LECTURE 6-Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composites

Manufacturing Technology II
MDB 3073
Manufacturing Technology II (Lesson Plan)

1
8 - 14
3
Introduction
Fundamental of materials:
Behaviour and manufacturing
properties
WEEK 1: 16-21 /05/16
Powder Metal Process and

Equipment
Production of Metal Powders
Compaction of Metal Powder
Sintering
WEEK 2: 23-28/05/16
Forming and Shaping of Ceramic

and Glasses
Shaping ceramics
Forming and shaping of glasses
Strengthening and annealing
glasses
WEEK 3: 30/0503/06/16
Bulk deformation process

Rolling of metals
Forging of metals
WEEK 5: 13-17/06/16
Forming and Shaping of

Plastics and Composite
Materials
Injection molding
Extrusion
Processing of metal
matrix composites
WEEK 4: 06-10/06/16
Manufacturing Operation
Manufacturing industries
and products
Product / production
Surface Technology
relationships
Surface Roughness
Strengthening
and
Surface Coating
Production
concepts
and
WEEK 7: 27/0601/07/16
mathematical models
Cellular Manufacturing
WEEK 8-14: 04/07
18/08/16
Sheet metal process

Shearing
Bending and drawing
WEEK 6: 20-24/06/16
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 1
MDB 3073
What is a Polymer?
Poly
mer
many
repeat unit
repeat
unit
repeat
unit
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H H H H H H
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H Cl H Cl H Cl
Polyethylene (PE)
Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
repeat
unit
H
C
H
H H
C C
CH3 H
H H
C C
CH3 H
H
C
CH3
Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
Polypropylene (PP)
Polymer Composition
Most polymers are hydrocarbons
i.e., made up of H and C
Saturated hydrocarbons
Each carbon singly bonded to four other atoms
Example:
Ethane, C2H6
4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 2
MDB 3073
MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Molecular weight, M: Mass of a mole of chains.
Not all chains in a polymer are of the same length i.e., there is a distribution of molecular weights
Low M
high M
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 3
MDB 3073
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER
Thermoplastic
Polymer
Thermosetting
Elastomers
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Rubbers (Natural)
Phenolic
Acrylics
Silicones (Synthetic)
Nylons
Epoxy resins
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 4
MDB 3073
CLASSIFICATION OF POLYMER
Thermoplastic
Polymer
Thermosetting
Elastomers
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Acrylics
Chemical structure remains

unchanged during heating and
shaping
More important commercially,
comprising more than 70% of
total plastics tonnage
Undergo a curing process during heating

and shaping, causing a permanent
change
(called
cross-linking)
in
molecular structure
Once cured, they cannot be re-melted
Rubbers
High Extensibility
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 5
MDB 3073
Properties of Polymer
Thermoplastic
Polymer
Thermosetting
Acrylics
Reversible softening & hardening

Softening range (not melting point)
Weak bonds between molecules
Properties inverse with temperature:
Stiffness
Hardness
Ductility
Solvent resistance
Elastomers
Polyesters
Polyurethanes
Irreversible hardening reaction

Strong bonds between molecules (crosslinking)
Compared with Thermoplastics:
Stronger
Rigid
Heat resistant
Brittle
Low impact toughness
Lower ductility
Rubbers
Exceptional elastic deformation

Near-complete* recovery
Viscous deformation is permanent
Twisted/coiled molecular chains
Can be cross-linked (vulcanization)
Degradable
Insulative
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 6
MDB 3073
Polymer Additives
Improve mechanical properties, processability, durability, etc.
Fillers
Added to improve tensile strength & abrasion resistance, toughness & decrease cost
ex: carbon black, silica gel, wood flour, glass, limestone, talc, etc.
Plasticizers
Added to reduce the glass transition temperature Tg below room temperature
Presence of plasticizer transforms brittle polymer to a ductile one
Commonly added to PVC - otherwise it is brittle
Stabilizers
Antioxidants
UV protectants
Lubricants
Added to allow easier processing
polymer slides through dies easier
ex: sodium stearate
Colorants
Dyes and pigments
Flame Retardants
Substances containing chlorine, fluorine, and boron
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 7
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes:
Almost unlimited variety of part geometries
Plastic molding is a net shape process; further shaping is not needed
Less energy is required than for metals because processing temperatures are
much lower
Handling of product is simplified during production because of lower
temperatures
Painting or plating is usually not required
Table 19.1 shows the general characteristics of forming and shaping

processes for plastics and composite materials.
Plastics usually are shipped to manufacturing plants as pellets, granules,
or powders and are melted (for thermoplastics) just before the shaping
process.
With increasing awareness of our environment, raw materials also may
consist of reground or chopped plastics obtained from recycling centers.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 8
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes:

