Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation.

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The Physics Classroom Physics Tutorial Circular Motion and

Satellite Motion Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation

Circular Motion and Satellite Motion - Lesson 3 - Universal

Gravitation

Newton's Law of Universal

Gravitation
Gravity is More Than a Name
The Apple, the Moon, and the Inverse Square Law
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
Cavendish and the Value of G
The Value of g

As discussed earlier in Lesson 3, Isaac Newton

compared the acceleration of the moon to the
acceleration of objects on earth. Believing that
gravitational forces were responsible for each,
Newton was able to draw an important
conclusion about the dependence of gravity
upon distance. This comparison led him to
conclude that the force of gravitational
attraction between the Earth and other objects
is inversely proportional to the distance
separating the earth's center from the object's
center. But distance is not the only variable
affecting the magnitude of a gravitational force.
Consider Newton's famous equation
F net = m a
Newton knew that the force that caused the
apple's acceleration (gravity) must be
dependent upon the mass of the apple. And
since the force acting to cause the apple's
downward acceleration also causes the earth's

upward acceleration (Newton's third law), that

force must also depend upon the mass of the
earth. So for Newton, the force of gravity acting
between the earth and any other object is
directly proportional to the mass of the earth,
directly proportional to the mass of the object,
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance that separates the centers of the earth
and the object.

The UNIVERSAL Gravitation Equation

But Newton's law of universal gravitation
extends gravity beyond earth. Newton's law of
universal gravitation is about the universality
of gravity. Newton's place in the Gravity Hall of
Fame is not due to his discovery of gravity, but
rather due to his discovery that gravitation is
universal. ALL objects attract each other with a
force of gravitational attraction. Gravity is
universal. This force of gravitational attraction
is directly dependent upon the masses of both
objects and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance that separates their centers.
Newton's conclusion about the magnitude of
gravitational forces is summarized symbolically
as

Since the gravitational force is directly

proportional to the mass of both interacting
objects, more massive objects will attract each
other with a greater gravitational force. So as
the mass of either object increases, the force of
gravitational attraction between them also
increases. If the mass of one of the objects is
doubled, then the force of gravity between them
is doubled. If the mass of one of the objects is
tripled, then the force of gravity between them
is tripled. If the mass of both of the objects is
doubled, then the force of gravity between them
is quadrupled; and so on.
Since gravitational force is inversely
proportional to the square of the separation
distance between the two interacting objects,
more separation distance will result in weaker
gravitational forces. So as two objects are
separated from each other, the force of
gravitational attraction between them also
decreases. If the separation distance between
two objects is doubled (increased by a factor of
2), then the force of gravitational attraction is
decreased by a factor of 4 (2 raised to the
second power). If the separation distance
between any two objects is tripled (increased by
a factor of 3), then the force of gravitational
attraction is decreased by a factor of 9 (3 raised
to the second power).

Thinking Proportionally About

Newton's Equation
The proportionalities expressed by Newton's
universal law of gravitation are represented
graphically by the following illustration.
Observe how the force of gravity is directly
proportional to the product of the two masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance of separation.

Another means of representing the

proportionalities is to express the relationships
in the form of an equation using a constant of
proportionality. This equation is shown below.

The constant of proportionality (G) in the above

equation is known as the universal
gravitation constant
constant. The precise value of G
was determined experimentally by Henry
Cavendish in the century after Newton's death.
(This experiment will be discussed later in
Lesson 3.) The value of G is found to be
G = 6.673 x 10 -11 N m 2 /kg 2
The units on G may seem rather odd;
nonetheless they are sensible. When the units
on G are substituted into the equation above
and multiplied by m 1 m 2 units and divided by
d 2 units, the result will be Newtons - the unit of
force.

