Contents

Air pollution

1.1

Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1

Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.2

Emission factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Air pollution exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Indoor air quality (IAQ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.1

Mortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.2

Cardiovascular disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.3

Lung disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.4

Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.5

Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.6

Cleanareas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4.7

Central nervous system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

Agricultural eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

Historical disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.7

Alternatives to creating air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8

Reduction eorts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.8.1

Control devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.9

1.9.1

Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

1.9.2

Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.10 Hotspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.11 Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.12 National-scale air toxics assessments 1995-2005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.13 Governing urban air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.14 Atmospheric dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.15 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.17 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1.18 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

Accidental release source terms

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i

ii

CONTENTS
2.1

Accidental release of pressurized gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

2.1.1

Ramskill's equation for non-choked mass ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

Evaporation of non-boiling liquid pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.2.1

The U.S. Air Force method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.2.2

The U.S. EPA method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.2.3

Stiver and Mackay's method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

2.3

Evaporation of boiling cold liquid pool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.4

Adiabatic ash of liqueed gas release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.7

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

2.2

Aerotoxic Association

21

3.1

Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.2

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

3.3

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

Aerotoxic syndrome

22

4.1

Potential sources of contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.2

History

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4.3

Research

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4.4

Media coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.6

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.7

References

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4.8

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

4.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

Air pollutant concentrations

27

5.1

Converting air pollutant concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

5.2

Correcting concentrations for altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

5.3

Correcting concentrations for reference conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

5.3.1

Correcting to a dry basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

5.3.2

Correcting to a reference oxygen content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

5.3.3

Correcting to a reference carbon dioxide content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29

5.4
6

Outline of air pollution dispersion

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6.1

Air pollution emission plumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

6.2

Air pollution dispersion models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.3

Air pollutant emission

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31

6.4

Characterization of atmospheric turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

6.4.1

32

The Pasquill atmospheric stability classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS
6.4.2

iii
Advanced methods of categorizing atmospheric turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

6.5

Miscellaneous other terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

32

6.6

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33

6.6.1

Air pollution dispersion models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.6.2

Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.7

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.8

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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6.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

34

Air pollution sensor

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7.1

36

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air quality guideline

38

8.1

38

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Air Quality Health Index (Canada)

39

9.1

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.2

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.3

Formula Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.4

Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.5

Alberta Calculation and Reporting Dierences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.6

Persons at risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.7

Lifestyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.8

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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9.9

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10 Air quality index

10.1 Denition and usage

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

10.2 Indices by location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.2 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.3 Mainland China

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10.2.4 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.5 Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.6 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.7 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.8 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.9 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.2.10 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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iv

CONTENTS

11 Air quality law

49

11.1 Air pollutant classication

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11.3 Emission standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.4 Control technology requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.5 Bans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.6 Data collection and access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.7 Controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.8 Around the world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.8.1 International law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.8.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.8.3 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.8.4 New Zealand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.8.5 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.8.6 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11.2 Air quality standards

12 Air stagnation

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12.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13 Airlog

54
55

13.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13.2 Diculties in the IAQ audit process

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13.3 Elements of an IAQ audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13.4 Problems to overcome

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13.5 Sources and use of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13.6 Legal framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13.7 Economic impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13.8 Outcome

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13.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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13.9 References

14 Ambient air quality criteria

14.1 Specifying the Criteria

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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14.2 The Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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14.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15 Arctic haze

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15.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15.2 Origin of pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15.3 Recent studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15.4 Scientic predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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CONTENTS

15.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15.6 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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15.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16 Atmospheric dispersion modeling

62

16.1 Atmospheric layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.2 Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.3 Briggs plume rise equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.4.1 Atmospheric dispersion models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.4.2 Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.4.3 Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.6.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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16.6.2 Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

66

16.6.3 Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

16.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

67

17 Best available technology

69

17.1 European Union directives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

17.2 United States environmental law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

17.3 International conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

17.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

17.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

70

17.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71

18 Beta attenuation monitoring

18.1 References

72

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

18.2 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

19 Boulder Climate Action Plan

74

19.1 General information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

19.2 Allocation and generation of fund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

19.3 Incentive authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

19.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

19.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

20 Burn pit

76

20.1 Materials burned and combustion products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

20.2 Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

20.3 Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

vi

CONTENTS
20.4 Health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

20.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

20.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

21 CALPUFF

78

21.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

21.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

21.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

21.3.1 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78

21.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

79

22 CMAQ

80

22.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23 Condensation particle counter
23.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution

80
81
82
83

24.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

24.2 Substances

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

24.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

83

24.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

24.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

84

25 Criteria air contaminants

85

25.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

25.2 Sections 108 and 109 of the U.S. Clean Air Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

25.3 Six Criteria Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

25.4 EPA Endangerment Findings/ Mass v. EPA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

25.5 Petition to Add Seven Criteria Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

25.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

25.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

87

25.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

88

26 Critical load
26.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27 Czech Hydrometeorological Institute

89
89
90

27.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

27.2 Air pollution dispersion modelling activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

27.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

27.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

90

27.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

CONTENTS

vii

28 Decipol

92

28.1 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29 Diesel exhaust

92
93

29.1 Denition and composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

29.1.1 Chemical classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.1.2 Specic chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.1.3 Water vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.2 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.2.1 International and federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.2.2 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.3 Health concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.3.1 General concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

94

29.3.2 Occupational health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

29.3.3 Concerns regarding particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

29.3.4 Specic eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

95

29.3.5 Variation with engine conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

29.4 Other eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

29.5 Remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

29.5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

29.5.2 Selective non-catalytic reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

29.5.3 Exhaust gas recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

29.5.4 Combined systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

29.5.5 Other remedies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

29.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97

29.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

29.8 References and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

98

29.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99

30 Dust abatement

100

30.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

30.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
31 Eects of the car on societies
31.1 History

101

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

31.2 Access and convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

31.3 Economic changes

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

31.3.1 Employment and consumption habits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

31.3.2 Economic growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
31.4 Trac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
31.5 Cultural changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
31.5.1 Changes to urban society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

viii

CONTENTS
31.5.2 Advent of suburban society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.5.3 Cars in popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.5.4 Cinema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.5.5 Cars as a hobby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
31.6 Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
31.7 External and internal costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.7.1 Public or external costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
31.7.2 Private or internal costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
31.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
31.9 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

31.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

32 Emission standard

110

32.1 Regulated sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

32.2 Vehicle emission performance standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
32.3 America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
32.3.1 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
32.3.2 United States of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
32.4 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.4.1 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.4.2 UK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.4.3 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.5 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.5.1 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.5.2 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.5.3 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
32.5.4 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
32.5.5 Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
32.6 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
32.6.1 South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
32.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
32.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
32.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
33 Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database
33.1 History

115

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

33.2 Data summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

33.3 Data use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

33.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
33.5 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

33.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

CONTENTS
34 Environmental impact of aviation

ix
117

34.1 Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

34.1.1 Mechanisms and Cumulative Eects of aviation on Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
34.1.2 Greenhouse gas emissions per passenger kilometre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
34.1.3 Total climate eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
34.1.4 Future emission levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
34.1.5 Reducing air travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
34.1.6 Kyoto Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
34.1.7 Emissions trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
34.1.8 Eects of climate change on aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
34.2 Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
34.3 Air quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
34.4 Radiation exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
34.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
34.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
34.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
35 Exhaust gas

128

35.1 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

35.2 Exhaust gas temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
35.3 Cold engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
35.4 Passenger car emissions summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
35.5 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
35.5.1 Internal-combustion engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
35.5.2 Other types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
35.6 Main motor vehicle emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
35.6.1 NOx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
35.6.2 Volatile organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
35.6.3 Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
35.6.4 Carbon monoxide (CO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
35.6.5 Hazardous air pollutants (toxics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.6.6 Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.6.7 Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.6.8 Water vapor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.7 Pollution reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.8 Health studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.9 Localised eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
35.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
35.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
36 Flue gas

134

CONTENTS
36.1 Scrubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
36.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
36.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

37 Flue-gas desulfurization

136

37.1 Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

37.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
37.3 Sulfuric acid mist formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
37.4 FGD chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
37.4.1 Basic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
37.4.2 Scrubbing with an alkali solid or solution

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

37.4.3 Scrubbing with sodium sulte solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

37.4.4 Gas phase oxidation followed by reaction with ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
37.5 Facts and statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
37.6 Alternative methods of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
37.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
37.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
37.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
38 Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion

142

38.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

38.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
38.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
39 Flue-gas stack

144

39.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

39.2 Flue-gas stack draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
39.3 Flue-gas ow-rate induced by the draft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
39.4 Stack design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.5 Other items of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
39.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
40 Fugitive emissions

147

40.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

40.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
40.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
41 Gas are

149

41.1 Overall are system in industrial plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

41.2 Impacts of waste aring associated gas from oil drilling sites and other facilities . . . . . . . . . . . 150
41.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

CONTENTS
41.4 References

xi
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

41.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

41.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
41.7 Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
42 Geospatial Measurements of Air Pollution

153

42.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

43 Global Emissions InitiAtive

154

43.1 Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

43.2 Partnerships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
43.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
43.4 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

44 Haze

155

44.1 Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

44.1.1 International disputes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
44.2 Obscuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
44.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
44.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
44.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
45 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions

158

45.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

45.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
45.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
46 1-Hydroxypyrene

159

46.1 Relationship with smoking

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

46.2 Pyrene degradation product by microorganisms

46.3 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

47 Hypermobility (travel)

160

47.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

47.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
48 HYSPLIT

162

48.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

49 Indoor air pollution in developing nations

163

49.1 Health implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

49.2 Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
49.2.1 Early interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
49.2.2 Improved success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

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49.2.3 Successful interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
49.3 Environmental impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
49.3.1 Sustainable options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.3.2 Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.4 Education interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.5 Primary intervention for children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.6 Kenya and modern energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
49.7 Further action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
49.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
49.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
49.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

50 Indoor air quality

169

50.1 Common pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

50.1.1 Second-hand smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
50.1.2 Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
50.1.3 Molds and other allergens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
50.1.4 Carbon monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
50.1.5 Volatile organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
50.1.6 Legionella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
50.1.7 Other bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
50.1.8 Asbestos bers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
50.1.9 Carbon dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
50.1.10 Ozone

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

50.2 Prompt cognitive decits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

50.3 Eect of indoor plants

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

50.4 HVAC design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

50.5 Building ecology

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

50.6 Institutional programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

50.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
50.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
50.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
50.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
51 Indoor bioaerosol

178

51.1 Sources and inuencing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

51.1.1 Sources for indoor environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
51.1.2 Factors inuencing indoor bioaerosol generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
51.2 Human health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
51.3 Sampling and detection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
51.3.1 Bioaerosol sampling techniques

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

51.3.2 Identication and quantication methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

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xiii

51.4 Concentration levels in dierent geographical regions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

51.5 Approaches to control indoor bioaerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

51.6 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

51.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

52 Indoor Environmental Quality Global Alliance

183

52.1 Partners and governmental organisations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

52.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
52.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
53 International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations

185

53.1 Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

53.2 Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
53.3 Partners and Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
53.4 World Clean Air Congress

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

53.5 Resolutions and Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

53.6 Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
53.7 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
53.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
53.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
54 Line source

188

54.1 Linear air pollution source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

54.2 Linear noise source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
54.3 Water pollution line source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
54.4 Light emission line source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
54.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
54.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
54.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
55 Liquid-to-gas ratio

191

55.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

55.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
55.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
56 List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration

193

56.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

57 Low-carbon emission

194

57.1 Low carbon fuel standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

57.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
57.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
58 Low-emission zone

195

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58.1 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
58.1.1 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
58.1.2 Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.1.3 United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.1.4 Netherlands, Denmark and Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2 Elsewhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2.1 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2.2 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.2.3 Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
58.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

59 Mist

198

59.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

59.2 Freezing mist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
59.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
59.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
59.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
60 Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact

200

60.1 Methods of mitigating aviations CO2 emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

60.1.1 Aircraft eciency

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

60.1.2 Route optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

60.1.3 Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
60.1.4 Improved operating procedures

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

60.1.5 Emission Trading Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

60.2 Methods of mitigating aviations non-CO 2 emissions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

60.2.1 Nitrogen oxides (NOX ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

60.2.2 Particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
60.2.3 Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

60.2.4 Contrails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

60.3 Methods of mitigating aviation's noise emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
60.3.1 Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
60.3.2 Improved operating procedures

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

60.4 Carbon oset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

60.4.1 British Airways' scheme

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

60.4.2 Continental Airlines' scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

60.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
60.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
60.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

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61 Mobile source air pollution

205

61.1 Broad classication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

61.1.1 Road sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
61.1.2 Non-road sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
61.2 Major regulated mobile source pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
61.3 Laws and regulatory standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
61.4 U.S. enforcement agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
61.4.1 Federal agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
61.4.2 State-level agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
61.5 Enforcement mechanisms and policy instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
61.5.1 Labeling policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
61.5.2 Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
61.5.3 Tax credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
61.5.4 Voluntary programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
61.5.5 Subsidies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
61.5.6 Command and control: performance standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
61.5.7 Marketable allowances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
61.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
61.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
62 Multi-eect Protocol

212

62.1 Purpose and history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

62.2 Protocol contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
62.2.1 Protocol elements

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

62.2.2 Implementation and results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

62.3 Revisions of the Gothenburg Protocol
62.4 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

62.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

63 National Air Pollution Symposium

215

63.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

64 National Ambient Air Quality Objectives

216

64.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

65 New car smell

217

65.1 Chemical composition

65.2 Health hazards

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

65.3 Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

65.4 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

66 NIOSH air ltration rating

219

66.1 Plain surgical mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

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66.2 NIOSH N95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
66.3 NIOSH N99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
66.4 Gas mask . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
66.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

67 Nitrogen Oxide Protocol

220

67.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

67.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
67.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
68 Norwegian Institute for Air Research

221

68.1 Fields of work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

68.2 Companies and Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
68.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
68.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
68.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
69 Nowcast (Air Quality Index)

223

69.1 Calculation of the PM NowCast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

69.2 Calculation of the Ozone NowCast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
69.3 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
69.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
70 Presidential Climate Action Plan

226

70.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

70.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
70.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
71 Organic molecular tracers

227

71.1 Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

71.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
71.3 Analytic use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
71.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
71.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
72 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions

229

72.1 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

73 Ozone Action Day

230

73.1 Surface ozone vs. the ozone layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

73.2 Sources of ground ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
73.3 Notication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
73.4 What can be done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
73.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

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73.6 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

74 Particulates

232

74.1 Sources of atmospheric particulate matter

74.2 Composition

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

74.3 Size distribution of particulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

74.4 Deposition processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
74.5 Control technologies

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

74.6 Climate eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

74.6.1 Aerosol radiative eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
74.6.2 Roles of dierent aerosol species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
74.6.3 Instances of aerosol aecting climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
74.7 Health eects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
74.7.1 Size, shape and solubility matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
74.7.2 Health problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
74.8 Eects on vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
74.9 Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
74.9.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.9.2 Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.9.3 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.9.4 European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.9.5 Hong Kong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.9.6 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.9.7 Russia

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

74.9.8 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

74.9.9 Taiwan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.9.10 United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
74.10Aected areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
74.10.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
74.10.2 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
74.10.3 Ulaanbaatar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
74.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
74.12References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

74.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

74.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
75 Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles
75.1 Results

245

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

75.2 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

75.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
75.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

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76 Passive smoking
76.1 Eects

247

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

76.1.1 Risk to children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248

76.2 Evidence

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

76.2.1 Risk level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

76.2.2 Biomarkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
76.3 Pathophysiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
76.4 Opinion of public health authorities
76.5 Public opinion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

76.6 Controversy over harm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

76.6.1 Industry-funded studies and critiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
76.6.2 Tobacco industry response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
76.6.3 US racketeering lawsuit against tobacco companies
76.7 Smoke-free laws
76.7.1 Eects

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

76.7.2 Public opinion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

76.7.3 Alternative forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

76.8 In animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
76.8.1 Observational studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
76.9 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
76.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
76.11References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

76.12External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

77 Photoinitiator

267

77.1 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

77.2 Atmospheric photoinitiators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
77.2.1 Peroxides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
77.2.2 Nitrogen dioxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
77.2.3 Molecular oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
77.3 Commercial photoinitiators and uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
77.3.1 AIBN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
77.3.2 Benzoyl peroxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
77.3.3 Camphorquinone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
77.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
77.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
77.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
78 Pollen count
78.1 References

270
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

78.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

CONTENTS

xix

79 Pollutant Standards Index

271

79.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

79.2 Denition of the PSI used in Singapore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
79.2.1 Record values of the PSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
79.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
79.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
80 POP Air Pollution Protocol

273

80.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

80.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
80.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
81 Portable optical air sensor

274

81.1 Air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

81.2 Sol-gel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
81.3 Fluorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
81.4 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
81.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
82 Ramboll Environ
82.1 History

276

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

82.2 Operations and services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

82.2.1 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
82.2.2 Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
82.2.3 Human health

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

82.3 Notable projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

82.4 Awards and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
82.5 Published articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
82.6 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

82.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

83 RIMPUFF

280

83.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

83.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
83.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
83.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
83.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
84 Roadway air dispersion modeling

281

84.1 How the model works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

84.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
84.3 The theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
84.4 Example applications of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

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CONTENTS
84.5 More recent model renements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
84.6 Recent applications in legal cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
84.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
84.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
84.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

85 Rolling coal

285

85.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

85.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
86 Sick building syndrome

287

86.1 Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

86.2 Psychological factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
86.3 Workplace

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

86.4 Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

86.5 Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
86.6 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
86.7 Sick Building Syndrome versus Building-Related Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
86.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
86.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
86.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
87 TA Luft

292

87.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

87.2 AUSTAL2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
87.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
87.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
87.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
87.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
88 Toxic hotspot

294

88.1 Soil contamination hotspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294

88.2 Air pollution hotspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
88.2.1 West Oakland, California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
88.2.2 Richmond, California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
88.2.3 Wilmington, Los Angeles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
88.3 Groundwater contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
88.4 Radioactive contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
88.4.1 Pacic Proving Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
88.4.2 Nevada Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
88.4.3 Semipalatinsk Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
88.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
88.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298

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xxi

89 Twomey eect

300

89.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

89.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
89.3 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
90 Urban dust dome

301

90.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

91 Useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion modeling

302

91.1 Converting air pollutant concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

91.2 Correcting concentrations for altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
91.3 Standard conditions for gas volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
91.4 Windspeed conversion factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
91.5 Correcting for reference conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
91.5.1 Correcting to a dry basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
91.5.2 Correcting to a reference oxygen content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
91.5.3 Correcting to a reference carbon dioxide content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
91.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
91.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
91.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
92 Daniel A. Vallero

305

92.1 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

92.2 Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
92.2.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
92.3 References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

92.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307

93 Vapor intrusion

308

93.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

93.2 Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
93.3 Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
93.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
93.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
94 Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizer

309

94.1 Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

94.2 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
94.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
95 Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol

311

95.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

95.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
95.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

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96 Wildland re emission

312

96.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

97 Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977

313

97.1 Ratications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313

97.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
97.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
97.3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
97.3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
97.3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330

Chapter 1

Air pollution
Bad air qualityand Air qualityredirect here. For 1.1 Pollutants
the obsolete medical theory, see Bad air. For the measure
of how polluted the air is, see Air quality index. For the
properties of air, see Qualities of air.
Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates,

Carbon
dioxide in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-warming
emissions* [3]* [4] are not absorbed.
(NASA simulation; 9 November 2015)

Air pollution from a fossil-fuel power station

Nitrogen
dioxide 2014 - global air quality levels
(released 14 December 2015).* [5]
biological molecules, or other harmful materials into
Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, death to humans,
damage to other living organisms such as animals and
food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources.

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have

adverse eects on humans and the ecosystem. The substance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A
pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollutants are classied as primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash
from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon
monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur
dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are
not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when
primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone
is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some
pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are

The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that

is essential to support life on planet Earth.
Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as two
of the world's worst toxic pollution problems in the 2008
Blacksmith Institute World's Worst Polluted Places report.* [1] According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollution in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people
worldwide.* [2]
1

CHAPTER 1. AIR POLLUTION

both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.

nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by
incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas,
coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source
of carbon monoxide.

Before ue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from

this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of
sulfur dioxide.

CH4

CO2

CFC

SOX

PM

O3

NOX

Schematic drawing, causes and eects of air pollution: (1) greenhouse eect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV radiation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concentration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.

Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include:

Sulfur oxides (SO) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a
chemical compound with the formula SO2 . SO2
is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial
processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur
compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur
dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2 , usually in the
presence of a catalyst such as NO2 , forms H2 SO4 ,
and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for
concern over the environmental impact of the use of
these fuels as power sources.
Nitrogen oxides (NO) - Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion, and are also produced during
thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be
seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2 . It is one of several

Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a

well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are categorized as either methane (CH4 ) or non-methane
(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely ecient
greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced
global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also
signicant greenhouse gases because of their role in
creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane
in the atmosphere. This eect varies depending on
local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene,
toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and
may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3butadiene is another dangerous compound often associated with industrial use.
Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate
matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or ne
particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur
naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms,
forest and grassland res, living vegetation, and sea
spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate signicant amounts
of aerosols. Averaged worldwide, anthropogenic
aerosols those made by human activities currently account for approximately 10 percent of our
atmosphere. Increased levels of ne particles in the
air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease,* [6] altered lung function and lung cancer.
Persistent free radicals connected to airborne
ne particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.* [7]* [8]
Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially
their compounds.
Chlorouorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone
layer; emitted from products are currently banned
from use. These are gases which are released
from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays,
etc. CFC's on being released into the air rises to
stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other
gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows
harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface.
This can lead to skin cancer, disease to eye and can
even cause damage to plants.

1.1. POLLUTANTS
Ammonia (NH3 ) - emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula
NH3 . It is normally encountered as a gas with a
characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes
signicantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstus and
fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
is also a building block for the synthesis of many
pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is
both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, ammonia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to
form secondary particles.* [9]

3
through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes.
Because of this, they have been observed to persist in
the environment, to be capable of long-range transport,
bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify
in food chains, and to have potentially signicant impacts
on human health and the environment.

1.1.1 Sources

Odours such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes

Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explosions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
Secondary pollutants include:
This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human

Particulates created from gaseous primary pollu- ngerprint on global air quality.
tants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog
is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from
large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a
mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog
does not usually come from coal but from vehicular
and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form
secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.

Ground level ozone (O3 ) formed from NO and

VOCs. Ozone (O3 ) is a key constituent of the troposphere. It is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as
the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical re- Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.
actions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by
night. At abnormally high concentrations brought
about by human activities (largely the combustion
of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of
smog.
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from
NO and VOCs.
Minor air pollutants include:
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Controlled burning of a eld outside of Statesboro, Georgia in
Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean preparation for spring planting.
Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework DiThere are various locations, activities or factors which are
rective
responsible for releasing pollutants into the atmosphere.
A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can These sources can be classied into two major categories.
attach to particulates
Anthropogenic (man-made) sources:
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic com- These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types
pounds that are resistant to environmental degradation of fuel.

CHAPTER 1. AIR POLLUTION

Stationary sources include smoke stacks of power
plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste
incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of
fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and
poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the
major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass
includes wood, crop waste and dung.* [10]* [11]

and willow are some examples of vegetation that

can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production
from these species result in ozone levels up to eight
times higher than the low-impact tree species.* [13]
Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine,
and ash particulates

Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine vessels, and aircraft.

1.1.2

Emission factors

Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest

management. Controlled or prescribed burning is Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emisa technique sometimes used in forest management, sion Factors
farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abate- Air pollutant emission factors are reported representament. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grassland ecology and controlled re can be a tool for
foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germination of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing
the forest.
Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol
sprays and other solvents
Waste deposition in landlls, which generate
methane. Methane is highly ammable and may
form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also
an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an enclosed space. Asphyxia or suocation may result if
the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5%
by displacement.

Beijing air on a 2005-day after rain (left) and a smoggy day

(right)

tive values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollutant released to the ambient air with an activity associated
with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usually expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit
weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emit Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic
ting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted
gases, germ warfare and rocketry
per tonne of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estimation of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In
Natural sources:
most cases, these factors are simply averages of all available data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed
Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of to be representative of long-term averages.
land with little or no vegetation
There are 12 compounds in the list of Persistent organic
Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by pollutants. Dioxins and furans are two of them and intentionally created by combustion of organics, like open
animals, for example cattle
burning of plastics. These compounds are also endocrine
Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth's disruptors and can mutate the human genes.
crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally ocThe United States Environmental Protection Agency has
curring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from
published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors
the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health
for a multitude of industrial sources.* [14] The United
hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accuKingdom, Australia, Canada and many other counmulate in buildings, especially in conned areas such
tries have published similar compilations, as well as the
as the basement and it is the second most frequent
European Environment Agency.* [15]* [16]* [17]* [18]
cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildres
Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmentally signicant amounts of Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs react with primary anthropogenic pollutantsspecifically, NO, SO2 , and anthropogenic organic carbon compounds to produce a seasonal haze of
secondary pollutants.* [12] Black gum, poplar, oak

1.2 Air pollution exposure

Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pollutant and the exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution
exposure can be expressed for an individual, for certain groups (e.g. neighborhoods or children living in a
county), or for entire populations. For example, one may

1.4. HEALTH EFFECTS

want to calculate the exposure to a hazardous air pollutant for a geographic area, which includes the various
microenvironments and age groups. This can be calculated* [19] as an inhalation exposure. This would account
for daily exposure in various settings (e.g. dierent indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations). The
exposure needs to include dierent age and other demographic groups, especially infants, children, pregnant
women and other sensitive subpopulations. The exposure
to an air pollutant must integrate the concentrations of the
air pollutant with respect to the time spent in each setting
and the respective inhalation rates for each subgroup for
each specic time that the subgroup is in the setting and
engaged in particular activities (playing, cooking, reading, working, etc.). For example, a small child's inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult. A child engaged in vigorous exercise will have a higher respiration
rate than the same child in a sedentary activity. The daily
exposure, then, needs to reect the time spent in each
micro-environmental setting and the type of activities in
these settings. The air pollutant concentration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting is summed to indicate the exposure.* [19]

1.3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)

Main article: Indoor air quality
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollu-

Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.

tion where people often spend the majority of their

time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from
the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses.
Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit
formaldehyde (H2 CO) gas. Paint and solvents give o
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead
paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional
air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners,
incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood res
in stoves and replaces can add signicant amounts of
smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.* [20] Indoor pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides

5
and other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.
Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often
caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of charcoal indoors or in a conned space, such
as a tent.* [21] Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can
result even from poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps
are built into all domestic plumbing to keep sewer gas
and hydrogen sulde, out of interiors. Clothing emits
tetrachloroethylene, or other dry cleaning uids, for days
after dry cleaning.
Though its use has now been banned in many countries,
the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domestic environments in the past has left a potentially very
dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a
chronic inammatory medical condition aecting the tissue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy exposure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in
structures. Suerers have severe dyspnea (shortness of
breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several different types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not
always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be
taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant
diseases. According to the World Health Organisation
(WHO), these may dened as; asbestosis, lung cancer,
and Peritoneal Mesothelioma (generally a very rare form
of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always associated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors,
as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander,
people produce dust from minute skin akes and decomposed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furniture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal droppings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and
generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning systems can incubate Legionnaires' disease and mold, and
houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce
pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circulation allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more
than they would otherwise occur in nature.

1.4 Health eects

See also: Neuroplastic eects of pollution
Air pollution is a signicant risk factor for a number of
health conditions including respiratory infections, heart
disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer.* [2] The health
eects caused by air pollution may include diculty in
breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and worsening of
existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased
doctor or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and premature death. The human health eects of
poor air quality are far reaching, but principally aect the

CHAPTER 1. AIR POLLUTION

body's respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.

Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type
of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, and the individual's health status and genetics.* [19]
The most common sources of air pollution include particulates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide.
Children aged less than ve years that live in developing
countries are the most vulnerable population in terms of
total deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.* [22]

pulmonary and systemic inammation.* [35]

1.4.1

Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke,

particularly in developing countries where pollutant levels are highest.* [37] A 2007 study found that in women,
air pollution is not associated with hemorrhagic but with
ischemic stroke.* [38] Air pollution was also found to be
associated with increased incidence and mortality from
coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011.* [39] Associations are believed to be causal and eects may be
mediated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inammation
and atherosclerosis* [40] Other mechanisms such as autonomic nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.* [41] * [42]

Mortality

It is estimated that some 7 million premature deaths may

be attributed to air pollution.* [2] India has the highest
death rate due to air pollution.* [23] India also has more
deaths from asthma than any other nation according to the
World Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each
year.* [24] There is a correlation between pneumoniarelated deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles.* [25]
Air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by
almost nine months across the European Union.* [26]
Causes of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD,
lung cancer, and lung infections.* [2]

1.4.2 Cardiovascular disease

A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution
exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total
mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14%
per 10 microg/m3 increase).* [36]

The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in

diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 1.4.3 Lung disease
fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks,
6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes
asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital ad- diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.* [43]
missions each year in the United States.* [27]
Research has demonstrated increased risk of developing
The US EPA estimates allowing a ground-level ozone asthma* [44] and COPD* [45] from increased exposure to
concentration of 65 parts per billion, would avert 1,700 trac-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution
to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared has been associated with increased hospitalization and
with the current 75-ppb standard. The agency projects the mortality from asthma and COPD.* [46]* [47]
stricter standard would also prevent an additional 26,000
cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great
Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with
of missed work or school.* [28]* [29]
477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich,
A new economic study of the health impacts and assothree towns with low reported death rates from chronic
ciated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers
and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that
aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the outmore than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately lying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe
14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollu- respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dystion levels violate federal standards. The number of an- pnea), reduced lung function (FEV and peak ow rate),
1
nual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fa- and increased sputum production and purulence. The diftalities related to auto collisions in the same area, which ferences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to
average fewer than 2,000 per year.* [30]* [31]* [32]
59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so
Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of
combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. the observed dierences.* [48]
In several human experimental studies, using a well- It is believed that much like cystic brosis, by living in a
validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked more urban environment serious health hazards become
to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas
formation.* [33]* [34]
patients suer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung
The mechanisms linking air pollution to increased car- function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis
diovascular mortality are uncertain, but probably include and emphysema.* [49]

1.4. HEALTH EFFECTS

7
the association was higher for non-smokers than smokers.* [53] An additional Danish study, also in 2011, likewise noted evidence of possible associations between air
pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical
cancer and brain cancer.* [54]
In December 2015, medical scientists reported that
cancer is overwhelmingly a result of environmental factors, and not largely down to bad luck.* [50] Maintaining a
healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol
and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing
the disease, according to the researchers.* [50]

1.4.5 Children

Cancer mainly the result of environmental factors.* [50]

1.4.4

Cancer

A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air

pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007
found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to
PM2.5 (ne particulates) increases the overall risk of
non-accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 increase. Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an
increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15%
to 21% per 10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovascular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3
increase). The review further noted that living close to
busy trac appears to be associated with elevated risks
of these three outcomes --- increase in lung cancer deaths,
cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths.
The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that exposure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality
from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 increases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was insucient to provide solid conclusions.* [51] Another investigation showed that higher activity level increases deposition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and
recommended avoiding heavy activities like running in
outdoor space at polluted areas.* [52]

In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean Air

Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans were
living in non-attainment areasregions in which the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded federal standards.* [55] These dangerous pollutants are known as the
criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide,
and lead. Protective measures to ensure children's health
are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India where
buses now use compressed natural gas to help eliminate
the pea-soupsmog.* [56] A recent study in Europe
has found that exposure to ultrane particles can increase
blood pressure in children.* [57]

1.4.6 Cleanareas
Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution,
public health eects can be signicant and costly, since
a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A
2005 scientic study for the British Columbia Lung Association showed that a small improvement in air quality (1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentrations) would produce $29 million in annual savings in
the Metro Vancouver region in 2010.* [58] This nding is
based on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal
(illness) aects.