Fig 19.1 shows the outline of forming and
shaping processes for plastics, elastomers, and
composite materials.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 9
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding:

Thermoplastics and some thermosets
when ram retracts, plastic pellets drop from hopper into barrel
ram forces plastic into the heating chamber (around the spreader) where the plastic melts as it
moves forward
molten plastic is forced under pressure (injected) into the mold cavity where it assumes the shape
of the mold
Fig. 15.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

(Fig. 15.24 is from F.W. Billmeyer, Jr.,
Textbook of Polymer Science, 2nd
edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1971.)
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 10
MDB 3073

Injection molding is similar to hot-chamber die casting.
The pellets or granules are fed into the heated cylinder, and the melt is forced into the mold either by a hydraulic plunger
or by the rotating screw system of an extruder.
Fig 19.7 shows the schematic illustration of injection molding with (a) plunger and (b) reciprocating rotating screw.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 11
MDB 3073

Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced to flow under high pressure into
a mold cavity where it solidifies; molded part is then removed from cavity
Produces discrete components almost always to net shape
Typical cycle time 10 to 30 sec, but cycles of one minute or more are not uncommon
Mold may contain multiple cavities, so multiple moldings are produced each cycle
Complex and intricate shapes are possible
Shape limitations:
Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the same geometry as part
Shape must allow for part removal from mold
Part size from 50 g (2 oz) up to 25 kg (more than 50 lb), e.g., automobile bumpers
Injection molding is economical only for large production quantities due to high cost of
mold
Injection molding is the most widely used molding process for thermoplastics
Some thermosets, elastomers, metals and ceramics are also injection molded
Modifications in equipment and operating parameters must be made
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 12
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine:

Two principal components:
Injection unit melts and delivers polymer melt, operates much like an extruder
Clamping unit opens and closes mold each injection cycle
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 13
MDB 3073

Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 1 (mold is closed)
Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 3 (screw is retracted)
Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 2 (melt is injected into cavity)
Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 4 (mold opens and part is ejected)
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 14
MDB 3073
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 15
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine (The Mold):

After the part has cooled sufficiently (for thermoplastics) or cured (for thermosets), the molds are
opened and the part is removed from the mold using ejectors.
Fig 19.10 shows the Illustration of mold features for injection molding. (a) Two-plate mold with
important features identified. (b) Schematic illustration of the features in a mold.
Custom-designed and fabricated for the part to be

produced
Various types of mold for injection molding:
Two-plate mold
Three-plate mold
Hot-runner mold
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 16
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine (The Mold):
There are three basic types of molds:
1.
Cold-runner, two-plate mold: this design is the

simplest and most common, as shown in Fig. 19.11a.
2.
Cold-runner, three-plate mold (Fig. 19.11b): the

runner system is separated from the part when the
mold is opened.
3.
Hot-runner mold (Fig. 19.11c), also called

runnerless mold: the molten plastic is kept hot in a
heated runner plate.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 17
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding: Shrinkage

Reduction in linear size during cooling from molding to room temperature
Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients, so significant shrinkage occurs

during cooling in mold
Typical shrinkage values for selected polymers:
Plastic
Nylon-6,6
Polyethylene
Polystyrene
PVC
Shrinkage, mm/mm (in/in)

0.020
0.025
0.004
0.005
Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding: Compensation for Shrinkage

Dimensions of mold cavity must be larger than specified part dimensions:
Dc = Dp + DpS + DpS2
where Dc = dimension of cavity;
Dp = molded part dimension, and
S = shrinkage value
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 18
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding: Shrinkage Compensation Factors

Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage
Injection pressure as pressure is increased, it forces more material into the mold cavity, and shrinkage is reduced
Compaction time - similar effect - forces more material into cavity during shrinkage
Molding temperature - higher temperature lowers the polymer melt viscosity, allowing more material to be packed into
mold and reducing shrinkage
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 19
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Extrusion
In extrusion, which constitutes the largest volume of plastics produced, raw materials in the form of thermoplastic
pellets, granules, or powder are placed into a hopper and fed into the barrel of a screw extruder.
Fig 19.2(a) shows the schematic illustration of a typical screw extruder. (b) Geometry of an extruder screw. Complex
shapes can be extruded with relatively simple and inexpensive dies.
Screws have three distinct sections:
1.
Feed section: Conveys the material from the hopper into the central region of the barrel.
2.
Melt section (also called compression or transition section): Where the heat generated by the
viscous shearing of the plastic pellets and by the external heaters causes melting to begin.
3.
Metering or pumping section: Where additional shearing (at a high rate) and melting occur
with pressure building up at the die.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 20
MDB 3073
The control of processing parameters such as extruder-screw rotational speed, barrel-wall temperatures,
die design, and rate of cooling and drawing speeds are important in order to ensure product integrity and
uniform dimensional accuracy.
Die shape is important, as it can induce high stresses in the product, causing it to develop surface
fractures (as also occur in metals).
The molten plastic is in the shape of a helical ribbon,

with thickness H and width W, and is conveyed toward
the extruder outlet by rotating screw flights.
The shape, pitch, and flight of angle of the helical screw
are important parameters, as they affect the flow of
polymer through the extruder.
The ratio of barrel length, L, to its diameter D is also
important.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 21
MDB 3073

thermoplastics
plastic pellets drop from hopper onto the turning screw
plastic pellets melt as the turning screw pushes them forward by the heaters
molten polymer is forced under pressure through the shaping die to form the final product (extrudate)
Divided into sections to serve several functions:

Feed section - feedstock is moved from
hopper and preheated
Melt Compression section - polymer is
transformed into fluid, air mixed with
pellets is extracted from melt, and
material is compressed
Metering section - melt is homogenized
and sufficient pressure developed to
pump it through die opening
Fig. 15.25, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

(Fig. 15.25 is from Encyclopdia
Britannica, 1997.)
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 22
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Extrusion: Dies and Extruded Products
The shape of the die orifice determines the cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
Common die profiles and corresponding extruded shapes:

Solid profiles
Hollow profiles, such as tubes
Wire and cable coating
Sheet and film
Filaments
Fig. 15.25, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig.

15.25 is from Encyclopdia Britannica, 1997.)
Fig 19.3 shows the common extrusion die geometries: (a) coathanger die for extruding sheet; (b) round die for producing rods;
and (c) and (d) nonuniform recovery of the part after it exits the
die.
The control of processing parameters such as extruder-screw rotational
speed, barrel-wall temperatures, die design, and rate of cooling and
drawing speeds are important in order to ensure product integrity and
uniform dimensional accuracy.
Die shape is important, as it can induce high stresses in the product,
causing it to develop surface fractures (as also occur in metals).
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 23
MDB 3073

Plastic-coated electrical wire
Electrical wire cable, and strips also are extruded and coated
with plastic by this process.
The wire is fed into the die opening at a controlled rate with the
extruded plastic in order to produce a uniform coating.
Plastic coated paper clips also are made by coextrusion.
To ensure proper insulation, extruded electrical wires are

checked continuously for their resistance as they exit the die;
they also are marked automatically with a roller to identify the
specific type of wire.
Side view cross-section of die for coating of wire by extrusion
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 24
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Blown-Film Extrusion
Thin polymer films

Common plastic bags and other thin polymer film products are made from blown film, which is made from a thin-walled
tube produced by an extruder.
In this process, a tube is extruded continuously vertically upward and then expanded into a balloon shape by blowing
air through the center of the extrusion die until the desired film thickness is reached.
This process is well developed, producing inexpensive and very large quantities of plastic film and shopping bags.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 25
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Thermoforming
Thermoforming is a process for forming thermoplastic sheets or films over a mold by means of the application of heat and
pressure.
In this process, a sheet is (a) clamped and heated to the sag point (above the glass-transition temperature, of the polymer),
usually by radiant heating, and (b) forced against the mold surfaces through the application of a vacuum or air pressure.
Fig 19.18 shows the various thermoforming processes for a thermoplastic sheet. These processes commonly are used in
making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and packaging.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 26
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Thermoforming

