far right and far left. e.g. If the leading term is positive
for positive values of x, then the graph will rise on the far right. If the leading term is positive for
negative values of x, then the graph will rise on the far left. This is commonly known as The Leading
Term Test or The Leading Coefficient Test.

Poly6 - Multiplicity Properties of Zeros: A zero x=c of a polynomial f(x) has even multiplicity if
and only if it's related factor in the factorization of f(x) is (x - c)N where N is even. A zero x=c of a
polynomial f(x) has odd multiplicity if and only if it's related factor in the factorization of f(x) is (x c)N where N is odd.
If the multiplicity is even, the graph will "bounce off" the x-intercept. i.e. f(x) will be positive both left
and right of the intercept or negative both right and left of the intercept.
If the multiplicity is odd, the graph will "pass through" the x-intercept. i.e. f(x) will be positive on one
side of the intercept and negative on the other.
Poly7 - Intermediate Value Theorem: If f(x) is a polynomial, and f(a) f(b) for a<b, then f(x) takes
on ever value from f(a) to f(b) in the closed interval [a,b].
Applied to polynomial zeros, The Intermediate Value Theorem states that if f(a) < 0 and f(b) > 0, then
there must be a value x=c in the interval [a,b] such that f(c) = 0.
Poly8 - Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: If f(x) is a polynomial with degree n, then there is at
least 1 complex zero x=c. Furthermore, if f(x) has degree n 1 with non-zero leading coefficient an,
then
f(x) has exactly n linear factors and may be written as f(x)= a n(x - c1)(x - c2) . . . (x - cn) where c1, c2,
c3, ....,cn are real or complex zeros and some of the zeros and associated factors may be repeated.
The power on any repeated factor is known as its multiplicity. Factors that are not repeated have
multiplicity = 1.
Poly9 - Descartes' Rule of Signs: If f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients with terms listed from
highest to lowest power with k sign changes from term to term, then there will be "k" positive real
zeros or "k - m" real zeros where m is some even integer.
For example, if f(x) = x4 - 3x3 + 2x2 + x - 1, there are k=3 sign changes so there will be k=3 positive
real zeros or k - m = 3 - 2 = 1 positive real zero.
If f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients with terms listed from highest to lowest power with k sign
changes from term to term of f(-x), then there will be "k" negative real zeros or "k - m" real zeros
where m is some even integer.
For example, if f(x) = x4 - 3x3 + 2x2 + x - 1, then f(-x) = x4 + 3x3 + 2x2 - x - 1 there are k=1 sign
changes so there will be k=1 negative real zeros or k - m = 1 - 0 = 1 negative real zero. Here the
only even integer less than 1 is m=0.
Note: Missing terms (coefficient = 0) are not considered. For example, f(x) = -x5 - 3x2 - 2x2 - 1
would have zero sign changes.

Poly10 - Upper Bounds of Real Zeros: Let f(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients and leading
coefficient a that is divided by (x - c) using synthetic division, where c > 0 and c is real.
c is an upper bound for all real zeros of f(x) if the leading coefficient a is positive provided none of
the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division are negative. An example is shown below:

c is an upper bound for all real zeros of f(x) if c > 0 and leading coefficient a is negative provided
none of the numbers in the bottom row of the synthetic division are positive. An example is shown
below:

Poly11 - Lower Bounds of Real Zeros: Let f(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients that is divided
by (x - c) using synthetic division, where c < 0 and c is real.
c is a lower bound for all real zeros of f(x) if the bottom row of the synthetic division alternates in
sign. If a value in the bottom row is zero, it can be considered to be positive or negative as needed
to show the alternating pattern. An example is shown below:

Poly12 - Complex Zeros Occur In Conjugate Pairs: If f(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients
and has one complex zero x = a + bi, then x = a - bi will also be a zero. Furthermore, x 2 - 2ax + a2 +
b2 will be a factor of f(x).