1.4.7 Central nervous system

Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also affects the central nervous system.* [59]

In a June 2014 study conducted by researchers at the

University of Rochester Medical Center, published in
the journal Environmental Health Perspectives, it was
discovered that early exposure to air pollution causes
the same damaging changes in the brain as autism and
schizophrenia. The study also shows that air pollution
also aected short-term memory, learning ability, and
In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an impulsivity. Lead researcher Professor Deborah Coryincreased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in ar- Slechta said that When we looked closely at the veneas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this study, tricles, we could see that the white matter that normally

8
surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that inammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented
that region of the brain from developing, and the ventricles simply expanded to ll the space. Our ndings add to
the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play
a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental
disorders.Air pollution has a more signicant negative
eect of males than on females.* [60]* [61]* [62]

CHAPTER 1. AIR POLLUTION

1.7 Alternatives to creating air pollution

There are now practical alternatives to the three principal causes of air pollution. Combustion of fossil fuels for
space heating can be replaced by using ground source heat
pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.* [70] Electric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be reIn 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of
placed by power generation from nuclear and renewables.
signicant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment
Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban
from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects
air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles.
who were not informed about changes in the air quality.
Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate Medical University and Syracuse University measured the cognitive performance of 24 participants in 1.8 Reduction eorts
three dierent controlled laboratory atmospheres that
simulated those found in conventionaland green
There are various air pollution control technologies and
buildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced venland-use planning strategies available to reduce air pollutilation. Performance was evaluated objectively using
tion.* [71]* [72] At its most basic level, land-use planning
the widely used Strategic Management Simulation softis likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure
ware simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment
planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning
test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained
is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is
situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Signifused eciently for the benet of the wider economy and
icant decits were observed in the performance scores
population, as well as to protect the environment.
achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keep- Because a large share of air pollution is caused by coming other factors constant. The highest impurity levels bustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reducreached are not uncommon in some classroom or oce tion of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically.
Most eective is the switch to clean power sources such
environments.* [63]* [64]
as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't
cause air pollution.* [73] Eorts to reduce pollution from
mobile sources includes primary regulation (many devel1.5 Agricultural eects
oping countries have permissive regulations), expanding
regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport
In India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment
carbon and ground level ozone had cut crop yields in the such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), inmost aected areas by almost half in 2010 when com- creased fuel eciency (such as through the use of hybrid
pared to 1980 levels.* [65]
vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion to
electric vehicles.
Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to
reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will release free
electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals,
The world's worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was which break up VOCs and NOx gases. One form is
the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.* [66] Leaked industrial superhydrophilic.* [74]
vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to
Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chem- In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon Armitage
ical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured of University of Sheeld prepared a 10 meter by 20
anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United King- meter-sized poster coated with microscopic, pollutiondom suered its worst air pollution event when the De- eating nanoparticles of titanium dioxide. Placed on a
cember 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In building, this giant poster can *absorb the toxic emission
six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates from around 20 cars each day. [75]
put the gure at nearer 12,000.* [67] An accidental leak of A very eective means to reduce air pollution is the
anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the transition to renewable energy. According to a study pubformer USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have lished in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the
caused at least 64 deaths.* [68] The worst single incident switch to 100% renewable energy in the United States
of air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per
Pennsylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used.
and over 7,000 were injured.* [69]
This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year

1.6 Historical disasters

1.9. REGULATIONS
due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of
the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.* [73]

1.8.1

Control devices

The following items are commonly used as pollution control devices in industry and transportation. They can either destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
Particulate control

9
Exhaust gas recirculation
Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
VOC abatement
Adsorption systems, using activated carbon,
such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
Flares
Thermal oxidizers
Catalytic converters
Biolters

Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)

Absorption (scrubbing)

Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic

precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner
is a particulate collection device that removes
particles from a owing gas (such as air), using
the force of an induced electrostatic charge.
Electrostatic precipitators are highly ecient
ltration devices that minimally impede the
ow of gases through the device, and can easily remove ne particulates such as dust and
smoke from the air stream.

Vapor recovery systems

Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust

loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust
lter, a lter-cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system (distinguished
from air cleaners which utilize disposable lters to remove the dust).
Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form
of pollution control technology. The term describes a variety of devices that use pollutants from a furnace ue gas or from other gas
streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas
stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by
forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some
other contact method, so as to remove the pollutants.

Cryogenic condensers
Acid Gas/SO2 control
Wet scrubbers
Dry scrubbers
Flue-gas desulfurization
Mercury control
Sorbent Injection Technology
Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
K-Fuel
Dioxin and furan control
Miscellaneous associated equipment
Source capturing systems
Continuous emissions monitoring systems
(CEMS)

1.9 Regulations

Scrubbers
Bae spray scrubber
Cyclonic spray scrubber
Ejector venturi scrubber
Mechanically aided scrubber
Spray tower
Wet scrubber
NOx control
Low NOx burners
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)

Smog in Cairo

Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)

Main article: Air quality law

NOx scrubbers

10

CHAPTER 1. AIR POLLUTION

In general, there are two types of air quality standards.

The rst class of standards (such as the U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Directive) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for specic pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regulations which are intended to result in attainment of these
target levels. The second class (such as the North American Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with various thresholds, which is used to communicate to the public the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or
may not distinguish between dierent pollutants.

The AQHI does not measure the eects of odour, pollen,

dust, heat or humidity.

1.9.2 Germany
TA Luft is the German air quality regulation.

1.10 Hotspots
Main article: Toxic Hotspots

1.9.1

Canada

In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are

measured with the Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI).
It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to
reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting
activity levels during increased levels of air pollution.
The Air Quality Health Index or AQHIis a federal program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and
Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program
would not be possible without the commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From
air quality monitoring to health risk communication and
community engagement, local partners are responsible
for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to
indicate the level of health risk associated with local air
quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is
abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI
provides a local air quality current value as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and
tomorrow and provides associated health advice.
As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution
can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the
index has been developed as a continuum: The higher
the number, the greater the health risk and need to take
precautions. The index describes the level of health risk
associated with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or
'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce
exposure.* [76]
The measurement is based on the observed relationship of
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2 ), ground-level Ozone (O3 ) and
particulates (PM2.5 ) with mortality, from an analysis of
several Canadian cities. Signicantly, all three of these
pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially among those with pre-existing health
problems.
When developing the AQHI, Health Canada's original
analysis of health eects included ve major air pollutants: particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and carbon monoxide
(CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health eects and were removed from
the AQHI formulation.

Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emissions expose individuals to increased negative health effects.* [78] They are particularly common in highly populated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of
stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile
sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions
from these sources can cause respiratory disease, childhood asthma, cancer, and other health problems. Fine
particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes
to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the
world each year, is a signicant problem. It is very small
and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated
areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel
pollution hot spot.* [79]
While air pollution hotspots aect a variety of populations, some groups are more likely to be located in
hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in exposure to pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous
land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located
where property values and income levels are low. Low
socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of
social vulnerability, including race, a lack of ability to inuence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to face health risks such
as cancer or asthma.* [80]
Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities
not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also
higher risk of adverse health outcomes.* [81] Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial
minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse
health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.* [81] Blacks
and Latinos generally face more pollution than whites and
Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than auent ones.* [80] Racial discrepancies
are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the US South
and metropolitan areas of the US West.* [82] Residents in
public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot
move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly aected by
nearby reneries and chemical plants.* [83]

1.13. GOVERNING URBAN AIR POLLUTION

1.11 Cities

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 20022004

11
the risk of cancer and other serious health eects from
breathing (inhaling) air toxics in order to inform both national and more localized eorts to identify and prioritize
air toxics, emission source types and locations which are
of greatest potential concern in terms of contributing to
population risk. This in turn helps air pollution experts
focus limited analytical resources on areas and or populations where the potential for health risks are highest.
Assessments include estimates of cancer and non-cancer
health eects based on chronic exposure from outdoor
sources, including assessments of non-cancer health effects for Diesel Particulate Matter. Assessments provide
a snapshot of the outdoor air quality and the risks to human health that would result if air toxic emissions levels
remained unchanged.* [87]

1.13 Governing urban air pollution

Deaths from air pollution in 2004

Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely populated metropolitan areas, especially in developing countries where environmental regulations are relatively lax
or nonexistent.* [84] However, even populated areas in
developed countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution,
with Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.* [85]
Between 2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in
Beijing near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers
is falling while lung cancer rates are rising.* [86]

1.12 National-scale air toxics assessments 1995-2005

The national-scale air toxics assessment(NATA) is an
evaluation of air toxics by the U.S. EPA. EPA has
furnished four assessments that characterize nationwide
chronic cancer risk estimates and noncancer hazards from
inhaling air toxics. The lates was from 2005, and made
publicly available in early 2011.

In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air

quality assessment and management provides a common
strategy against which member states canset objectives
for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce
harmful eects on human health and the environment . . .
and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory.* [89]
On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat
Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled that
under this directive* [89] citizens have the right to require
national authorities to implement a short term action plan
that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality
limit values.* [90]
This important case law appears to conrm the role of
the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states
as regards air pollution control. It places a supranational
legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens from
dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore superseding national interests with those of the citizen.
In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the
UK with legal action against the successive breaching of
PM10 limit values.* [91] The UK government has identied that if nes are imposed, they could cost the nation
upwards of 300 million per year.* [92]
In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up Area remains the only UK region in breach of the EC's limit values, and has been given 3 months to implement an emergency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality
Directive.* [93] The City of London has dangerous levels
of PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths
per year within the city.* [94] As well as the threat of
EU nes, in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for
scrapping the western congestion charge zone, which is
claimed to have led to an increase in air pollution levels.* [95]

EPA developed the NATA as a state-of-the-science

screening tool for State/Local/Tribal Agencies to prioritize pollutants, emission sources and locations of interest
for further study, in order to gain a better understanding
of the risks. NATA assessments do not incorporate rened information about emission sources, but rather, use
general information about sources to develop estimates In response to these charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of
of risks which are more likely to overestimate impacts London, has criticised the current need for European
than underestimate them. NATA provides estimates of cities to communicate with Europe through their nation

12

CHAPTER 1. AIR POLLUTION

state's central government, arguing that in futureA great

city like Londonshould be permitted to bypass its government and deal directly with the European Commission
regarding its air quality action plan.* [93]
This can be interpreted as recognition that cities can
transcend the traditional national government organisational hierarchy and develop solutions to air pollution
using global governance networks, for example through
transnational relations. Transnational relations include
but are not exclusive to national governments and intergovernmental organisations,* [96] allowing sub-national
actors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution control as independent actors.
Particularly promising at present are global city partnerships.* [97] These can be built into networks, for example the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group, of which
London is a member. The C40 is a public 'non-state'
network of the world's leading cities that aims to curb
their greenhouse emissions.* [97] The C40 has been identied as 'governance from the middle' and is an alternative to intergovernmental policy.* [98] It has the potential
to improve urban air quality as participating cities exchange information, learn from best practices and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions independently
from national government decisions.* [97] A criticism
of the C40 network is that its exclusive nature limits inuence to participating cities and risks drawing resources
away from less powerful city and regional actors.

1.14 Atmospheric dispersion

Main article: Atmospheric dispersion modeling
The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is
through the use of a variety of mathematical models for
predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower atmosphere. The principal methodologies are:
Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources
Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway
air dispersion modeling
Area source dispersion, used for forest res or
duststorms

Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion

plume as used in many atmospheric dispersion models.* [99]

has been extensively validated and calibrated with experimental data for all sorts of atmospheric conditions.
The roadway air dispersion model was developed starting in the late 1950s and early 1960s in response to requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act and
the U.S. Department of Transportation (then known as
the Federal Highway Administration) to understand impacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, especially in urban areas. Several research groups were active in this model development, among which were: the
Environmental Research and Technology (ERT) group
in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in
Sunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources
Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of
the ESL group received a boost with a contract award
from the United States Environmental Protection Agency
to validate a line source model using sulfur hexauoride
as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating
the line source model developed by ESL Inc. Some of
the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involving highway air pollution; the Arlington, Virginia portion
of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening
project through East Brunswick, New Jersey.

Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pollutants that form smog

Area source models were developed in 1971 through
1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a
The point source problem is the best understood, since it smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that
involves simpler mathematics and has been studied for their use and need was not as widespread as the line
a long period of time, dating back to about the year source model, which enjoyed hundreds of dierent ap1900. It uses a Gaussian dispersion model for contin- plications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical
uous buoyant pollution plumes to predict the air pollu- models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 70s,
tion isopleths, with consideration given to wind veloc- but their use was more specialized and for regional needs,
ity, stack height, emission rate and stability class (a mea- such as understanding smog formation in Los Angeles,
sure of atmospheric turbulence).* [99]* [100] This model California.

1.16. REFERENCES

13

1.15 See also

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Elsevier Academic Press.

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Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke,
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1.18 External links

Global real-time air quality index map

1.17 Further reading

Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History
of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times
(Methuen, 1987)

International Conference on Urban Air Quality.

UNEP Urban Issues
European Commission > Environment > Policies >
Air >Air Quality

1.18. EXTERNAL LINKS

Database: outdoor air pollution in cities from the
World Health Organisation
Interactive map of US facilities emitting air pollution
World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality
and health
American Lung Association of New England on air
quality.
Impact assessment of the mortality eects of longerterm exposure to air pollution: exploring causespecic mortality and susceptibility by BG Miller.
Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report
TM/03/01
Comparing estimated risks for air pollution with
risks for other health eects by BG Miller and JF
Hurley. Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report TM/06/01
The Mortality Eects of Long-Term Exposure to
Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom,
UK Committee on the Medical Eects of Air Pollution, 2010.

17

Chapter 2

Accidental release source terms

Accidental release source terms are the mathematical
equations that quantify the ow rate at which accidental
releases of air pollutants into the ambient environment
can occur at industrial facilities such as petroleum reneries, petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants,
oil and gas transportation pipelines, chemical plants, and
many other industrial activities. Governmental regulations in many countries require that the probability of
such accidental releases be analyzed and their quantitative impact upon the environment and human health be
determined so that mitigating steps can be planned and
implemented.

Q = CA

(
kP

)(k+1)/(k1)
2
k+1

or this equivalent form:

(
)(
)(k+1)/(k1)
kM
2
Q = CAP
ZRT
k+1

For the above equations, it is important to note that although the gas velocity reaches a maximum and becomes choked, the mass ow rate is not choked. The
mass ow rate can still be increased if the source pressure
There are a number of mathematical calculation meth- is increased.
ods for determining the ow rate at which gaseous and Whenever the ratio of the absolute source pressure to
liquid pollutants might be released from various types of the absolute downstream ambient pressure is less than
accidents. Such calculational methods are referred to as [ ( k + 1 ) 2 ]* k ( k - 1 ), then the gas velocity is
source terms, and this article on accidental release source non-choked (i.e., sub-sonic) and the equation for mass
terms explains some of the calculation methods used for ow rate is:
determining the mass ow rate at which gaseous polluv
tants may be accidentally released.
u
(
)[ (
)2/k
(
)(k+1)/k ]
u
PA
PA
k
Q = CAt2P

k1

2.1 Accidental release of pressurized gas

or this equivalent form:

v
u(
)(
)[ (
u
2M
k
t
Q = CAP
ZRT
k1

)2/k

)(k+1)/k ]

When gas stored under pressure in a closed vessel is discharged to the atmosphere through a hole or other opening, the gas velocity through that opening may be choked The above equations calculate the initial instantaneous
(i.e., it has attained a maximum) or it may be non-choked. mass ow rate for the pressure and temperature existing in the source vessel when a release rst occurs. The
Choked velocity, also referred to as sonic velocity, occurs initial instantaneous ow rate from a leak in a pressurwhen the ratio of the absolute source pressure to the ab- ized gas system or vessel is much higher than the aversolute downstream pressure is equal to or greater than [(k age ow rate during the overall release period because
+ 1) 2 ]* k(k - 1 ), where k is the specic heat ra- the pressure and ow rate decrease with time as the systio of the discharged gas (sometimes called the isentropic tem or vessel empties. Calculating the ow rate versus
expansion factor and sometimes denoted as ).
time since the initiation of the leak is much more comFor many gases, k ranges from about 1.09 to about 1.41, plicated, but more accurate. Two equivalent methods for
and therefore [(k + 1) 2 ]* k(k - 1 ) ranges from 1.7 to performing such calculations are presented and compared
about 1.9, which means that choked velocity usually oc- at www.air-dispersion.com/feature2.html.
curs when the absolute source vessel pressure is at least The technical literature can be very confusing because
1.7 to 1.9 times as high as the absolute downstream am- many authors fail to explain whether they are using the
bient atmospheric pressure.
universal gas law constant R which applies to any ideal gas
PA
P

PA
P

When the gas velocity is choked, the equation for the or whether they are using the gas law constant Rs which
only applies to a specic individual gas. The relationship
mass ow rate in SI metric units is:* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]
18

2.2. EVAPORATION OF NON-BOILING LIQUID POOL

19

2.2.1 The U.S. Air Force method

between the two constants is Rs = R/M.

Notes:

The above equations are for a real gas.

For an ideal gas, Z = 1 and is the ideal gas density.

The following equations are for predicting the rate at

which liquid evaporates from the surface of a pool of
liquid which is at or near the ambient temperature.
The equations were derived from eld tests performed
by the U.S. Air Force with pools of liquid hydrazine. * [2]

1 kilomole (kmol) = 1000 moles = 1000 gram-moles E = (4.161 105 ) u0.75 TF M (PS /PH )
= kilogram-mole.
If T P = 0 C or less, then T F = 1.0
If T P > 0 C, then T F = 1.0 + 0.0043 T P 2

2.1.1

Ramskill's equation for non-choked

mass ow
PH = 760e65.3319(7245.2/TA )(8.22

P.K. Ramskill's equation * [5]* [6] for the non-choked

2.2.2
ow of an ideal gas is shown below as equation (1):
v
u
u
(1) Q = C A A t

The U.S. EPA method

)(k1)/k) ] The following equations are for predicting the rate at

which liquid evaporates from the surface of a pool of

1
liquid which is at or near the ambient temperature.
The equations were developed by the United States
The gas density, A , in Ramskill's equation is the ideal Environmental Protection Agency using units which
gas density at the downstream conditions of temperature were a mixture of metric usage and United States
*
and pressure and it is dened in equation (2) using the usage. [3] The non-metric units have been converted to
metric units for this presentation.
ideal gas law:
(2) A =

ln Ta )+(0.0061557 TA )

2P

k
k1

PA
P

M PA
R TA

u
E = 0.1288AP M
NB The constant used here
T
is 0.284 from the mixed unit formula/2.205 lb/kg. The
82.05 become 1.0 = (ft/m)^2 x mmHg/kPa.
0.667

0.78

Since the downstream temperature TA is not known, the

isentropic expansion equation below * [7] is used to de- The U.S. EPA also dened the pool depth as 0.01 m
termine TA in terms of the known upstream temperature (i.e., 1 cm) so that the surface area of the pool liquid
could be calculated as:
T:
( )(k1)/k
(3) TTA = PPA
A = (pool volume, in m)/(0.01)
Combining equations (2) and (3) results in equation
(4) which denes A in terms of the known upstream
Notes:
temperature T:
(4) A =

M P (k1)/k
1/k
R T PA

Using equation (4) with Ramskill's equation (1) to determine non-choked mass ow rates for ideal gases gives
identical results to the results obtained using the nonchoked ow equation presented in the previous section
above.

1 kPa = 0.0102 kgf/cm = 0.01 bar

mol = mole
atm = atmosphere

2.2.3 Stiver and Mackay's method

The following equations are for predicting the rate at

which liquid evaporates from the surface of a pool of
liquid which is at or near the ambient temperature. The
equations were developed by Warren Stiver and Dennis
Engineering Department at the
Three dierent methods of calculating the rate of evap- Mackay of the Chemical
*
[8]
University
of
Toronto.
oration from a non-boiling liquid pool are presented in
this section. The results obtained by the three methods
M
E = kP
are somewhat dierent.
RTA

2.2 Evaporation of non-boiling liquid pool

20

CHAPTER 2. ACCIDENTAL RELEASE SOURCE TERMS

2.3 Evaporation of boiling cold liquid pool

The following equation is for predicting the rate at which
liquid evaporates from the surface of a pool of cold liquid
(i.e., at a liquid temperature of about 0 C or less). * [2]
E
=
(0.0001
0.0288 B) e(0.0077 B)0.1376

M )(7.7026

2.4 Adiabatic ash of liqueed gas

release
Liqueed gases such as ammonia or chlorine are often
stored in cylinders or vessels at ambient temperatures and
pressures well above atmospheric pressure. When such
a liqueed gas is released into the ambient atmosphere,
the resultant reduction of pressure causes some of the
liqueed gas to vaporize immediately. This is known as
adiabatic ashing and the following equation, derived
from a simple heat balance, is used to predict how much
of the liqueed gas is vaporized.
X = 100

HsL HaL
HaV HaL

If the enthalpy data required for the above equation is

unavailable, then the following equation may be used.
X = 100 cp (Ts Tb )/H

2.5 See also

Choked ow
Orice plate
Flash evaporation

2.6 References
[1] Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Sixth Edition,
McGraw-Hill Co., 1984.
[2] Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis Procedures, Appendix B, Federal Emergency Management Agency, U.S.
Dept. of Transportation, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1989. Also provides the references below:
Clewell, H.J., A Simple Method For Estimating the Source
Strength Of Spills Of Toxic Liquids, Energy Systems Laboratory, ESL-TR-83-03, 1983.
Ille, G. and Springer, C., The Evaporation And Dispersion Of Hydrazine Propellants From Ground Spill, Environmental Engineering Development Oce, CEEDO
712-78-30, 1978.

Kahler, J.P., Curry, R.C. and Kandler, R.A.,Calculating

Toxic Corridors Air Force Weather Service, AWS TR80/003, 1980.
Handbook of Chemical Hazard Analysis, Appendix B
Scroll down to page 391 of 520 PDF pages.
[3] Risk Management Program Guidance For Osite Consequence Analysis U.S. EPA publication EPA-550-B99-009, April 1999. (See derivations of equations D-1
and D-7 in Appendix D)
[4]Methods For The Calculation Of Physical Eects Due
To Releases Of Hazardous Substances (Liquids and
Gases)", PGS2 CPR 14E, Chapter 2, The Netherlands
Organization Of Applied Scientic Research, The Hague,
2005. PGS2 CPR 14E
[5] CACHE Newsletter No.48, Spring 1999 Gierer, C. and
Hyatt, N.,Using Source Term Analysis Software for Calculating Fluid Flow Release Rates Dyadem International
Ltd.
[6] Ramskill, P.K. (1986), Discharge Rate Calculation Methods for Use In Plant Safety Assessments, Safety and Reliability Directory, United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority
[7] Isentropic Compression or Expansion
[8] Stiver, W. and Mackay, D., A Spill Hazard Ranking System For Chemicals, Environment Canada First Technical
Spills Seminar, Toronto, Canada, 1993.

2.7 External links

Ramskill's equations are presented and cited in this
pdf le (use search function to nd Ramskill).
More release source terms are available in the feature articles at www.air-dispersion.com
Choked ow of gases
Development of source emission models

Chapter 3

Aerotoxic Association
The Aerotoxic Association was founded on 18 June
2007, at the British Houses of Parliament by former BAe
146 Training Captain John Hoyte,* [1] to raise public
awareness about the ill health allegedly caused after exposure to airliner cabin air that he claimed been contaminated to toxic levels, by engine oil leaking into the bleed
air system, which pressurizes all jet aircraft, with the exception of the Boeing 787.
In addition to providing help and support to aircrew and
passengers, the Aerotoxic Association promotes known
technical solutions, such as toxic air detectors, and campaigns for changes in regulations to improve the quality
of cabin air on airliners.

evidence was independently reviewed by the Aerospace

Medical Association, the US National Academy of Sciences and the Australian CASA Expert Panel. All concluded there is insucient consistency to establish a medical syndrome and theaerotoxic syndromeis not recognised in aviation medicine.* [6]

3.2 References
[1] http://www.edp24.co.uk/news/health/ex_pilot_from_
norwich_claims_aircraft_fumes_ended_his_career_1_
3615901
[2] http://aerotoxic.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/icoh_
2000_paper5-1.pdf

The phrase Aerotoxic Syndrome was rst coined by

Chris Winder and Jean-Christophe Balouet in 2000, to
describe the ill health allegedly caused by exposure to air
which they claimed had been contaminated by jet engine
oil.* [2] As of 2013 this syndrome is not recognized in
medicine.* [3]* [4]

[3] Hale MA, Al-Sear JA (September 2009). Preliminary

report on aerotoxic syndrome (AS) and the need for diagnostic neurophysiological tests. Am J Electroneurodiagnostic Technol 49 (3): 26079. PMID 19891417.
[4] Bagshaw, Michael (July 2013). Cabin Air Quality: A
review of current aviation medical understanding(PDF).
Aerospace Medical Association. Retrieved 2014-09-28.

3.1 Criticism

[5] Bagshaw Report

In contrast to the claims of the Aerotoxic Association

Studies such as the European CabinAir project have
shown that normally the levels of chemical and biological contaminants in aircraft are less than in many work
environments such as oce buildings.
That report examined all exposures dating back to 1943
which showed that all documented exposures were to high
concentrations, greatly in excess of the amount present in
jet engine oil. He also noted that studies in Canada and
the USA were unable to detect TCP in the cabin during
ight. Prof Bagshaw notes that the symptoms arelargely
the same as those reported by participants in all phase I
drug trials, and are similar to the symptoms experienced
by patients suering from chronic fatigue syndrome, gulf
war syndrome, Lyme disease, chronic stress and chronic
hyperventilation.* [5]

[6] Bagshaw, Prof Michael, King

s College London and Craneld University, UK (July 2013). Cabin Air Quality: A
review of current aviation medical understanding(PDF).
Retrieved 2014-09-28.

3.3 External links

A syndrome is a symptom complex, consistent and common to a given condition. Suerers of the aerotoxic
syndromedescribe a wide range of inconsistent symptoms and signs with much individual variability. The
21

Aerotoxic Association website

Chapter 4

Aerotoxic syndrome
Aerotoxic syndrome is a phrase coined by Chris Winder
and Jean-Christophe Balouet in 2000, to describe their
claims of short- and long-term ill-health eects caused
by breathing airliner cabin air which was alleged to have
been contaminated to toxic levels (exceeding known,
parts per million, safe levels) with atomized engine oils
or other chemicals.* [1] Repeated investigations of such
claims have failed to document cabin air has ever contained contaminants which exceeded known safe levels.
An assessment by the UK's House of Lords Science and
Technology Committee found that claims of health effects were unsubstantiated.* [2] An update in 2008 found
no signicant new evidence.* [3] As of 2013 this syndrome is not recognized in medicine.* [4]* [5]

4.1 Potential sources of contamination

Modern jetliners have an environmental control system
(ECS) that manages the ow of cabin air. Outside air enters the engines and is compressed in the forward section,
prior to the combustion section, ensuring no combustion Cabin Pressure and Bleed Air Control Panels on a Boeing 737products can enter the cabin. A portion of that com- 800
pressed bleed air is used to pressurize the cabin. The ECS
then recirculates some of that cabin air through HEPA l Engine or auxiliary power unit (APU) oil leaks
ters, while the rest is directed to outow valves, ensuring
there is a constant supply of fresh, clean air coming into
Engine or APU bay leaks
the cabin pressurization system at all times.* [6]
Underoor hydraulic leaks.
In rare instances, it is possible for contaminants to enter
the cabin through that air-supply system. Substances used
Ingestion of deicing uid into APU inlet.
in the maintenance and treatment of aircraft, including
aviation engine oil, hydraulic uid, cleaning compounds
Periodic maintenance task that is required to clean
and de-icing uids, can contaminate the ECS. While
the forward galley oven.
ground and ight crews, as well as passengers them Inappropriate or excessive use of dry ice by caterers.
selves can be sources of contaminants such as pesticides,
"...bioeuents, viruses, bacteria, allergens, and fungal
Toilet uid spillage, leakage and also unapproved
spores,* [2]* [6] they have not been implicated as conmixing of dierent disinfectant uids within the toi*
taminants related to the alleged aerotoxic syndrome. [6]
let.
According to an information leaet from the UK-based
Leakage of the rain repellent system, or rain repelCommittee on Toxicology (COT) possible sources of
lent contamination within the cabin or ightdeck.
poor-quality cabin air include:* [7]
22

4.3. RESEARCH
Spillage within baggage bays.
Items stowed in overhead baggage bins.

An Airbus A-320 being de-iced before take-o

23
GJEAK were aected by contamination of the air supply, as a result of oil leakage from the auxiliary power
unit (APU) cooling fan seal into the APU air stream, and
into the ECS system ducting. This contamination allowed
fumes to develop, a proportion of which entered the cabin
and cockpit air supply.* [10]* (p56)
The report noted that both captain and rst ocer had
visited the forward toilet before the onset of their symptoms.* [10]* (p3) Four years before the G-JEAK incident, another operator reported overuse of a disinfectant (formaldehyde) for the toilets and to clean the galley
oor and that inhalation of the fumes from that chemical, would produce similar symptoms reported by both
the captain and rst ocer of G-JEAK. The CAA notied UK Operators at that time (CAA ref. 10A/380/15,
dated 2 August 1996) of this potential hazard, as the misuse of this agent was apparently widespread.* [10]* (p31)

Jet engines require synthetic oils for lubrication. These

oils contain ingredients such as tricresyl phosphate (TCP 4.3 Research
or TOCP), an organophosphate, which can be toxic to humans in quantities much larger than are found in aviation In 1986, the United States Congress commissioned a reengine oil. * [2]
port by the National Research Council (NRC) into cabin
air
quality.* [6] The report recommended a ban on smokEngine bearing seals are installed to ensure that critiing
on aircraft in order to improve air quality, which was
cal engine bearings are continuously lubricated, and to
brought
into eect by the FAA soon after.* [11]
prevent engine oil from leaking into the compressed air
stream. If a bearing seal fails and begins to leak, depending on the location of the seal, some amount of engine oil
may be released into the compressed air stream. Oil leaks
may be detected by an odour akin to hot frying-pan fume,
or, in more serious cases, by smoke in the cabin.* [2] This
is known in the industry as a fume event.* [8]

Research commissioned by the UK government's

Department for Transport (DfT) and published in 2000
found no link to long term health. The UK Parliament's
Select Committee on Science and Technology concluded
in its response to the many complaints received from a
number of witnesses, particularly the Organophosphate
Information Network, BALPA, and the International
Association of Flight Attendants, expressing concerns
about the risk of tricresyl phosphate (TCP or TOCP)
4.2 History
poisoning for cabin occupants, particularly for crew who
might be subjected to repeated exposure in some aircraft
A year long Australian Senate Investigation in 2000 re- types, as a result of oil leaking into the cabin air supply.
ceived evidence of some successful applications for * [2]
workerscompensationfor illness which the applicants
attributed to fumes on the BAe 146. Approximately 20
This question - including the potential efcrew members describe oil fumes leaking into the aircraft
fects on aircrew from any long-term exposure
cabin. That investigative committee concludedthe issue
- has been looked at in much greater detail
of fume contaminants should also be considered a safety
by a Committee of the Australian Senate inissue with regard to the ability of cabin crew to properly
quiring into particular allegations of such consupervise the evacuation of an aircraft and the ability of
tamination in the BAe 146. Although its Repassengers to take part in an evacuation.* [9]
port[58] referred extensively to cabin air qualOn 5 November 2000, both the captain and rst ofcer of a Jersey European Airways BAe 146 became unwell while landing at Birmingham International Airport.* [10]* (p1) Both became nauseous, and
the captain experienced double vision and had diculty judging height, but managed to land the aircraft
safely.* [10]* (pp34) Both pilots were taken to a hospital
but no cause for their illness was found.* [10]* (p1) The
incident investigation report concluded that There is
circumstantial evidence to suggest that the ight crew on

ity and chemical contamination in the aircraft,

and recommended that the engine lubricating
oil used (a Mobil product) be subjected to a
further hazardous chemical review, it made no
specic points about TCP or TOCP that have
given us additional concerns[59]. The absence
of conrmed cases of TOCP poisoning from
cabin air and the very low levels of TOCP
that would be found in even the highly unlikely
worst case of contamination from oil leaking

24

CHAPTER 4. AEROTOXIC SYNDROME

into the air supply lead us to conclude that the
concerns about signicant risk to the health of
airline passengers and crew are not substantiated.* [2]

In 2009 the UK House of Commons Library service to

Members of Parliament summarized the research into a
relationship between the [engine oil chemical] leaks and
these health symptomsas inconclusive, citing problems with identifying the exact chemical that might be
entering the air supply and therefore identifying what impact it may have on healthand reports of problems
with fumes and/or health symptoms not being reported
correctly.* [12]
According to a 2008 report by Michael Bagshaw, Aviation Medicine Director at King's College London, there
have been no peer-reviewed recorded cases of neurological harm in humans following TCP exposure.* [13] He
pointed to an unpublished report from the Medical Toxicology Unit at Guy's Hospital in 2001 which looked at all
exposures dating back to 1943 that showed that all documented exposures were to high concentrations greatly in
excess of the amount present in jet oil.

to (sometimes severely disabling) illness from

environmental exposures that are perceived as
hazardous.* [14]

4.4 Media coverage

In a 2006 article in Aviation Today, Simon Bennett* [Notes 1] found that media coverage of contaminated cabin air has been sensationalized, with distortions
of facts. He cited headlines such asYou are being gassed
when you travel by air,and Death in the Airand a
sub-title of Every day, planes ying in and out of London City Airport are slowly killing us.Bennett noted that
the article with the latter subtitle stated in its body that the
Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) found that oil seal failures occur only once
in every 22,000 ights.* [15]

The Sunday Sun in an article entitled Flight Fumes

Warning, cited the industry pressure group AOPIS
in saying that passengers jetting o to their holidays
were unknowingly exposed to deadly chemicals, and that
brain damage could result if they breathed the toxic
*
In his 2013 paper,Cabin Air Quality: A review of cur- fumes. [15] The Sun also cited the UK Civil Aviation Aurent aviation medical understanding,Bagshaw noted fur- thority nding that leakage into aircraft cabins is a very
rare event occurring only if there is a fault with an airther:
craft.* [15]
A German study in 2013 of 332 crew members who had reported fume/odour during their
last ight, failed to detect metabolites of TCP
in urine samples. The authors concluded that
health complaints could not be linked to TCP
exposure in cabin air.
A syndrome is a symptom complex, consistent
and common to a given condition. Suerers of
theaerotoxic syndrome
describe a wide range
of inconsistent symptoms and signs with much
individual variability.

When the results of a clinical audit of thecognitive functioning of aircrew exposed to contaminated airwere submitted by Sarah Mackenzie Ross to the UK government's
Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer
Products and the Environment (COT),* [16] some media
used it to write articles that were sensational and misleading.* [15] Dagbladet.no, wrote that the Ross report
"... adds weight to the hypothesis that compounds resembling nerve gas in cabin and ight deck air have caused irreparable neurological damage to aircrew,,* [15] though
the report itself stated that:

"[T]he evidence available to us in this audit does not enable us to draw rm conclusions regarding a causal link
The evidence was independently reviewed by the with exposure to contaminated air.Additionally,
Aerospace Medical Association, the US National
Academy of Sciences and the Australian Civil Aviation
The report was aclinical audit of aircrew seen
Safety Authority (CASA) Expert Panel. All concluded
for clinical purposes,and was not a valid rethere is insucient consistency to establish a medical
search study.
syndrome, and the aerotoxic syndromeis not
recognised in aviation medicine.* [5]
The "'aircrew seen for clinical purposes' were
The 'nocebo eect' was among the conclusions published
in fact a self-selecting sample of pilots.Meanin a 2013 COT (Committee on Toxicity) position paper:
ing that they all came from a group that already
believed they had been damaged by contaminated air.
The acute illness which has occurred in relation to perceived episodes of contamination
might reect a toxic eect of one or more
chemicals, but it could also have occurred
through nocebo eects. There is strong scientic evidence that nocebo eects can lead

That self-selected sample groupwas not compared to a control group.Ross herself said
The conclusions that can be drawn from these
ndings have limitations.