Using Newton's Gravitation Equation

to Solve Problems
Knowing the value of G allows us to calculate
the force of gravitational attraction between
any two objects of known mass and known
separation distance. As a rst example, consider
the following problem.
Sample Problem #1
Determine the force of gravitational
attraction between the earth (m = 5.98 x
1024 kg) and a 70-kg physics student if the
student is standing at sea level, a distance
of 6.38 x 106 m from earth's center.
The solution of the problem involves
substituting known values of G (6.673 x 10-11 N

m2/kg2), m1 (5.98 x 1024 kg), m2 (70 kg) and d

(6.38 x 106 m) into the universal gravitation
equation and solving for Fgrav. The solution is as
follows:

Sample Problem #2
Determine the force of gravitational
attraction between the earth (m = 5.98 x
1024 kg) and a 70-kg physics student if the
student is in an airplane at 40000 feet
above earth's surface. This would place the
student a distance of 6.39 x 106 m from
earth's center.
The solution of the problem involves
substituting known values of G (6.673 x 10-11 N
m2/kg2), m1 (5.98 x 1024 kg), m2 (70 kg) and d
(6.39 x 106 m) into the universal gravitation
equation and solving for Fgrav. The solution is as
follows:

Two general conceptual comments can be made

about the results of the two sample calculations
above. First, observe that the force of gravity

acting upon the student (a.k.a. the student's

weight) is less on an airplane at 40 000 feet than
at sea level. This illustrates the inverse
relationship between separation distance and
the force of gravity (or in this case, the weight of
the student). The student weighs less at the
higher altitude. However, a mere change of 40
000 feet further from the center of the Earth is
virtually negligible. This altitude change altered
the student's weight changed by 2 N that is
much less than 1% of the original weight. A
distance of 40 000 feet (from the earth's surface
to a high altitude airplane) is not very far when
compared to a distance of 6.38 x 106 m
(equivalent to nearly 20 000 000 feet from the
center of the earth to the surface of the earth).
This alteration of distance is like a drop in a
bucket when compared to the large radius of the
Earth. As shown in the diagram below, distance
of separation becomes much more inuential
when a signicant variation is made.

The second conceptual comment to be made

about the above sample calculations is that the
use of Newton's universal gravitation equation
to calculate the force of gravity (or weight)
yields the same result as when calculating it
using the equation presented in Unit 2:
F grav = mg = (70 kg)(9.8 m/s 2 ) = 686 N
Both equations accomplish the same result
because (as we will study later in Lesson 3) the
value of g is equivalent to the ratio of
(GMearth)/(Rearth)2.

The Universality of Gravity

Gravitational interactions do not simply exist
between the earth and other objects; and not
simply between the sun and other planets.
Gravitational interactions exist between all
objects with an intensity that is directly
proportional to the product of their masses. So
as you sit in your seat in the physics classroom,
you are gravitationally attracted to your lab
partner, to the desk you are working at, and
even to your physics book. Newton's
revolutionary idea was that gravity is universal ALL objects attract in proportion to the product
of their masses. Gravity is universal. Of course,
most gravitational forces are so minimal to be
noticed. Gravitational forces are only
recognizable as the masses of objects become
large. To illustrate this, use Newton's universal

gravitation equation to calculate the force of

gravity between the following familiar objects.
Click the buttons to check answers.
Mass of Mass of Separation Force of
Object Object Distance Gravity
2
1
(m)
(N)
(kg) (kg)
Football Earth
6.38 x 106 m
Player 5.98
a. 100 kg
(on surface)
x1024 kg

See
Answer

Earth
6.38 x 106 m
Ballerina
b.
40 kg 5.9824 (on surface)
x10 kg

See
Answer

Physics Earth
6.60 x 106 m
c. Student 5.98
(low-height
70 kg
x1024 kg orbit)

See
Answer

Physics Physics
d. Student Student 1 m
70 kg 70 kg

See
Answer

Physics Physics
e. Student Student 0.2 m
70 kg 70 kg

See
Answer

f.

Physics Physics
Student Book
1m
70 kg 1 kg

See
Answer

Physics Moon
1.71 x 106 m
x
g. Student 7.34
(on surface)
22
70 kg 10 kg

See
Answer

Physics Jupiter
6.98 x 107 m
x
h. Student 1.901
(on surface)
27
70 kg 10 kg

See
Answer

Today, Newton's law of universal gravitation is a

widely accepted theory. It guides the efforts of
scientists in their study of planetary orbits.
Knowing that all objects exert gravitational
inuences on each other, the small
perturbations in a planet's elliptical motion can
be easily explained. As the planet Jupiter
approaches the planet Saturn in its orbit, it
tends to deviate from its otherwise smooth
path; this deviation, or perturbation
perturbation, is easily
explained when considering the effect of the
gravitational pull between Saturn and Jupiter.
Newton's comparison of the acceleration of the
apple to that of the moon led to a surprisingly
simple conclusion about the nature of gravity
that is woven into the entire universe. All
objects attract each other with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to their
distance of separation.

