LIBER SEXTUS “The first authentic collection of Church legislation after that of Gregory IX (1234) It ws commissioned by Pope Boniface Vil in 1296 and promulgated on March 3.1298, embracing soe 64 year of papa and cone Iegsation, Although the coatution ofthe Coueils of tEeons (1243, 1274) were i ication, and some popes tad made colton of thee own constittions ( fnocent IV in 1246, 1251, and 1253, and Gregory X when romtgatng the 1276 Council of Lyons) there was ‘Bene uncertainty about the free of mc ofthe papal Tegislation afer (234 Upon Boniface’ eestin in 1298, the University of Bologna, among others, petitioned its Former alums (1260-64) to Lok ito the question, Selecting tree seasoned canoists (Wiliam Man- aout, Archbishop of Eros: Bérenger FREDO, Bish- ‘op of Beziers: and Richard Peroni, vice-chancellor of the papacy), Boniface gave them a fee hand. The ne ‘lection, compleed within two eats, was tamed Liber Sexae (Sea) ad, ike the decreas of Gregory IX, was divided ino five book, with tiles and chapters. OF the 15 popes between 1238 and 1294, however, oly sk were cepeseted (Gregory 1X, Inocent 1V, Alexander IV, [Unban IV, Clement 1, and Nicholas 1), being allowed {ome 108 capes, while Doniface's ows lgisation or- Cupied 251 ehapes, to total of 359 chapters some 88 regulae i's, or eules of ieerpretation of law, were ded, mainly fom Roman law. The many pal cost- tutions denied a place were thereby declared ll and ‘oid forthe futore others of « wansitory nature wre not ven i fll but noted simply as reserva. Although Boniface accepted all bt one of 4 chapters ofthe thi ollecton of Innocent 1V (1253), Re reas ther dere {al times retain ony the central eu 0 oceasion the also modified conelinr decreas, composing, fo exam ple, the enstitation Cum ex eo (Sext 16.8 in mitigation Ot Lice canon of Lyons (Sext 16-14), I's inded, sig tices tht the eonstitions of Beaiface included inthe Sext were writen in great part or tht compilation, What fe itended was, inelfct,codifetion rater than 8c. Teton in fact any papal desre admit to the Sext was ow universally Binding, izespecive of its orignal Scope. Boniface was not simply adding othe decreas botrather a he putt wben explaining his choice of til, [advancing Gregory’ ive books to the state of perfection proper tothe nmber six. Many glosses onthe Set were ‘rriten, notably by Joennes Monachus (1301) and JOAN. es ANDREAE (1301), that of he ater becoming od Inari. The Sext wos pied many times andi part ofthe ‘oficial cones tus cawontc of 1582 sigephy: £ wovs,“The Contiton Ca ec 9 ope Bois Vi Mata Sader 24 (962) 209-02. es, “Bont Vt: yn moter in anges Fee ere de ate mame Lule lpen tite cae Cece ue. (eau ibe Sen" Race ace tre Ales nd fo Keene 102 190) a Lepowey LIBERAL ARTS ‘Arame given inate Roman times to dsciplnes that wore considered preparatory studies for PHILOSOPHY: they were usally counted seven in umber and were [groupe the vam grammar rhetoric, and ogi) and the quadtvium arte, peorery, musi, and aston tomy) In 20th-entury usage the tet bas Become moxe feneral and es precise. “The historical development ofthe iberalatsradi- tion, and ofits underlying pilosophy, is bes sketched fn terms of its origins in Greek though its passage 1 the ‘Wests medieval conception as analyzed by St. Thoms ‘Aquinas, an, ally, ts decline in the moder period. Origins in Greek Thought. From the 8th century Jc, Greek education was based on gymnastics and "pues" This ater, eventually ealled “gramme.” i lade the study of erature and music. These literary Studies were expanded during the 5th century by the dy of RHETORE, Introduced by the SOPUSTS 3 they ought to prepre fie citizens who could speak in the public assemblies. The SpbistProtagors about 4008. Trroduced as a companion fo etc the art of debating Called estes, or DIALECTIC, said have originated ‘withthe pilowpher 22N0 OF ELEA (. 