4.8. FURTHER READING

She further stated: The author ... makes no
attempt to ascribe causality.
The report's conclusions were ambiguous:
There was no evidence of ... intellectual decline, language or perceptual decits .... Indeed pilots were intact on the vast majority of
tests. However, there was evidence of underfunctioning on tests associated with psychomotor speed, executive functioning and attention
....
And nally, "[T]he evidence available to us in
this audit does not enable us to draw rm conclusions regarding a causal link with exposure
to contaminated air.* [15]

4.5 See also

Sick building syndrome

4.6 Notes
[1] Bennett is director of the Scarman Centre's distancelearning MSc in Risk, Crisis and Disaster Management,
with a PhD in sociology from Brunel University, London.

4.7 References

25

[7] http://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/
cotpospapcabin.pdf
[8] Helen Muir (2007-11-21). Cabin Air Sampling Study
Functionality Test (PDF). Craneld University via
Department for Transport. Retrieved 2010-05-13.
[9] Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia (2000),
Air Safety and Cabin Air Quality in the BAe 146 Aircraft: Report by the Senate Rural and Regional Aairs and
Transport References Committee (PDF), Commonwealth
of Australia, ISBN 0-642-71093-7, retrieved 2012-05-09
[10] Air Accidents Investigation Branch Report on the incident to BAe 146, G-JEAK during the descent into Birmingham Airport on 5 November 2000 (PDF).
[11] United States National Research Council (1986). The Airliner Cabin Environment: Air Quality and safety. National
Academic Press. ISBN 0-309-03690-9.
[12] Louise Smith (25 June 2009). Cabin Air Quality
(PDF). Information to Members of Parliament. House of
Commons Library. pp. 114.
[13] Michael Bagshaw (2008-11-29). The Aerotoxic
Syndrome"" (PDF). European Society of Aerospace
Medicine.
[14] David Coggon (November 2013). CABIN AIR QUALITY THE COT INVOLVEMENT AND FINDINGS
(PDF) (Report). aerotoxic.org. Retrieved 2015-02-02.
[15] Simon A. Bennett (2006-08-26). Through a Glass
Darkly. Aviation Today. Retrieved 2010-04-30.
[16] Victoria Gill (2006-09-27). Defra Leaves Organophosphate Study Hanging in the Balance. Royal Society of
Chemistry.

[1] 2000 paper5-1 (PDF), aerotoxic.org, January 2014

[2] Select Committee on Science and Technology (15
November 2000). Chapter 4: Elements Of Healthy
Cabin Air. Science and Technology - Fifth Report (Report). House of Lords. Retrieved 5 July 2010.
[3] Lord Alec Broers Broers, Air Travel and Health: An Update, Report with Evidence, 1st Report of Session 2007-08,
The Stationery Oce, Great Britain: Parliament: House
of Lords: Science and Technology Committee, ISBN 010-401178-5
[4] Hale MA, Al-Sear JA (September 2009). Preliminary
report on aerotoxic syndrome (AS) and the need for diagnostic neurophysiological tests. Am J Electroneurodiagnostic Technol 49 (3): 26079. PMID 19891417.
[5] Bagshaw, Michael (July 2013). Cabin Air Quality: A
review of current aviation medical understanding(PDF).
Aerospace Medical Association. Retrieved 2014-09-28.
[6] National Research Council (U.S.), Committee on Air
Quality in Passenger Cabins of Commercial Aircraft (6
December 2001). The Airliner Cabin Environment and
the Health of Passengers and Crew. National Academies
Press. p. 5. ISBN 0-309-08289-7.

4.8 Further reading

Work is Related to Disease, What Establishes Evidence for a Causal Relation? Jos Verbeek, National
Institutes of Health, PMC3440459, June, 2012
Martin B. Hocking; Diana Hocking (2005). Air
Quality in Airplane Cabins and Similar Enclosed
Spaces. Springer Science & Business. ISBN 3-54025019-0.
Interests and the shaping of an occupational health
and safety controversy: the BAe 146 case Nickolas
Vakas, University of Wollongong, Australia, 2007
John Hoyte (2014). Aerotoxic Syndrome. Pilot Press
(London). ISBN 978-0-9929508-0-4.

4.9 External links

Aerotoxic Association - Ocial Webpage

26
German Federal Bureau of Aircraft Accident Investigation StudyFume EventsFour Safety Recommendations. Bundesstelle fr Flugunfalluntersuchung (BFU). May 7, 2014. Retrieved January 8,
2015.

CHAPTER 4. AEROTOXIC SYNDROME

Chapter 5

Air pollutant concentrations

Air pollutant concentrations, as measured or as calculated by air pollution dispersion modeling,* [1] must often be converted or corrected to be expressed as required
by the regulations issued by various governmental agencies. Regulations that dene and limit the concentration
of pollutants in the ambient air or in gaseous emissions to
the ambient air are issued by various national and state (or
provincial) environmental protection and occupational
health and safety agencies.
Such regulations involve a number of dierent expressions of concentration. Some express the concentrations dioxide 2014 - global air quality levels
as ppmv (parts per million by volume) and some express (released 14 December 2015).* [4]
the concentrations as mg/m3 (milligrams per cubic meter), while others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations to reference conditions of moisture content,
oxygen content or carbon dioxide content. This arti5.1 Converting air pollutant
cle presents methods for converting concentrations from
ppmv to mg/m3 (and vice versa) and for correcting the
centrations
concentrations to the required reference conditions.

Nitrogen

con-

All of the concentrations and concentration corrections in The conversion equations depend on the temperature at
this article apply only to air and other gases. They are not which the conversion is wanted (usually about 20 to 25
C). At an ambient sea level atmospheric pressure of 1
applicable for liquids.
atm (101.325 kPa or 1.01325 bar), the general equation
is:

ppmv = mg/m3

(0.08205 T )
M

and for the reverse conversion:

M
mg/m3 = ppmv
(0.08205
T)
Carbon
dioxide in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-warming Notes:
emissions* [2]* [3] are not absorbed.
(NASA simulation; 9 November 2015)
1 atm = absolute pressure of 101.325 kPa or
1.01325 bar
mol = gram mole and kmol = 1000 gram moles
Pollution regulations in the United States typically
reference their pollutant limits to an ambient temperature of 20 to 25 C as noted above. In most
other nations, the reference ambient temperature for
pollutant limits may be 0 C or other values.
27

28

CHAPTER 5. AIR POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS

Although ppmv and mg/m3 have been used for the

C h = 260 [ { 288 - (6.5)(2.8) } / 288]* 5.2558
examples in all of the following sections, concentra= 260 0.71 = 185 mg/m3
tions such as ppbv (i.e., parts per billion by volume),
volume percent, mole percent and many others may Note:
also be used for gaseous pollutants.
The above equation for the decrease of air pollu Particulate matter (PM) in the atmospheric air or in
tion concentrations with increasing altitude is appliany other gas cannot be expressed in terms of ppmv,
cable only for about the rst 10 km of altitude in
ppbv, volume percent or mole percent. PM is most
the troposphere (the lowest atmospheric layer) and
usually (but not always) expressed as mg/m3 of air
is estimated to have a maximum error of about 3
or other gas at a specied temperature and pressure.
percent. However, 10 km of altitude is sucient
for most purposes involving air pollutant concentra For gases, volume percent = mole percent
tions.
1 volume percent = 10,000 ppmv (i.e., parts per million by volume) with a million being dened as 106 .
Care must be taken with the concentrations ex- 5.3 Correcting concentrations for
pressed as ppbv to dierentiate between the British
reference conditions
billion which is 1012 and the USA billion which is
109 (also referred to as the long scale and short scale
Many environmental protection agencies have issued regbillion, respectively).
ulations that limit the concentration of pollutants in
gaseous emissions and dene the reference conditions applicable to those concentration limits. For example, such
5.2 Correcting concentrations for a regulation might limit the concentration of NOx to 55
ppmv in a dry combustion exhaust gas (at a specied refaltitude
erence temperature and pressure) corrected to 3 volume
Air pollutant concentrations expressed as mass per unit percent O2 in the dry gas. As another example, a regconcentration of total particulate
volume of atmospheric air (e.g., mg/m3 , g/m3 , etc.) at ulation might limit the
3
matter
to
200
mg/m
of
an emitted gas (at a specied refsea level will decrease with increasing altitude. The conerence
temperature
and
pressure)
corrected to a dry basis
centration decrease is directly proportional to the presand
further
corrected
to
12
volume
percent CO2 in the
sure decrease with increasing altitude. Some governdry
gas.
mental regulatory jurisdictions require industrial sources
of air pollution to comply with sea level standards corrected for altitude. In other words, industrial air pollution sources located at altitudes well above sea level must
comply with signicantly more stringent air quality standards than sources located at sea level (since it is more
dicult to comply with lower standards). For example,
New Mexico's Department of the Environment has a regulation with such a requirement.* [5]* [6]

Environmental agencies in the USA often use the terms

dscforscfdto denote astandardcubic foot of dry
gas. Likewise, they often use the termsdscmorscmd
to denote a standardcubic meter of gas. Since there
is no universally accepted set ofstandardtemperature
and pressure, such usage can be and is very confusing. It
is strongly recommended that the reference temperature
and pressure always be clearly specied when stating gas
The change of atmospheric pressure with altitude (<20 volumes or gas ow rates.
km) can be obtained from this equation:* [7]

5.3.1 Correcting to a dry basis

(

288 6.5h
288

)5.2558

If a gaseous emission sample is analyzed and found to

contain water vapor and a pollutant concentration of say
40 ppmv, then 40 ppmv should be designated as thewet
Given an air pollutant concentration at sea-level atmobasispollutant concentration. The following equation
spheric pressure, the concentration at higher altitudes can
can be used to correct the measured wet basisconbe obtained from this equation:
centration to a "dry basis" concentration:
Ph = P

(
Ch = C

288 6.5h
288

)5.2558
Cdry basis =

Cwet basis
1w

As an example, given an air pollutant concentration of As an example, a wet basis concentration of 40 ppmv in
260 mg/m3 at sea level, calculate the equivalent pollutant a gas having 10 volume percent water vapor would have
a:
concentration at an altitude of 2800 meters:

5.4. REFERENCES
C dry basis = 40 ( 1 - 0.10 ) = 44.4 ppmv.

29

[1] M.R. Beychok (2005). Fundamentals of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). Self-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2.

Correcting to a reference oxygen

content

[2] St. Fleur, Nicholas (10 November 2015). Atmospheric

Greenhouse Gas Levels Hit Record, Report Says. New
York Times. Retrieved 11 November 2015.

The following equation can be used to correct a measured

pollutant concentration in a dry emitted gas with a measured O2 content to an equivalent pollutant concentration
in a dry emitted gas with a specied reference amount of
O2 :* [8]

[3] Ritter, Karl (9 November 2015). UK: In 1st, global

temps average could be 1 degree C higher. AP News.
Retrieved 11 November 2015.

5.3.2

Cr = Cm

(20.9 reference volume % O2 )

(20.9 measured volume % O2 )

As an example, a measured NOx concentration of 45

ppmv in a dry gas having 5 volume % O2 is:
45 ( 20.9 - 3 ) ( 20.9 - 5 ) = 50.7 ppmv of
NOx

[4] Cole, Steve; Gray, Ellen (14 December 2015). New

NASA Satellite Maps Show Human Fingerprint on Global
Air Quality. NASA. Retrieved 14 December 2015.
[5] Draft Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement
(EIS) for Stockpile Stewardship and Management(See
section 03.05 of the EIS which involves the Los Alamos
National Laboratory in New Mexico)
[6] Air Quality Impact Analysis (Developed for the United
States Bureau of Land Management, Socorro Field Oce,
New Mexico)

when corrected to a dry gas having a specied reference

O2 content of 3 volume %.

[7] United States Department of Defense MIL-STD-810F, 1

January 2000. (See: Annex A, page 520.2A5 )

Note:

[8] David A. Lewandowski (1999). Design of Thermal Oxidation Systems for Volatile Organic Compounds (1st ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-410-3.

The measured gas concentration C m must rst be

corrected to a dry basis before using the above equation.

5.3.3

Correcting to a reference carbon

dioxide content

The following equation can be used to correct a measured

pollutant concentration in an emitted gas (containing a
measured CO2 content) to an equivalent pollutant concentration in an emitted gas containing a specied reference amount of CO2 :* [8]

Cr = Cm

(reference volume % CO2 )

(measured volume % CO2 )

As an example, a measured particulates concentration of

200 mg/m3 in a dry gas that has a measured 8 volume %
CO2 is:
200 ( 12 8 ) = 300 mg/m3
when corrected to a dry gas having a specied reference
CO2 content of 12 volume %.

5.4 References
This article incorporates material from the Citizendium article "Air pollutant concentrations", which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License but not under the GFDL.

Chapter 6

Outline of air pollution dispersion

The following outline is presented as an overview and top- of air pollution emission plumes:
ical guide to air pollution dispersion:
Buoyant plumes Plumes which are lighter than
Air pollution dispersion distribution of air pollution
air because they are at a higher temperature and
into the atmosphere. Air pollution is the introduction of
lower density than the ambient air which surrounds
particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful mathem, or because they are at about the same temperterials into Earth's atmosphere, causing disease, death to
ature as the ambient air but have a lower molecular
humans, damage to other living organisms such as food
weight
and hence lower density than the ambient air.
crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution
For
example,
the emissions from the ue gas stacks
may come from anthropogenic or natural sources. Disof
industrial
furnaces
are buoyant because they are
persion refers to what happens to the pollution during
considerably
warmer
and
less dense than the ambiand after its introduction; understanding this may help in
ent
air.
As
another
example,
an emission plume of
identifying and controlling it. Air pollution dispersion has
methane
gas
at
ambient
air
temperatures
is buoyant
become the focus of environmental conservationists and
because
methane
has
a
lower
molecular
weight
than
governmental environmental protection agencies (local,
the
ambient
air.
state, province and national) of many countries (which
have adopted and used much of the terminology of this
Dense gas plumes Plumes which are heavier than
eld in their laws and regulations) regarding air pollution
air because they have a higher density than the surcontrol.
rounding ambient air. A plume may have a higher
density than air because it has a higher molecular
weight than air (for example, a plume of carbon
6.1 Air pollution emission plumes
dioxide). A plume may also have a higher density than air if the plume is at a much lower temperature than the air. For example, a plume of
Plume
evaporated gaseous methane from an accidental rez
centerline
lease of liqueed natural gas (LNG) may be as cold
Pollutant
as 161 C.
concentration
proles

Wind

He at x3

Passive or neutral plumes Plumes which are neither lighter or heavier than air.

He at x2
+y Hs

6.2 Air pollution dispersion models

He at x1

-y

Hs = Actual stack height

He = Eective stack height
= pollutant release height
= Hs + h
h = plume rise

There are ve types of air pollution dispersion models, as

well as some hybrids of the ve types:* [1]

Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollutant dispersion

plume

Air pollution emission plume ow of pollutant in the

form of vapor or smoke released into the air. Plumes are
of considerable importance in the atmospheric dispersion
modelling of air pollution. There are three primary types
30

Box model The box model is the simplest of the

model types.* [2] It assumes the airshed (i.e., a given
volume of atmospheric air in a geographical region)
is in the shape of a box. It also assumes that the
air pollutants inside the box are homogeneously distributed and uses that assumption to estimate the average pollutant concentrations anywhere within the
airshed. Although useful, this model is very limited

6.3. AIR POLLUTANT EMISSION

in its ability to accurately predict dispersion of air
pollutants over an airshed because the assumption
of homogeneous pollutant distribution is much too
simple.

31

6.3 Air pollutant emission

Gaussian model The Gaussian model is perhaps

the oldest (circa 1936) * [3] and perhaps the most
commonly used model type. It assumes that the
air pollutant dispersion has a Gaussian distribution,
meaning that the pollutant distribution has a normal
probability distribution. Gaussian models are most
often used for predicting the dispersion of continuous, buoyant air pollution plumes originating from
ground-level or elevated sources. Gaussian models may also be used for predicting the dispersion
of non-continuous air pollution plumes (called pu
models). The primary algorithm used in Gaussian
modeling is the Generalized Dispersion Equation For
A Continuous Point-Source Plume.* [4]* [5]
Lagrangian model a Lagrangian dispersion
model mathematically follows pollution plume
parcels (also called particles) as the parcels move in
the atmosphere and they model the motion of the
parcels as a random walk process. The Lagrangian
model then calculates the air pollution dispersion
by computing the statistics of the trajectories of a
large number of the pollution plume parcels. A
Lagrangian model uses a moving frame of refer- Air pollution emission source
ence* [6] as the parcels move from their initial location. It is said that an observer of a Lagrangian
Types of air pollutant emission sources named for
model follows along with the plume.
their characteristics
Eulerian model an Eulerian dispersions model is
Sources, by shape there are four basic shapes
similar to a Lagrangian model in that it also tracks
which an emission source may have. They are:
the movement of a large number of pollution plume
parcels as they move from their initial location. The
Point source single, identiable source
most important dierence between the two modof air pollutant emissions (for example,
els is that the Eulerian model uses a xed threethe emissions from a combustion furnace
dimensional Cartesian grid* [6] as a frame of referue gas stack). Point sources are also
ence rather than a moving frame of reference. It is
characterized as being either elevated or
said that an observer of an Eulerian model watches
at ground-level. A point source has no
the plume go by.
geometric dimensions.
Dense gas model Dense gas models are models
that simulate the dispersion of dense gas pollution
plumes (i.e., pollution plumes that are heavier than
air). The three most commonly used dense gas models are:
The DEGADIS model developed by Dr. Jerry
Havens and Dr. Tom Spicer at the University
of Arkansas under commission by the US
Coast Guard and US EPA.* [7]
The SLAB model developed by the Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory funded by the
US Department of Energy, the US Air Force
and the American Petroleum Institute.* [8]
The HEGADAS model developed by Shell
Oil's research division.* [9]

Line source one-dimensional source of

air pollutant emissions (for example, the
emissions from the vehicular trac on a
roadway).
Area source two-dimensional source of
diuse air pollutant emissions (for example, the emissions from a forest re, a
landll or the evaporated vapors from a
large spill of volatile liquid).
Volume source
three-dimensional
source of diuse air pollutant emissions. Essentially, it is an area source
with a third (height) dimension (for
example, the fugitive gaseous emissions
from piping anges, valves and other
equipment at various heights within

32

CHAPTER 6. OUTLINE OF AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION

industrial facilities such as oil reneries and class F the most stable or least turbulent class. Table
and petrochemical plants).
Another 1 lists the six classes and Table 2 provides the meteoroexample would be the emissions from an logical conditions that dene each class.
automobile paint shop with multiple roof
vents or multiple open windows.
Table 1: The Pasquill stability classes
Sources, by motion
Stationary source ue gas stacks are ex- Table 2: Meteorological conditions that dene the
Pasquill stability classes
amples of stationary sources
Mobile source buses are examples of
Data availability
mobile sources
Sources, by urbanization level whether the
Historical stability class data known as the Stability
source is within a city or not is relevant in that
Array (STAR) data, for sites within the USA can be
urban areas constitute a so-called heat island
purchased from the National Climatic Data Center
and the heat rising from an urban area causes
(NCDC).* [11]
the atmosphere above an urban area to be more
turbulent than the atmosphere above a rural
area
6.4.2 Advanced methods of categorizing
atmospheric turbulence
Urban source emission is in an urban
area
Rural source emission is in a rural area Advanced air pollution dispersion models they do not
categorize atmospheric turbulence by using the simple
Sources, by elevation
meteorological parameters commonly used in dening
Surface or ground-level source
the six Pasquill classes as shown in Table 2 above.
The more advanced models use some form of Monin Near surface source
Obukhov
similarity theory. Some examples include:
Elevated source
Sources, by duration
Pu or intermittent source short term
sources (for example, many accidental
emission releases are short term pus)
Continuous source long term source
(for example, most ue gas stack emissions are continuous)

6.4 Characterization of
spheric turbulence

atmo-

Eect of turbulence on dispersion turbulence increases

the entrainment and mixing of unpolluted air into the
plume and thereby acts to reduce the concentration of
pollutants in the plume (i.e., enhances the plume dispersion). It is therefore important to categorize the amount
of atmospheric turbulence present at any given time...

6.4.1

The Pasquill atmospheric stability

classes

Pasquill atmospheric stability classes oldest and, for

a great many years, the most commonly used method
of categorizing the amount of atmospheric turbulence
present was the method developed by Pasquill in
1961.* [10] He categorized the atmospheric turbulence
into six stability classes named A, B, C, D, E and F with
class A being the most unstable or most turbulent class,

AERMOD* [12] US EPA's most advanced model,

no longer uses the Pasquill stability classes to categorize atmospheric turbulence. Instead, it uses the
surface roughness length and the Monin-Obukhov
length.
ADMS 4,* [13] United Kingdom's most advanced model, uses the Monin-Obukhov length, the
boundary layer height and the windspeed to categorize the atmospheric turbulence.

6.5 Miscellaneous other terminology

(Work on this section is continuously
in progress)
Building eects or downwash: When an air pollution plume ows over nearby buildings or other
structures, turbulent eddies are formed in the downwind side of the building. Those eddies cause a
plume from a stack source located within about ve
times the height of a nearby building or structure to
be forced down to the ground much sooner than it
would if a building or structure were not present.
The eect can greatly increase the resulting near-by
ground-level pollutant concentrations downstream
of the building or structure. If the pollutants in
the plume are subject to depletion by contact with

6.6. SEE ALSO

the ground (particulates, for example), the concentration increase just downstream of the building or
structure will decrease the concentrations further
downstream.
Deposition of the pollution plume components to
the underlying surface can be dened as either dry
or wet deposition:

33
is known as the mixing height. Any air pollution
plume dispersing beneath an inversion aloft will be
limited in vertical mixing to that which occurs beneath the bottom of the inversion aloft (sometimes
called the lid). Even if the pollution plume penetrates the inversion, it will not undergo any further
signicant vertical mixing. As for a pollution plume
passing completely through an inversion layer aloft,
that rarely occurs unless the pollution plume's source
stack is very tall and the inversion lid is fairly low.

Dry deposition is the removal of gaseous or

particulate material from the pollution plume
by contact with the ground surface or vegetation (or even water surfaces) through transfer processes such as absorption and gravita- 6.6 See also
tional sedimentation. This may be calculated
by means of a deposition velocity, which is re- 6.6.1 Air pollution dispersion models
lated to the resistance of the underlying surface
ADMS 3 (Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Systo the transfer.
tem) advanced atmospheric pollution dispersion
Wet deposition is the removal of pollution
model for calculating concentrations of atmospheric
plume components by the action of rain. The
pollutants emitted both continuously from point,
wet deposition of radionuclides in a pollution
line, volume and area sources, or intermittently from
plume by a burst of rain often forms so called
point sources.
hot spots of radioactivity on the underlying surface.
AUSTAL
AERMOD
Inversion layers:* [5] Normally, the air near the
Earth's surface is warmer than the air above it be CANARY (By Quest)
cause the atmosphere is heated from below as so CALPUFF
lar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in
turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere di DISPERSION21
rectly above it. Thus, the atmospheric temperature
normally decreases with increasing altitude. How FLACS
ever, under certain meteorological conditions, atmo ISC3
spheric layers may form in which the temperature
increases with increasing altitude. Such layers are
MERCURE
called inversion layers. When such a layer forms
NAME (dispersion model)
at the Earth's surface, it is called a surface inversion. When an inversion layer forms at some dis PANACHE
tance above the earth, it is called an inversion aloft
PHAST
(sometimes referred to as a capping inversion). The
air within an inversion aloft is very stable with very
PUFF-PLUME
little vertical motion. Any rising parcel of air within
SIRANE
the inversion soon expands, thereby adiabatically
cooling to a lower temperature than the surrounding
air and the parcel stops rising. Any sinking parcel
soon compresses adiabatically to a higher temper- 6.6.2 Others
ature than the surrounding air and the parcel stops
Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling
sinking. Thus, any air pollution plume that enters an
inversion aloft will undergo very little vertical mix AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Facing unless it has sucient momentum to completely
tors
pass through the inversion aloft. That is one reason
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
why an inversion aloft is sometimes called a capping
inversion.
Roadway air dispersion modeling
Mixing height:* [5] When an inversion aloft is
formed, the atmospheric layer between the Earth's
surface and the bottom of the inversion aloft is
known as the mixing layer and the distance between
the Earth's surface and the bottom of inversion aloft

Useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion

modeling
List of atmospheric dispersion models
Yamartino method

34

CHAPTER 6. OUTLINE OF AIR POLLUTION DISPERSION

6.7 References
[1] List of atmospheric dispersion models
[2] Air Pollution Dispersion: Ventilation Factor by Dr. Nolan
Atkins, Lyndon State College
[3] Bosanquet, C.H. and Pearson, J.L. (1936).The spread of
smoke and gases from chimney, Trans. Faraday Soc.,
32:1249.
[4] Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling
[5] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-96445880-2. (Chapter 8, page 124)
[6] Features of Dispersion Models publication of the
European Union Joint Research Centre (JRC)
[7] DEGADIS Technical Manual and User's Guide (US
EPA's download website)
[8] UCRL-MA-105607, User's Manual For Slab: An Atmospheric Dispersion Model For Denser-Than-Air Releases,
Donald Ermak, June 1990.
[9] HEGADIS Technical Reference Manual
[10] Pasquill, F. (1961). The estimation of the dispersion of
windborne material, The Meteorological Magazine, vol
90, No. 1063, pp 33-49.
[11] NCDC website for ordering stability array data
[12] AERMOD:Description of Model Formulation
[13] ADMS 4 Description of the model by the developers,
Cambridge Environmental Research Consultants.

6.8 Further reading

Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
www.crcpress.com
Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals of Stack
Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN
0-9644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com

6.9 External links

Air pollution dispersion modeling terminology A
Citizendium article
EPA's Preferred/Recommended Models (on the US
EPA's website)
The Model Documententation System (MDS) of the
European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change
(part of the European Environment Agency)

Chapter 7

Air pollution sensor

Air pollution sensors are devices that detect and monitor the presence of air pollution in the surrounding area.
They can be used for both indoor and outdoor environments. These sensors can be built at home, or bought
from certain manufactures. Although there are various
types of air pollution sensors, and some are specialized
in certain aspects, the majority focuses on ve components: ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur
dioxide, and nitrous oxide. The sensors were very expensive in the past, but with technological advancements
these sensors are becoming more aordable and more
widespread throughout the population. These sensors can
help serve many purposes and help bring attention to environmental issues beyond the scope of the human eye.
The EPA maintains a repository of air quality data
through the Air Quality System (AQS), where it stores
data from over 10,000 monitors in the United States.* [1]

to excess toxins and pollution in the air.

These catastrophic events lead to major cities controlling
and measuring atmospheric pollutions. This revolution
changed the way we see and understand the environment
today. Technology was developed by governments to create air pollution sensors in order to measure the toxins
in the environment. With further scientic research and
advancements in technology, people are more concerned
and conscious with the air the breath. Technology has
made air pollution sensors more readily available and affordable for personal use.
Health:
Scientic evidence has indicated that indoor air pollution
can be worse than outdoor pollutants in large and industrialized cities. Many products and chemicals used inside
the home, for cooking and heating, and for appliances
and home dcor are primary sources of indoor air pollutants.* [7] Everything we use in the home contributes to
the pollution, and can possibly degrade the environment.
Air pollution is responsible for 7 million premature deaths
around the world each year.* [8] When pollutants enter
the body through our respiratory system, they can be absorbed in the blood and travel throughout the body, and
can directly damage the heart and other vital organs.* [9]

While use of these sensors was expensive in the past,

the 2010s saw a recent trend towards the development
of cheaper portable air-quality sensors that can be worn
by individuals to monitor local air quality levels.* [2]* [3]
These sensors, can then, in turn, help measure the spatiotemporal coverage and variety of chemical species, and
empower individuals and communities to better understand their exposure environments and risks from air polHealth Canadas research conrms that poor air quality
lution.* [4]
is hazardous to human health and as the population ages
A research group led by William Griswold at UCSD more Canadians are at risk. Young children are at risk behanded out portable air pollution sensors to 16 com- cause on a per-body-weight basis, they tend to inhale relmuters, and found urban valleyswhere buildings atively more air than adults, and their immature defence
trapped pollution. The group also found that passengers systems make them more susceptible to air pollution.* [8]
in buses have higher exposures compared to those in au- The elderly are also at risk due to their weaker lungs,
tomobiles.* [5]
heart, and defence systems. The elderly also tend to have
History:
undiagnosed respiratory or cardiovascular health conditions.* [8] People participating in strenuous work or sportIn December 1952, Londons Great Smog - led to the
deeply and rapidly
deaths of thousands of people. This event became one of ing activities outdoors breathe more
than their sedentary counterparts.* [8] This increases the
the great turning points in our environmental history because it brought about a radical re-think in pollution con- risk of these individuals developing air pollution related
the
trol across the United Kingdom. This event further lead diseases. Due to its aging and expanding population,
*
[10]
It
is
number
of
Canadians
aected
grows
each
year.
to the Clean Air Act, which may have had consequences
estimated
that
tens
of
thousands
of
Canadians
die
premaeven more far reaching than it originally intended.* [6]
This act led to the change in fuel sources, and energy used turely each year due to acute air pollution and that high
hospiby industries. Many citizens in major cities across the summer temperatures lead to increased illnesses,
*
[11]
talization
and
deaths
among
older
adults.
world suered some type of health related problems due
35

36

CHAPTER 7. AIR POLLUTION SENSOR

Signicance/Society:

able device. They currently have 2 models in the market

Air pollution sensors can help people control their envi- and both can be connected with smartphone apps.
ronments to a certain extent and increase awareness of the http://www.tzoa.com/#homepage
pollutants around them. If people are more aware of the Future Movement:
contents of the environment, they can change their routines and habits in order to be less eected by air pollu- The human race is now becoming more conscious about
tion. This can help increase the quality of life and overall their health, lifestyle, and ecological footprint. With
health of people at risk. For example, if one bedroom has more studies and knowledge about our ecosystems, we
more pollutants than another the room with less pollutants are taking prevented measures in order to develop more
would be more suitable for infants or the elderly, and any- sustainable ways of living. Having portable and aordone else that is at risk. Having the ability to monitor and able air pollution sensors allows us to be aware of how
record air pollution can help shape our daily activities and much pollution exists within our communities and neighroutines. For example, when planning outdoor activities borhoods. Through technological advancements this data
one might want to go for a run early morning or a par- is now measurable, recordable, and shared across the
ticular time in the day where the pollution rating is not World Wide Web. This collection of data can help bring
so high. We may pick our transportation routes based on about change to our environmental policies. It can track
the air pollution rating. Since we often cannot see or de- areas of the city that carry higher pollution and risks. This
tect any slight changes to our environment these sensors can allow further studies to be conducted and new solucan provide a signicant amount of information. The air tions to be proposed to mitigate these risks. These senparticles are so small, but can have adverse eects on our sors can also help people guide people with respiratory
and health conditions.
overall health.
Major Brands & Manufactures:
There are various brands and designs of air pollution sensors available today. There are specic indoor and outdoor sensors, as well as universal sensors. The average
price range is about $200 (US) and it depends on what
make and model you choose to go with.
AirCasting is one of the popular brands today. Its most
popular model is the AirBeam, which is a palm-sized
monitor that measures ne particulate matter (PM2.5) in
the air. The AirCasting system has an android app available, which connects to its monitors and allows you to
share and record data on the go. These mobile sensors
can easily be connected to your backpack, and purse. AirCasting also gives you the blueprints, and a list of materials and where you can get them from to allow citizens
to build their own air monitor.
http://habitatmap.org/habitatmap_docs/
HowToBuildAnAirCastingAirMonitor.pdf
Air Quality Egg is a sensor system designed to collect very
high-resolution readings of nitrogen dioxide and carbon
monoxide concentrations outside their home. A small
electronic sensing system plugs into a USB and sends data
over Wi-Fi. There are about 1228 public and mapped
eggs across the world.
http://airqualityegg.com/
Speck Sensor is an indoor air quality monitor that detects
ne particulate matter in your surrounding environment.
It is easily set up and readable. It is a stationary reader
and must be plugged in.
https://www.specksensor.com/
TZOA is another popular brand which uses internal sensors to measure air quality, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, ambient light and UV all in one wear-

7.1 References
[1] TTN AIRS AQS. Epa.gov. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[2] Environmental science: Pollution patrol : Nature News
& Comment. Nature.com. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[3] Experimenting at Home With Air Quality Monitors.
The New York Times. April 15, 2015. Retrieved May 29,
2015.
[4] Air Pollution Monitoring for Communities. Epa.gov.
Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[5] Microsampling Air Pollution. The New York Times.
June 3, 2013. Retrieved May 29, 2015.
[6] Brimblecombe, Peter (2006-11-01). The Clean Air
Act after 50 years. Weather 61 (11): 311314.
doi:10.1256/wea.127.06. ISSN 1477-8696.
[7] Kim, S. & Paulos, E. (April 2010).
inAir:
Sharing indoor air quality measurements and visualizations.
Earth, Wind, Flyer.
81-84. (PDF).
doi:10.1145/1760000/1753605/p1861-kim.pdf.
[8] Canada, Government of Canada, Environment and Climate Change. Environment and Climate Change
Canada - Air - Are you at risk?". www.ec.gc.ca. Retrieved
2016-02-04.
[9] Section, Government of Canada, Health Canada, Healthy
Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Safe Environments Directorate, Water, Air and Climate Change
Bureau, Air Quality Programs Division, Policy, Planning and Coordination. Cardiovascular Eects of Air
Pollution - Environmental & Workplace Health - Health
Canada. www.hc-sc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-02-04.