Investigate!
Use the Newton's Law of Universal
Gravitation widget below to investigate the
effect of the object masses and separation
distance upon the amount of gravitational
attraction. Enter the masses of the two objects
and their separation distance. Then click the
Submit button to view the gravitational force.
Experiment with various values of mass and
distance.
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
Mass of
m1= 60
Object 1
Mass of
m2= 45
Object 2
Separation
d=
1.2
Distance

kg
kg
m

Submit
See
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/circles/U6L3c.cfm.

E
How did Newton establish that it was the
force of gravity between the sun and the
planets was the force responsible for
keeping the planets in motion along their
elliptical path? Click to see.

We Would Like to Suggest ...

Sometimes it
isn't enough to
just read about
it. You have to
interact with it!
And that's exactly what you do when you use
one of The Physics Classroom's Interactives. We
would like to suggest that you combine the
reading of this page with the use of
our Gravitation Interactive. You can nd it in the
Physics Interactives section of our website.
The Gravitation Interactive allows a learner to
interactively explore the inverse square law of
gravitation.
Visit: Gravitation Interactive

Check Your Understanding

1. Suppose that two objects attract each other
with a gravitational force of 16 units. If the
distance between the two objects is doubled,
what is the new force of attraction between the
two objects?
See Answer

2. Suppose that two objects attract each other

with a gravitational force of 16 units. If the
distance between the two objects is reduced in
half, then what is the new force of attraction
between the two objects?
See Answer

3. Suppose that two objects attract each other

with a gravitational force of 16 units. If the mass
of both objects was doubled, and if the distance
between the objects remained the same, then
what would be the new force of attraction
between the two objects?

See Answer

4. Suppose that two objects attract each other

with a gravitational force of 16 units. If the mass
of both objects was doubled, and if the distance
between the objects was doubled, then what

would be the new force of attraction between

the two objects?
See Answer

5. Suppose that two objects attract each other

with a gravitational force of 16 units. If the mass
of both objects was tripled, and if the distance
between the objects was doubled, then what
would be the new force of attraction between
the two objects?

See Answer

6. Suppose that two objects attract each other

with a gravitational force of 16 units. If the mass
of object 1 was doubled, and if the distance
between the objects was tripled, then what
would be the new force of attraction between
the two objects?
See Answer

7. As a star ages, it is believed to undergo a

variety of changes. One of the last phases of a
star's life is to gravitationally collapse into a
black hole. What will happen to the orbit of the
planets of the solar system if our star (the Sun
shrinks into a black hole)? (And of course, this
assumes that the planets are unaffected by prior
stages of the Sun's evolving stages.)
See Answer

8. Having recently completed her rst Physics

course, Dawn Well has devised a new business
plan based on her teacher's Physics for Better
Living theme. Dawn learned that objects weigh
different amounts at different distances from
Earth's center. Her plan involves buying gold by
the weight at one altitude and then selling it at
another altitude at the same price per weight.
Should Dawn buy at a high altitude and sell at a
low altitude or vice versa?
See Answer

9. Anita Diet is very concerned about her weight

but seldom does anything about it. After
learning about Newton's law of universal
gravitation in Physics class, she becomes all
concerned about the possible effect of a change

in Earth's mass upon her weight. During a (rare)

free moment at the lunch table, she speaks up
"How would my weight change if the mass of the
Earth increased by 10%?" How would you
answer Anita?
See Answer

10. When comparing mass and size data for the

planets Earth and Jupiter, it is observed that
Jupiter is about 300 times more massive than
Earth. One might quickly conclude that an
object on the surface of Jupiter would weigh
300 times more than on the surface of the
Earth. For instance, one might expect a person
who weighs 500 N on Earth would weigh
150000 N on the surface of Jupiter. Yet this is
not the case. In fact, a 500-N person on Earth
weighs about 1500 N on the surface of Jupiter.
Explain how this can be.
See Answer

Next Section: Cavendish and the Value of G

Jump To Next Lesson: Kepler's Three Laws