CAPACITY OF THE RESPIRATORY

SYSTEM AND THE POTENTIAL TO

INFLUENCE IT
By A. Nurmekivi and P-H Kingisepp
Recent studies suggest that the respiratory system can be a limiting factor in
intensive continuous physical work and high level competition performances. In
the folio wing text sport scientists at the University of Tartu, Estonia look at the
functions of the respiratory system and make suggestions how certain exercises
can improve the potential of the system. Re-printed with permission from Modern
Athlete and Coach.
INTRODUCTION
Aerobic energy production has for a long time been regarded as the dominating
factor in the energetics of the organism. Anaerobic processes have attributed in
most cases a compensating part when short term work is involved and when the
oxygen supply to the working muscles is for some reason not sufficient
(Englehardt 1969, Jakovlev 1970, Verhoshansky 1998, and others). Using the
oxygen deficit method has in the recent years shown that part of aerobic work
capacity is directly linked to the capacity of the functional system of oxygen
supply, in which the respiratory system plays an essential part.
The structures of the central nervous system that control ventilation, the rib cage
and respiratory muscles, the lungs and the airways can be regarded as the
components of the respiratory system. Lately there was an opinion among the
coaches that the respiratory system is not a limiting factor in the physical work
capacity of endurance athletes. Recent opinions in the high performance range
suggest that a re-evaluation is needed. Discussions on the subject of the limiting
role of the respiratory system in physical work capacity continue (Bye et. al.
1983, Boutellier, 1992). Consequently the high level of sporting performances
and the frequency of competition are forcing coaches to find possibilities to
i
mpr
ov
et
hef
ac
t
or
sr
es
ponsi
bl
ef
oranat
hl
et
e
swor
kcapaci
t
y
,i
ncluding the
respiratory system.
To achieve this objective would require coaches to support in their choice of
training means research findings which analyze the share of the respiratory
system in the work capacity of athletes (Bye et. al. 1983, Mishtschenko, 1990,
Boutellier 1998, etc).
We can differentiate in the functions of the respiratory system gas exchanges in
the lungs, that is ventilation which has an essential part in the central nervous

system guidance of respiratory muscles. The movement of the trunk and the
obstructions of the respiratory tract decide here the effectiveness of the
mechanics of respiration and last, but not least, it is necessary to also consider
the energetics of the respiratory muscles and their fatigue.
A closer look at these factors brings up the question of how could the ventilation
limit the work capacity of runners? Like all muscles, respiratory muscles need
oxygen for continuous work. In a mainly aerobically exhaustive stress
(marathon), the vital capacity of the lungs and the inhaling and exhaling strength
are reduced. One of the most essential respiratory muscles is the diaphragm,
considered among the most endurable of human muscles. At the same time, the
diaphragm is very sensitive to a drop in the partial pressure of oxygen (P02). An
intensive lactate production takes place when the partial oxygen pressure in the
tissue drops below 20mmHG. Lactate production in other working skeletal
muscles becomes considerably critical at a P02 around l2mmHg.
Consequently the blood supply and the partial pressure of oxygen have a
considerable influence on the work capacity of the diaphragm. The functioning of
the diaphragm and through it the ventilation also help to optimize the activity of
the trunk and abdominal muscles, responsible mainly for maintaining the position
of the body.
The promotion of the work of the diaphragm and other respiratory muscles is
essential because an increased ventilation is responsible for an increased
working load on the respiratory muscles. Even a slight, unnecessary, increase of
the work load on the respiratory muscles speeds up fatigue and begins to limit
the at
hl
et
e
sper
f
ormance capacity.
RESPIRATORY ENERGETICS
The work of respiratory muscles increases their oxygen consumption. While the
oxygen consumption of the respiratory muscles at rest makes up only a few
per
centoft
heor
gani
s
m
st
ot
alox
y
genneed,i
tcani
ncr
easeconsiderably under
physical load and decrease oxygen supply to other working muscles. Otis (1984)
showed that ventilation can during heavy physical work reach a level where
oxygen consumption of the respiratory muscles begins to limit the performance
and varies between 120 to 170 l/min. There are references in the literature
showing that a critical ventilation level can be reached before it corresponds to
maximal oxygen consumption (V02 max.).
Consequently V02 max has been divided into general and effective categories.
Under general maximal oxygen consumption we consider the total of consumed
oxygen the amount of oxygen that is required by the work performing muscles.
The amount of this oxygen is responsible for limiting physical work capacity
(Mistchenko 1990).