7.1. REFERENCES

[10] Section, Government of Canada, Health Canada, Healthy

Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Safe Environments Directorate, Water, Air and Climate Change
Bureau, Air Quality Programs Division, Policy, Planning and Coordination. Air Pollution and Health Environmental & Workplace Health - Health Canada.
www.hc-sc.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-02-04.
[11] Suzuki, David. The impact of green space on heat and
air pollution in urban communities (PDF).

37

Chapter 8

Air quality guideline

Air quality guideline is an annual mean concentration
guideline for particulate matter from the World Health
Organization. It stipulates that P2.5 concentration of 10 is
the lowest level at which total, cardiopulmonary and lung
cancer mortality have been shown to increase with more
than 95% condence in response to long-term exposure
to PM2.5.

8.1 References
WHO - WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate
matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide Page 11

38

Chapter 9

Air Quality Health Index (Canada)

This article is about the air pollution index used in air quality monitoring to health risk communication and
Canada. For air pollution indices in general, see Air community engagement, local partners are responsible
quality index.
for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implementation.
The AQHI is being rolled out across Canada and replacing the AQI as the public face of air quality information.

For the Air Quality Health Index issued by Hong

Kong's Environmental Protection Department,
see Air Quality Health Index (Hong Kong).

Originally launched as a pilot project in the British

Columbia Interior and Nova Scotia in 2005, it is currently
Warning: Page using Template:Infobox organization implemented in 79 locations across Canada.* [2]
with unknown parameter chief1_position(this
message is shown only in preview).

9.2 Overview
The Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI) is a scale designed in Canada to help understand the impact of air
quality on health. It is a health protection tool used to
make decisions to reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels
of air pollution. The Air Quality Health Index also provides advice on how to improve air quality by proposing
behavioral change to reduce the environmental footprint.
This index pays particular attention to people who are
sensitive to air pollution. It provides them with advice
on how to protect their health during air quality levels associated with low, moderate, high and very high health
risks.* [1]

9.1 History

The Air Quality Health Index provides a number from 1

to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated with
local air quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air
pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed 10.
The AQHI provides a local air quality current value as
well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today,
tonight and tomorrow and provides associated health advice.
As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution
can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the
index has been developed as a continuum: The higher
the number, the greater the health risk and need to take
precautions. The index describes the level of health risk
associated with this number as low, moderate,
highor very high, and suggests steps that can be
taken to reduce exposure.* [1]

Air quality in Canada has been historically been reported * [3]

by the USA's Air Quality Index in various provinces. Signicantly, AQI values reect air quality management objectives, which are based on the lowest achievable emissions rate, and not exclusively concern for human health. 9.3 Formula Inputs
The AQHI was created with a dierent goal - to report on
the specic health risks posed by air pollution. As such, The formulation of the national AQHI is based on the
the AQHI represents a paradigm shift in communicating observed relationship of nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), groundlevel ozone (O3 ) and ne particulate matter (PM2.5 ) with
air quality information to the public.
The Air Quality Health Index or AQHIis a fed- mortality from an analysis of several Canadian cities. Sigeral program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and nicantly, all three of these pollutants can pose health
among
Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program risks, even at low levels of exposure, especially
*
[4]
those
with
pre-existing
health
problems.
would not be possible without the commitment and support of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From When developing the AQHI, Health Canadas original
39

40

CHAPTER 9. AIR QUALITY HEALTH INDEX (CANADA)

analysis of health eects included ve major air pollutants: airborne particulate matter, ozone, and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2 ), as well as sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), and
carbon monoxide (CO). The latter two pollutants provided little information in predicting health eects and
were removed from the AQHI formulation.

In order to meet these needs, the individual pollutant

concentrations are compared to Albertas Ambient Air
Quality Objectives (AAQOs). The national AQHI is
used most of the time; however, if hourly air pollutant
concentrations are higher than Albertas AAQOs, the
AQHI value is replaced (overridden) with the appropriThe AQHI does not measure the eects of odour, pollen, ate Highor Very Highrisk value. This can occur
for the following pollutants (when they exceed the noted
dust, heat or humidity.
concentrations):

9.4 Calculation
The national AQHI is based on three-hour average concentrations of ground-level ozone (O3 ), nitrogen dioxide
(NO2 ), and ne particulate matter (PM2.5). O3 and NO2
are measured in parts per billion (ppb) while PM2.5 is
measured in micrograms per cubic metre (ug/m3 ).
The AQHI is calculated on a community basis (each community may have one or more monitoring stations).
First, the average concentration of the 3 substances (O3 ,
NO2 , PM2.5) is calculated at each station within a community for the 3 preceding hours. This is considered valid
only if at least 2 out of 3 hours are available at the station.
If more than 1 of the preceding 3 hours is missing the station average is set to Not Available. This part of the
process results in threestation parameter averagesfor
each station.
Second, the 3 hour community averagefor each parameter is calculated from the 3 hour substance averages
at the available stations. If no stations are available for
a parameter, that parameter is set to Not Available.
This part of the process results in 3 community parameter
averages.

80 micrograms per cubic metre for ne particulate

matter
82 parts per billion for ozone
159 parts per billion for nitrogen dioxide
172 parts per billion for sulphur dioxide
13 parts per million for carbon monoxide
1 part per million for hydrogen sulphide and total
reduced sulphur* [5]
In Alberta, special community messaging is used when
the level of specic pollutants is higher than specied
odour or visibility thresholds but the AQHI is rated as
Lowor Moderaterisk. This messaging is used for
the following pollutants (when they exceed the noted concentrations):
25 micrograms per cubic metre for ne particulate
matter (based on visibility)
100 parts per billion for sulphur dioxide (based on
odour)

10 parts per billion for hydrogen sulphide or total

Third, if all three community parameter averages are
reduced sulphur (based on odour)* [5]
available, a community AQHI is calculated. The formula
is:
This odour/visibility messaging appears as below:
1000
0.000537O3
AQHI
=
( 10.4 ) [(e
1) + Alberta has developed its own AQHI website at http://
(e0.000871N O2 1) + (e0.000487P M2.5 1)]
airquality.alberta.ca.
The result is then rounded to the nearest positive integer;
a calculation less than 0.5 is rounded up to 1.

9.6 Persons at risk

9.5 Alberta Calculation and Re- The AQHI is aimed towards two populations: 1. The
generalpopulation; and 2. Theat-riskpopulations.
porting Dierences
The later consists of children, the elderly and people with
Alberta has modied AQHI reporting to better suit the
needs of the Province. Because of Alberta's energy based
economy other are also considered when reporting the
AQHI.

existing respiratory or cardiovascular conditions, such as

those with asthma, and people suering from diabetes,
heart disease or lung disease.

Children are more vulnerable to air pollution: they have

less-developed respiratory and defense systems. Because
Alberta also has rapidly changingair quality conditions of their size, they inhale more air per kilogram of body
quite often (for example during wildre season) so, Al- weight than adults. Their elevated metabolic rate and
bertas AQHI needs to be more responsive than the na- young defense systems make them more susceptible to
tional AQHI, which is based on a three-hour average.
air pollution.

9.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

Seniors are also at a higher risk because of the weakening of the heart, lungs and immune system and increased
likelihood of health problems such as heart and lung disease.
Exposure to air pollutants can cause a range of symptoms. People with lung or heart disease may experience
increased frequency and/or severity of symptoms, and
increased medication requirements. It is recommended
that those susceptive should take greater precautions.* [6]

41

[4] A new multipollutant, no-threshold a...

[J Air
Waste Manag Assoc. 2008] - PubMed - NCBI.
Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2013-03-25. Retrieved 2013-07-23.
[5] How is AQHI Reporting Enhanced in Alberta? Alberta Environment and Sustainable Resource Development. Environment.alberta.ca. 2011-06-14. Retrieved
2013-07-23.
[6] Environment Canada - Air - Are you at risk?". Ec.gc.ca.
2013-07-16. Retrieved 2013-07-23.
[7] http://www.theweathernetwork.com/airquality/whatis/

9.7 Lifestyle
Environment Canada recommends looking for outdoor
air quality by checking the AQHI in your community before heading o to work or play as well as to use the forecasts to plan activities, whether over the next hour or the
next day. Seniors, parents, those with asthma, and people
suering from diabetes, heart or lung disease, can use the
AQHI to assess the immediate risk air pollution poses on
their health and take steps to lessen that risk. The AQHI
is also recommended for healthy, t and active people to
consult to decide when it is best to exercise or work outdoor.

9.9 External links

http://www.airhealth.ca
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ewh-semt/air/out-ext/effe/
health_effects-effets_sante-eng.php
http://www.toronto.ca/health/airquality/aqhi/
index.htm AQHI Available in 13 Languages
http://mirtchovski.com/code/AQHI.html
AQHI Widget

Flash

The best way for someone to use the AQHI is to regularly

http://www.theweathernetwork.com/airquality/
check the current index value, to pay attention to personal
whatis
symptoms and self-calibrate to the reported current AQHI
http://airquality.alberta.ca Alberta Air Quality
value. For example, if symptoms are experienced when
Health Index
the index is a 6, then precaution should be taken when the
index is at a 6 or higher by following the corresponding
AQHI video
health messages. Then, when an individual knows what
number triggers health symptoms, to get in the habit of
Be Air Aware
checking the maximum forecast to plan activities ahead
of time.
Twitter
The AQHI is easily accessible via the web: At http:
//www.airhealth.ca and http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca/
https://twitter.com/environmentca {English}
canada_e.html and The Weather Network.* [7] It is re https://twitter.com/environnementca {French}
ported throughout the day on The Weather Network
channel as well as the weather and trac reports on local media.The AQHI is also available for download as
a desktop widget for Windows and Mac, and iPhone
app, http://mirtchovski.com/code/AQHI.html. There
are several news feeds and blogs dedicated to the
AQHI: http://www.ec.gc.ca/cas-aqhi/default.asp?lang=
En&n=C7B2359F-1.

9.8 References
[1] Environment Canada - Air - About the Air Quality
Health Index. Ec.gc.ca. 2013-07-16. Retrieved 201307-23.
[2] Environment Canada - Air - National Map. Ec.gc.ca.
2013-07-16. Retrieved 2013-07-23.
[3] Environment Canada - Air - AQHI categories and explanations. Ec.gc.ca. 2013-07-16. Retrieved 2013-07-23.

Chapter 10

Air quality index

An air quality index (AQI) is a number used by
government agencies * [1] to communicate to the public
how polluted the air currently is or how polluted it is forecast to become.* [2]* [3] As the AQI increases, an increasingly large percentage of the population is likely to experience increasingly severe adverse health eects. Different countries have their own air quality indices, corresponding to dierent national air quality standards. Some
of these are the Air Quality Health Index (Canada), the
Air Pollution Index (Malaysia), and the Pollutant Standards Index (Singapore).

Wildres give rise to an elevated AQI in parts of Greece

Smog builds up under an inversion in Almaty, Kazakhstan resulting in a high AQI

10.1 Denition and usage

Computation of the AQI requires an air pollutant concentration over a specied averaging period, obtained from
an air monitor or model. Taken together, concentration
and time represent the dose of the air pollutant. Health
eects corresponding to a given dose are established by
epidemiological research.* [4] Air pollutants vary in potency, and the function used to convert from air pollutant
concentration to AQI varies by pollutant. Air quality index values are typically grouped into ranges. Each range
is assigned a descriptor, a color code, and a standardized
public health advisory.

An air quality measurement station in Edinburgh, Scotland

an upwind forest re) or from a lack of dilution of air

pollutants. Stagnant air, often caused by an anticyclone,
temperature inversion, or low wind speeds lets air pollution remain in a local area, leading to high concentrations of pollutants, chemical reactions between air con*
The AQI can increase due to an increase of air emissions taminants and hazy conditions. [5]
(for example, during rush hour trac or when there is On a day when the AQI is predicted to be elevated due to
42

10.2. INDICES BY LOCATION

43
Most air contaminants do not have an associated AQI.
Many countries monitor ground-level ozone, particulates,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide,
and calculate air quality indices for these pollutants.* [10]
The denition of the AQI in a particular nation reects
the discourse surrounding the development of national air
quality standards in that nation.* [11] A website allowing government agencies anywhere in the world to submit their real-time air monitoring data for display using
a common denition of the air quality index has recently
become available.* [12]

Signboard in Gulfton, Houston indicating an ozone watch

10.2 Indices by location

ne particle pollution, an agency or public health organi- 10.2.1 Canada

zation might:
Main article: Air Quality Health Index (Canada)
advise sensitive groups, such as the elderly, children,
and those with respiratory or cardiovascular prob- Air quality in Canada has been reported for many years
with provincial Air Quality Indices (AQIs). Signicantly,
lems to avoid outdoor exertion.* [6]
AQI values reect air quality management objectives,
declare an action day to encourage voluntary which are based on the lowest achievable emissions rate,
measures to reduce air emissions, such as using pub- and not exclusively concern for human health. The Air
lic transportation.* [7]
Quality Health Index or (AQHI) is a scale designed to
help understand the impact of air quality on health. It
recommend the use of masks to keep ne particles
is a health protection tool used to make decisions to re*
from entering the lungs [8]
duce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. The
Air Quality Health Index also provides advice on how to
improve air quality by proposing behavioural change to
reduce the environmental footprint. This index pays particular attention to people who are sensitive to air pollution. It provides them with advice on how to protect their
health during air quality levels associated with low, moderate, high and very high health risks.
The Air Quality Health Index provides a number from
1 to 10+ to indicate the level of health risk associated
with local air quality. On occasion, when the amount of
air pollution is abnormally high, the number may exceed
10. The AQHI provides a local air quality current value
as well as a local air quality maximums forecast for today,
tonight, and tomorrow, and provides associated health advice.* [13]

Woman wearing an air pollution mask in Beijing, China

10.2.2 Hong Kong

During a period of very poor air quality, such as an air

pollution episode, when the AQI indicates that acute exposure may cause signicant harm to the public health,
agencies may invoke emergency plans that allow them
to order major emitters (such as coal burning industries) to curtail emissions until the hazardous conditions
abate.* [9]

On the 30th December 2013 Hong Kong replaced the Air

Pollution Index with a new index called the Air Quality
Health Index.* [14] This index is on a scale of 1 to 10+
and considers four air pollutants: ozone; nitrogen dioxide;
sulphur dioxide and particulate matter (including PM10
and PM2.5). For any given hour the AQHI is calculated
from the sum of the percentage excess risk of daily hospital admissions attributable to the 3-hour moving average

44

CHAPTER 10. AIR QUALITY INDEX

concentrations of these four pollutants. The AQHIs are troduce the culture of cleanliness.* [18] Institutional and
grouped into ve AQHI health risk categories with health infrastructural measures are being undertaken in order to
advice provided:* [15]
ensure that the mandate of cleanliness is fullled across
Each of the health risk categories has advice with it. At the country and the Ministry of Environment, Forests &
the low and moderate levels the public are advised that Climate Change proposed to discuss the issues concerned
they can continue normal activities. For the high cate- regarding quality of air with the Ministry of Human Regory, children, the elderly and people with heart or res- source Development in order to include this issue as part
piratory illnesses are advising to reduce outdoor physical of the sensitisation programme in the course curriculum.
exertion. Above this (very high or serious) the general While the earlier measuring index was limited to three inpublic are also advised to reduce or avoid outdoor physi- dicators, the current measurement index had been made
cal exertion.
quite comprehensive by the addition of ve additional parameters. Under the current measurement of air quality
there are 8 parameters . The initiatives undertaken by
10.2.3 Mainland China
the Ministry recently aimed at balancing environment and
conservation and development as air pollution has been a
China's Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP) is matter of environmental and health concerns, particularly
responsible for measuring the level of air pollution in in urban areas.* [19]
China. As of 1 January 2013, MEP monitors daily polThe Central Pollution Control Board along with State Pollution level in 163 of its major cities. The API level is
lution Control Boards has been operating National Air
based on the level of 6 atmospheric pollutants, namely
Monitoring Program (NAMP) covering 240 cities of the
sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), suspended
country. In addition, continuous monitoring systems that
particulates smaller than 10 m in aerodynamic diamprovide data on near real-time basis are also installed in
eter (PM10 ), suspended particulates smaller than 2.5
a few cities. They provide information on air quality in
m in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5 )carbon monoxide
public domain in simple linguistic terms that is easily
(CO), and ozone (O3 ) measured at the monitoring staunderstood by a common person.* [20] Air Quality Intions throughout each city.* [16]
dex (AQI) is one such tool for eective dissemination
AQI Mechanics
of air quality information to people. As such an Expert
An individual score (IAQI) is assigned to the level of each Group comprising medical professionals, air quality expollutant and the nal AQI is the highest of those 6 scores. perts, academia, advocacy groups, and SPCBs was conThe pollutants can be measured quite dierently. PM2.5 stituted and a technical study was awarded to IIT Kanpur.
PM10 concentration are measured as average per 24h. IIT Kanpur and the Expert Group recommended an AQI
SO2 , NO2 , O3 , CO are measured as average per hour. scheme in 2014.* [21]
The nal API value is calculated per hour according to a
There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfacformula published by the MEP.* [17]
tory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and SeThe scale for each pollutant is non-linear, as is the nal vere. The proposed AQI will consider eight polluAQI score. Thus an AQI of 100 does not mean twice the tants (PM10 , PM2.5 , NO2 , SO2 , CO, O3 , NH3 , and
pollution of AQI at 50, nor does it mean twice as harmful. Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly averaging peWhile an AQI of 50 from day 1 to 182 and AQI of 100 riod) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are prefrom day 183 to 365 does provide an annual average of scribed.* [22] Based on the measured ambient concentra75, it does not mean the pollution is acceptable even if the tions, corresponding standards and likely health impact, a
benchmark of 100 is deemed safe. This is because the sub-index is calculated for each of these pollutants. The
benchmark is a 24-hour target. The annual average must worst sub-index reects overall AQI. Associated likely
match against the annual target. It is entirely possible to health impacts for dierent AQI categories and polluhave safe air every day of the year but still fail the annual tants have been also been suggested, with primary inputs
pollution benchmark.* [16]
from the medical expert members of the group. The AQI
values and corresponding ambient concentrations (health
*
AQI and Health Implications (HJ 663-2012) [16]
breakpoints) as well as associated likely health impacts
for the identied eight pollutants are as follows:

10.2.4

India

The Minister for Environment, Forests & Climate

Change Shri Prakash Javadekar launched The National
Air Quality Index (AQI) in New Delhi on 17 September
2014 under the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan. It is outlined as
One Number- One Colour-One Description
for the common man to judge the air quality within his vicinity. The
index constitutes part of the Governments mission to in-

10.2.5 Mexico
Main article: ndice Metropolitano de la Calidad del Aire
The air quality in Mexico City is reported in IMECAs.
The IMECA is calculated using the measurements of average times of the chemicals ozone (O3 ), sulphur dioxide

10.2. INDICES BY LOCATION

(SO2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), carbon monoxide (CO)
and particles smaller than 10 micrometers (PM10 ).

10.2.6

Singapore

Singapore uses the Pollutant Standards Index to report on

its air quality,* [23] with details of the calculation similar but not identical to that used in Malaysia and Hong
Kong* [24] The PSI chart below is grouped by index values and descriptors, according to the National Environment Agency.* [25]

45

10.2.9 Europe
To present the air quality situation in European cities in
a comparable and easily understandable way, all detailed
measurements are transformed into a single relative gure: the Common Air Quality Index (or CAQI) Three
dierent indices have been developed by Citeair to enable
the comparison of three dierent time scale:.* [30]* [31]
An hourly index, which describes the air quality
today, based on hourly values and updated every
hours,
A daily index, which stands for the general air quality situation of yesterday, based on daily values and
updated once a day,

10.2.7

South Korea

The Ministry of Environment of South Korea uses the

Comprehensive Air-quality Index (CAI) to describe the
ambient air quality based on the health risks of air pollution. The index aims to help the public easily understand
the air quality and protect people's health. The CAI is
on a scale from 0 to 500, which is divided into six categories. The higher the CAI value, the greater the level of
air pollution. Of values of the ve air pollutants, the highest is the CAI value. The index also has associated health
eects and a colour representation of the categories as
shown below.* [26]
The N Seoul Tower on Namsan Mountain in central
Seoul, South Korea, is illuminated in blue, from sunset
to 23:00 and 22:00 in winter, on days where the air quality in Seoul is 45 or less. During the spring of 2012, the
Tower was lit up for 52 days, which is four days more than
in 2011.* [27]

An annual index, which represents the city's general

air quality conditions throughout the year and compare to European air quality norms. This index is
based on the pollutants year average compare to annual limit values, and updated once a year.
However, the proposed indices and the supporting common web site www.airqualitynow.eu are designed to give
a dynamic picture of the air quality situation in each city
but not for compliance checking.* [31]

The hourly and daily common indices

These indices have 5 levels using a scale from 0 (very low)
to > 100 (very high), it is a relative measure of the amount
of air pollution. They are based on 3 pollutants of major
concern in Europe: PM10, NO2, O3 and will be able to
take into account to 3 additional pollutants (CO, PM2.5
and SO2) where data are also available.

The calculation of the index is based on a review of a

number of existing air quality indices, and it reects EU
alert threshold levels or daily limit values as much as posThe most commonly used air quality index in the sible. In order to make cities more comparable, indeUK is the Daily Air Quality Index recommended by pendent of the nature of their monitoring network two
the Committee on Medical Eects of Air Pollutants situations are dened:
(COMEAP).* [28] This index has ten points, which are
further grouped into 4 bands: low, moderate, high and
Background, representing the general situation of
very high. Each of the bands comes with advice for atthe given agglomeration (based on urban backrisk groups and the general population.* [29]
ground monitoring sites),

10.2.8

United Kingdom

The index is based on the concentrations of 5 pollutants.

The index is calculated from the concentrations of the
following pollutants: Ozone, Nitrogen Dioxide, Sulphur
Dioxide, PM2.5 (particles with an aerodynamic diameter
less than 2.5 m) and PM10. The breakpoints between
index values are dened for each pollutant separately and
the overall index is dened as the maximum value of the
index. Dierent averaging periods are used for dierent
pollutants.* [29]

Roadside, being representative of city streets with a

lot of trac, (based on roadside monitoring stations)
The indices values are updated hourly (for those cities that
supply hourly data) and yesterdays daily indices are presented.* [31]
Common air quality index legend:

46

CHAPTER 10. AIR QUALITY INDEX

The common annual air quality index

eects information. The Air Quality Index is adjusted

periodically to reect these changes.

The common annual air quality index provides a general

overview of the air quality situation in a given city all the
Computing the AQI
year through and regarding to the European norms.
It is also calculated both for background and trac conditions but its principle of calculation is dierent from
the hourly and daily indices. It is presented as a distance
to a target index, this target being derived from the EU
directives (annual air quality standards and objectives):

The air quality index is a piecewise linear function of the

pollutant concentration. At the boundary between AQI
categories, there is a discontinuous jump of one AQI unit.
To convert from concentration to AQI this equation is
used:* [32]
I

low
I = Chigh
(C Clow ) + Ilow
high Clow
If the index is higher than 1: for one or more pollutants the limit values are not met.
where:

If the index is below 1: on average the limit values

are met.

I = the (Air Quality) index,

C = the pollutant concentration,

The annual index is aimed at better taking into account

long term exposure to air pollution based on distance to
the target set by the EU annual norms, those norms being
linked most of the time to recommendations and health
protection set up by World Health Organisation.* [31]

10.2.10

United States

Clow = the concentration breakpoint that is

C,
Chigh = the concentration breakpoint that is
C,
Ilow = the index breakpoint corresponding to
Clow ,
Ihigh = the index breakpoint corresponding to
Chigh .
EPA's table of breakpoints is:* [33]* [34]* [35]
Suppose a monitor records a 24-hour average ne particle (PM2.5 ) concentration of 12.0 micrograms per cubic
meter. The equation above results in an AQI of:
50 0
(12.0 0) + 0 = 50
12.0 0
corresponding to air quality in the Goodrange. To
convert an air pollutant concentration to an AQI, EPA
has developed a calculator.* [36]

PM2.5 24-Hour AQI Loop, Courtesy US EPA

If multiple pollutants are measured at a monitoring site,

then the largest or dominantAQI value is reported
for the location. The ozone AQI between 100 and 300
is computed by selecting the larger of the AQI calculated
with a 1-hour ozone value and the AQI computed with
the 8-hour ozone value.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) has developed an Air Quality Index that is used
to report air quality. This AQI is divided into six categories indicating increasing levels of health concern. An
AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality and 8-hour ozone averages do not dene AQI values greater
than 300; AQI values of 301 or greater are calculated with
below 50 the air quality is good.* [10]
The AQI is based on the ve criteriapollutants regu- 1-hour ozone concentrations. 1-hour SO2 values do not
lated under the Clean Air Act: ground-level ozone, partic- dene higher AQI values greater than 200. AQI values
ulate matter, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and nitro- of 201 or greater are calculated with 24-hour SO2 congen dioxide. The EPA has established National Ambient centrations.
Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for each of these pollutants in order to protect public health. An AQI value
of 100 generally corresponds to the level of the NAAQS
for the pollutant.* [10] The Clean Air Act (USA) (1990)
requires EPA to review its National Ambient Air Quality Standards every ve years to reect evolving health

Real time monitoring data from continuous monitors are

typically available as 1-hour averages. However, computation of the AQI for some pollutants requires averaging
over multiple hours of data. (For example, calculation of
the ozone AQI requires computation of an 8-hour average and computation of the PM2.5 or PM10 AQI requires

10.3. SEE ALSO

47

a 24-hour average.) To accurately reect the current air achieved the public policy objectives and led to the fuquality, the multi-hour average used for the AQI compu- ture development of improved indices and their routine
tation should be centered on the current time, but as con- application.
centrations of future hours are unknown and are dicult
to estimate accurately, EPA uses surrogate concentrations
to estimate these multi-hour averages. For reporting the 10.3 See also
PM2.5 , PM10 and ozone air quality indices, this surrogate
concentration is called the NowCast. The Nowcast is a
Air pollution
particular type of weighted average that provides more
weight to the most recent air quality data when air pollu Indoor air quality
tion levels are changing. * [37]* [38]
Public Availability of the AQI

10.4 References

Real time monitoring data and forecasts of air quality

that are color-coded in terms of the air quality index are
available from EPA's AirNow web site.* [39] Historical
air monitoring data including AQI charts and maps are
available at EPA's AirData website.* [40]

[1] International Air Quality. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

History of the AQI

[3] https://www.gmes-atmosphere.eu/services/raq/raq_nrt/

The AQI made its debut in 1968, when the National Air
Pollution Control Administration undertook an initiative
to develop an air quality index and to apply the methodology to Metropolitan Statistical Areas. The impetus was to
draw public attention to the issue of air pollution and indirectly push responsible local public ocials to take action to control sources of pollution and enhance air quality
within their jurisdictions.
Jack Fensterstock, the head of the National Inventory of
Air Pollution Emissions and Control Branch, was tasked
to lead the development of the methodology and to compile the air quality and emissions data necessary to test
and calibrate resultant indices.* [41]
The initial iteration of the air quality index used standardized ambient pollutant concentrations to yield individual
pollutant indices. These indices were then weighted and
summed to form a single total air quality index. The overall methodology could use concentrations that are taken
from ambient monitoring data or are predicted by means
of a diusion model. The concentrations were then converted into a standard statistical distribution with a preset
mean and standard deviation. The resultant individual
pollutant indices are assumed to be equally weighted, although values other than unity can be used. Likewise, the
index can incorporate any number of pollutants although
it was only used to combine SOx, CO, and TSP because
of a lack of available data for other pollutants.

[2] National Weather Service Corporate Image Web Team.

NOAA's National Weather Service/Environmental Protection Agency - United States Air Quality Forecast Guidance. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

[4] Step 2 - Dose-Response Assessment. Retrieved 20

August 2015.
[5] Myanmar government (2007). Haze. Archived from
the original on 27 January 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-11.
[6]Air Quality Index - American Lung Association. American Lung Association. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
[7] Spare the Air - Summer Spare the Air. Retrieved 20
August 2015.
[8] FAQ: Use of masks and availability of masks. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
[9] http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/sites/default/files/
presentations/1_en_air_pollution_emergency_response_
system_-_us_experience_1.pdf
[10] Air Quality Index (AQI) - A Guide to Air Quality and
Your Health. US EPA. 9 December 2011. Retrieved 8
August 2012.
[11] Jay Timmons (13 August 2014). The EPA's Latest
Threat to Economic Growth. WSJ. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
[12] World Air Quality Index. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
[13] Environment Canada - Air - AQHI categories and explanations. Ec.gc.ca. 2008-04-16. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
[14] Hsu, Angel.Chinas new Air Quality Index: How does

it measure up?". Retrieved 8 February 2014.

While the methodology was designed to be robust, the
practical application for all metropolitan areas proved to
[15] Air Quality Health Index. Government of the Hong
be inconsistent due to the paucity of ambient air qualKong Special Administrative Region. Retrieved 9 Februity monitoring data, lack of agreement on weighting facary 2014.
tors, and non-uniformity of air quality standards across
geographical and political boundaries. Despite these is- [16] Focus on urban air quality daily. Archived from the
original on 2004-10-25.
sues, the publication of lists ranking metropolitan areas

48

[17] People's Republic of China Ministry of Environmental

Protection Standard: Technical Regulation on Ambient
Air Quality Index (Chinese PDF)" (PDF).

CHAPTER 10. AIR QUALITY INDEX

[38] How are your ozone maps calculated?". Retrieved 20

August 2015.
[39] AirNow. Retrieved 9 August 2012..

[18] Rama Lakshmi (17 October 2014). India launches its

own Air Quality Index. Can its numbers be trusted?".
Washington Post. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

[40] AirData - US Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 20 August 2015.

[19] National Air Quality Index (AQI) launched by the

Environment Minister AQI is a huge initiative under
Swachh Bharat". Retrieved 20 August 2015.

[41] J.C Fensterstock et al., " The Development and Utilization

of an Air Quality Index,Paper No. 69-73, presented
at the 62nd Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control
Administration, June 1969.

[20] India launches index to measure air quality.

timesondia-economictimes. Retrieved 20 August 2015.
[21] http://home.iitk.ac.in/~{}mukesh/indian%20air%
20quality.html
[22] "::: Central Pollution Control Board :::". Retrieved 20 August 2015.
[23] MEWR - Key Environment Statistics - Clean Air.
App.mewr.gov.sg. 2011-06-08. Retrieved 2011-11-11.
[24] .National Environment Agency - Calculation of PSI
(PDF). Retrieved 2012-06-15.

10.5 External links

CAQI in Europe- AirqualityNow website
CAI at Airkorea.or.kr - website of South Korea Environmental Management Corp.
AQI at airnow.gov - cross-agency U.S. Government
site

[25] National Environment Agency. App2.nea.gov.sg. Retrieved 2011-11-11.

New Mexico Air Quality and API data - Example

of how New Mexico Environment Department publishes their Air Quality and API data.

[26] What's CAI. Air Korea. Retrieved 25 October 2015.

AQI at Meteorological Service of Canada

[27] Improved Air Quality Reected in N Seoul Tower.

Chosun Ilbo. 18 May 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.

The UK Air Quality Archive

[28] COMEAP. Review of the UK Air Quality Index.

COMEAP website.
[29] Daily Air Quality Index. Air UK Website. Defra.
[30] Garcia, Javier; Colosio, Jolle (2002). Air-quality indices
: elaboration, uses and international comparisons. Presses
des MINES. ISBN 2-911762-36-3.
[31] Indices denition. Air quality. Retrieved 9 August
2012.
[32] http://www.epa.gov/airnow/
aqi-technical-assistance-document-dec2013.pdf
[33] David Mintz (February 2009). Technical Assistance Document for the Reporting of Daily Air Quality the Air Quality Index (AQI) (PDF). North Carolina: US EPA Oce of
Air Quality Planning and Standards. EPA-454/B-09-001.
Retrieved 9 August 2012.
[34] Revised Air Quality Standards For Particle Pollution And
Updates To The Air Quality Index (AQI) (PDF). North
Carolina: US EPA Oce of Air Quality Planning and
Standards. 2013.
[35] http://www3.epa.gov/airquality/ozonepollution/pdfs/
20151001fr.pdf
[36] AQI Calculator: Concentration to AQI. Retrieved 9
August 2012.
[37] AirNow API Documentation. Retrieved 20 August
2015.

API at JAS (Malaysian Department of Environment)

API at Hong Kong - Environmental Protection Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
San Francisco Bay Area Spare-the-Air - AQI explanation
Malaysia Air Pollution Index
AQI in Thailand
Unocial PM25 AQI in Hanoi, Vietnam

Chapter 11

Air quality law

Air quality laws govern the emission of air pollutants
into the atmosphere. A specialized subset of air quality laws regulate the quality of air inside buildings. Air
quality laws are often designed specically to protect
human health by limiting or eliminating airborne pollutant concentrations. Other initiatives are designed to address broader ecological problems, such as limitations on
chemicals that aect the ozone layer, and emissions trading programs to address acid rain or climate change. Regulatory eorts include identifying and categorizing air
pollutants, setting limits on acceptable emissions levels,
and dictating necessary or appropriate mitigation technologies.

ally are expressed as levels of specic air pollutants that

are deemed acceptable in ambient air, and are most often designed to reduce or eliminate the human health effects of air pollution, although secondary eects such as
crop and building damage may also be considered.* [5]
Determining appropriate air quality standards generally
requires up-to-date scientic data on the health eects
of the pollutant under review, with specic information
on exposure times and sensitive populations. It also generally requires periodic or continuous monitoring of air
quality.