Flat thermoplastic sheet or film is heated and deformed into desired shape using a mold
Heating usually accomplished by radiant electric heaters located on one or both sides of starting plastic sheet or film
Widely used in packaging of products and to fabricate large items such as bathtubs, contoured skylights, and internal door liners for
refrigerators
Vacuum thermoforming: (1) a flat plastic sheet is
softened
Vacuum thermoforming: (2) sheet is

placed over mold cavity
Vacuum thermoforming: (3)

draws sheet into the cavity
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
vacuum
Page 27
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Compressing Molding

In compression molding, the workpiece (pre-shaped part, volume of powder, mixture of liquid resin and fillers) is
placed in the heated mold and is formed under pressure.
Compression molding is used mainly with thermosetting plastics with the original material being in a
partially polymerized state
Process Capabilities
Three types of compression molds are available:
1. Flash type: for shallow or flat parts
2. Positive type: for high-density parts
3. Semipositive type: for quality production
Compression molding of thermosets: (1) charge is loaded, (2) charge is

compressed and cured, and (3) part is ejected and removed.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 28
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Compressing Molding

In compression molding, a preshaped charge of material, premeasured volume of powder, or viscous mixture of liquid-resin and filler
material is placed directly into a heated mold cavity that typically is around 200C but can be much higher.
Fig 19.19 shows the types of compression moldinga process similar to forging: (a) positive, (b) semipositive, and (c) flash, which is
later trimmed off. (d) Die design for making a compression-molded part with external undercuts.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 29
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Transfer Molding
Transfer molding represents a further development of the process of compression molding.
The uncured thermosetting resin is placed in a heated transfer pot or chamber and after the material is heated, it is injected
into heated closed molds.
Fig 19.20 shows the sequence of operations in transfer molding for thermosetting plastics. This process is suitable particularly
for intricate parts with varying wall thickness.
Transfer molding is a similar to
compression molding process, but the
charge is placed not in the die cavity but
into a chamber next to the die cavity.
Pressure is then applied to force the
material to flow into the heated mold
where curing occurs.
Process capabilities
Typical parts made by transfer molding are

electrical connectors and electronic components,
rubber and silicone parts, and the encapsulation
of microelectronic devices.
The process is suitable particularly for intricate

shapes with varying wall thicknesses.
The molds tend to be more expensive than those

for compression molding, and some excess
material is left in the channels of the mold during
filling, which is later removed.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 30
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Blow Molding

Blow molding is a modified extrusion- and injection-molding process.
In extrusion blow molding, a tube or preform (usually oriented so that it is vertical) is first extruded.
Fig 19.16(a) shows the schematic illustrations of (a) the extrusion blow-molding process for making plastic beverage bottles; (b) the
injection blow-molding process; and (c) a three-station injection blow-molding machine for making plastic bottles.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 31
MDB 3073
Plastic Shaping Processes: Blow Molding
In some operations, the extrusion is continuous, and the

molds move with the tubing.
In injection blow molding, a short tubular piece
(parison) first is injection molded into cool dies
(parisons may be made and stored for later use).
A related process is stretch blow molding, where the
parison is expanded and elongated simultaneously,
subjecting the polymer to biaxial stretching and thus
enhancing its properties.
Multilayer blow molding involves the use of
coextruded tubes or parisons and thus permits the
production of a multilayer structure.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 32
MDB 3073
Terminology/Classification of Composites
Composite:
Multiphase material that is artificially made.
Phase types:
-- Matrix - is continuous
-- Dispersed - is discontinuous and surrounded
by matrix
Matrix phase:
-- Purposes are to:
- transfer stress to dispersed phase
- protect dispersed phase from
environment
-- Types: MMC, CMC, PMC
metal
Adapted from Fig. 16.1(a),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
ceramic
polymer
Dispersed phase:
-- Purpose:
MMC: increase sy, TS, creep resist.
CMC: increase KIc
PMC: increase E, sy, TS, creep resist.
-- Types: particle, fiber, structural
Reprinted with permission from
D. Hull and T.W. Clyne, An Introduction to
Composite Materials, 2nd ed., Cambridge
University Press, New York, 1996, Fig. 3.6, p. 47.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 33
MDB 3073
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
Particle-reinforced
Composites
Structural
Fibre reinforced
Spheroidite steel
Matrix ferrite
(a) ductile
Continuous
(aligned)
Particle
cementite
(Fe3C)
brittle
Discontinuous
Sandwich panels
Laminates
WC/Co cemented carbide

matrix: cobalt
(ductile, tough)
particles: WC
(brittle, hard)
Automobile tire rubber

matrix: rubber
(compliant)
particles:carbon
black (stiff)
Aligned
Random
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 34
MDB 3073
Composite Benefits
CMCs: Increased toughness