450) About the sme time anaer Sop, Hippas of Elis vee Plat, Protagoras 315C), insisted on the value for public speaker of abroad education in all heat in- ling the four mathemadcal disciplines of athe eometry, music, and atonomy developed by the PY thagorean philosophers of the previous century "These seven ar, slong with others mentioned rom time to ime, were caled the Ey, nasa (geet ‘sducation) This edveational practice was explined theo” fetcally in various ways by different schools of pilso- phy. Thus Iecrates, x leading shetrician of the 4th Eenlury. defends them in hs Ansidosis and Pons theaicus the best preparation of a etzen, since a cti> en must lead otere by the at of persuasion (ett) find this art requires broad education, “This sophistc potion was vigorously opposed bY Socrates and ATO. The later especially i Republic ‘BT and Laws bk 7) iimiags he vale of both poetry and thetoi, which lead only to opinion, and emphasizes the impoctance of mathematics as the fist tp ia the realm a selence. Such at ar nly preparation fo tre ‘wisdom, of philosophy, which Plato believed was tobe pursed by dialectics, but which was erased by ntti Wisdom beyond any method. ‘Arist also opposed the Sopiss but not sign 1o muthematies the same educations significance as Plato, Instead, he gave the fundamental ole 10 LOG, a scpline tha he Rimelf developed and distinguishes from grammir, etre, and dialectics; the later are meshods of prouble reasoning, whereas ogi sa meth od of analysis whereby sre scent knowledge can be ceri Other Greek philosophers tended 10 minimize the ‘vale ofthe liberal art. This was tra ofthe skepis, {een i the atick on tase arts by Sextus Epiius ia is Adversur Mathematicos ofthe 2d centwy’ A.D. (re skemiis) I was tue The Epicureans reduce logic © thet Canoic, which was more an epistemological de- fense of sense knowledge than a te logic. The Stoics, onthe other hand, id make important conribtions bo to gramm and logic, and itis ia th weings of Mar- anus Capella, a Latin of Stoic tendencis (St century ‘AD), that the trad ist ofthe seven arts a the er rte ierales st appear, Mactan apparel derived I ist from tha ofthe Roman eneyelopedist Varo (Ist. ‘enury BC), which, however, also included architecture land medicine. Yet the Sais generally tok the view ex pressed by SENECA: "You se why liber studies are 30 Called iis boeuse they are worthy of feebor med. But there is only one cally liberal stdy-—that which gives man bis Ube. is the sudy of wisdom; and that is ots, eave and great souled. Al othe stale are puny and puetle" (Epi. 88, Passage to the West, Such suits continued as 2 mater of course in Byzantine Christianity and were sed on eventualy Islami education; here thee was 19 marked development except for some advances ia ‘mathematics by Arabian weiter. Western Chstaity ‘hee goo pute was exabished by St, AUGUSTINE in self a former tachee of thetrc, who insisted om the i prance ofthese studies a preparation fe the Cristian Study ofthe Sacred Scriptures. He began bu did nat ‘shan encyclopedit ofthe ats From the works De ordine ‘tnd De masa iti clea that his conception ofthese ds ciples was essentially Platonic: the order tht i ound inlnguage, musi, and mathematics isa election of the sft order tht exists in God. The bepnncr i led by this seosble retesion of God toward 4 wue vision of Hie. Fort. Augustine, 8 Crit, this fe the vie ‘on is possessed only by fh in God's Word ‘The deuiled transmission ofthe Greskschievereat in thse ats ame tothe Wee not trough Agustin bt through BOETHWS, who attempted, and in partsucceede, in easlating ito Latin the Fundamental Greek works of ‘Arist and Evtid.During the Dark Ages these trans tions, aloag with various much-abrevated masual of the at, armed the prepuation forthe study othe Sei tures in the monastic schools (see the fnsitones of {ASSIODORUS andthe motogie of St DARE OF SE- MILLE). With ALCUIN and the Carolingian renaissance some eal development ofthese ats began to take plac, but twas only inthe (2thconary renaissance, with ABE. LARD andthe writers ofthe Sool of Chartres, that at ble progress was made, The most important works of this period are the