As an example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS)* [6] NAAQS set attainment
thresholds for sulfur dioxide, particulate matter (PM10
11.1 Air pollutant classication
and PM2.5 ), carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen oxides
NO, and lead (Pb) in outdoor air throughout the United
Air quality regulation must identify the substances and States. Another set of standards, for indoor air in employenergies which qualify as "pollution" for purposes of ment settings, is administered by the U.S. Occupational
*
further control. While specic labels vary from juris- Safety and Health Administration. [7]
diction to jurisdiction, there is broad consensus among A distinction may be made between mandatory and asmany governments regarding what constitutes air pol- pirational air quality standards. For example, U.S. state
lution. For example, the United States Clean Air Act governments must work toward achieving NAAQS, but
identies ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, are not forced to meet them. On the other hand, employnitrogen oxides (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and lead ers may be required immediately to rectify any violation
(Pb) as criteriapollutants requiring nationwide regu- of OSHA workplace air quality standards.
lation.* [1] EPA has also identied over 180 compounds
it has classied ashazardouspollutants requiring strict
control.* [2] Other compounds have been identied as
11.3 Emission standards
air pollutants due to their adverse impact on the environment (e.g., CFCs as agents of ozone depletion), and
on human health (e.g., asbestos in indoor air).* [3] A Main article: Emission standard
broader conception of air pollution may also incorporate
noise, light, and radiation. The United States has recently Emission standards are the legal requirements governseen controversy over whether carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and ing air pollutants released into the atmosphere. Emisother greenhouse gases should be classied as air pollu- sion standards set quantitative limits on the permissible
tants.* [4]
amount of specic air pollutants that may be released
from specic sources over specic timeframes. They are
generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to
protect human health.
11.2 Air quality standards
Numerous methods exist for determining appropriate
Air quality standards are legal standards or requirements emissions standards, and dierent regulatory approaches
governing concentrations of air pollutants in breathed may be taken depending on the source, industry, and
air, both outdoors and indoors. Such standards gener- air pollutant under review.<See generally, U.S. EPA
49

50
Emissions] page. Specic limits may be set by reference
to and within the connes of more general air quality
standards. Specic sources may be regulated by means
of performance standards, meaning numerical limits on
the emission of a specic pollutant from that source category. Regulators may also mandate the adoption and
use of specic control technologies, often with reference
to feasibility, availability, and cost. Still other standards
may be set using performance as a benchmark - for example, requiring all of a specic type of facility to meet the
emissions limits achieved by the best performing facility
of the group. All of these methods may be modied by
incorporating emissions averaging, market mechanisms
such as emissions trading, and other alternatives.
For example, all of these approaches are used in the
United States.* [8] The United States Environmental Protection Agency (responsible for air quality regulation at
a national level under the U.S. Clean Air Act, utilizes
performance standards under the New Source Performance Standard (NSPS) program. Technology requirements are set under RACT (Reasonably Available Control Technology), BACT (Best Available Control Technology), and LAER (Lowest Achievable Emission Rate)
standards.* [9] Flexibility alternatives are implemented in
U.S. programs to eliminate acid rain, protect the ozone
layer, achieve permitting standards, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.* [10]

11.4 Control technology requirements

In place of or in combination with air quality standards
and emission control standards, governments may choose
to reduce air pollution by requiring regulated parties to
adopt emissions control technologies (i.e., technology
that reduces or eliminates emissions). Such devices include but are not limited to are stacks, incinerators,
catalytic combustion reactors, selective catalytic reduction reactors, electrostatic precipitators, baghouses, wet
scrubbers, cyclones, thermal oxidizers, Venturi scrubbers, carbon adsorbers, and biolters.
The selection of emissions control technology may be
the subject of complex regulation that may balance multiple conicting considerations and interests, including
economic cost, availability, feasibility, and eectiveness.* [11] The various weight given to each factor may
ultimately determine the technology selected. The outcome of an analysis seeking a technology that all players in an industry can aord could be dierent from
an analysis seeking to require all players to adopt the
most eective technology yet developed, regardless of
cost. For example, the United States Clean Air Act contains several control technology requirements, including
Best Available Control Technology (BACT) (used in New
Source Review), Reasonably Available Control Tech-

CHAPTER 11. AIR QUALITY LAW

nology (RACT) (existing sources), Lowest Achievable
Emissions Rate (LAER) (used for major new sources in
non-attainment areas), and Maximum Achievable Control Technology (MACT) standards.

11.5 Bans
Air quality laws may take the form of bans. While arguably a class of emissions control law (where the emission limit is set to zero), bans dier in that they may regulate activity other than the emission of a pollutant itself,
even though the ultimate goal is to eliminate the emission
of the pollutant.
A common example is a burn ban.* [12] Residential and
commercial burning of wood materials may be restricted
during times of poor air quality, eliminating the immediate emission of particulate matter and requiring use
of non-polluting heating methods. A more signicant
example is the widespread ban on the manufacture of
dichlorodiuoromethane (Freon)), formerly the standard
refrigerant in automobile air conditioning systems. This
substance, often released into the atmosphere unintentionally as a result of refrigerant system leaks, was determined to have a signicant ozone depletion potential,
and its widespread use to pose a signicant threat to the
Earth's ozone layer. Its manufacture was prohibited as
part of a suite of restrictions adopted internationally in the
Montreal Protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer. Still another example is the
ban on use of asbestos in building construction materials, to eliminate future exposure to carcinogenic asbestos
bers when the building materials are disturbed.

11.6 Data collection and access

Air quality laws may impose substantial requirements for
collecting, storing, submitting, and providing access to
technical data for various purposes, including regulatory
enforcement, public health programs, and policy development.
Data collection processes may include monitoring ambient air for the presence of pollutants, directly monitoring emissions sources, or collecting other quantitative information from which air quality information may
be deduced. For example, local agencies may employ a
particulate matter sampler to determine ambient air quality in a locality over time. Fossil power plants may required to monitor emissions at a ue-gas stack to determine quantities of relevant pollutants emitted. Automobile manufacturers may be required to collect data regarding car sales, which, when combined with technical specications regarding fuel consumption and eciency, may
be used to estimate total vehicle emissions. In each case,
data collection may be short- or long-term, and at varying

11.8. AROUND THE WORLD

51

frequency (e.g., hourly, daily).

Criticisms of EPA's methodologies in reaching these and

*
Air quality laws may include detailed requirements for similar numbers are publicly available. [17]
recording, storing, and submitting relevant information,
generally with the ultimate goal of standardizing data
practices in order to facilitate data access and manip- 11.8 Around the world
ulation at a later time.* [13] Precise requirements may
be very dicult to determine without technical training and may change over time in response to, for exam- 11.8.1 International law
ple, changes in law, changes in policy, changes in available technology, and changes in industry practice. Such International law includes agreements related to transrequirements may be developed at a national level and national air quality, including greenhouse gas emissions:
reect consensus or compromise between government
agencies, regulated industry, and public interest groups.
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), Geneva, 1979.
Once air quality data are collected and submitted, some
air quality laws may require government agencies or private parties to provide the public with access to the information - whether the raw data alone, or via tools to
make the data more useful, accessible, and understandable. Where public access mandates are general, it may
be left to the collecting agency to decide whether and to
what extent the data is to be centralized and organized.
For example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Park Service, and tribal, state, and local agencies coordinate to produce an online mapping
and data access tool called AirNow, which provides realtime public access to U.S. air quality index information,
searchable by location.
Once data are collected and published, they may be used
as inputs in mathematical models and forecasts. For
example, atmospheric dispersion modeling may be employed to examine the potential impact of new regulatory
requirements on existing populations or geographic areas.
Such models in turn could drive changes in data collection
and reporting requirements.

11.7 Controversy
Proponents of air quality law argue that they have caused
or contributed to major reductions in air pollution, with
concomitant human health and environmental benets,
even in the face of large-scale economic growth and increases in motor vehicle use.* [14] On the other hand,
controversy may arise over the estimated cost of additional regulatory standards.* [15]
Arguments over cost, however, cut both ways. For example, the estimates that the benets of reducing ne
particle and ground level ozone pollution under the 1990
Clean Air Act amendments will reach approximately $2
trillion in 2020 while saving 230,000 people from early
death in that year alone.According to the same report,
2010 alone the reduction of ozone and particulate matter in the atmosphere prevented more than 160,000 cases
of premature mortality, 130,000 heart attacks, 13 million lost work days and 1.7 million asthma attacks.* [16]

Environmental Protection: Aircraft Engine Emissions, Annex 16, vol. 2 to the Chicago Convention
on International Civil Aviation, Montreal, 1981.
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1992, including the Kyoto Protocol, 1997, and the Paris Agreement, 2015.
Georgia Basin-Puget Sound International Airshed Strategy, Vancouver, Statement of Intent,
2002.* [18]
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer, Vienna, 1985, including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer,
Montreal 1987.
U.S.-Canada Air Quality Agreement (bilateral U.S.Canadian agreement on acid rain), 1986

11.8.2 Canada
With some industry-specic exceptions, Canadian air
pollution regulation was traditionally handled at the
provincial level.* [19] However, under the authority of
the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999, the
country has recently enacted a national program called
the Canadian Air Quality Management System (AQMS).
The program includes ve main regulatory mechanisms:
the Canadian Ambient Air Quality Standards (CAAQS);
Base Level Industrial Emission Requirements (BLIERs)
(emissions controls and technology); management of local air quality through the management of Local Air
Zones; management of regional air quality through the
management of Regional Airsheds; and collaboration to
reduce mobile source emissions.* [20]
The Canadian government has also made eorts to pass
legislation related to the country's greenhouse gas emissions. It has passed laws related to fuel economy in
passenger vehicles and light trucks, heavy-duty vehicles,
renewable fuels, and the energy and transportation sectors.* [21]

52

11.8.3

CHAPTER 11. AIR QUALITY LAW

China

China, with severe air pollution in mega-cities and industrial centers, particularly in the north, has adapted the
Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan
which aims for a 25% reduction in air pollution by 2017
from 2012 levels. Funded by $277 billion from the central government, the action plan targets PM 2.5 particulates which aect human health.* [22]

menting federal programs or lling in locally important

gaps in federal programs.

11.9 References
[1] U.S. EPA, What Are the Six Common Air Pollutants?
[2] U.S. EPA, Original list of hazardous air pollutants.
[3] U.S. EPA, Air Pollutants.

11.8.4

New Zealand

New Zealand passed its Clean Air Act 1972 in response

to growing concerns over industrial and urban air pollution.* [23] That Act classied sources, imposed permitting requirements, and created a process for determining requisite control technology. Local authorities
were authorized to regulate smaller polluters. Within the
Christchurch Clean Air Zone, burn bans and other measures were eected to control smog.

[4] See Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency.

[5] See generally U.S. EPA, Air Quality.
[6] See U.S. EPA NAAQS.
[7] See U.S. OSHA, Indoor Air Quality.
[8] See generally, U.S. EPA, Setting Emissions Standards
Based on Technology Performance, Building Flexibility
with Accountability into Clean Air Programs, and linked
materials.

The Clean Air Act 1972 was replaced by the Resource

Management Act 1991. The act did not set air qual- [9] See U.S. EPA, Emissions page.
ity standards, but did provide for national guidance to
be developed. This resulted in the promulgation of [10] See U.S. EPA, EPA's Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reductions.
New Zealand's National Environmental Standards for Air
*
Quality in 2004 with subsequent amendments. [24]
[11] See, for example, U.S. EPA's Industrial Boiler process and
linked materials.

11.8.5

United Kingdom

[12] See, e.g., Puget Sound Air Resources Board Burn Bans.
[13] See, for example Massachusetts EPA Air Permit & Re-

In response to the Great Smog of 1952, the British Parliaporting Toolkit Forms.
ment introduced the Clean Air Act 1956. This act legislated for zones where smokeless fuels had to be burnt and [14] See Union of Concerned Scientists, The Clean Air Act.
relocated power stations to rural areas. The Clean Air Act
1968* [25] introduced the use of tall chimneys to disperse [15] See, e.g., W. Koch, Obama, EPA sued for nixing tougher
ozone rules (USA Today).
air pollution for industries burning coal, liquid or gaseous
*
fuels. [26] The Clean Air Act was updated in 1993 and [16] Enesta Jones (03/01/2011). EPA Report Undercan be reviewed online legislation Clean Air Act 1993.
scores Clean Air Acts Successful Public Health ProtecThe biggest domestic impact comes from Part III, Smoke
tions/Landmark law saved 160,000 lives in 2010 alone.
Control Areas, which are designated by local authorities
EPA.gov. Retrieved 22 March 2012. Check date values
and can vary by street in large towns.
in: |date= (help)

11.8.6

United States

Main article: Clean Air Act (United States)

See also: United States environmental law

[17] See generally EPA air quality dockets at www.regulations.

gov.
[18] Georgia Basin-Puget Sound International Airshed Strategy, Vancouver, Statement of Intent, 2002.
[19] See Environmental Law in Canada, Blakes Lawyers
(2012).

The primary law regulating air quality in the United States

is the U.S. Clean Air Act. The law was initially enacted [20] Overview available at Newfoundland Labrador Department of Environment and Conservation.
as the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955. Amendments
in 1967 and 1970 (the framework for today's U.S. Clean
Air Act) imposed national air quality requirements, and [21] See [www.climatechange.gc.ca Canada's Action on Climate Change].
placed administrative responsibility with the newly created Environmental Protection Agency. Major amend- [22] Airborne Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan
ments followed in 1977 and 1990. State and local gov(2013-17)". China.org.cn. August 16, 2013. Retrieved
December 10, 2014.
ernments have enacted similar legislation, either imple-

11.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

[23] Historical information in this section adapted from The

State of New Zealands Environment 1997, Chapter 6.
[24] See About the NES.
[25] Watership Down author Richard Adams mentions his role
in the Clean Air Act 1968
[26] United Kingdom's Clean Air Acts

American Jurisprudence, 2d: Pollution Control

11.10 External links

Protection of the atmosphere -- Bibliographies on
the topics of the International Law Commission (no.
14 in the list) (UNOG Library)
EPA Oce of Air and Radiation
EPA Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act
Primer on Clean Air Act and Climate Change

53

Chapter 12

Air stagnation
Air stagnation is a phenomenon which occurs when an
air mass remains over an area for an extended period.
Due to light winds and lack of precipitation, pollutants
cannot be cleared from the air, either gaseous (like ozone)
or particulate (like soot or dust). Subsidence produced
directly under the subtropical ridge can lead to a buildup
of particulates in urban areas under the ridge, leading to
widespread haze.* [1] If the low level relative humidity
rises towards 100 percent overnight, fog can form.* [2] In
the United States, the National Weather Service issues an
Air Stagnation Advisory when these conditions are likely
to occur.* [3]

12.1 References
[1] Myanmar government (2007). Haze. Retrieved on 200702-11.
[2] Robert Tardif (2002). Fog characteristics. University
Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved on
2007-02-11.
[3] National Weather Service glossary. Air Stagnation. Retrieved on 2008-05-31.

54

Chapter 13

Airlog
AIRLOG is a European Union FP7 project that was
scheduled to run from 1 February 2012 to 31 January 2014.* [1] The aim of AIRLOG was to develop
technology that would assist auditors of indoor air quality
(IAQ) and educate the public about IAQ.* [2] AIRLOG
was to also create an integrated platform for IAQ audit
management.* [3] As such, the project was to provide best
practice digital guide for the European Union.* [4]

13.1 Background

13.2 Diculties in the IAQ audit

process
AIRLOG proposed to make a web-based audit management platform that would make audits less expensive,
more accurate and easier to understand. The platform
would include a Decision Support System that would
utilise previously entered data to determine actions in improving IAQ that would eventually become best practice.
The platform would also take into consideration the need
for sustainable building design, ecient use of energy and
other green elements.* [3]

An audit of IAQ is not a simple process for a number of reasons. The assessment must include measures
of factors such as inecient heating and air conditioning, growth of mould in moist areas, and the presence of
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from cleaning agents
and objects such as new furniture. The IAQ audit may encounter unknown variables that inuence its cost, time,
and accuracy. In addition, each building is dierent in
size, conguration, and exposure to air pollutants. The
creation of an accurate IAQ audit must come from the
combined eorts of engineers, chemists, health professionals, architects, building managers, maintenance personnel, building owners and consumers. IAQ auditors
need to be trained and accredited in order to give a buildAlthough, from a global perspective, harmful indoor air ing an ocial certication.
pollution is caused by cooking and heating with solid fuels on open res or traditional stoves, especially in poorly
ventilated rooms,* [7] indoor air pollutants may also come
from heating and cooling equipment, electronic appli- 13.3 Elements of an IAQ audit
ances, cleaning products, air fresheners, insecticides, and
An IAC audit can be divided into two parts. One part is
construction materials.
Accurately determining risk associated with exposure to about the level of comfort experienced in a building and
indoor air pollution and controlling indoor air quality with the other is about measures of IAQ. Levels of comfort
regulatory instruments is dicult. Audits of Indoor Air in a building are determined by factors such as temperQuality (IAQ) may assist in lessening risk to the health ature, humidity, air velocity, air renewal, and ventilation
of people, help to improve productivity and support the pressure. The second part, the IAQ, is determined by
use energy eciency equipment and methods in build- factors such as inorganic toxic gases, VOCs, particulate
ings. To meet these goals, the European Commission's matter (PM10), electromagnetic elds and radiation, and
(EC) Scientic Committee on Health and Environmental microbiological contaminants (fungi and bacteria such as
Risks (SCHER) ruled that the EU should conduct a com- Legionella).

Air pollution is of concern in Europe because it may impair health and damage the environment.* [5] Long term
exposure to air polluted with ne particles in Europe, especially that from proximity to trac, is associated with
deaths from natural causes and low birth weight (but not
necessarily with non-malignant respiratory deaths).* [6]
In the EU, it is estimated to cost the healthcare system
1 million euros per year (nine percent of the EU Gross
Domestic Product (GDP). and 2.2 million disabilityadjusted life years (DALYs) are lost due to poor indoor
air quality; it is estimated that 30% of those who spend
a majority of their time within EU buildings suer from
Sick Building Syndrome (SBS).

prehensive review of existing data on pollutants of indoor The audit is taken in steps. An initial assessment involves the collecting of information about the building
air and begin recording data in a database.
55

56

CHAPTER 13. AIRLOG

and its ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC); its critical points; and its possible sources of contamination. This
is done through visual inspection. Then, there is the standardised measurement and analysis of factors such as certain chemicals and microbes. This is done by collecting
samples for laboratory analysis. A third step is researching possible corrective actions.

13.4 Problems to overcome

AIRLOG aimed to create software to assist eld engineers in audits of IAQ in buildings in the EU. It also
aimed to develop an integrated management platform that
could become more eective as data was entered. Thus,
testing of IAQ in an individual building would be aligned
with the monitoring of IAQ across the EU.

centres through the adoption of good practices

to manage the quality of indoor air; specic
measures on indoor air quality, to establish
a high level of health protection and internal
security, in particular...regarding construction
products, to propose measures to increase energy eciency of buildings and for the security and safety of chemicals used in equipment
and furnishings; and minimum requirements
for newly constructed buildings, to ensure adequate indoor air quality.
The resolution recommended that the EC encourage member states to improve IAQ through tax and
other nancial concessions and to reduce exposure to
electromagnetic radiation in ocial buildings. Action 12
of the EU Environment and Health Action Plan 2004
2012 called for the development of ways to address factors aecting IAQ such as moisture, mould, building materials, consumer products, and indoor activities. Special
focus would be placed on the IAQ of buildings used by
people most at risk, the young, the sick and the elderly,
for example schools and health centres.

The problems in IAQ auditing that were to be overcome

included: inecient planning of audits, overdue reports,
incompleteness, lack of transparency in reporting audit
progress and slow accumulation of results for monitoring. They also included: risk of errors due to manual
data entry, the generation of unreliable alerts, bulk data
loss from Excel les and paper-based documents, delay
or failure to implement the necessary corrective actions, 13.7 Economic impact
and non-standardized auditing practices by building type,
use and state. In addition, AIRLOG was challenged with
considering the ecient use of energy * [8] and the train- In June 2010, an EU conference,Product Policy and Indoor Air Quality, concluded that attention to IAQ would
ing of IAQ experts in standard methodologies.
improve work performance, reduce absenteeism and reduce need for medical care and therefore have economic
impact. Furthermore, the standardised testing, certica13.5 Sources and use of data
tion and labelling of indoor products that gave VOC emissions would facilitate international trade and reduce trade
AIRLOG aimed to integrate a number of data sources. barriers within the 28 EU member states.
These included: measurements from sensors; laboratory
analysis; maintenance reports from building managers;
and governmental and legislative decisions. AIRLOG 13.8 Outcome
planned to manage these sources of data using a platform
based on Web 3.0. The platform would use articial intelligence to automatically learn and propose actions for 13.9 References
mitigation and control through the use of a risk simulation
tool.
[1] AIRLOG IAQ AIRLOG website. EU. Accessed 22
February 2014.

13.6 Legal framework

In its resolution of 4 September 2008, relating to the midterm review of the European Agency for Health and Action Plan 20042010 (2007/2252 (INI)), the European
parliament called on the EC to propose directives to address the following:
Special attention to those vulnerable groups
most susceptible to pollutants, by introducing
measures to reduce exposure to indoor environmental contaminants in schools and health

[2] AIRLOG. Facebook page. Accessed 22 February

2014.
[3] AIRLOG European Union website.]
[4] AIRLOG. AIRLOG project website. Accessed 23
February 2013.
[5] Air pollution. European Environment Agency. Accessed 20 February 2014.
[6] Beelen R et al ESCAPE. Lancet 6 December 2013.
pii: S0140 - 6736(13) 62158-3. doi 10.1016/S01406736(13)62158-3. PMID 24332274.
[7] Indoor air pollution. WHO website 2014.

13.10. NOTES

[8] THADE report. Efanet website.

13.10 Notes
CEN standard TC 264 - WG 9: Quality assurance
of automated measuring systems
CEN standard TC 264 - WG 26: Indoor air emissions of building materials.
Decree law 78/2006: National energy certication system and indoor air quality in buildings.
(Portugal)
International Society of Indoor Air Quality (ISIAQNL) and Eco-Counselling Europe. (Netherlands)
New Jersey Indoor air quality standard: NJAC
12:100-13, 2007.

57

Chapter 14

Ambient air quality criteria

Ambient air quality criteria or standards are concentrations of pollutants in the air (usually outdoor air but
sometimes indoor air) specied for a variety of reasons
including for the protection of human health, buildings,
crops, vegetation, ecosystems, as well as for planning and
other purposes. There is no internationally accepted denition but usuallystandardshave some legal or enforcement aspect, whereas guidelinesmay not be backed
by laws. Criteria/criterioncan be used as a generic
term to cover standards and guidelines.

tional Finance Corp (IFC) has their own criteria but

they are a copy of those specied by the WHO. It is
important to check the reference as not all the related
caveats/controlling parameters of the criterion can be put
in the table. Also some criteria require certain specic
ways of monitoring to demonstrate compliance.

14.3 References

Various organisations have proposed criteria e.g. WHO,

EU, US EPA and they are often similar - but not always,
even if they are proposed for the same purpose (e.g. the
protection of human health).

14.1 Specifying the Criteria

Important for any numerical standard is to ensure that
averaging period, unit, and statistical measure are given
(e.g. 98th percentile of hourlry means measured over a
calendar year in micrograms per cubic metre (g/m3 )).
Without all of these three aspects the criterion is confusing and meaningless. Criteria can be set in dierent units
(e.g. g/m3 , parts per billion by volume (ppbv), parts per
billion by mass (ppb(mass)), parts per million (ppm)) and
it is possible to convert between all of these units if you
know the molecular mass of the pollutant and the temperature at which you want to convert. Dierent temperatures are used throughout the world and so it is important
to state the temperature of conversion (if relevant). Most
pollutants have ambient criteria in the parts per billion
(ppb)/g/m3 range. Some have smaller units (e.g. dioxins are often in pico grams /m3 ); others have larger units
(e.g. carbon monoxide (CO) in mg/m3 ). Particle pollution (e.g. PM10 , PM1.0 ) is specied in units of mass (e.g.
g/m3 ) and not in units of volume (ppmv).

14.2 The Criteria

Below is a list of available criteria around the world.
There is a lot of cross referencing (e.g. the Interna58

[1] http://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/
outdoorair_aqg/en/
[2] Supreme Council for Environment and Natural Resources, Executive Bye-law for the Environment Protection Law Issued via the Decree Law No. 30 for the Year
2002, Annex 3

Chapter 15

Arctic haze
ity can drop to one tenth that of normally clear sky. At
this time it was unknown whether the haze was natural or
was formed by pollutants.
In 1972, Glenn Shaw of the Geophysical Institute at the
University of Alaska attributed this smog to transboundary anthropogenic pollution, whereby the Arctic is the
recipient of contaminants whose sources are thousands
of miles away. Further research continues with the aim
of understanding the impact of this pollution on global
warming.* [5]
Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic

Arctic haze is the phenomenon of a visible reddishbrown springtime haze in the atmosphere at high latitudes
in the Arctic due to anthropogenic air pollution. A major distinguishing factor of Arctic haze is the ability of
its chemical ingredients to persist in the atmosphere for
an extended period of time compared to other pollutants.
Due to limited amounts of snow, rain, or turbulent air to
displace pollutants from the polar air mass in spring, Arctic haze can linger for more than a month in the northern
atmosphere.

15.2 Origin of pollutants

The pollutants are commonly thought to originate from
coal-burning in northern mid-latitudes, especially in Asia.
The aerosols contain about 90% sulfur and the rest is
carbon, which makes the haze reddish in color. This
pollution is helping the Arctic warm up faster than any
other region, although increases in greenhouse gases are
the main driver of this climatic change.* [6]

Sulfur aerosols in the atmosphere aect cloud formation,

leading to localized cooling eects over industrialized regions due to increased reection of sunlight, which masks
the opposite eect of trapped warmth beneath the cloud
15.1 History
cover. During the Arctic winter, however, there is no
Arctic haze was rst noticed in 1750 when the Industrial sunlight to reect. In the absence of this cooling eect,
Revolution began. Explorers and whalers could not g- the dominant eect of changes to Arctic clouds is an inure out where the foggy layer was coming from. "Poo- creased trapping of infrared radiation from the surface.
jok" was the term the Inuit used for it.* [1] Another hint Ship emissions, mercury, aluminium, vanadium,
towards clarifying this issue was relayed in notes approx- manganese, and aerosol and ozone pollutants are many
imately a century ago by Norwegian explorer Fridtjof examples of the pollution that is aecting this atmoNansen. After trekking through the Arctic he found dark sphere, but the smoke from forest res is not a signicant
stains on the ice.* [2] The termArctic hazewas coined contributor.* [7] Some of those pollutants gure among
in 1956 by J. Murray Mitchell, a US Air Force ocer environmental eects of coal burning. Carbon dioxide
stationed in Alaska,* [3] to describe an unusual reduc- from factories and cars also contribute to the pollution
tion in visibility observed by North American weather that warms the Arctic a couple of degrees during the
reconnaissance planes. From his investigations, Mitchell so-called episodes.* [8] Dierent pollutants actually
thought the haze had come from industrial areas in Eu- represent dierent colors of haze. Dr. Shaw discovered
rope and China. He went on to become an eminent in 1976 that the yellowish haze is from dust storms
climatologist.* [4] The haze is seasonal, reaching a peak in China and Mongolia. The particles were carried
in late winter and spring. When an aircraft is within a polwards by unusual air currents. The trapped particles
layer of Arctic haze, pilots report that horizontal visibil- were dark gray the next year he took a sample. That was
59

60

CHAPTER 15. ARCTIC HAZE

caused by a heavy amount of industrial pollutants.* [2]

*

Home res in India also contribute. [9]

15.3 Recent studies

According to Tim Garrett, an assistant professor of meteorology at the University of Utah involved in the study
of Arctic haze at the university, mid-latitude cities contribute pollution to the Arctic, and it mixes with thin
clouds, allowing them to trap heat more easily. Garret's study found that during the dark Arctic winter, when
there is no precipitation to wash out pollution, the eects
are strongest, because pollutants can warm the environment up to three degrees Fahrenheit.* [10]

15.4 Scientic predictions

European climatologists predicted in 2009 that by the end
of the 21st century, the temperature of the Arctic region
is expected to rise 3 Celsius on an average day.* [11]
In that same article, National Geographic quoted the coauthor of the study, Andreas Stohl, of the Norwegian
Institute for Air Research, Previous climate models
have suggested that the Arctic's summer sea ice may
completely disappear by 2040 if warming continues unabated.

[3] Rozell, Ned. Arctic Haze: An Uninvited Spring Guest

. 2 April 1996. Geographical Institute, University of
Alaska Fairbanks. 1 May 2007..
[4] McFadden, Robert D. (8 October 1990). J. Murray
Mitchell, Climatologist Who Foresaw Warming Peril, 62
- Page 2. New York Times. Retrieved 7 February 2012.
[5] Contaminating the Arctic. Content.scholastic.com.
1995-01-15. Retrieved 2013-10-11.
[6] Law, Kathy S.; Stohl, Andreas (2007-03-16). Law,
Kathy S. and Andreas Stohl. Arctic Air Pollution: Origins and Impacts. ''Science'' 16 March 2007. Sciencemag.org. Retrieved 2013-10-11.
[7]Previously some scientists had speculated that the sooty
carbon in the arctic air was the product of natural forest
res, rather than industrial combustion. But a clever application of carbon isotope dating rules out that possibility,observes John Harte, The Green Fuse: an ecological
odyssey 1993:19; fossil fuels are comparatively depleted
in rare heavy carbon, which decays slowly to nitrogen, so
that wildre carbon is identiable by its carbon ngerprint.
[8] Garrett, Tim. Pollutant Haze is Heating up the Arctic. 10
May 2006. Earth Observatory. Due to low deposition
rates, these pollutants are not yet having adverse eects
on people or animals. Earth Observatory News
[9] Lean, Georey (3 April 2005). Home Fires In India
Melting Arctic Icecap. The Independent (London).
[10] Study: The Haze is Heating Up the Arctic. 10 May 2006.
United Press International.

15.5 See also

Bioamplication
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
Global distillation
Kyoto Protocol
Montreal Protocol
Ozone depletion
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

15.6 Footnotes
[1] Garrett, Tim. Pollutant Haze is Heating up the Arctic. 10
May 2006. Earth Observatory. Earth Observatory News
[2] Soroos, Marvin. ''The odyssey of Arctic haze: toward a
global atmosphere regime''. December, 1992. ''Environment Magazine''.. Findarticles.com. Retrieved 201310-11.

[11] Summary report of " Arctic Climate Feedbacks: Global

ImplicationsSeptember 2009. Wwf.panda.org. 200909-02. Retrieved 2013-10-11.

15.7 References
Connelly, Joel. Pictures of Arctic are Hard to
Argue With. 13 November 2006. Seattle PostIntelligencer.
Rozell, Ned. Arctic Haze: An Uninvited Spring
Guest. 2 April 1996. Geographical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks. 1 May 2007
Study: The Haze is Heating Up the Arctic. 10 May
2006. United Press International.
Garrett, Tim. Pollutant Haze is Heating up the Arctic.
10 May 2006. Earth Observatory.
Contaminating the Arctic. 1 January 1999. Scholastic.
Gorrie, Peter. Grim prognosis for Earth. 3 January
2007. Toronto Star.

15.8. EXTERNAL LINKS

15.8 External links

What is Arctic Haze?

61

Chapter 16

Atmospheric dispersion modeling

Dispersion models are important to governmental agencies tasked with protecting and managing the ambient air
quality. The models are typically employed to determine
whether existing or proposed new industrial facilities are
or will be in compliance with the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) in the United States and
other nations. The models also serve to assist in the design of eective control strategies to reduce emissions of
harmful air pollutants. During the late 1960s, the Air Pollution Control Oce of the U.S. EPA initiated research
projects that would lead to the development of models for
the use by urban and transportation planners.* [1] A major and signicant application of a roadway dispersion
model that resulted from such research was applied to the
Spadina Expressway of Canada in 1971.

Industrial air pollution source

Air dispersion models are also used by public safety

responders and emergency management personnel for
emergency planning of accidental chemical releases.
Models are used to determine the consequences of accidental releases of hazardous or toxic materials, Accidental releases may result in res, spills or explosions that involve hazardous materials, such as chemicals or radionuclides. The results of dispersion modeling, using worst
case accidental release source terms and meteorological
conditions, can provide an estimate of location impacted
areas, ambient concentrations, and be used to determine
protective actions appropriate in the event a release occurs. Appropriate protective actions may include evacuation or shelter in place for persons in the downwind direction. At industrial facilities, this type of consequence
assessment or emergency planning is required under the
Clean Air Act (United States) (CAA) codied in Part 68
of Title 40 of the Code of Federal Regulations.

Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical

simulation of how air pollutants disperse in the ambient
atmosphere. It is performed with computer programs that
solve the mathematical equations and algorithms which
simulate the pollutant dispersion. The dispersion models
are used to estimate the downwind ambient concentration
of air pollutants or toxins emitted from sources such as
The dispersion models vary depending on the mathematindustrial plants, vehicular trac or accidental chemical
ics used to develop the model, but all require the input of
releases. They can also be used to predict future concendata that may include:
trations under specic scenarios (i.e. changes in emission
sources). Therefore they are the dominant type of model
Meteorological conditions such as wind speed and
used in air quality policy making. They are most usedirection, the amount of atmospheric turbulence (as
ful for pollutants that are dispersed over large distances
characterized by what is called the stability class
and that may react in the atmosphere. For pollutants that
), the ambient air temperature, the height to the bothave a very high spatio-temporal variability (i.e have very
tom of any inversion aloft that may be present, cloud
steep distance to source decay such as black carbon) and
cover and solar radiation.
for epidemiological studies statistical land-use regression
models are also used.
Source term (the concentration or quantity of toxins
62

16.2. GAUSSIAN AIR POLLUTANT DISPERSION EQUATION

63

in emission or accidental release source terms) and The ABL is of the most important with respect to the
temperature of the material
emission, transport and dispersion of airborne pollutants.
The part of the ABL between the Earth's surface and
Emissions or release parameters such as source loca- the bottom of the inversion layer is known as the mixing
tion and height, type of source (i.e., re, pool or vent layer. Almost all of the airborne pollutants emitted into
stack)and exit velocity, exit temperature and mass the ambient atmosphere are transported and dispersed
ow rate or release rate.
within the mixing layer. Some of the emissions penetrate
the inversion layer and enter the free troposphere above
Terrain elevations at the source location and at the the ABL.
receptor location(s), such as nearby homes, schools,
In summary, the layers of the Earth's atmosphere from
businesses and hospitals.
the surface of the ground upwards are: the ABL made up
The location, height and width of any obstructions of the mixing layer capped by the inversion layer; the free
(such as buildings or other structures) in the path of troposphere; the stratosphere; the mesosphere and oththe emitted gaseous plume, surface roughness or the ers. Many atmospheric dispersion models are referred to
use of a more generic parameterruralorcity as boundary layer models because they mainly model air
pollutant dispersion within the ABL. To avoid confusion,
terrain.
models referred to as mesoscale models have dispersion
modeling capabilities that extend horizontally up to a few
Many of the modern, advanced dispersion modeling prohundred kilometres. It does not mean that they model
grams include a pre-processor module for the input of
dispersion in the mesosphere.
meteorological and other data, and many also include
a post-processor module for graphing the output data
and/or plotting the area impacted by the air pollutants
on maps. The plots of areas impacted may also include 16.2 Gaussian air pollutant disperisopleths showing areas of minimal to high concentrations
sion equation
that dene areas of the highest health risk. The isopleths
plots are useful in determining protective actions for the
public and responders.
The technical literature on air pollution dispersion is quite
The atmospheric dispersion models are also known as at- extensive and dates back to the 1930s and earlier. One of
mospheric diusion models, air dispersion models, air the early air pollutant plume dispersion equations was derived by Bosanquet and Pearson.* [2] Their equation did
quality models, and air pollution dispersion models.
not assume Gaussian distribution nor did it include the
eect of ground reection of the pollutant plume.

16.1 Atmospheric layers

Sir Graham Sutton derived an air pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947* [3] which did include the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the vertical and crossDiscussion of the layers in the Earth's atmosphere is
wind dispersion of the plume and also included the eect
needed to understand where airborne pollutants disperse
of ground reection of the plume.
in the atmosphere. The layer closest to the Earth's surface
is known as the troposphere. It extends from sea-level to Under the stimulus provided by the advent of stringent
a height of about 18 km and contains about 80 percent of environmental control regulations, there was an immense
the mass of the overall atmosphere. The stratosphere is growth in the use of air pollutant plume dispersion calcuthe next layer and extends from 18 km to about 50 km. lations between the late 1960s and today. A great many
The third layer is the mesosphere which extends from 50 computer programs for calculating the dispersion of air
km to about 80 km. There are other layers above 80 km, pollutant emissions were developed during that period
but they are insignicant with respect to atmospheric dis- of time and they were called air dispersion models
. The basis for most of those models was the Compersion modeling.
plete Equation For Gaussian Dispersion Modeling
The lowest part of the troposphere is called the
Of Continuous, Buoyant Air Pollution Plumes shown
atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or the planetary
below:* [4]* [5]
boundary layer (PBL) and extends from the Earth's sur+g3
face to about 1.5 to 2.0 km in height. The air tem- C = uQ f 2 g1+g22
y
z
perature of the atmospheric boundary layer decreases
with increasing altitude until it reaches what is called The above equation not only includes upward reection
the inversion layer (where the temperature increases with from the ground, it also includes downward reection
increasing altitude) that caps the atmospheric boundary from the bottom of any inversion lid present in the atlayer. The upper part of the troposphere (i.e., above the mosphere.
inversion layer) is called the free troposphere and it ex- The sum of the four exponential terms in g3 converges to
a nal value quite rapidly. For most cases, the summation
tends up to the 18 km height of the troposphere.

64

CHAPTER 16. ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODELING

of the series with m = 1, m = 2 and m = 3 will provide an he compared many of the plume rise models then availadequate solution.
able in the literature.* [7] In that same year, Briggs also
*
z and y are functions of the atmospheric stability class wrote the section of the publication edited by Slade [8]
(i.e., a measure of the turbulence in the ambient atmo- dealing with the comparative analyses of plume rise modcritical resphere) and of the downwind distance to the receptor. els. That was followed in 1969 by his classical
*
view
of
the
entire
plume
rise
literature,
[9]
in
which he
The two most important variables aecting the degree of
proposed
a
set
of
plume
rise
equations
which
have bepollutant emission dispersion obtained are the height of
come
widely
known
as
the
Briggs
equations.
Subsethe emission source point and the degree of atmospheric
quently, Briggs modied his 1969 plume rise equations
turbulence. The more turbulence, the better the degree
in 1971 and in 1972.* [10]* [11]
of dispersion.
The resulting calculations for air pollutant concentra- Briggs divided air pollution plumes into these four general
tions are often expressed as an air pollutant concentra- categories:
tion contour map in order to show the spatial variation in
Cold jet plumes in calm ambient air conditions
contaminant levels over a wide area under study. In this
way the contour lines can overlay sensitive receptor loca Cold jet plumes in windy ambient air conditions
tions and reveal the spatial relationship of air pollutants
to areas of interest.
Hot, buoyant plumes in calm ambient air conditions
Whereas older models rely on stability classes (see air pol Hot, buoyant plumes in windy ambient air condilution dispersion terminology) for the determination of
tions
y and z , more recent models increasingly rely on the
Monin-Obukhov similarity theory to derive these paramBriggs considered the trajectory of cold jet plumes to
eters.
be dominated by their initial velocity momentum, and
the trajectory of hot, buoyant plumes to be dominated
by their buoyant momentum to the extent that their ini16.3 Briggs plume rise equations
tial velocity momentum was relatively unimportant. Although Briggs proposed plume rise equations for each of
The Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation (discussed the above plume categories, it is important to emphasize
above) requires the input of H which is the pollutant that the Briggs equationswhich become widely used
plume's centerline height above ground leveland H is are those that he proposed for bent-over, hot buoyant
the sum of H s (the actual physical height of the pollutant plumes.
plume's emission source point) plus H (the plume rise In general, Briggs's equations for bent-over, hot buoydue the plume's buoyancy).
ant plumes are based on observations and data involving
plumes from typical combustion sources such as the ue
Plume
gas stacks from steam-generating boilers burning fossil
z
centerline
fuels in large power plants. Therefore the stack exit vePollutant
locities were probably in the range of 20 to 100 ft/s (6 to
concentration
proles
30 m/s) with exit temperatures ranging from 250 to 500
F (120 to 260 C).
Wind
He at x3

He at x2
+y Hs

A logic diagram for using the Briggs equations* [4] to

obtain the plume rise trajectory of bent-over buoyant
plumes is presented below:

He at x1

-y

Hs = Actual stack height

He = Eective stack height
= pollutant release height
= Hs + h
h = plume rise

Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollutant dispersion

plume

To determine H, many if not most of the air dispersion models developed between the late 1960s and the
early 2000s used what are known as the Briggs equations.G.A. Briggs rst published his plume rise observations and comparisons in 1965.* [6] In 1968, at a symposium sponsored by CONCAWE (a Dutch organization),

The above parameters used in the Briggs' equations are

discussed in Beychok's book.* [4]

16.4 See also

16.4.1 Atmospheric dispersion models
This List of atmospheric dispersion models provides a
more comprehensive list of models than listed below. It
includes a very brief description of each model.

16.5. REFERENCES

65
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute
TA Luft
UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison
Committee
UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau
Desert Research Institute
VITO (institute) Belgium; https://vito.be/en

16.4.3 Others
Air pollution dispersion terminology
ADMS

List of atmospheric dispersion models

AERMOD

Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS)

ATSTEP

Roadway air dispersion modeling

CALPUFF

Useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion

modeling

CMAQ
DISPERSION21
FLACS
FLEXPART
HYSPLIT
HYPACT
ISC3
NAME
MERCURE
OSPM
Fluidyn-Panache
RIMPUFF
SAFE AIR
PUFF-PLUME

16.4.2

Organizations

Air Quality Modeling Group

Air Resources Laboratory
Finnish Meteorological Institute

16.5 References
[1] Fensterstock, J.C. et al., Reduction of air pollution
potential through environmental planning, JAPCA,
Vol.21,No.7, 1971.
[2] Bosanquet, C.H. and Pearson, J.L.,The spread of smoke
and gases from chimneys, Trans. Faraday Soc., 32:1249,
1936
[3] Sutton, O.G., The problem of diusion in the lower atmosphere, QJRMS, 73:257, 1947 andThe theoretical
distribution of airborne pollution from factory chimneys
, QJRMS, 73:426, 1947
[4] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-96445880-2.
[5] Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion
estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
[6] Briggs, G.A., A plume rise model compared with observations, JAPCA, 15:433438, 1965
[7] Briggs, G.A., CONCAWE meeting: discussion of the
comparative consequences of dierent plume rise formulas, Atmos. Envir., 2:228232, 1968

KNMI, Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute

[8] Slade, D.H. (editor), Meteorology and atomic energy

1968, Air Resources Laboratory, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1968

National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark

[9] Briggs, G.A., Plume Rise, USAEC Critical Review

Series, 1969

66

CHAPTER 16. ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODELING

[10] Briggs, G.A., Some recent analyses of plume rise observation, Proc. Second Internat'l. Clean Air Congress,
Academic Press, New York, 1971
[11] Briggs, G.A.,Discussion: chimney plumes in neutral and
stable surroundings, Atmos. Envir., 6:507510, 1972

16.6 Further reading

16.6.1

Books

Introductory
Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack
Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN
0-9644588-0-2.
Center for Chemical Process Safety (1999). Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis (2nd ed.). American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-8169-0720-5.
Center for Chemical Process Safety (1996). Guidelines for Use of Vapor Cloud and Source Dispersion
Models, with Worked Examples (2nd ed.). American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, NY.
ISBN 978-0-8169-0702-1.

Godish, Thad (2003). Air Quality (4th ed.). CRC

Press. ISBN 1-56670-586-X.
Hanna, S.R. and Drivas, D. G. (1996). Guidelines
for Use of Vapor Cloud Dispersion Models (2nd ed.).
Wiley-American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
ISBN 0-8169-0702-1.
Hanna, S. R. and Strimaitis, D. G. (1989). Workbook of Test Cases for Vapor Cloud Source Dispersion Models (1st ed.). Center for Chemical Process
Safety, American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
ISBN 0-8169-0455-3.
Hanna, S. R. and Britter, R.E. (2002). Wind Flow
and Vapor Cloud Dispersion at Industrial and Urban
Sites (1st ed.). Wiley-American Institute of Chemical Engineers. ISBN 0-8169-0863-X.
Perianez, Raul (2005). Modelling the dispersion of
radionuclides in the marine environment : an introduction (1st ed.). Springer. ISBN 3-540-24875-7.
Pielke, Roger A. (2001). Mesoscale Modeling (2nd
ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-12-554766-8.
Zannetti, P. (1990). Air pollution modeling : theories, computational methods, and available software.
Van Nostrand Reinhold. ISBN 0-442-30805-1.

Schnelle, Karl B. and Dey, Partha R. (1999). At- 16.6.2 Proceedings

mospheric Dispersion Modeling Compliance Guide
Editors: Forago, I., Georgiev, K. and Havasi, A.
(1st ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 0-07(2004). Advances in Air Pollution Modeling for En058059-6.
vironmental Security (NATO Workshop). Springer,
Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of Atmospheric
2005. ISSN 0957-4352.
Dispersion Estimates: An Introduction to Dispersion
Editors: Kretzschmar, J. G. and Cosemans, G.
Modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670(1996). Harmonization within atmospheric disper023-X.
sion modelling for regulatory purposes (4th Workshop). International Journal of Environment and
Advanced
Pollution, vol. 8 no. 36, Interscience Enterprises,
1997. ISSN 0957-4352.
Arya, S. Pal (1998). Air Pollution Meteorology and
Editor: Bartzis, J G. (1998). Harmonization within
Dispersion (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN
atmospheric dispersion modelling for regulatory pur0-19-507398-3.
poses (5th Workshop). International Journal of Environment and Pollution, vol. 14 no. 16, Interscience
Barrat, Rod (2001). Atmospheric Dispersion ModEnterprises, 2000. ISSN 0957-4352.
elling (1st ed.). Earthscan Publications. ISBN 185383-642-7.
Editor: Coppalle, A. (1999). Harmonization within
atmospheric dispersion modelling for regulatory pur Colls, Jeremy (2002). Air Pollution (1st ed.). Spon
poses (6th Workshop). International Journal of EnPress (UK). ISBN 0-415-25565-1.
vironment and Pollution, vol. 16 no. 16, Inder Cooper, J.R., Randle, K. and Sokh, R.G. (2003).
science Enterprises, 2001. ISSN 0957-4352.
Radioactive Releases in the Environment (1st ed.).
Editor: Batchvarova, E. (2002). Harmonization
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-89924-0.
within atmospheric dispersion modelling for regula European Process Safety Centre (1999). Atmotory purposes (8th Workshop). International Journal
spheric Dispersion (1st ed.). Rugby: Institution of
of Environment and Pollution, vol. 20 no. 16, InChemical Engineers. ISBN 0-85295-404-2.
derscience Enterprises, 2003. ISSN 0957-4352.

16.7. EXTERNAL LINKS

Editor: Suppan, P. (2004). Harmonization within
atmospheric dispersion modelling for regulatory purposes (8th Workshop). International Journal of Environment and Pollution, vol. 24 no. 16 and vol.25
no. 16, Inderscience Enterprises, 2005. ISSN
0957-4352.
Editor: Zannetti, P.; et al. (1993). International Conference on Air Pollution (1st, Mexico City).
Computational Mechanics, 1993. ISBN 1-56252146-2.
Editor: De Wispelaere, C. (1980). International
Technical Meeting on Air Pollution Modeling and Its
Application (11th). Plenum Press, 1981. ISBN 0306-40820-1.
Editor: De Wispelaere, C. (1982). International
Technical Meeting on Air Pollution Modeling and Its
Application (13th). NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society [by] Plenum Press, 1984.
ISBN 0-306-41491-0.
Editors: Gryning, S. and Schiermeir, F.A. (1995).
International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution
Modeling and Its Application (21st). NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society [by]
Plenum Press, 1996. ISBN 0-306-45381-9.
Editors: Gryning, S. and Chaumerliac, N. (1997).
International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution
Modeling and Its Application (22nd). NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society [by]
Plenum Press, 1998. ISBN 0-306-45821-7.
Editors: Gryning, S. and Batchvarova, E. (1998).
International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution
Modeling and Its Application (23rd). NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society [by]
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press, 2000. ISBN 0306-46188-9.
Editors: Gryning, S. and Schiermeir, F.A. (2000).
International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution
Modeling and Its Application (24th). NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society [by]
Kluwer Academic, 2001. ISBN 0-306-46534-5.
Editors:Borrego, C. and Schayes, G. (2000). International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application (25th). NATO Committee
on the Challenges of Modern Society [by] Kluwer
Academic, 2002. ISBN 0-306-47294-5.
Editors:Borrego, C. and Incecik, S. (2003). International Technical Meeting on Air Pollution Modeling and Its Application (26th). NATO Committee on
the Challenges of Modern Society [by] Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press, 2004. ISBN 0-306-48464-1.
Editors:Committee on the Atmospheric Dispersion
of Hazardous Material Releases, National Research

67
Council (2002). Tracking and Predicting the Atmospheric Dispersion of Hazardous Material Releases
(Workshop). National Academies Press, 2003.
ISBN 0-309-08926-3.

16.6.3 Guidance
Hanna, S. R., Briggs, G. A., & Hosker, R. P.
(1982). Handbook on Atmospheric Diusion. U.S.
Department of Energy, Technical Information Center. DOE/TIC-11223.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1993).
Guidance on the Application of Rened Dispersion
Models for Hazardous/Toxic Air Releases. Oce of
Air Quality Planning and Standards, EPA-454/R93-002.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999). Risk
Management Program Guidance for Osite Consequence Analysis (Appendices) (PDF). Oce of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response, EPA 550-B-99009.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1999).
Technical Background Document for Osite Consequence Analysis for Anhydrous Ammonia, Aqueous Ammonia, Chlorine, and Sulfur Dioxide (PDF).
Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention
Oce.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2009).
Chapter 4: Osite Consequence Analysis. In General
Guidance on Risk Management Programs for Chemical Accident Prevention (40 CFR Part 68) (PDF).
Oce of Solid Waste and Emergency Response,
EPA 555-B-04-001.

16.7 External links

EPA's Support Center for Regulatory Atmospheric
Modeling
EPA's Preferred/Recommended Models
EPA's Alternative Models
EPA's Photochemical Models
EPA's Preliminary Screening Models
EPA's Air Quality Modeling Group (AQMG)
NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory (ARL)
The Open Directory Project has a good amount of
dispersion modeling information
UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison
Committee web site
UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau web site

68
Atmospheric Chemistry transport model LOTOSEUROS
The Operational Priority Substances model OPS
(Dutch)
HAMS-GPS Dispersion modelling
Wiki on Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling. Addresses the international community of atmospheric
dispersion modellers - primarily researchers, but
also users of models. Its purpose is to pool experiences gained by dispersion modellers during their
work.

CHAPTER 16. ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION MODELING

Chapter 17

Best available technology

For other uses, see Bat (disambiguation).

17.1 European Union directives

Best available technology (or just BAT) is a term applied with regulations on limiting pollutant discharges
with regard to the abatement strategy. Similar terms are
best available techniques, best practicable means or best
practicable environmental option. The term constitutes a
moving target on practices, since developing societal values and advancing techniques may change what is currently regarded asreasonably achievable,best practicableand best available.

Best available techniques not entailing excessive costs

(BATNEEC), sometimes referred to as best available
technology, was introduced in 1984 with Directive
84/360/EEC and applied to air pollution emissions from
large industrial installations.* [4]
In 1996, Directive 84/360/EEC was superseded by the
Integrated pollution prevention and control directive
(IPPC), 96/61/EC, which applied the framework concept
of Best Available Techniques (BAT) to the integrated control of pollution to the three media air, water and soil.
The concept is also part of the directive's recast in 2008
(2008/1/EC) and its successor directive, the Industrial
Emissions Directive 2010/75/EU published in 2010.

A literal understanding will connect it with a spare no

expensedoctrine which prescribes the acquisition of the
best state of the art technology available, without regard
for traditional cost-benet analysis. In practical use, the
cost aspect is also taken into account.* [1]
According to article 15(2) of the Industrial Emissions Di"But no person shall be subject to the foregoing penalties rective, emission limit values and the equivalent paramefor any act done in the exercise of any right to which he is ters and technical measures in permits shall be based on
by law entitled, if he prove to the satisfaction of the court, the best available techniques, without prescribing the use
*
before whom he is tried, that he has used the best practi- of any technique or specic technology. [5]
cable means, within a reasonable cost, to render harmless The directive includes a denition of best available techthe liquid or solid matter so permitted to ow or to be put niques in article 3(10):
into waters."
*

[2]

Best practicable means was used for the rst time in UK

national primary legislation in section 5 of the Salmon
Fishery Act 1861* [2] and another early use was found in
the Alkali Act Amendment Act 1874,* [3] but before that
appeared in the Leeds Act of 1848.
The BAT concept was rst time used in the 1992 OSPAR
Convention for the protection of the marine environment
of the North-East Atlantic for all types of industrial installations.
Some doctrine deem it already acquired the status of
customary law.
In the United States, BAT or similar terminology is used
in the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act.

69

best available techniquesmeans the most

eective and advanced stage in the development of activities and their methods of operation which indicates the practical suitability
of particular techniques for providing the basis for emission limit values and other permit
conditions designed to prevent and, where that
is not practicable, to reduce emissions and the
impact on the environment as a whole:
- techniquesincludes both the
technology used and the way in
which the installation is designed,
built, maintained, operated and decommissioned;
- availablemeans those developed on a scale which allows implementation in the relevant industrial sector, under economically
and technically viable conditions,
taking into consideration the costs

70

CHAPTER 17. BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY

and advantages, whether or not the
techniques are used or produced inside the Member State in question,
as long as they are reasonably accessible to the operator;
- bestmeans most eective in
achieving a high general level of
protection of the environment as a
whole.

...euent limitations for categories and classes

of point sources,... which (i) shall require application of the best available technology economically achievable for such category or class,
which will result in reasonable further progress
toward the national goal of eliminating the discharge of all pollutants.* [8] ...Factors relating
to the assessment of best available technology
shall take into account the age of equipment
and facilities involved, the process employed,
the engineering aspects of the application of
various types of control techniques, process
changes, the cost of achieving such euent reduction, non-water quality environmental impact (including energy requirements), and such
other factors as the Administrator deems appropriate.* [9]

BAT for a given industrial sector are described in

BAT reference documents (BREFs) as dened in article 3(11) of the Industrial Emissions Directive. BREFs
are the result of an exchange of information between
European Union Member States, the industries concerned, non-governmental organisations promoting environmental protection and the European Commission pursuant to article 13 of the directive. This exchange of
information is often called the Sevilla process because A related CWA provision for cooling water intake strucit is steered by the Institute for Prospective Technologi- tures requires standards based onbest technology availcal Studies of the European Commissions' Joint Research able.
Centre, which is based in Seville. The process is described in detail in Commission Implementing Decision
...the location, design, construction, and capac2012/119/EU.* [6] The most important chapter of the
ity of cooling water intake structures reect the
BREFs, the BAT conclusions, are published as implebest technology available for minimizing admenting decisions of the European Commission in the
verse environmental impact.* [10]
Ocial Journal of the European Union. According to article 14(3) of the Industrial Emissions Directive, the BAT
conclusions shall be the reference for setting permit con17.3 International conventions
ditions of large industrial installations.
The concept of BAT is also used in a number of international conventions such as the Minamata Convention
on Mercury, the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, or the OSPAR Convention for the protection of the marine environment of the North-East AtThe Clean Air Act requires that certain facilities employ lantic.
Best Available Control Technology to control emissions.

17.2 United States environmental

law

...an emission limitation based on the maximum degree of reduction of each pollutant
subject to regulation under this Act emitted
from or which results from any major emitting facility, which the permitting authority,
on a case-by-case basis, taking into account
energy, environmental, and economic impacts
and other costs, determines is achievable for
such facility through application of production
processes and available methods, systems, and
techniques, including fuel cleaning, clean fuels, or treatment or innovative fuel combustion techniques for control of each such pollutant.* [7]
The Clean Water Act (CWA) requires issuance of national industrial wastewater discharge regulations (called
"euent guidelines"), which are based on BAT and several related standards.

17.4 See also

Appropriate technology
Best Available Control Technology
Lowest Achievable Emissions Rate

17.5 References
[1] Sorrell, Steve (2001-02-19). The Meaning of BATNEEC: Interpreting Excessive Costs in UK Industrial Pollution Regulation. sussex.ac.uk. Retrieved 2007-08-09.
[2] Higgins, Clement (1877). A Treatise on the Law Relating
to the Pollution & Obstruction of Watercourses. London,
UK: Stevens and Haynes. pp. 175176. Retrieved 200902-27.

17.6. EXTERNAL LINKS

[3] Smith, Bob (n.d.). BPM/BPEO vs BAT - A personal

view (PDF). bnes.com. Archived from the original
(PDF) on 2007-10-10. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
[4] Council Directive 84/360/EEC (PDF; 496 kB) of 28 June
1984 on the combating of air pollution from industrial
plants.
[5] Directive 2010/75/EU (PDF; 2.78 MB) of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010 on
industrial emissions (integrated pollution prevention and
control).
[6] Commission Implementing Decision 2012/119/EU
(PDF; 1.54 MB) of 10 February 2012 laying down rules
concerning guidance on the collection of data and on the
drawing up of BAT reference documents and on their
quality assurance referred to in Directive 2010/75/EU of
the European Parliament and of the Council on industrial
emissions.
[7] United States. Clean Air Act of 1990, section 169(3), 42
U.S.C. 7479(3).
[8] United States. Clean Water Act (CWA) section 301(b),
33 U.S.C. 1311(b)
[9] CWA sec. 304(b), 33 U.S.C. 1314(b)
[10] CWA sec. 316(b), 33 U.S.C. 1326(b)

17.6 External links

BAT reference documents and BAT conclusions of
the European Union

71

Chapter 18

Beta attenuation monitoring

other. Thus one can deduce how much mass has the ribbon acquired upon being exposed to air ow; knowing
the drain velocity, actual particle mass concentration in
air could be assessed.

The radiation source can be a gas chamber, lled with

86
Kr gas, or a pieces of 14 C-rich polymer plastic, such
as PMMA.* [2]* [3] Detector is simply a GeigerMueller
counter. The particulate matter content measured is
aected by the moisture content in the air, unfortunately.* [4]

D2

6
5

D1

To discriminate between particle of dierent sizes (e. g.,

between PM10 and PM2.5 ), some preliminary separation
could be accomplished, for example, by cyclone battery.

A similar method exists, where instead of beta particle

ow an X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopic monitoring is
applied on the either side of air ow contact with the ribbon. This allows to obtain not only cumulative measurement of particle mass, but also to detect their average
chemical composition (technique works for potassium
and elements heavier than it).* [5]

The schematic of a beta attenuation monitor (BAM). The detector allows to assess cumulative mass concentration of suspended
particulate matter (PM) in the ambient air. Notation: 1 air inlet; 2 cycling ribbon; 3 and 4 beta radiation sources; D1 and
D2 beta radiation detectors; 5 air pump; 6 air exhaust.

Beta attenuation monitoring (BAM) is a widely used

air monitoring technique employing the absorption of
beta radiation by solid particles extracted from air ow.
This technique allows for the detection of PM10 and
PM2.5 , which are monitored as standards by most air pollution regulatory agencies. The main principle is based
on a kind of Bouguer (LambertBeer) law: the amount
by which the ow of beta radiation (electrons) is attenuated by a solid matter is exponentially dependent on its
mass and not on any other feature (such as density, chemical composition or some optical or electrical properties)
of this matter.* [1] So, the air is drawn from outside of the
detector through aninnite(cycling) ribbon made from
some ltering material so that the particles are collected
on it. There are two sources of beta radiation placed
one before and one after the region where air ow passes
through the ribbon leaving particles on it; and there are
also two detectors on the opposite side of the ribbon, facing the detectors. The sources' intensity and detectors'
sensitivity being the same (or corrected with appropriate calibration lookup table), the intensity of beta rays
detected by one of detectors is compared to that of the

18.1 References

72

[1] A. Liberti. Modern Methods for Air Pollution Monitoring. Pure and Applied Chemistry 1975, 44(3). pp. 519
534.
[2] Compendium of Methods for the Determination of Inorganic Compounds in Ambient Air. Chapter IO-1. Continuous measurement of PM10 suspended particulate matter
(SPM) in ambient air. EPA:Cincinnati, 1999. 7 p.
[3] Enviro Technology Services. Product overview: OPSIS
SM200 PM10 PM2.5 Sampler. Online: http://www.et.
co.uk/products/air-quality-monitoring.
[4] UK Equivalence Programme for Monitoring of Particulate
Matter. Final report. Bureau Veritas: London, 2006.
126 p.
[5] Enviro Technology Services. Product overview: CES
Xact 625 Monitoring System. Online: http://www.et.co.
uk/products/air-quality-monitoring.

18.2. LITERATURE

18.2 Literature
List of Designated Reference and Equivalent Methods. EPA: Research Triangle park, 2013. Online:
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/amtic/criteria.html .

73

Chapter 19

Boulder Climate Action Plan

The Climate Action Plan (CAP) is a set of strategies intended to guide community eorts for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. Those strategies have focused
on improving energy eciency and conservation in our
homes and businessesthe source of nearly three-fourths
of local emissions. The plan also promotes strategies to
reduce emissions from transportation, which account for
over 20 percent of our local greenhouse gas sources.

Purpose: Renewable energy, energy eciency, transportation

http://www.bouldercolorado.gov/index.php?option=
com_content&task=view&id=7698&Itemid=2844

19.3 Incentive authority

Authority 1: Ballot Issue 202 (Climate Action Plan

Tax)
19.1 General information
Date Enacted:11/7/2006
http://www.bouldercolorado.gov/files/Elections/2006/
In November 2006, citizens of Boulder, Colorado, climate_action_plan_ord.pdf
voted to approve Ballot Issue No. 202, authorizing Authority 2: Boulder Revised Code 3-12
the city council to levy and collect an excise tax from Date Eective: 4/1/2007
residential, commercial and industrial electricity cus- Expiration Date: 3/31/2013
tomers for the purpose of funding a climate action http://www.colocode.com/boulder2/chapter3-12.htm
plan(1)City of Boulder R.S. 312, accessed 2010-02-02
http://www.colocode.com/boulder2/chapter3-12.htm to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The plan outlines pro19.4 See also
grams to increase energy eciency, increase renewable
energy use, reduce emissions from motor vehicles, and
Carbon pricing
take other steps toward the goal of meeting the Kyoto
Protocol.
Global Action Plan
Beginning April 1, 2007 and expiring March 31, 2013,
the initial tax rate was set at $0.0022/kWh for residential
customers, $0.0004/kWh for commercial customers, and
$0.0002/kWh for industrial customers. The city council
has the authority to increase the tax after the rst year
up to a maximum permitted tax rate of $0.0049/kWh for
residential customers; $0.0009/kWh for commercial customers; and $0.0003/kWh for industrial customers. Voluntary purchases of utility-provided wind power are exempt from the tax.

Transition Towns
Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States
Chicago Climate Action Plan
San Francisco Climate Action Plan
Biodiversity Action Plan
Obamas Climate Action Plan

19.2 Allocation and generation of 19.5 References

fund
DSIRE Database of State Incentives for Renewables
& Eciency accessed 2010-02-02 Bay Area Air
Quality Management District

Charge:
Current tax rates for electricity customers (link to 7):

Spare the Air website

Total Fund:$860,265 in the rst year and up to

$1,342,000/year thereafter through 3/31/2013

Managing TitleV Compliance

74

19.5. REFERENCES
Clean air reference website
Fireplace Rebate Fund
BAAQMD phone numbers including 800EXHAUST (800-394-2878) to report smoggy
cars

75

Chapter 20

Burn pit
A burn pit is an area devoted to open-air combustion
of trash. Modern waste contains signicant amounts of
plastic and other material which may emit toxic aerial
compounds and particulates when burned. In Iraq and
Afghanistan the U.S. military, or its contractors such
as KBR operated large burn pits for long periods of
time burning many tons of assorted waste. Active duty
personnel reported respiratory diculties and headaches
in some cases and some veterans have made disability
claims based on respiratory system symptoms.* [1]

20.1 Materials burned and combustion products

It has been reported that every type of waste was burned
including: plastics, batteries, appliances, medicine, dead
animals, even human body parts with jet fuel being used
as an accelerant. Clouds of black smoke resulted.* [1] According to an Air Force fact sheet,Burning solid wastes
in an open pit generates numerous pollutants. These pollutants include dioxins, particulate matter, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds, carbon
monoxide, hexachlorobenzene, and ash. Highly toxic
dioxins, produced in small amounts in almost all burning processes, can be produced in elevated levels with increased combustion of plastic waste (such as discarded
drinking water bottles) and if the combustion is not
at high incinerator temperatures. Inecient combustion of medical or latrine wastes can emit disease-laden
aerosols.

more than 400 tons of trash were disposed using burn

pits a day.* [3]
Within a mile of BIAP (Baghdad International Airport)
and also within a mile of camps Cropper and Stryker was
one of these burn pits. The ash rained down on us like
snowakes - not only on US troops, but also Iraqi detainees and Iraqi correctional ocers (aka ICO's). There
were akes of ash the size of half a sheet of notebook paper. That installation was perpetually downwind of one
particular burn pit, and while this wasn't an everyday occurrence, during winter of 2007 into 2008 it did happen
often. This is not to speak for the frequency of the burnings, but the ash literally came down like snowfall over
the facility.

20.3 Duration
Burn pits were adopted as a temporary measure but remained open long after alternative methods of disposal
such as incineration were available. After some years the
American military did adopt other methods. * [1]

20.4 Health eects

In November 2009, at the request of the VA, the National
Academy of Sciences Institute of Medicine (IOM) began
an 18-month study to determine the long-term health effects of exposure to burn pits in Iraq and Afghanistan.