Force
particle-reinf
PMCs: Increased E/r

10
E(GPa)
10
fiber-reinf
ceramics
3
2
PMCs
10
metal/
metal alloys
un-reinf
Bend displacement
MMCs: Increased creep resistance
0.1
0.01
0.1 0.3
polymers
1
10 30
Density, r [mg/m3]
Adapted from T.G. Nieh, "Creep rupture of a siliconcarbide reinforced aluminum composite", Metall.
Trans. A Vol. 15(1), pp. 139-146, 1984. Used with
permission.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 35
MDB 3073
Composites
Fibre reinforced
Fibers very strong in tension

Provide significant strength improvement to
the composite
Ex: fiber-glass - continuous glass filaments
in a polymer matrix
Glass fibers
strength and stiffness
Polymer matrix
holds fibers in place
protects fiber surfaces
transfers load to fibers
Fiber Types
Whiskers - thin single crystals - large length to diameter
ratios
graphite, silicon nitride, silicon carbide
high crystal perfection extremely strong, strongest
known
very expensive and difficult to disperse
Fibers
polycrystalline or amorphous
generally polymers or ceramics
Ex: alumina, aramid, E-glass, boron, UHMWPE
Wires
metals steel, molybdenum, tungsten
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 36
MDB 3073
FIBER ALIGNMENT-FIBRE REINFORCED
Fibre reinforced
Continuous
(aligned)
Composites
Aligned Continuous fibers

Examples:
-- Metal: g'(Ni3Al)-a(Mo)
by eutectic solidification.
matrix:
-- Ceramic: Glass w/SiC fibers

formed by glass slurry
Eglass = 76 GPa; ESiC = 400 GPa.
(Mo) (ductile)
(a)
fibers: g (Ni3Al) (brittle)

From W. Funk and E. Blank, Creep
deformation of Ni3Al-Mo in-situ composites",
Metall. Trans. A Vol. 19(4), pp. 987-998,
1988. Used with permission.
(b)
fracture
surface
From F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings,

Composite Materials;
Engineering and
Science, Reprint ed., CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 2000. (a) Fig. 4.22, p. 145 (photo
by J. Davies); (b) Fig. 11.20,
p. 349
(micrograph by H.S. Kim, P.S. Rodgers, and
R.D. Rawlings). Used with permission of
CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 37
MDB 3073
FIBER ALIGNMENT-FIBRE REINFORCED
Fibre reinforced
Discontinuous
Composites
Discontinuous fibers, random in 2 dimensions

Example: Carbon-Carbon
-- fabrication process:
- carbon fibers embedded
in polymer resin matrix,
- polymer resin pyrolyzed
at up to 2500C.
-- uses: disk brakes, gas
turbine exhaust flaps,
missile nose cones.
(b)
C fibers:
very stiff
very strong
C matrix:
less stiff
view onto plane less strong
500 m
fibers lie
in plane
(a)
Other possibilities:
Aligned
Random
-- Discontinuous, random 3D
-- Discontinuous, aligned
Adapted from F.L. Matthews and R.L. Rawlings, Composite

Materials; Engineering and Science, Reprint ed., CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, 2000. (a) Fig. 4.24(a), p. 151; (b)
Fig. 4.24(b) p. 151. (Courtesy I.J. Davies) Reproduced with
permission of CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 38
MDB 3073
THE INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH
Composites
Critical fiber length for effective stiffening & strengthening:

Fibre reinforced
fiber ultimate tensile strength
sf d
fiber length
2c
Continuous
(aligned)
fiber diameter
shear strength of
fiber-matrix interface
Ex: For fiberglass, common fiber length > 15 mm needed

For longer fibers, stress transference from matrix is more efficient
Short, thick fibers:
sf d
fiber length
2c
Low fiber efficiency
Long, thin fibers:
sf d
fiber length
2c
High fiber efficiency
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 39
MDB 3073
THE INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH

Critical fibre length is necessary for effective strengthening and stiffening of the composite material.
fiber ultimate tensile strength
fiber diameter
s *f d
lc
2 c
shear strength of fiber-matrix interface
s *f
When a stress equal to

is applied
to a fibre having just the critical the
maximum fibre load is only achieved at
the axial centre of fibre.
As fibre length increase l increase, the

fibre reinforcement becomes more
effective, where fibre length is greater
than critical length.
Stress-position profile
where fibre length is
less than critical length.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 40
MDB 3073
TENSILE STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR-LONGITUDINAL LOADING

Elastic behavior of a continuous and oriented fibrous composite that is loaded in the direction of fibre alignment.
It is assumed that the fibre-matrix interfacial bond is very good, such that the deformation of both matrix and fibre is the same
(an isostrain situation)
Ecl EmVm E f V f
or
Ecl Em (1 V f ) E f V f
Because the composite consists of only matrix and fibre
phases: that is
m
f
V V 1
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 41
MDB 3073
Composites
Sandwich panels
Structural
-- low density, honeycomb core

-- benefit: light weight, large bending stiffness
Sandwich panels
Laminates
face sheet
adhesive layer
honeycomb
Stacked and bonded fiber-reinforced sheets

-- stacking sequence: e.g., 0/90 or 0/45/90
-- benefit: balanced, in-plane stiffness
Adapted from Fig. 16.18,

Callister 7e. (Fig. 16.18 is
from Engineered Materials
Handbook, Vol. 1, Composites, ASM
International, Materials Park, OH, 1987.)
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 42
MDB 3073
COMPOSITES MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Polymer Matrix Composites Processes
Open faced moulding
Hand lay up
Matched Die Moulding
Pultrusion
Automated lay up
Prepreg
Fibre preform
Tape lay up
Spray Moulding
Filament Winding
Transfer
Moulding
Structural reaction
injection moulding
Sheet Moulding
Compound
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 43
MDB 3073
Open Mold Processes

Only one mold (male or female) is needed and may be made of any material such as wood,
reinforced plastic or , for longer runs, sheet metal or electroformed nickel. The final part is
usually very smooth.
Shaping. Steps that may be taken for high quality

1. Mold release agent (silicone, polyvinyl alcohol, fluorocarbon, or sometimes, plastic film) is
first applied.
2. Unreinforced surface layer (gel coat) may be deposited for best surface quality.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 44
MDB 3073
Hand Lay-Up: The resin and fiber (or pieces cut from prepreg) are placed manually, air is expelled with squeegees and if
necessary, multiple layers are built up.
Hardening is at room temperature but may be improved by heating.
Void volume is typically 1%.
Foam cores may be incorporated (and left in the part) for greater shape complexity. Thus essentially all shapes can
be produced.
Process is slow (deposition rate around 1 kg/h) and labor-intensive
Quality is highly dependent on operator skill.
Extensively used for products such as airframe components, boats, truck bodies, tanks, swimming pools, and
ducts.
Hand layup, or contact molding, is the

oldest and simplest way of making
fiberglassresin composites. Applications are
standard wind turbine blades, boats, etc.)
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 45
MDB 3073
SPRAY-UP MOLDING
A spray gun supplying resin in two converging streams into which roving is chopped
Automation with robots results in highly reproducible production
Labor costs are lower
In Sprayup process, chopped fibers and resins are sprayed

simultaneously into or onto the mold. Applications are lightly loaded
structural panels, e.g. caravan bodies, truck fairings, bathtubes, small
boats, etc.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 46
MDB 3073
Tape-Laying Machines (Automated Lay-Up)

Cut and lay the ply or prepreg under
computer control and without tension; may
allow reentrant shapes to be made.
Cost is about half of hand lay-up
Extensively used for products such as
airframe components, boats, truck bodies,
tanks, swimming pools, and ducts.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 47
MDB 3073
Filament Winding
Continuous reinforcing fibers are accurately positioned in a predetermined pattern to form a
hollow (usually cylindrical) shape
Fibers are fed through a resin bath to impregnate with thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers are continuously wound (typically automatically) onto a mandrel
After appropriate number of layers added, curing is carried out either in an oven or at room
temperature
The mandrel is removed to give the final product
Filament Winding Characteristics
Because of the tension, reentrant shapes cannot be produced.