The individual most economical breathing regimen that corresponds to the

demands of a given work is developed during physical training to secure arterial
blood and avoid hypoxia. A relative hyperventilation can take place during
training which is one of the advantages in the development of the total functional
oxygen supply system.
FATIGUE OF RESPIRATORY MUSCLES
A direct indicator of respiratory muscular fatigue is a change in respiratory
patterns. (Gallagher et. al. 1985, Mader 1991). Respiratory patterns are
characterised by changes in the tidal volume and the respiratory rate in favor of
the last. This is responsible for a rapid shallow breathing.
An increase of the breathing rate as an indicator of respiratory fatigue has been
confirmed in the studies of Sliwinsky, et. al. (1990). There are reasons to
presume that the respiratory muscles limit general physical work ability only in
the case of high intensity loads. This is confirmed by the fact that ventilation over
60% of the maximal voluntary ventilation (VE max) can be maintained only over a
certain period. The duration of the endurance of respiratory muscles depends
largely on the maximal voluntary ventilation of the lungs. Taking into
consideration that ventilation can during heavy physical load reach 50 to 60% VE
max, the reserves of the respiratory system are not unlimited. It also is interesting
that respiratory muscles need more than 24 hours for complete recovery after
heavy physical work (Laghi et. al. 1995, Ker and Schultz, 1996).
EFFECTIVENESS OF RESPIRATORY MUSCLES TRAINING
Boutellier (1998) has shown that specific exercises directed to the development
of respiratory muscles improve their work capacity better than general physical
training. Well trained persons have a lower lung ventilation, their respiratory
muscles remove lactate better and fatigue later than untrained persons.
Further, well trained subjects who were not performing specific respiratory
muscle exercises, stated that they had to break up the exercise because of leg
fatigue. As there were no signs of fatigue in the respiratory pattern, it appears
possible that the respiratory muscles covered their oxygen consumption at the
expense of the working leg muscles (Harms et. al. 1997). It appears from this
that the lower ventilation of the lungs, following respiratory muscles training, is an
indicator of the economical work of the respiratory system.
Gibella et. al. (1996) have shown that respiratory muscles fatigue is a
performance limiting factor at medium altitude. For this reason it is possible to
improve considerably the working capacity of the respiratory muscles at altitude.
It should be kept in mind at the same time that training of respiratory muscles
does not influence work capacity at the anaerobic threshold level and maximal
oxygen consumption (Boutellier et. aI. 1992, Spengler et. al. 1994).

ABOUT A COMPLEX INFLUENCE ON THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

As the respiratory function is subject to volition, it is possible to improve its
capacity by a deliberate control. This requires the use of corresponding breathing
exercises which also include deliberate changes of breathing during muscular
work (Fig. 1). The breathing function is characterized by the reserves in its
capacity, mobilization ability and effectiveness (Kutshkin 1983).

According to Kutshkin, the external indicators of the capacity reserves are the
vital capacity of the lungs, maximal voluntary ventilation, maximal tidal volume at
the maximal oxygen consumption level and the strength of the respiratory
muscles. Mobilization reserves indicators are the ratio of tidal volume to vital
capacity and the ratio of tidal volume at the maximal oxygen consumption level to
the maximal voluntary ventilation effectiveness reserves. Also included is the
ventilatory equivalent (V02NE) at rest and during maximal oxygen consumption
level.
According to Kutschkin, an increased aerobic productivity up to average values
(about 60ml 02 x mm-1 x kg-1) is important to increase capacity reserves. An even
higher aerobic work capacity level requires already the use of mobilization
reserves.
During the early stages of adaptation, when the reserves of the respiratory
system are used, it is common to employ natural capacities. It has often been