At the request of the Veteran's Administration (VA) and

the Department of Defense, the Board on the Health of
Select Populations of the Institute of Medicine formed
the Committee on Long-term Health Consequences of
20.2 Locations
Exposure to Burn Pits in Iraq and Afghanistan which held
23, 2010 - February 24, 2010
Joint Base Balad, the largest U.S. base in Iraq had a burn its rst meeting February
*
in
Washington,
D.C.
[4]
pit operation as late as the summer of 2008 burning 147
tons of waste per day when the Army Times published In 2011, the Institute of Medicine reviewed the scientic
a major story about it and about health concerns. An literature related to the possibility of adverse long-term
Air Force spokesman speaking for the 609th Combined health eects of open burn pits. The report, Long-Term
Air and Space Operations Center Southwest Asia vigor- Health Consequences of Exposure to Burn Pits in Iraq
ously contested allegations of health eects and empha- and Afghanistan* [5] noted U.S. Department of Defense
sized mitigation eorts.* [2] In Afghanistan, at its peak, air quality monitoring data measured levels of particu76

20.6. FURTHER READING

late matter (PM) higher than generally considered safe
by U.S. regulatory agencies. It also cited work linking
high PM levels to cardiopulmonary eects, particularly
in individuals at increased risk due to pre-existing conditions such as asthma and emphysema. They concluded
that there is only limited evidence suggestive of an association between exposure to combustion products and
reduced pulmonary function in these populations.
If there is sucient evidence of a connection between exposure to burn pits and subsequent illness and disability,
it might serve as the basis for congressional enactment of
apresumption of service connectionsimilar to that in
place for exposure to Agent Orange.
The VA Airborne Hazards and Open Burn Pit Registry* [6] is a database of information about Veterans
and Servicemembers collected through a questionnaire.
Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation New Dawn (OEF/OIF/OND) or 19901991 Gulf War Veterans and Servicemembers can use
the registry questionnaire to report exposures to airborne
hazards (such as smoke from burn pits, oil-well res, or
pollution during deployment), as well as other exposures
and health concerns.
Reports on the registry data:
1. Report on Data from the Airborne Hazards and
Open Burn Pit (AH&OBP) Registry, June 2015 - Between April 25, 2014, and December 31, 2014, nearly
thirty thousand Veterans and Active Duty Servicemembers lled out the registry survey. This report highlights
health conditions and physical limitations experienced by
burn pit registry participants.
The most common doctor-diagnosed health problems reported were insomnia and neurological problems.
Other commonly diagnosed health problems reported include allergies, high blood pressure, and
lung disease like emphysema, chronic bronchitis,
and asthma.
It is important to remember that Registry ndings
alone can't tell if exposure to burn pits, dust storms,
or other hazards caused these health conditions.
2. Report on Data from the Airborne Hazards and Open
Burn Pit (AH&OBP) Registry, April 2015

20.5 References
[1] Veterans Sound Alarm Over Burn-Pit Exposurearticle
by James Risen in The New York Times August 6, 2010,
accessed August 7, 2010
[2] Burn pit at Balad raises health concerns: Troops say
chemicals and medical waste burned at base are making

77

them sick, but ocials deny riskarticle by Kelly Kennedy

in Army Times Oct 29, 2008, accessed August 7, 2010
[3] Vlahos, Kelley Beaucar (14 February 2015). "Indefensible: Report reveals extent ofburn pitpollution inhaled
by US troops in Afghanistan. Fox News. Retrieved 21
February 2015.
[4] First Meeting of the Committee on the Long-Term Health
Consequences of Exposure to Burn Pits in Iraq and
Afghanistan Keck Center of the National Academies, accessed August 8, 2010
[5] Long-Term Health Consequences of Exposure to Burn
Pits in Iraq and Afghanistan, accessed July 9, 2015
[6] Airborne Hazards and Open Burn Pit Registry, accessed
July 9, 2015

20.6 Further reading

Department of Veterans Aairs, Public Health,
VA's Airborne Hazards and Open Burn Pit Registry
webpage
VA Airborne Hazards and Open Burn Pit Registry
Video
Report: Army making toxic mess in war zones
article by Kelly Kennedy in Military Times Oct 3,
2008
David E. Mosher, Beth E. Lachman, Michael D.
Greenberg, Tiany Nichols, Brian Rosen, Henry
H. Willis, Green Warriors: Army Environmental Considerations for Contingency Operations from
Planning through Post-Conict, Rand Corporation (2008), trade paperback, 252 pages, ISBN
9780833043184
About Green Warriors on Rand website
Environmental Health Surveillance Registries
(EHSR) website - U.S. Department of Defense
(DoD) information page for VA Burn Pit Registry
Military Burn Pits: the New Agent Orange? by
Mary Anne Mercer et al, Hungton Post. http:
//www.huffingtonpost.com/news/burn-pits/
http://www.chicagonow.com/
uncommon-sense/2012/10/
red-fridays-burn-pits-the-new-agent-orange/

Chapter 21

CALPUFF
CALPUFF is an advanced, integrated Lagrangian pu CALPUFF as a preferred model in their Guideline on Air
modeling system for the simulation of atmospheric pol- Quality Models, Earth Tech served as the designated dislution dispersion distributed by the Atmospheric Studies tributor of the model.
Group at TRC Solutions.* [1]
In April 2006, ownership of the model switched from
It is maintained by the model developers and distributed Earth Tech to the TRC Environmental Corporation.
by TRC. The model has been adopted by the United More recently ownership transferred to E* xponent,* [5]
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in its who are currently (December 2015) responsible for mainGuideline on Air Quality Models * [2] as a preferred model taining and distributing the model.* [1]
for assessing long range transport of pollutants and their
impacts on Federal Class I areas and on a case-by-case
basis for certain near-eld applications involving complex 21.2 See also
meteorological conditions.
The integrated modeling system consists of three main
components and a set of preprocessing and postprocessing programs. The main components of the modeling system are CALMET (a diagnostic 3-dimensional
meteorological model), CALPUFF (an air quality dispersion model), and CALPOST (a postprocessing package). Each of these programs has a graphical user interface (GUI). In addition to these components, there are
numerous other processors that may be used to prepare
geophysical (land use and terrain) data in many standard
formats, meteorological data (surface, upper air, precipitation, and buoy data), and interfaces to other models such
as the Penn State/NCAR Mesoscale Model (MM5), the
National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP)
Eta model and the RAMS meteorological model.

Air pollution dispersion terminology

Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Atmospheric Studies Group
List of atmospheric dispersion models

21.3 References
[1] CALPUFF Status and Update
[2] Appendix W of 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Part 51

The CALPUFF model is designed to simulate the dispersion of buoyant, pu or continuous point and area pollution sources as well as the dispersion of buoyant, continuous line sources. The model also includes algorithms for
handling the eect of downwash by nearby buildings in
the path of the pollution plumes.* [3]

[3] General and Specic Characteristics of the model

[4] Model Formulation and Users Guide for the CALPUFF
model, May 1990
[5]

21.3.1 Further reading

21.1 History
The CALPUFF model was originally developed by the
Sigma Research Corporation (SRC) in the late 1980s
under contract with the California Air Resources Board
(CARB)* [3] and it was rst issued in about 1990.* [4]
The Sigma Research Corporation subsequently became
part of Earth Tech, Inc. After the US EPA designated

78

Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
www.crcpress.com
Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack
Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). self-published. ISBN 09644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com

21.4. EXTERNAL LINKS

Breyfogle, Steve; Sue A., Ferguson (December
1996). User Assessment of Smoke-Dispersion
Models for Wildland Biomass Burning (PDF).
USDA Forest Service. Retrieved 2009-02-06.

21.4 External links

src.com: Ocial CALPUFF website ASG at
TRC.
EPA.gov: Preferred and Recommended Models by
the U.S. EPA
Air Dispersion Modeling at DMOZ

79

Chapter 22

CMAQ
CMAQ is an acronym for the Community Multi-scale
Air Quality Model,* [1]* [2] a sophisticated atmospheric
dispersion model developed by the US EPA to address
regional air pollution problems. (For example, a multistate area where ozone or ne particulate levels exceed
the US health standards.) In addition to simulating the
emission, advection, diusion, and deposition of air pollutants, CMAQ treats a wide array of chemical reactions
that occur throughout the lower atmosphere. For example, ozone forms in the atmosphere when nitrogen oxides
interact with volatile organic compounds in the presence
of sunlight. Ammonium sulfate is formed in ne particulate matter when sulfuric acid (formed largely in cloud
water) interacts with gas-phase ammonia.* [3] Meteorological conditions such as subsidence inversions, decrease
the amount fresh air available for dilution of air emissions, and increase the rate of production of secondary air
pollutants. CMAQ has the capability to accurately predict air pollution concentrations resulting from secondary
formation. Like any air dispersion model, CMAQ inputs
air pollutant emissions and meteorological data and outputs air pollutant concentrations and deposited totals. Its
particular strength is in assessing the ecacy of regional
emissions control strategies in reducing regional air pollution levels.
CMAQ may also refer to the Congestion Mitigation and
Air Quality Improvement Program, a program of the
United States Department of Transportation.* [4]

22.1 References
[1] Community Multi-scale Air Quality Model | Research
in Action | US EPA. Epa.gov. 2010-11-17. Retrieved
2015-06-03.
[2] Community Modeling and Analysis (CMAS) - CMAQ
. Cmascenter.org. 2014-10-24. Retrieved 2015-06-03.
[3] The Impact of Nonlocal Ammonia on Submicron Particulate Matter and Visibility Degradation in Urban Shanghai. Hindawi.com. Retrieved 2015-06-03.
[4] Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement
(CMAQ) Program. U.S. Department of Transportation.
Retrieved 4 November 2015.

80

Chapter 23

Condensation particle counter

A condensation particle counter or CPC is a particle
counter that detects and counts aerosol particles by rst
enlarging them by using the particles as nucleation centers
to create droplets in a supersaturated gas. * [1]

Three techniques have been used to produce nucleation:

Adiabatic expansion using an expansion chamber.

This was the original technique used by John Aitken
in 1888. * [2]
Thermal diusion.
Mixing of hot and cold gases. * [1]

6
5

The most usually used (also the most ecient) method

is cooling by thermal diusion. Most abundantly used
working uid is n-butanol; during last years water is also
encountered in this use.* [3]
Condensation particle counters are able to detect particles with dimensions from 2 nm and larger. This is of
special importance because particles sized down from 50
nm are generally undetectable with conventional optical
techniques. Usually the supersaturation is ca. 100
200 % in condensation chamber, despite the fact that
heterogeneous nucleation (droplet growth on surface of
a suspended solid particle) can occur at supersaturation
as small as 1 %. The greater vapour content is needed
because, according to surface science laws, the vapour
pressure over a convex surface is less than over a plane,
thus greater content of vapor in air is required to meet actual supersaturation criteria. This amount grows (vapor
pressure decreases) along with decrease in particle size,
the critical diameter for which condensation can occur at
the present saturation level is called Kelvin diameter. The
supersaturation level must, however, be small enough to
prevent homogeneous nucleation (when liquid molecules
collide so often that they form clusters stable enough
to ensure further growth is possible), which will produce
false counts. This usually starts at ca. 300 % supersaturation. * [3]
Operation of a diusional thermal cooling CPC is depicted on the right. Air passes through a hollow block of
porous material in contact with the working liquid, the
block being heated to ensure high vapour content. Then

1
2
The schematic of a condensation particle counter, operated by
diusional thermal cooling. Drawn according to the description at http://www.cas.manchester.ac.uk/restools/instruments/
aerosol/cpc/. Notation: 1 air inlet; 2 porous material block,
which is heated to saturator temperature, 3 working uid in
reservoir, 4 condenser, 5 focusing nozzle, 6 laser-based
counter, 7 air pump, 8 air exhaust.

the humied air enters the cooler where nucleation occur. Temperature dierence between the heater and the
cooler determines the supersaturation, which in its turn
determines the minimal size of particles that will be detected (the greater the dierence, the smaller particles get
counted). As proper nucleation conditions occur in the
center of the ow, sometimes incoming ow is divided:
most of it undergoes ltering and forms the sheath ow,
which the rest of ow, still containing particles, is inserted
into via a capillary. The more uniform is obtained su-

81

82
persaturation, the sharper is particle minimal size cuto.
During the heterogeneous nucleation process in the nucleation chamber, particles grow up to 1012 m large and
so are conveniently detected by usual techniques, such as
laser nefelometry (measurement of light pulses scattered
by the grown-up particles).* [3]

23.1 References
[1] Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications, edited by Pramod Kulkarni, Paul A. Baron,
Klaus Willeke, p384, retrieved 15 May 2012
[2] Kulkarni, Baronand and Willeke, p381
[3] Condensation Particle Counters (CPC)

CHAPTER 23. CONDENSATION PARTICLE COUNTER

Chapter 24

Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution
sions of air pollutants:
Protocol 8: 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate
Acidication, Eutrophication and Ground-level
Ozone
Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air
Pollution signatories (green) and ratications (dark green) as of
July 2007

The aim of the Convention is that Parties shall endeavour

to limit and, as far as possible, gradually reduce and prevent air pollution including long-range transboundary air
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air pollution. Parties develop policies and strategies to comPollution, often abbreviated as Air Pollution or CLR- bat the discharge of air pollutants through exchanges of
TAP, is intended to protect the human environment information, consultation, research and monitoring.
against air pollution and to gradually reduce and pre- The Parties meet annually at sessions of the Executive
vent air pollution, including long-range transboundary air Body to review ongoing work and plan future activities
pollution. It is implemented by the European Monitor- including a workplan for the coming year. The three
ing and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the main subsidiary bodies - the Working Group on Eects,
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN- the Steering Body to EMEP and the Working Group on
ECE).
Strategies and Review - as well as the Convention's Implementation Committee, report to the Executive Body
each year.

24.1 Overview
The convention opened for signature on 1979-11-13 and
entered into force on 1983-03-16.
The Convention, which now has 51 Parties, identies
the Executive Secretary of the United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (UNECE) as its secretariat. The
current parties to the Convention are shown on the map.

Currently, the Convention's priority activities include

review and possible revision of its most recent protocols, implementation of the Convention and its protocols across the entire UNECE region (with special focus
on Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia and
South-East Europe) and sharing its knowledge and information with other regions of the world.

The Convention is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) (short for 24.2 Substances
Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation
of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Eu- The following substances are contained in the CLRTAP
rope).* [1] Results of the EMEP programme are published POPs Protocol.* [2]
on the EMEP website, www.emep.int.
Since 1979 the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution has addressed some of the major environmental problems of the UNECE region through scientic collaboration and policy negotiation. The Convention has been extended by eight protocols that identify
specic measures to be taken by Parties to cut their emis-

24.3 See also

83

Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Critical load

84

CHAPTER 24. CONVENTION ON LONG-RANGE TRANSBOUNDARY AIR POLLUTION

Environmental agreements
Gothenburg (Multi-eect) Protocol
1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur
Emissions
1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions
Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol

24.4 References
Source: CIA World Factbook, as of 2003 edition
[1] EMEP History and Structure, EMEP website
[2] UNECE: Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution 2010, p.
1213.

24.5 External links

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
Ratications, at depositary

Chapter 25

Criteria air contaminants

Criteria air contaminants (CAC), or criteria pollu- and NAAQS for a given listed pollutant or class of pollutants, are a set of air pollutants that cause smog, acid rain, tants.* [6]
and other health hazards. CACs are typically emitted
from many sources in industry, mining, transportation,
electricity generation and agriculture. In most cases they 25.3 Six Criteria Air Pollutants
are the products of the combustion of fossil fuels or industrial processes.* [1]
1. Ozone (O3 ): Ozone found on the surface-level, also
known as tropospheric ozone is also regulated by the
The history of each criteria air pollutant is listed below:
NAAQS under the Clean Air Act. Ozone was originally found to be damaging to grapes in the 1950s.
The US EPA set oxidantsstandards in 1971,
25.1 Background
which included ozone. These standards were created to reduce agricultural impacts and other related
The six criteria air contaminants were the rst set of poldamages. Like lead, ozone requires a reexamination
lutants recognized by the United States Environmental
of new ndings of health and vegetation eects peProtection Agency as needing standards on a national
riodically. This aspect necessitated the creation of
level.* [2] The Clean Air Act requires the EPA to set US
a US EPA criteria document. Further analysis done
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for
in 1979 and 1997 made it necessary to signicantly
the six CACs.* [3] The NAAQS are health based and the
modify the pollution standards
EPA sets two types of standards: primary and secondary.
2.
The primary standards are designed to protect the health
of 'sensitive' populations such as asthmatics, children, and
3. Atmospheric particulate matter
the elderly. The secondary standards are concerned with
PM10 , coarse particles: 2.5 micrometers (m)
protecting the environment. They are designed to address
to 10 m in size (although current implemenvisibility, damage to crops, vegetation, buildings, and antation includes all particles 10 m or less in the
imals.* [4]
standard)
PM2.5 , ne particles: 2.5 m in size or less.
Particulate Matter (PM) was listed in the 1996
Criteria document issued by the EPA. In April
2001, the EPA created a Second External Review Draft of the Air Quality Criteria for PM,
which addressed updated studies done on particulate matter and the modied pollutant standards done since the First External Review
Draft. In May 2002, a Third External Review
Draft was made, and the EPA revised PM requirements again. After issuing a fourth version of the document, the EPA issued the nal
version in October 2004.

25.2 Sections 108 and 109 of the

U.S. Clean Air Act
The EPA established the NAAQS according to Sections
108 and 109 of the U.S. Clean Air Act, which was last
amended in 1990.* [5] These sections require the EPA
"(1) to list widespread air pollutants that reasonably may
be expected to endanger public health or welfare; (2) to
issue air quality criteria for them that assess the latest
available scientic information on nature and eects of
ambient exposure to them; (3) to set primary NAAQS
to protect human health with adequate margin of safety
and to set secondary NAAQS to protect against welfare
eects (e.g., eects on vegetation, ecosystems, visibility, climate, manmade materials, etc); and (5) to periodically review and revise, as appropriate, the criteria
85

4.
5. Lead (Pb): In the mid-1970s, lead was listed as a
criteria air pollutant that required NAAQS regulation. In 1977, the EPA published a document which

86

CHAPTER 25. CRITERIA AIR CONTAMINANTS

detailed the Air Quality Criteria for lead. This document was based on the scientic assessments of
lead at the time. Based on this report (1977 Lead
AQCD), the EPA established a 1.5 g/m3 (maximum quarterly calendar average) Pb NAAQS in
1978.* [7]" The Clean Air Act requires periodic review of NAAQS, and new scientic data published
after 1977 made it necessary to revise the standards
previously established in the 1977 Lead AQCD document. An Addendum to the document was published in 1986 and then again as a Supplement to
the 1986 AQCD/Addendum in 1990. In 1990, a
Lead Sta Paper was prepared by the EPA's Oce
of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OPQPS),
which was based on information presented in the
1986 Lead/AQCD/Addendum and 1990 Supplement, in addition to other OAQPS sponsored lead
exposure/risk analyses. In this paper, it was proposed that the Pb NAAQS be revised further and
presented options for revision to the EPA. The EPA
elected to not modify the Pb NAAQS further, but
decided to instead focus on the 1991 U.S. EPA Strategy for Reducing Lead Exposure. The EPA concentrated on regulatory and remedial clean-up eorts
to minimize Pb exposure from numerous non-air
sources that caused more severe public health risks,
and undertook actions to reduce air emissions.

6.
7. Carbon monoxide (CO): The EPA set the rst
NAAQS for carbon monoxide in 1971. The primary
standard was set at 9 ppm averaged over an 8-hour
period and 35 ppm over a 1-hour period.* [8] The
majority of CO emitted into the ambient air is from
mobile sources. The EPA has reviewed and assessed
the current scientic literature with respect to CO in
1979, 1984, 1991, and 1994.* [9] After the review
in 1984 the EPA decided to remove the secondary
standard for CO due to lack of signicant evidence
of the adverse environmental impacts. On January
28, 2011 the EPA decided that the current NAAQS
for CO were sucient and proposed to keep the existing standards as they stood. The EPA is strengthening monitoring requirements for CO by calling for
CO monitors to be placed in strategic locations near
large urban areas. Specically, the EPA has called
for monitors to be placed and operational in CBSA's
(core based statistical areas) with populations over
2.5 million by January 1, 2015; and in CBSA's with
populations of 1 million or more by January 1, 2017.
In addition they are requiring the collocation of CO
monitors with NO2 monitors in urban areas having
a population of 1 million for more. As of May 2011
there were approximately 328 operational CO monitors in place nationwide. The EPA has provided
some authority to the EPA Regional Administrators
to oversee case-by-case requested exceptions and in
determining the need for additional monitoring sys-

tems above the minimum required.* [10] The EPA

reports the national average concentration of CO has
decreased by 82% since 1980.* [11] The last nonattainment designation was deemed in attainment on
September 27, 2010. Currently all areas in the US
are in attainment.* [10]
8.
9. Sulfur oxides (SO): SO refers to the oxides of sulfur, a highly reactive group of gases. SO2 is of greatest interest and is used as the indicator for the entire SO family. The EPA rst set primary and secondary standards in 1971. Dual primary standards
were set at 140 ppb averaged over a 24-hour period,
and at 30 ppb averaged annually. The secondary
standard was set at 500 ppb averaged over a 3-hour
period, not to be exceeded more than once a year.
The most recent review took place in 1996 during which the EPA considered implementing a new
NAAQS for 5-minute peaks of SO2 aecting sensitive populations such as asthmatics. The Agency did
not establish this new NAAQS and kept the existing
standards.* [12] In 2010 the EPA decided to replace
the dual primary standards with a new 1-hour standard set at 75 ppb. On March 20, 2012 the EPA
took nal actionto maintain the existing NAAQS
as they stood.* [13] Only three monitoring sites have
exceeded the current NAAQS for SO2 , all of which
are located in the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
The violations occurred between 2007-2008 and the
state of Hawaii suggested these should be exempt
from regulatory actions due to an 'exceptional event'
(volcanic activity). Since 1980 the national concentration of SO2 in the ambient air has decreased by
83%.* [14] Annual average concentrations hover between 1-6 ppb. Currently all ACQR's are in attainment for SO2 .* [15]
10.
11. Nitrogen oxides (NO): The EPA rst set primary
and secondary standards for the oxides of nitrogen
in 1971. Among these are nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2 O), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), all
of which are covered in the NAAQS. NO2 is the
oxide measured and used as the indicator for the
entire NO family as it is of the most concern due
to its quick formation and contribution to the formation of harmful ground level ozone.* [16] In 1971
the primary and secondary NAAQS for NO2 were
both set at an annual average of 0.053 ppm. The
EPA reviewed this NAAQS in 1985 and 1996, and
in both cases concluded that the existing standard
was sucient. The most recent review by the EPA
occurred in 2010, resulting in a new 1-hour NO2
primary standard set at 100 ppb; the annual average
of 0.053 ppm remained the same. Also considered
was a new 1-hour secondary standard of 100 ppb.

25.5. PETITION TO ADD SEVEN CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS

This was the rst time the EPA reviewed the environmental impacts separate from the health impacts
for this group of criteria air pollutants* [16] Also,
in 2010, the EPA decided to ensure compliance by
strengthening monitoring requirements, calling for
increased numbers of monitoring systems near large
urban areas and major roadways. On March 20,
2012 the EPA took nal actionto maintain the
existing NAAQS as they stand.* [17] The national
average of NO concentrations has dropped by 52%
since 1980.* [18] The annual concentration for NO2
is reported to be averaging around 10-20 ppb, and is
expected to decrease further with new mobile source
regulations.* [19] Currently all areas of the US are
classied as in attainment.* [16]

87

carbon dioxide (CO2 )

methane (CH4 )
nitrous oxide (N2 O)
hydrouorocarbons (HFCs)
peruorocarbons (PFCs)
sulfur hexauoride (SF6 )
This action allowed the EPA to set the greenhouse gas
emission standards to light-duty vehicles proposed jointly
with the Department of Transportation's Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards in 2009.* [20]

25.5 Petition to Add Seven Criteria

25.4 EPA Endangerment Findings/
Air Pollutants
Mass v. EPA
In 2009, the EPA Administrator found that under section
202(a) of the Clean Air Act greenhouse gases threaten
both the public health and the public welfare, and that
greenhouse gas emissions from motor vehicles contribute
to that threat. This nal action has two distinct 'ndings,'
which are:
1) The 'Endangerment Finding' in which the Administrator found that the mix of atmospheric concentrations
of six key, well-mixed greenhouse gases threatens both
the public health and the public welfare of current and future generations. These six greenhouse gases are: carbon
dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O), hydrouorocarbons (HFCs), peruorocarbons (PFCs), and
sulfur hexauoride (SF6 ). These greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere constitute the air pollutionthat threatens
both public health and welfare.
2) The 'Cause or Contribute Finding,' in which the
Administrator found that the combined greenhouse gas
emissions from new motor vehicles and motor vehicle
engines contribute to the atmospheric concentrations of
these key greenhouse gases and hence to the threat of climate change.
The EPA issued these endangerment ndings in response
to the 2007 supreme court case Massachusetts v. EPA,
when the court determined that greenhouse gases are
air pollutants according to the Clean Air Act. The
court made the decision that the EPA must determine
whether greenhouse gas emissions from new motor vehicles cause or contribute to air pollution which may
be reasonably be anticipated to endanger public health or
welfare, or whether the science is too uncertain to make
a reasoned decision(EPA's Endangerment Finding).
The EPA determined that, according to this decision,
there are six greenhouse gases that need to be regulated.
These include:

On December 2, 2009, the Center for Biological Diversity and 350.org requested that the EPA recognize that
carbon dioxide and other GHGs are reasonably anticipated to endanger public health and welfare. Petitioners
proposed that EPA list carbon dioxide as a criteria air
pollutant, as outlined in the Clean Air Act. They also requested that the EPA set NAAQS for carbon dioxide at
no greater than 350 ppm- alevel that accurately reects
the most recent scientic knowledge.Petitioners further
requested that EPA designate the six other greenhouse
gases, highlighted in Mass v. EPA, as criteria pollutants
as well and establish pollution caps for them. Furthermore, the petitioners proposed that nitrogen triuoride
(NF3 ) be regulated as a criteria air pollutant in addition
to the other six.* [21]

25.6 See also

Air pollution
Contamination control

25.7 References
[1] http://des.nh.gov/organization/commissioner/pip/
factsheets/ard/documents/ard-41.pdf
[2] Michigan Department Of Environmental Quality, January
2004. What is an Air Contaminant Pollutant? Fact Sheet
[3] http://epa.gov/air/criteria.html US EPA
[4] http://www.epa.gov/air/criteria.html
[5] http://www.epa.gov/ttnnaaqs/
[6] http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=
158823

88

[7] http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=
158823.
[8] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/carbonmonoxide/.
[9] http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/coaqcd.pdf.
[10] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/carbonmonoxide/pdfs/
COFactSheet.pdf.
[11] http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/carbon.html.
[12] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/.
[13] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/pdfs/
20120320factsheet.pdf.
[14] http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/sulfur.html.
[15] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/sulfurdioxide/basic.html.
[16] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/nitrogenoxides/.
[17] Fact Sheet Air Quality Designations for the 2010
Primary Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2 ) National Ambient
Air Quality Standards http://www.epa.gov/airquality/
nitrogenoxides/designations/pdfs/20120120FS.pdf.
[18] http://www.epa.gov/airtrends/nitrogen.html.
[19] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/nitrogenoxides/basic.
html.
[20] http://epa.gov/climatechange/endangerment/downloads/
EndangermentFinding_FAQs.pdf.
[21] http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/climate_
law_institute/global_warming_litigation/clean_air_act/
pdfs/Petition_GHG_pollution_cap_12-2-2009.pdf.

25.8 External links

US Environmental Protection Agency - Criteria Air
Pollutants
European Commission - Environment
World Health Organisation Fact Sheet - Air quality
and health

CHAPTER 25. CRITERIA AIR CONTAMINANTS

Chapter 26

Critical load
In the study of air pollution, a critical load is dened
as A quantitative estimate of an exposure to one or
more pollutants below which signicant harmful eects
on specied sensitive elements of the environment do not
occur according to present knowledge. (Nilsson and
Grennfelt 1988)
Critical loads and the similar concept of critical levels
have been used extensively within the 1979 UN-ECE
Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. As an example the 1999 Gothenburg protocol to
the LRTAP convention takes into account acidication
(of surface waters and soils), eutrophication of soils and
ground-level ozone and the emissions of sulfur dioxide,
ammonia, nitrogen oxide and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). For acidication and eutrophication the critical loads concept was used, whereas
for ground-level ozone the critical levels were used instead.

the critical load function.

Calculating critical load functions and target load functions include several simplications and thus can be
viewed as a risk concept: The higher the exceedance the
higher the risk for adverse eects and there is a certain
risk that zero exceedance will still lead to adverse eects.

26.1 External links

To calculate a critical load, the target ecosystem must rst

be dened and in that ecosystem (e.g. a forest) a sensitiveelementmust be identied (e.g. forest growth rate).
The next step is to link the status of that element to some
chemical criterion (e.g. the base cation to aluminium
ratio, Bc/Al) and a critical limit (e.g. Bc/Al=1) which
should not be violated. Finally, a mathematical model
(e.g. the Simple Mass Balance model, SMB) needs to
be created so that the deposition levels that result in the
chemical criterion reaching exactly the critical limit can
be calculated. That deposition level is called the critical
load and the dierence between the current deposition
level and the critical load is called exceedance.
In the early days, critical loads were often calculated as
a single value, e.g. critical load of acidity. Today a twodimensional critical load function is often calculated, with
the x-axis as N-deposition and the y-axis as S-deposition.
The critical loads concept is a steady-state concept and
that it therefore includes no information whatsoever regarding how long it takes before eects are visible. A
simplied illustration of dynamic aspects is the target
load function, which is the load at which the chemical
criterion recovers before a chosen year, the target year.
Thus, for target years in the near future the target load
function is lower than the critical load and for target years
in the distant future the target load function approaches
89

http://www.mnp.nl/cce/

Chapter 27

Czech Hydrometeorological Institute

The Czech Hydrometeorological Institute (CHMI)
Air Quality Monitoring
(Czech: esk hydrometeorologick stav (HM)) is
Central Air Quality Laboratory
within the Environmental Ministry of the Czech Republic. The head oce and centralized workplaces of the
Calibration Laboratory
CHMI, including the data processing, telecommunication and technical services, are located at the Institute's
own campus in Prague. The CHMI has ve major divi- The work of the Modelling and Expertise Pool departsions:* [1]
ment is focused upon: the development of air pollution
dispersion models; the application of such models in the
preparation of expert reports and opinions; forecasts of
Air Quality Protection
air quality control; the processing of operating informa Meteorology and Climatology
tion on pollutant concentrations obtained by the Airborne
Monitoring section.
Hydrology
The SYMOS97 air pollution dispersion model was developed at the CHMI. It models the dispersion of
Finance and Administration
continuous, neutral or buoyant plumes from single or mul Information Technology
tiple point, area or line sources. It can handle complex
terrain and it can also be used to simulate the dispersion
of cooling tower plumes.* [3]

27.1 History

The National Meteorological Institute was established in

1919 shortly after the Czechoslovak Republic was established at the end of World War I. On January 1, 1954, the
National Meteorological Institute was united with the hydrology service and the Czech Hydrometeorological Institute was established. Its charter was amended in 1994
and in 1995 by the Ministry of the Environment of the
Czech Republic.

27.3 See also

List of atmospheric dispersion models
FMI, the Finnish Meteorological Institute
KNMI, the Royal Dutch Meteorological Institute
NILU, the Norwegian Institute for Air Research
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute

27.2 Air pollution dispersion modelling activities

Royal Meteorological Society

The Air Quality Protection division has seven departments:* [2]

27.4 References

Air Quality Information System

[1]

Emission and Sources

[2] Structure of CHMI's Air Quality Control Division

Modelling and Expertise Pool

[3] The Model Documententation System (MDS) of the European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change (part of
the European Environment Agency)

National Inventorization System

90

27.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

27.5 External links

CMHI website (English version)

91

Chapter 28

Decipol

The Decipol is a unit used to measure the perceived air

quality.* [1] It was introduced by Danish professor P. Ole
Fanger;
One decipol (dp) is the perceived air quality (PAQ) in a
space with a sensory load of one olf (one standard person)
ventilated by 10 L/s. It was developed to quantify how the
strength of indoor pollution sources indoors inuence air
quality as it is perceived by humans.* [1]

28.1 References
[1] Fanger, O. P.: Introduction of the Olf and the Decipol
Units to Quantify Air Pollution Perceived by Humans Indoors. In: Energy and Buildings. 12, 1988, 1-6

92

Chapter 29

Diesel exhaust
reduction (SNCR) systems to meet emissions laws, as
other methods such as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
cannot adequately reduce NO to meet the newer standards applicable in many jurisdictions.

Class 55 Deltic diesel locomotive with their characteristic dense

exhaust when starting a train

Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a

diesel type of internal combustion engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the
fuel type or rate of consumption, or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at speed), and whether the engine
is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application.
The physical and chemical conditions that exist inside any
such diesel engines under any conditions dier considerably from spark-ignition engines, because, by design,
diesel engine power is not controlled by the air/fuel mixture (as in most gasoline engines), but rather it is directly
controlled by the fuel supply.* [1] For instance, diesel engines generally produce 28 times less carbon monoxide
than gasoline engines, as diesels burn their fuel in excess
air even at full load.* [2]* [3]
However, the lean-burning nature of diesel engines and
the high temperatures and pressures of the combustion process result in signicant production of gaseous
nitrogen oxides (NO), an air pollutant that constitutes a
unique challenge with regard to their reduction. Total nitrogen oxides from petrol cars have decreased by around
96% through adoption of exhaust catalytic converters as
of 2012, while diesel cars still produce nitrogen oxides
at a similar level to those bought a decade and a half ago
under real world tests; hence, diesel cars emit around 20
times more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars. Modern onroad diesel engines typically use selective non-catalytic

Moreover, the ne particles (ne particulate matter) in

diesel exhaust (e.g., soot, sometimes visible as opaque
dark-colored smoke) has traditionally been of greater
concern, as it presents dierent health concerns and is
rarely produced in signicant quantities by spark-ignition
engines. Diesel engines produce signicant amounts of
especially harmful particulate contaminants when running without enough oxygen to fully combust the fuel;
when a diesel engine runs at idle, enough oxygen is usually
present to burn the fuel completely. As a result of the particulate emissions, exhaust from diesel vehicles has been
reported to be signicantly more harmful than those from
petrol vehicles.
Diesel exhausts have been known for their characteristic odors, which changed when the sulfur content of
diesel fuel was reduced, and again when catalytic converters were introduced in exhaust systems. Even so,
diesel exhausts have always contained an array of inorganic and organic contaminants, varying in degree and
concentration depending on fuel composition and engine
running conditions. Moreover, diesel exhaust contaminants include substances listed as human carcinogens by
the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the
U.N.'s World Health Organization.
Diesel exhaust pollution is thought to account for around
one quarter of the pollution in the air in previous decades,
and a high share of sickness caused by automotive pollution.