Didasealon of WuGH OF SAIN VICTOR ard the Metdogicon of 11 OF SALISBURY, both Of which, however, sll remained within the Augustinian frame: vor In the ew aniveriies of the 13th century the stay ofthe ans leading tothe master of ans degree was the basic faculty tht prepared students ogo onto law, med ‘ine, o theology or consid terminal education, The ‘Augustinian and Platonic view was long dominant and found its finest expression inthe De reductione arian «ad theologian ofS, BONAVENTURE. The inteduction of ‘he full Aristotelian corpus, however, ave tothe Middle ‘Ages a new conception of philosophy a5 something dis tint fom the liberal ats and intermediate between them and the study of theology Ici this view thats found in Si ALOT, Thomas Aus al tear ‘Aristlian solace, ‘Thomistie Analysis. In hs commentary on the De Trintae of Boethius, St. THOMAS AQUINAS atempted harmonize the complex tration outined above and explain italog Arista ies. Occasional remarksia oer works and especialy in his commentary on Arist le'sPasteror Anatyies Bl ot tis theo. Stars as Ans. According to Aquinas the ibeal ats ane sal la an aalieal sense Sse AT HLOSO- Pay]. Aa aia he Sit Senses reta ratio facili, i, good judgment sbout making someting, where “enakig’” means the production of 4 physical work ‘Such a definition applies only to the servile ars; t does not apply tothe ibe arts, since these make noting pysical but ony 2 certain "work inthe mid" an a ‘angement of ideas—although, ofcourse, these eas ray be externally expressed by physeal symbol. They ate called “ibe” precisely because dey pein 0 the contemplative (peclative) rather than wo the active or pructive life of man. Many of them if noc al are ue Sciences a well as ats because they not only produce 2 ‘ment! work but demonstrate the tut value of his work cyAs liberal ans, however, they are not studied for hee twa truth content but as instruments of other sciences Conception of Laie. The clearest example of such 4 speculative ut is lpi, whic does not deat with any feat object pure withthe ment order theming po- {duces within elf by forming mental relations beoween fone object of thought and smother. As Aristotle hd sen fowever, logic i nt a single discipline bt group of felted disciplines (1) demonstrative fai. which ant Iyaesscientie arguments ofthe sets ype (DEMON: Sarton), wherein the factual evidence is suffice to eld cextrTuoe, (2) dialectal loge, which analyzes Tes rigorous types of reasoning soc as those involved in incosion, debate, and scenic research, and where nly PROBABILITY and OPINION can be obtained (3) he ‘vcs whichis similar to dleties but whieh lo takes int consideration the interests and matives ofa patcw Tar aience- and which ame t persuasion to atin a cr thn ut siete conviction; and (4) POETES, which Slso deals ony wit probublies conveyed through sto- tie imitative of human life, whose purpose isthe quiet ing of human passions through the delight fet in ‘onterplaing te beautiful, The sto f these logics Se insrunens for he sciences; the lst wo, since they deal more withthe passions and imagination ae valuable forenpressing th tus atained by selene by exper nce in way thats tba effective or pleasing. Al- though in some expect a very ificuk std, lope its temtety shouldbe taht before the othe sciences the fnscument necessary to thet pefect Cunctioning. Grammar, according to Aquinas, only an wiry to these ats and dale With the external expression of thought by verbal symbols. What were later called the fine ars ae Yor im smile the iberl asin tha they resemble posts, although they use nonverbal symbols "Those that ae purely compose (ie composing of it crate or of music) be casted as ber acts in the Sit sense, Those tht involve te external execution of ‘work uch as ating, playing a musical instrument, the plastic ats) he considered servile dieplines, alk though the works they produce are bea in function. Mathematics Mathematics, in Aquinas's view, is 8 science of reality, not merely of mental being, Hence