CNC winding machines with several degrees of freedom (sometimes 7) are frequently
employed.
The filament (or tape, tow, or band) is either precoated with the polymer
through a polymer bath so that it picks up polymer on its way to the winder.
or is drawn
Void volume can be higher (3%)

The cost is about half that of tape laying
Productivity is high (50 kg/h).
Applications include: fabrication of composite pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels. Carbon
fiber reinforced rocket motor cases used for Space Shuttle and other rockets are made this
way.
Adapted from Fig. 16.15, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. [Fig. 16.15 is from
N. L. Hancox, (Editor), Fibre Composite Hybrid Materials, The
Macmillan Company, New York, 1981.]
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 48
MDB 3073
Vacuum-Bag Molding
The vacuumbag process was developed for making a variety of
components, including relatively large parts with complex shapes.
Applications are large cruising boats, racecar components, etc.
Pressure-Bag Molding
Pressurebag process is virtually a mirror image of vacuumbag
molding. Applications are sonar domes, antenna housings, aircraft
fairings, etc.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 49
MDB 3073
Pultrusion
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank, then preforming die & oven to cure
Continuous fibers pulled through resin tank to impregnate fibers with thermosetting resin
Impregnated fibers pass through steel die that preforms to the desired shape
Preformed stock passes through a curing die that is
precision machined to impart final shape
heated to initiate curing of the resin matrix
Production rates around 1 m/min.

Applications are to sporting goods (golf club shafts), vehicle
drive shafts (because of the high damping capacity),
nonconductive ladder rails for electrical service, and structural
members for vehicle and aerospace applications.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 50
MDB 3073
PREPREG PRODUCTION PROCESSES
Prepreg is the composite industrys term for continuous fiber reinforcement pre-impregnated with a polymer resin that is
only partially cured.
Prepreg is delivered in tape form to the manufacturer who then molds and fully cures the product without having to add any
resin.
This is the composite form most widely used for structural applications
Manufacturing begins
continuous fiber tows.
Tows are then sandwiched and pressed between sheets of release and
carrier paper using heated rollers (calendering).
The release paper sheet has been coated with a thin film of heated
resin solution to provide for its thorough impregnation of the fibers.
by collimating
series
of
spool-wound
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 51
MDB 3073
PREPREG PRODUCTION PROCESSES

The final prepreg product is a thin tape consisting of continuous
and aligned fibers embedded in a partially cured resin
Prepared for packaging by winding onto a cardboard core.
Typical tape thicknesses range between 0.08 and 0.25 mm
Tape widths range between 25 and 1525 mm.
Resin content lies between about 35 and 45 vol%
The prepreg is stored at 0C (32 F) or lower because thermoset matrix undergoes curing reactions at room
temperature. Also the time in use at room temperature must be minimized. Life time is about 6 months if properly
handled.
Both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are utilized: carbon, glass, and aramid fibers are the common
reinforcements.
Actual fabrication begins with the lay-up. Normally a number of plies are laid up to provide the desired thickness.
The lay-up can be by hand or automated.
Dr. Mazli Mustapha
13 June 2016
Page 52

LECTURE 6-Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composites

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

LECTURE 6-Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composites

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Manufacturing Technology II

Manufacturing Technology II (Lesson Plan)

Powder Metal Process and

Forming and Shaping of Ceramic

Bulk deformation process

Forming and Shaping of

Sheet metal process

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)

Adapted from Fig. 14.2, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Chemical structure remains

Undergo a curing process during heating

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Reversible softening & hardening

Irreversible hardening reaction

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Exceptional elastic deformation

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes:

Almost unlimited variety of part geometries

Plastic molding is a net shape process; further shaping is not needed

Painting or plating is usually not required

Table 19.1 shows the general characteristics of forming and shaping

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes:

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding:

Fig. 15.24, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding:

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding:

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine:

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine:

Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 3 (screw is retracted)

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 2 (melt is injected into cavity)

Injection Molding Cycle: Stage 4 (mold opens and part is ejected)

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine:

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine (The Mold):

Custom-designed and fabricated for the part to be

4. Forming and Shaping of Plastics and Composite Materials

Dr. Mazli Mustapha

Plastic Shaping Processes: Injection Molding Machine (The Mold):