stressed that the respiratory system of top level athletes is characterized by

natural assumptions. In the early stages respiratory exercises are directed to the
improvement of the vital capacity of the lungs. These include extremely deep
inhaling and exhaling, yogi breathing exercises to improve trunk elasticity and
mobility, as well as strength and endurance of the respiratory muscles.
Although respiratory exercises and deep breathing influence essentially also the
cardio-vascular functions, this influence can be strengthened by using hypoxic
elements in training. This can be achieved by creating hyper-ventilation such as
holding breath in swimming or covering certain distances in running. Hyperventilation is also created during physical work by breathing only through the
nose.
In addition, it is possible to influence the capacity of the oxygen transport system
by employing other means. For example, by increasing artificially the volume of
dead space (VT) during muscular work, or breathing certain gas mixtures, not
overlooking training at altitude. It should not be overlooked that hyper-ventilation
has a complex influence not only on the respiratory system but on all functional
systems supplying oxygen to the organism.
FRAGMENTAL RESPIRATION
Hemoglobin (Hb) carries oxygen in the blood. The contact time between the
alveolar gas and blood at rest is about 0.8 to 0.9 sec. Oxygen diffusion in
al
v
eol
arbl
oodcan
tt
ak
epl
ac
ei
nat
i
meunder0.
3s
ec.P02, needed to saturate
hemoglobin with oxygen, remains low and arterialization of the blood fails to take
place. A shorter contact time could be an obviously limiting factor for gas
exchanges in the lungs when the respiratory rate reaches 38-40 cycles in a
minute and an increased minute volume of the heart speeds up blood flow to the
lung capillaries. Consequently it is recommended to improve the conditions of
gas exchanges by using the so called fragmental breathing. This will lengthen the
contact time between alveolar gas and blood to create better transfer conditions
for gas exchanges and saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen. Table 1 shows
St
r
el
t
sov

s(
1991)r
ec
ommendedschemet
oc
hangebr
eat
hi
ng.
Fragmented respiration is based on a cycle of four successive inhaling followed
by exhaling. Such a breathing cycle during running promotes the saturation of
hemoglobin with oxygen and allows:
To adjust breathing to a number of strides in which the first two inhalings
take place during the first two strides, followed by a further two inhalings in
the next pair of strides. Uninterrupted exhaling takes place during the third
pair of strides.
The frequency of breathing is regulated by the running speed as breathing
is synchronized with the running rhythm.

THE USE OF NOSE BREATHING IN TRAINING

As previously mentioned, breathing only through the nose could be helpful in
training. Jakimov (1993) studied nose breathing influence on athletes up to high
performance level. The aim of the study, involving 40 athletes was to find out
how athletes adjust to breathing through the nose. The experiment covered the
following weekly load:
Monday : 3 to 4km warm-up run, 4 to 5 x 100m accelerations, 3000m in
10.30 min; 2000m in 6.40 min. and 1000m in 3:15 min. This was followed
by 5 x 200m in 36 to 38 sec. breathing through the nose with 200m jog
recoveries.
Tuesday : 8 to 12km steady endurance run, followed y 5 to 7 x 200m in 36
to 40 sec. Nose breathing runs.
Wednesday : Varied pace 10km endurance run, including 3 to 4 x 1000m
repetitions. Finally 2 x 400m in 78 to 89 sec and 200m in 30 sec.
Breathing through the nose.
Friday : 3 to 4km warm-up run, 5 to 6 accelerations over 80m, 3000m in
10:30 min. Finally 5 x 200m in 36 to 38 sec. in which the first third and fifth
repetitions were covered in nose breathing and a further 5 x 200m in 36 to
38 sec. In which the second and fourth repetitions included nose
breathing.
Saturday : 10 to 15km steady endurance run followed by 2 x 400m in 76 to
80 sec and a maximal speed 200m in nose breathing.
In a second study with elite athletes who performed gradually increased loads on
a treadmill, all subjects improved considerably in comparison to the control group
(p<0.05). Jakimov, who recommends using nose breathing exercises in training,
claims that these can be employed by all athletes without breathing disturbances.

Adjusting to nose breathing can cause passing headaches. In this case it would
be necessary to reduce the volume and movement speed in breathing through
the nose runs. The following scheme is suitable for well trained long distance and
marathon runners:

It can be added that athletes using nose breathing in training reduced their heart
rates by 6 to 10 beats at close to racing speed in comparison to athletes who
breathed mainly through the mouth. Practical experience also indicated that
athletes using nose breathing in training at sea level adapted faster to altitude
conditions.
IN SUMMARY
In summary it can be said that knowing the factors influencing the capacity of an
at
hl
et
e
sr
espi
r
at
or
ysyst
em al
l
owsimproving their adaptation at different stages
more effectively. This takes place by using specific breathing exercises at rest,
deliberately changing breathing regimens during muscular work, employing
fragmental breathing and using breathing through the nose. The outlined means
lift the effectiveness of the functional systems supplying the organism with
oxygen for intense continuous muscular work and high level competition
performances.