it is matkely distin! from logic; i is deserving of the ‘ame of philosophy since t gives insight into the nature Of being, Nevertcies, the object with which it dal is shsract QUANT; quny ints has ile dignity Be- ae itis mere accident of things and because iis une derstood in abstraction rather than in its existence. For this reason mathematic i Ieast among the purely sien tie sues. Asan instrument, however, ti of Beat im portance fortwo reasons: (1) since its facia content is 38 slight and its loge cgor great, itis the ideal exerpli futon of demonstrative logic for the young student Snowe Facts knowledge ites but who mast master the difult at of demonstrative Togic; 2) becuse it teas with quanitiesabsracted from their concrete con- lions tis ery ueflin the natural seiences, which r= (ui study ofthe quantitative properties of things. Can Tnathematcs then be called a eral a? Yes, for alk though i doesnot mk its objet (which is eal quant (phitdaes know this objet by mental constuction, since i ties idea quanties constcte inthe imagination by processes of measurement or counting Instruments of Higher Sciences, Al hes ats a it struments forthe higher scence, which differ rom logic in ha they dal wih cel objets and from matherates ‘nth they deal wth elites considered in thei existent Condition and not Kelly, These real stiences ae ent Imerated by Aauinas as natal science, the moral si fences, and theology, the last of which is divided ino ata theology, oc metaphysics, and sacred theology {Ser SCIENCE (CENTIA}, SCIENCES, CLASSIFICATION OF] Decline inthe Maern Period. Tis deal of ibe lar education was cever actualy realized inthe medi tal universes, where logic and dialetics tended to ‘dominate tthe neglect ofthe oter ats. othe Lh cen tiny wont brought thie fogs ti ltt ‘autem. In song reaction his the Renassice hic ‘nant under te inflsene of Quintin and Cicero e- fumed fo the emphasis on grammar and etre; they thus developed the so-iled“teditional classic educa tion." which dinate lower education but dot 8- eed in destroying. Aso in the universes. This movement culminated nthe work of Rudo Agricola tnd Peer RAMUS, who atemped to replace Associ Togie by new ialectc,wbicn was etally a pedagosi- cal thetrc, 4 too! by which received knowledge could te copanized simply for memorization, ‘The ceally major change began with advances io ‘mathematics the 16th and 17h centuries, culiinating tithe proposal of René DESCARTES to adopt tbe mathe Inatical deductive method a the universal mets ofall Knowledge, The approich,tecause of is Platonic te dency, came ito sharp conic with the cerntns ofthe “Aislin inductive tradion as proposed by thinkers ‘Sich as Francs GACON. kindof reconciliation was eF fected by tae Newton in the frm of what has come 1 be caled the "scientiereibod” wherein a deductive ‘mathematical theory is grounded in observation and © periment. Such a method, however, proved not very stable it the “humantes"—the fine at, philosophy, theolos> history. morals, and polities AS resus Jacob Kieit NeW CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA has pointed out, a second method the “historical meth- 1,” wa evolved, Having its oot inthe development ofc! historiography during the religious contover- fies ofthe post Reformation period his method was de- ‘eloped by pilosopers in the romantic and idealistic traditions such a G¥C0, . W-F. HEGEL, W. DILTHEY, tnd R. G, Collingwood (1889-943). Vico emphasized the logic of historical evidence, but added 10 his the in tereettion ofthe data by a dalctic based onthe power ‘of human sympathy: tough this dsieci, un sable tosee the events of history as an evolution and expression ‘of his ow inet tendencies a 2 man, in coauast to the Impersonal and objective approach of the “scieniie method.” Later thi opposition of meiod was be Aeced in Wester cltre a deep division berween those tine in science sd those alned i the human ties, between an objetive ands subjective point of view, and between he two dominant pilosopicl tendencies, POSTS tad EXISTENTIAL ‘lg: CONWAY sd 8. AILEY, The Libera sit Tas Agus (Weg 199). BLO, The ‘Srna Nem Yo 1906) ARR Stt gts ia dea cae niga Pats S8); Miso actin Svan Sew Yar 1956, RP MERION, "Reo ‘inthe he Age” Spee 17193) 1-32. 1 096, ‘ana Meth ond se Dray of Diep (Case, MA {osm mba ise Rae od nrg tote ch atta ha. ‘eh esters ies 195). mat asiuey LIBERAL CATHOLIC CHURCH A group ot groupe within x movement known 3 “Independent Cathalicism” I as rots inthe Dutch (Oi Catolcsm and has some theological afinities wih Roman Catholicism, sich a the meaning of sacrament, but wth serous departures both in is theology ecesol- ogy, and pastoral practice. [nthe US. thete i Liberal Cathie Cores (LOC) that 8 regional body within the larger iteration commanion ad css lepl tile the nein the United Stites, There is also a group that Splinter from this body in 1987, yet reside in only ‘Amie, The alters called the Liberal Catbole Church International, yet its members simply refer to theirchureh 1 the LOC, Both ents describe themselves a the Lit tral Catholic Church or the Liberal Catholic Chur in the Province ofthe United States and both elit “of ‘la sass the tue church. Both the LCC (be items tional ody) and the LCCT (the American body) have similares and diferenes, but the eral distinction iss in the sucesson of bishops. In 2001, Dean Bekken asthe eesidng shop ofthe LCCT with headquarters Jin San Diego, California; James P, Roberts, e, was the LLCCT regionary bishop inthe Province of the United States (New York) ln ha sae yer, an Richard Hook vas the presiding bishop ofthe LCC with headgat- ters in London, England: Bishop Wiliam Downey vas the eepionary bishop ofthe LCC in the Province ofthe United States (Ojai, California. Both members ofthe Liberal Cxtolic movernent se the sume basi tury and both havea open communion tube. Both churches acknowledge the lity’ feedom of elit Both churches accept married and clit ely. Both churches wil emarsy the divored, Neither church ‘ordkne women, However, he LCC requires it clrgyt0 ftecepe the Basie tenets of theosphy(cicarnaon ama, ascended masters, ec. 45 well as Cathie Ces tinity the LCC requires only that is clergy accep tbe base tenets of Catholic Chistanity (Ihe Holy Tiny, a ‘eal Buchaitiepreseoce, ee} The LCC doesnot pent is cleay o eceivea Salary fo hee eligious work The ECCT permits salary iF parish is ancy able History. On April 28,1908, Amolé Hats Mathew (1852-1919), former Roman Catholic priest, was cou- Seerated a5 the Old Catholic Bishop fr Great Brita nt Tela (we OLD CATHOLICS). By 1915, che moverneat © conver the English the Old Catholics of Ureche was falling. On Dec. 31,1915, Bishop Mathew let to econ the Roman Cathal Church and Bishop Frederick Same «1 Willoughty soon followed but nox before consecrating James Ingll Wedgwood & bishop. Theosophist ofthe (te Catholic Mission in Great Bean ried behind Wedgwood of the famous ubleware china fumily. In 1916, Wedgwood consecrated «kindred sii inthe noted theosopist Charles Webster Leadbeater regionary Wshop of Auswalasa Within a yeas time, Wedgwood and Lendbete had compiled the uy forte church, ‘wich on Sept. 6, 1918, wat renamed Liber! Cahaie In 1917 Wedgwood established the church inthe United States. ts growah led him to reat (1919) the American province under Bishop I. S. Coope, who by 1924 had built procathedra in Los Angeles, Califia Cooper was consecrated in July 1918 by Wedgwood and Lelbewer- The St Alban Theological Seminary was es- lublished in America in 1923 Is the LCC's offic seminary, and instucts is seminarians worléwie Through distance leaning from is base in San Diep, California. ris wot an acceded isittion, nor does it claim to gant educational degrees. There sao a S. Alban's Press that publishes tacts by is theologian: bishops. Adherent of the LCC are estimated tbe artund 5,000 wodldwie; forthe LCCI adherents number ap- proximately 5,000. In 1947 x controversy arse over what appeared 10 te u jurisdictional dpe between the American clergy