29.1 Denition and composition

Diesel exhaust is the gaseous exhaust produced by a
diesel type of internal combustion engine, plus any contained particulates. Its composition may vary with the
fuel type or rate of consumption, or speed of engine operation (e.g., idling or at speed), and whether the engine
is in an on-road vehicle, farm vehicle, locomotive, marine vessel, or stationary generator or other application.

93

94

CHAPTER 29. DIESEL EXHAUST

The physical and chemical conditions that exist inside any

such diesel engines under any conditions dier considerably from spark-ignition engines; diesel engine power is
directly controlled by the fuel supply, not by control of
the air/fuel mixture as in conventional gasoline engines.
As a result of these dierences, diesel engines generally
produce a dierent array of pollutants than spark-driven
engines, dierences that are sometimes qualitative (what
pollutants are there, and what are not), but more often
quantitative (how much of particular pollutants or pollutant classes are present in each). For instance, very little
carbon monoxide is produced, in general, in diesel engines, as they burn their fuel in excess air even at full
load.* [4]

29.1.2 Specic chemicals

The lean-burning nature of diesel engines and the high

temperatures and pressures of the combustion process result in signicant production of gaseous nitrogen oxide air
pollutants. While total nitrogen oxides from petrol cars
have decreased by around 96% through adoption of exhaust catalytic converters (as of 2012), while diesel cars
still produce nitrogen oxides at a similar level to those
bought a decade and a half ago under real world tests;
hence, resulting in diesel cars emit around 20 times more
nitrogen oxides than petrol cars.* [5] * [6] Auxiliary diesel
systems designed to remediate the nitrogen oxide pollutants are described in a separate section below.

Water recovery

More critically, diesel exhaust contains ne particles (ne

particulate matter, e.g., soot, sometimes visible as opaque
dark-colored smoke), and this is of greater concern as it is
rarely produced in signicant quantities by spark-ignition
engines, and the particulates present signicant, distinct
health concerns (see below). These especially harmful
particulate contaminants are at their peak when such engines are run without sucient oxygen to fully combust
the fuel; when a diesel engine runs at idle, enough oxygen
is usually present to burn the fuel completely.* [7] (The
oxygen requirement in non-idling engines is usually mitigated using turbocharging.)
Diesel exhausts, long known for their characteristic
smells, changed signicantly with the reduction of sulfur
content of diesel fuel, and again when catalytic converters were introduces in exhaust systems. Even so, diesel
exhausts continue to contain an array of inorganic and
organic pollutants, in various classes, and in varying concentrations (see below). Some components of diesel exhaust are listed as carcinogenic for humans by the IARC
(part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations), as present in their List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens.* [8]

The following are classes of specic chemicals that have

been found in diesel exhaust.* [9] * [10]
*

Includes all regioisomers of this aromatic compound.

See ortho-, meta-, and para-isomer descriptions at each
compound's article.

29.1.3 Water vapor

Vehicle exhaust contains much water vapor.

There has been research into ways that troops in deserts

can recover drinkable water from their vehicles' exhaust
gases. * [11]

29.2 Regulation
Further information: Emission standard and Non-road
diesel engine Emission standards

29.2.1 International and federal

29.2.2 Miscellaneous
To rapidly reduce particulate matter from heavy-duty
diesel engines in California, the California Air Resources
Board created the Carl Moyer Program to provide funding for upgrading engines ahead of emissions regulations. In 2008 the California Air Resources Board also
implemented the 2008 California Statewide Truck and
Bus Rule which requires all heavy-duty diesel trucks and
buses, with a few exceptions, that operate in California to
either retrot or replace engines in order to reduce diesel
particulate matter. The US Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) issued a health standard in January
2001 designed to reduce diesel exhaust exposure in underground metal and nonmetal mines; on September 7,
2005, MSHA published a notice in the Federal Register proposing to postpone the eective date from January
2006 until January 2011.

29.3 Health concerns

29.1.1

Chemical classes

29.3.1 General concerns

Emissions from diesel vehicles have been reported to be

The following are classes of chemical compounds that signicantly more harmful than those from petrol vehave been found in diesel exhaust.* [9] * [10]
hicles.* [12] Diesel combustion exhaust is a source of

29.3. HEALTH CONCERNS

95

atmospheric soot and ne particles, which is a component of the air pollution implicated in human cancer,* [13]* [14] heart and lung damage,* [15] and mental
functioning.* [16] Moreover, diesel exhaust contains contaminants listed as carcinogenic for humans by the IARC
(part of the World Health Organization of the United Nations), as present in their List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens.<* [8] Diesel exhaust pollution is thought to account
for around one quarter of the pollution in the air in previous decades, and a high share of sickness caused by automotive pollution.* [17]

29.3.2

Occupational health eects

Exposure to diesel exhaust and diesel particulate matter (DPM) is an occupational hazard to truckers, railroad
workers, and miners using diesel-powered equipment in
underground mines. Adverse health eects have also
been observed in the general population at ambient atmospheric particle concentrations well below the concentrations in occupational settings.
In March 2012, U.S. government scientists showed that
underground miners exposed to high levels of diesel
fumes have a threefold increased risk for contracting
lung cancer compared with those exposed to low levels. The $11.5 million Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study
(DEMS) followed 12,315 miners, controlling for key carcinogens such as cigarette smoke, radon, and asbestos.
This allowed scientists to isolate the eects of diesel
fumes.* [18]* [19]
For over 10 years, concerns have been raised in the USA
regarding children's exposure to DPM as they ride dieselpowered school buses to and from school.* [20] In 2013,
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established
the Clean School Bus USA initiative in an eort to unite
private and public organizations in curbing student exposures.* [21]

Heavy truck, with visible particulate soot

A study of particulate matter (PM) emissions from transit buses running on ULSD and soybean biodiesel (B20)
was reported by Omidvarborna and coworkers, where
they conclude PM emissions appeared lower in cases of
biodiesel use, where they were dependent on the engine
model, cold and hot idle modes, and fuel type, and that
heavy metals in PM emitted during hot idling were greater
than those from cold idling; reasons for PM reduction in
biodiesel emissions were suggested to result from the oxygenated structure of biodiesel fuel, as well as arising from
changes in technology (including the use of a catalytic
converter in this test system).* [22]

29.3.4 Specic eects

29.3.3

Concerns regarding particulates

Exposures have been linked with acute short-term symptoms such as headache, dizziness, light-headedness,
nausea, coughing, dicult or labored breathing, tightness
of chest, and irritation of the eyes and nose and throat.
Long-term exposures can lead to chronic, more serious health problems such as cardiovascular disease, cardiopulmonary disease, and lung cancer.* [13]* [14]* [23]
Elemental carbon attributable to trac was signicantly
associated with wheezing at age 1 and persistent wheezing at age 3 in the Cincinnati Childhood Allergy and Air
*
The main particulate fraction of diesel exhaust consists of Pollution Study birth cohort study. [24]
ne particles. Because of their small size, inhaled parti- The NERC-HPA funded Trac Pollution and Health in
cles may easily penetrate deep into the lungs. The rough London project at King's College London is currently
surfaces of these particles makes it easy for them to bind seeking to rene understanding of the health eects of
with other toxins in the environment, thus increasing the trac pollution.* [25] Ambient trac-related air polluhazards of particle inhalation.* [7]
tion was associated with decreased cognitive function in
Diesel particulate matter (DPM), sometimes also
called diesel exhaust particles (DEP), is the particulate
component of diesel exhaust, which includes diesel soot
and aerosols such as ash particulates, metallic abrasion
particles, sulfates, and silicates. When released into the
atmosphere, DPM can take the form of individual particles or chain aggregates, with most in the invisible
sub-micrometre range of 100nanometers, also known as
ultrane particles (UFP) or PM0.1.

96

CHAPTER 29. DIESEL EXHAUST

older men.* [16]

Mortality from diesel soot exposure in 2001 was at least
14,400 out of the German population of 82 million, according to the ocial report 2352 of the Umweltbundesamt Berlin (Federal Environmental Agency of Germany).
The study of nanoparticles and nanotoxicology is in its infancy, and health eects from nanoparticles produced by
all types of diesel engines are still being uncovered. It is
clear, that diesel health detriments of ne particle emissions are severe and pervasive. Although one study found
no signicant evidence that short-term exposure to diesel
exhaust results in adverse extrapulmonary eects, eects
that are correlated with an increase in cardiovascular disease,* [26] a 2011 study in The Lancet concluded that trafc exposure is the single most serious preventable trigger
of heart attack in the general public, as the cause of 7.4%
of all attacks.* [15] It is impossible to tell how much of
this eect is due to the stress of being in trac and how
much is due to exposure to exhaust.
Since the study of the detrimental health eects of
nanoparticles (nanotoxicology) is still in its infancy, and
the nature and extent of negative health impacts from
diesel exhaust continues to be discovered. There is little controversy, however, that the public health impact of
diesels is higher than that of petrol-fuelled vehicles despite the wide uncertainties.* [27]

The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is

dened by theblack smoke limit, beyond which point
the fuel cannot be completely burned. As the black
smoke limitis still considerably lean of stoichiometric,
it is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but
the resultant inecient combustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion eciency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke.
This is only done in high performance applications where
these disadvantages are of little concern.
When starting from cold, the engine's combustion eciency is reduced because the cold engine block draws
heat out of the cylinder in the compression stroke. The
result is that fuel is not burned fully, resulting in blue and
white smoke and lower power outputs until the engine
has warmed. This is especially the case with indirect injection engines, which are less thermally ecient. With
electronic injection, the timing and length of the injection
sequence can be altered to compensate for this. Older engines with mechanical injection can have mechanical and
hydraulic governor control to alter the timing, and multiphase electrically controlled glow plugs, that stay on for
a period after start-up to ensure clean combustion; the
plugs are automatically switched to a lower power to prevent their burning out.

29.4 Other eects

29.3.5

Variation with engine conditions

Experiments in 2013 showed that diesel exhaust impaired

ability to detect the scent of oilseed rape owThe types and quantities of nanoparticles can vary ac- bees'
*
ers.
[29]
cording to operating temperatures and pressures, presence of an open ame, fundamental fuel type and fuel
mixture, and even atmospheric mixtures. As such, the resulting types of nanoparticles from dierent engine technologies and even dierent fuels are not necessarily com- 29.5 Remedies
parable. One study has shown that 95% of the volatile
component of diesel nanoparticles is unburned lubricating oil.* [28] Long-term eects still need to be further 29.5.1 General
claried, as well as the eects on susceptible groups of
people with cardiopulmonary diseases.
With emissions standards increasing, diesel engines are
Diesel engines can produce black soot (or more specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust. The
black smoke consists of carbon compounds that have not
burned because of local low temperatures where the fuel
is not fully atomized. These local low temperatures occur
at the cylinder walls, and at the surface of large droplets of
fuel. At these areas where it is relatively cold, the mixture
is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean). The
rich mixture has less air to burn and some of the fuel turns
into a carbon deposit. Modern car engines use a diesel
particulate lter (DPF) to capture carbon particles and
then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected
directly into the lter. This prevents carbon buildup at
the expense of wasting a small quantity of fuel.

having to become more ecient and have less pollutants

in their exhaust. For instance, light duty truck must now
have NOx emissions less than 0.07 g/mile, and in the
U.S., by 2010, NOx emissions must be less than 0.03
g/mile. Moreover, in recent years the United States, Europe, and Japan have extended emissions control regulations from covering on-road vehicles to include farm
vehicles and locomotives, marine vessels, and stationary generator applications.* [30] Engineers have come up
with two principle and distinct systems to all on-market
products meet the U.S. 2010 emissions criteria, selective
non-catalytic reduction (SNCR), and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Both are in the exhaust system of diesel
engines, and are further designed to promote eciency.

29.6. FURTHER READING

29.5.2

Selective non-catalytic reduction

97
types, a PM lter and additional oxidation catalyst technologies.* [33] The combined system incorporates two
turbochargers, the rst on the exhaust manifold, with
variable geometry and containing the EGR system; and a
second a xed geometry turbocharger. Recirculated exhaust gas and the compressed air from the turbochargers
have separate coolers, and air merges before entering the
intake manifold, and all subsystems are controlled by a
central engine control unit that optimizes minimization
of pollutants released in the exhaust gas.* [33]

Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) injects a

reductant such as ammonia or urea the latter aqueous,
where it is known as diesel exhaust uid, DEF) into
the exhaust of a diesel engine to convert nitrogen oxides
(NO) into gaseous dinitrogen and water. SNCR systems
have been prototyped that reduce 90% of the NO in
the exhaust system, with commercialized systems being
somewhat lower. SNCR systems do not necessarily need
particulate matter (PM) lters; when SNCR and PM lters are combined, some engines have been shown to be
3-5% more fuel ecient. A disadvantage of the SNCR 29.5.5 Other remedies
system, in addition to added upfront development cost
(which can be oset by compliance and improved performance), is the need to rell the reductant, the periodicity 29.6 Further reading
of which varies with the miles driven, load factors, and
the hours used.* [31] The SNCR system is not as ecient
Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Adat higher revolutions per minute (rpm). SNCR is being
ministration. Diesel Particulate Matter Exposure
optimized to have higher eciency with broader temperof Underground Metal and Nonmetal Miners: Fiatures, to be more durable, and to meet other commercial
nal Rule, January 19, 2001. Federal Register
needs.* [30]
66(13):5706.

29.5.3

Exhaust gas recirculation

Main article: Exhaust gas recirculation In diesel

engines
See also: Water injection (engine)
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), on diesel engines, can
be used to achieve a richer fuel to air mixture and a
lower peak combustion temperature. Both eects reduce NO emissions, but can negatively impact eciency
and the production of soot particles. The richer mix
is achieved by displacing some of the intake air, but is
still lean compared to petrol engines, which approach
the stoichiometric ideal. The lower peak temperature
is achieved by a heat exchanger that removes heat prior
to re-entering the engine, and works due to the exhaust
gases' higher specic heat than air. With the greater soot
production, EGR is often combined with a particulate
matter (PM) lter in the exhaust.* [32] In turbocharged
engines, EGR needs a controlled pressure dierential
across the exhaust manifold and intake manifold, which
can be met by such engineering as use of a variable geometry turbocharger, which has inlet guide vanes on the
turbine to build exhaust backpressure in the exhaust manifold directing exhaust gas to the intake manifold.* [32] It
also requires additional external piping and valving, and
so requires additional maintenance.

29.5.4

Monforton, C (2006). Weight of the Evidence

or Wait for the Evidence? Protecting Underground
Miners from Diesel Particulate Matter. American Journal of Public Health 96 (2): 271276.
doi:10.2105/ajph.2005.064410.
Steenland, K; Silverman, DT; Hornung, DW
(1990). Case control study of lung cancer and
truck driving in the Teamsters union. American Journal of Public Health 80: 670674.
doi:10.2105/ajph.80.6.670.
Steenland, K; Silverman, DT; Zaebst, D (1992).
Exposure to diesel exhaust in the trucking industry and possible relationships with lung cancer.
American Journal of Industrial Medicine 21: 887
890. doi:10.1002/ajim.4700210612.
Bruske-Holheld, I; Mohner, M; Ahrens, W; et
al. (1999). Lung cancer risk in male workers occupationally exposed to diesel motor emissions in Germany. American Journal of Industrial
Medicine 36: 405414. doi:10.1002/(sici)10970274(199910)36:4<405::aid-ajim1>3.3.co;2-n.
Wichmann, H.-E. Abschaetzung positiver gesundheitlicher Auswirkungen durch den Einsatz von
Partikelltern bei Dieselfahrzeugen in Deutschland
Umweltbundesamt Berlin 2003. Report 2352, especially page 32

Combined systems

John Deere, the farm equipment manufacturer is implementing such a combined SNCR-EGR design, in a 9liter inline 6diesel engine that involves both system

Umweltbundesamt Berlin Future Diesel. Abgasgesetzgebung Pkw, leichte Nfz und Lkw Fortschreibung
der Grenzwerte bei Dieselfahrzeugen 2003. Report
2353, especially page 25

98

29.7 See also

Vehicle emissions control
Carl Moyer Program
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants
List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens
List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens
List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens
List of IARC Group 3 carcinogens
Volkswagen emissions violations

29.8 References and notes

[1] Song, Chunsham (2000). Chemistry of Diesel Fuels. Boca
Raton, FL, USA: CRC Press. p. 4. Retrieved 24 October
2015.
[2] Krivoshto, Irina N.; Richards, John R., Albertson Timothy E. and Derlet, Robert W. (January 2008). The Toxicity of Diesel Exhaust: Implications for Primary Care.
Medical Journal. Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine. pp. 5562. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
[3] Gajendra Babu, M.K., Subramanian, K.A. (18 June
2013). Alternative Transportation Fuels: Utilisation in
Combustion Engines. Book. CRC Press. p. 230. Retrieved 24 October 2015.
[4] Majewski, W. Addy (2012). What Are Diesel Emissions. Ecopoint Inc. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
[5] Fuller, Gary (Jul 8, 2012). Diesel cars emit more nitrogen oxides than petrol cars. The Guardian. Retrieved 5
June 2015.
[6] Lean, Georey (Jul 19, 2013). Why is killer diesel
still poisoning our air?". The Telegraph. Retrieved 5 June
2015.
[7] Omidvarbornaa, Hamid; Kumara, Ashok & Kim, DongShik (2015). Recent Studies on Soot Modeling for
Diesel Combustion. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 48: 635647. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.019.
[8] IARC. Diesel Engine Exhaust Carcinogenic (Press
release). International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Retrieved June 12, 2012. After a weeklong meeting of international experts, the International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), which is part of
the World Health Organization (WHO), today classied
diesel exhaust as probably carcinogenic to humans (Group
1), based on enough evidence that exposure is associated
with an increased risk of lung cancer.
[9] EPA Report on diesel emissions (PDF). EPA. 2002.
p. 113. Retrieved 19 August 2013.]

CHAPTER 29. DIESEL EXHAUST

[10] Lippmann, Morton, ed.

(2009).
Environmental
Toxicants (PDF). doi:10.1002/9780470442890. ISBN
9780470442890.
[11] Google search
[12] Vidal, John (Jan 27, 2013). Diesel fumes more damaging to health than petrol engines. The Guardian. Retrieved 5 June 2015.
[13] Diesel exhausts do cause cancer, says WHO - BBC
News. Bbc.co.uk. 2012-06-12. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
[14] WHO: Diesel Exhaust Causes Lung Cancer. Medpage
Today. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
[15] Nawrot, Perez, Knzli, Munters, Nemery. Public health
importance of triggers of myocardial infarction: comparative risk assessment The Lancet, Volume 377, Issue 9767,
Pages 732 - 740, 26 February 2011 t doi:10.1016/S01406736(10)62296-9: Taking into account the OR and the
prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated
for trac exposure (7.4%)... "
"... [O]dds ratios and frequencies of each
trigger were used to compute populationattributable fractions (PAFs), which estimate
the proportion of cases that could be avoided
if a risk factor were removed. PAFs depend
not only on the risk factor strength at the individual level but also on its frequency in the
community. ... [T]he exposure prevalence
for triggers in the relevant control time window ranged from 0.04% for cocaine use to
100% for air pollution. ... Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for trafc exposure (7.4%) ...
[16] Power; Weisskopf; Alexee; Coull; Spiro; Schwartz (May
2011). Trac-related air pollution and cognitive function in a cohort of older men. Environmental Health
Perspectives 119 (5): 6827. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002767.
PMC 3094421. PMID 21172758.
[17] Health Concerns Associated with Excessive Idling North
Central Texas Council of Governments, 2008.
[18] Atteld, M. D.; Schlei, P. L.; Lubin, J. H.; Blair, A.;
Stewart, P. A.; Vermeulen, R.; Coble, J. B.; Silverman,
D. T. (5 March 2012). The Diesel Exhaust in Miners
Study: A Cohort Mortality Study With Emphasis on Lung
Cancer. JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute
104: 869883. doi:10.1093/jnci/djs035.
[19] Silverman, D. T.; Samanic, C. M.; Lubin, J. H.; Blair,
A. E.; Stewart, P. A.; Vermeulen, R.; Coble, J. B.;
Rothman, N.; Schlei, P. L.; Travis, W. D.; Ziegler,
R. G.; Wacholder, S.; Atteld, M. D. (5 March 2012).
The Diesel Exhaust in Miners Study: A Nested CaseControl Study of Lung Cancer and Diesel Exhaust. JNCI
Journal of the National Cancer Institute 104: 855868.
doi:10.1093/jnci/djs034.
[20] Solomon, Gina; Campbell, Todd (January 2001). No
Breathing in the Aisles. Diesel Exhaust Inside School
Buses. NRDC.org. Natural Resources Defense Council.
Retrieved 19 October 2013.

29.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

99

[21] Clean School Bus. EPA.gov. United States Government. Retrieved 19 October 2013.

NIOSH Mining Safety and Health Topic: Diesel Exhaust

[22] Omidvarbornaa, Hamid; Kumara, Ashok & Kim,

Dong-Shik (2014).
Characterization of Particulate Matter Emitted from Transit Buses Fueled with
B20 in Idle Modes.
Journal of Environmental
Chemical Engineering 2 (4, December): 23352342.
doi:10.1016/j.jece.2014.09.020.

Diesel Particulate Matter, a case study at www.

defendingscience.org

[23] Ole Raaschou-Nielsen; et al. (July 10, 2013). Air pollution and lung cancer incidence in 17 European cohorts:
prospective analyses from the European Study of Cohorts
for Air Pollution Eects (ESCAPE)". The Lancet Oncology 14 (9): 81322. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(13)702791. PMID 23849838. Retrieved July 10, 2013. Particulate
matter air pollution contributes to lung cancer incidence
in Europe.
[24] David I. Bernstein,Diesel Exhaust Exposure, Wheezing
and Sneezing. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res. 2012 Jul;
4(4): 178183. doi: 10.4168/aair.2012.4.4.178. PMCID: PMC3378923
[25] http://web.archive.org/web/20140803002711/http:
//www.erg.kcl.ac.uk:80/ResearchProjects/Traffic/.
Archived from the original on August 3, 2014. Retrieved
March 8, 2013. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[26] Archived January 30, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.

Clean School Bus USA, EPA Initiative

Weight of the Evidence or Wait for the Evidence?
Protecting Underground Miners from Diesel Particulate Matter Article by Celeste Monforton. American Journal of Public Health, February 2006.
Diesel exhaust -- peer reviewed studies by Health
Eects Institute
U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety &
Health Administration: Safety and Health Topics:
Diesel Exhaust
Partial List of Chemicals Associated with Diesel
Exhaust
Diesel Exhaust Particulates: Reasonably Anticipated to Be A Human Carcinogen
Impact of Fuel Metal Impurities on the Durability of
a Light-Duty Diesel Aftetreatment System National
Renewable Energy Laboratory

[27] Int Panis, L; Rabl; De Nocker, L; Torfs, R (2002).Diesel

or Petrol ? An environmental comparison hampered by
uncertainty. Mitteilungen Institut fr Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Thermodynamik, Publisher: Institut fr
Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Thermodynamik 81 (1):
4854.

Scientic Study of Harmful Eects of Diesel Exhaust: Acute Inammatory Responses in the Airways and Peripheral Blood After Short-Term Exposure to Diesel Exhaust in Healthy Human Volunteers

[28] On-line measurements of diesel nanoparticle composition and volatility. Dx.doi.org. Retrieved 2015-10-22.

Health Eects of Diesel Exhaust - fact sheet by

Cal/EPA and American Lung Association

[29] Diesel exhaust rapidly degrades oral odours used

by honeybees : Scientic Reports. Nature.com.
doi:10.1038/srep02779. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
[30] Guan, B; Zhan, R; Lin, H; Huang, Z. (2014).
Review of state of the art technologies of selective catalytic reduction of NOx from diesel engine exhaust. Applied Thermal Engineering 66: 395414.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.02.021. Retrieved
22 October 2015. (subscription required)
[31] What is SCR? | Diesel Technology Forum. Dieselforum.org. 2010-01-01. Retrieved 2015-10-22.
[32] Bennett, Sean (2004). Medium/Heavy Duty Truck Engines, Fuel & Computerized Management Systems 2nd
Edition, ISBN 1401814999.
[33] Technology to Reduce Emissions in Large Engines
(PDF). Deere.com. Retrieved 2015-10-22.

29.9 External links

Diesel Retrot in Europe.

Diesel exhaust: what you need to know

Chapter 30

Dust abatement
dust and asbestos. Application of this product is normally
done by lathering onto the surface and then removing with
a clean dry cloth.

30.1 See also

Air pollution
Soil2 O Dust Control

30.2 References

Water being sprayed on a demolition site

Dust abatement refers to the process of inhibiting the

creation of excess soil dust, a pollutant that contributes to
excess levels of particulate matter.
Frequently employed by local governments of arid climates such as those in the Southwest United States, dust
abatement procedures may also be required in private
construction as a condition of obtaining a building permit.
Dust abatement methods generally fall into four categories. The rst two are petroleum-based products, such
as emulsied asphalts, but they are considered environmentally hazardous, according to the report. The third
category includes such non-petroleum products as lignosulfates, which are a byproduct of the wood pulping industry, but they tend to leach and run o during heavy
rains, giving o odors and staining soil. The fourth category, synthetic polymers, are generally stable, durable, do
not leach or give o appreciable odors, and have proven
to be the most environmentally friendly.* [1]
Soil2 O (a cross-linked eco-friendly copolymer capable of
holding 400 times its weight in water) is most commonly
used on dirt roads. When mixed with water to create a
ne gel, apply onto dirt roads to keep excess levels of soil
dust down. Soil2 O is specially formulated with a natural
re-wetting ability that continues to function even when
dried out, and can also cut the amount of water needed in
most dust abatement methods.
Abatement oil (an organic, lubricating and penetrating
oil) is most commonly used to remove debris such as
100

[1] Bukley, Ron.itid approves dust control test for a portion

of 130th avenue. TOWN-CRIER Online. Retrieved 19
June 2015.

Bolander, Peter and Yamada, Alan (November

1999). Dust Palliative Selection and Application
Guide (PDF). San Dimas Technology and Development Center - United States Forest Service.
Kestler, Maureen (March 2009). Stabilization Selection Guide for Aggregate and Native-Surfaced
Low Volume Roads (PDF). San Dimas Technology and Development Center - United States Forest
Service.
Yamada, Alan (December 1998). Dust Suppressants For Temporary Helicopter Landing Areas.
Aviation Management Tech Tips (San Dimas Technology and Development Center - United States Forest Service).

Chapter 31

Eects of the car on societies

World map of motorization rates, i.e., road vehicles per 1000

inhabitants.

Over the course of the 20th century, the car rapidly developed from an expensive toy for the rich into thewonderfulstandard for passenger transport in most developed
countries.* [1]* [2] In developing countries, the eects of
the car have lagged, but are emulating the impacts of developed nations. The development of the car built upon
the transport revolution started by railways, and like the
railways, introduced sweeping changes in employment
patterns, social interactions, infrastructure and goods distribution.
The eects of the car on everyday life have been a subject of controversy. While the introduction of the massproduced car represented a revolution in mobility and
convenience, the modern consequences of heavy automotive use contribute to the use of non-renewable fuels, a dramatic increase in the rate of accidental death,
social isolation, the disconnection of community, the rise
in obesity, the generation of air and noise pollution, urban
sprawl, and urban decay.* [3]

1831 cartoon, warning about road troubles of the future.

appeared to them to be (and, for those who did not mind

the pace of the assembly line much, was) an incredible
boondoggle of a job.* [4]" There was a surge in the need
for workers at big, new high-technology companies such
as Ford. Employment largely increased.
Nevertheless, when the motor age arrived at the beginning of the 20th century in western countries, many conservative intellectuals started to oppose to the increase
of motor-vehicles on roads. Such increases removed
space from pedestrians for infrastructure, and brought a
tremendous increase in pedestrians fatalities caused by
car collisions.
W.S. Gilbert, a famous British librettist wrote to The
Times on 3 June 1903:
Ten years later, a professor wrote a more elaborate
protest, "The Motor Bus" which cleverly combined a lesson in Latin grammar with an expression of distaste for
innovative motor transport.

31.1 History
In the early 20th century, cars entered mass production.
In 1907, 45,000 cars were produced in The United States,
but 28 years later in 1935 3,971,000 were produced,
nearly 100 times as many. This increase in production
required a large, new work force. In 1913 13,623 people worked at Ford Motor Company, but by 1915 18,028
people worked there.* [4] Bradford DeLong, author of
The Roaring Twenties, tells us that, Many more lined
up outside the Ford factory for chances to work at what

31.2 Access and convenience

Worldwide, the car has allowed easier access to remote
places. However, average journey times to regularly visited places have increased in large cities, especially in
Latin America, as a result of widespread car adoption and

101

102

CHAPTER 31. EFFECTS OF THE CAR ON SOCIETIES

Convenience store in a rest area serving turnpike users.

urban sprawl. This is due to trac congestion and the increased distances between home and work brought about
by urban sprawl.* [5]
Examples of car access issues in underdeveloped counHigh signs attract the attention of drivers on the adjacent freeway.
tries are:
Paving of Mexican Federal Highway 1 through Baja
California, completing the connection of Cabo San
Lucas to California, and convenient access to the
outside world for villagers along the route (occurred
in the 1950s).
In Madagascar, approximately 30 percent of the
population does not have access to reliable all
weather roads.* [6]
In China, 184 towns and 54,000 villages have no
motor road (or roads at all)* [7]
The origin of HIV explosion has been hypothesized
by CDC researchers to derive in part from more
intensive social interactions aorded by new road
networks in Central Africa allowing more frequent
travel from villages to cities and higher density development of many African cities in the period 1950
to 1980.* [8]

A street without a sidewalk, where the pedestrian must walk on

the road pavement.

In addition to money for roadway construction, car use

was also encouraged in many places through new zoning
laws that required that any new business construct a certain amount of parking based on the size and type of faCertain developments in retail are partially due to car use: cility. The eect was to create many free parking spaces,
and business places further back from the road.
Drive-thru fast food purchasing

Many new shopping centers and suburbs did not install sidewalks,* [10] making pedestrian access danger Gasoline station grocery shopping
ous. This had the eect of encouraging people to
drive, even for short trips that might have been walkable, thus increasing and solidifying American autodependency.* [11] As a result of this change, employment
31.3 Economic changes
opportunities for people who were not wealthy enough to
own a car and for people who could not drive, due to age
31.3.1 Employment and consumption or physical disabilities, became severely limited.* [12]

habits

The development of the car has contributed to changes in

employment distribution, shopping patterns, social interactions, manufacturing priorities and city planning; increasing use of cars has reduced the roles of walking,
horses and railroads.* [9]

31.3.2 Economic growth

In countries provided with several or major car manufactures, such as USA or Germany, a certain degree of car
dependency might be positive for economy at a macroe-

31.5. CULTURAL CHANGES

103

31.5 Cultural changes

Prior to the appearance of the automobile, horses, walking and streetcars were the major modes of transportation
within cities.* [9] Horses require a large amount of care,
and were therefore kept in public facilities that were usually far from residences. The wealthy could aord to keep
horses for private use, hence the term carriage trade referred to elite patronage.* [15] Horse manure left on the
streets also created a sanitation problem.* [16]
Motorisation rate* [13] vs. Economic growth* [14] in European
countries whose population is greater than 1 million inhabitants.
Source: Eurostat.

The automobile made regular medium-distance travel

more convenient and aordable, especially in areas without railways. Because cars did not require rest, were
faster than horse-drawn conveyances, and soon had a
lower total cost of ownership, more people were routinely
able to travel farther than in earlier times. The construction of highways half a century later continued this revolution in mobility. Some experts suggest that many of
these changes began during the earlier Golden age of the
bicycle, from 18801915.* [17]

conomic level, since it demands automobile production,

therefore resulting also in job demand and tax revenue.
These economic conditions were particularly valid during
the 1920s when the number of automobiles, worldwide,
had a substantial annual average increase, but also during
the postWorld War II economic expansion. Notwithstanding the growing eects provided by the automobile 31.5.1
on the economy of some countries, several other autodependent countries, deprived from automobile industry and oil resources, have to allocate substantial economic assets, to satisfy its mobility policies, aecting
then their commercial balance. This situation is broadly
valid in the majority of the European countries, since,
disregarding some few exceptions such as Norway, Europe is largely dependent on fossil fuels. Furthermore,
just few European countries, such as Germany or France,
are provided with car manufactures productive enough
to satisfy the country's internal demand. All these factors related to high motorisation rates, aect therefore the
economic growth in the majority of the European countries.* [13]* [14]

Changes to urban society

Urban interchange in Guangdong

31.4 Trac

Beginning in the 1940s, most urban environments in the

United States lost their streetcars, cable cars, and other
forms of light rail, to be replaced by diesel-burning moMain article: Trac
tor coaches or buses. Many of these have never returned, though some urban communities eventually inCycling steadily became more important in Europe over stalled subways.
the rst half of the twentieth century, but it dropped o
dramatically in the United States between 1900 and 1910. Another change brought about by the car is that modern
Automobiles became the preferred means of transporta- urban pedestrians must be more alert than their ancestion. Over the 1920s, bicycles gradually became consid- tors. In the past, a pedestrian had to worry about relatively
ered children's toys, and by 1940 most bicycles in the slow-moving streetcars or other obstacles of travel. With
United States were made for children. From the early the proliferation of the car, a pedestrian has to anticipate
20th century until after World War II, the roadster con- safety risks of automobiles traveling at high speeds becan cause serious injuries to a human and can
stituted most adult bicycles sold in the United Kingdom cause they
*
[9]
unlike in previous times when trac deaths
be
fatal,
and in many parts of the British Empire. For many years
were
usually
due to horses escaping control.
after the advent of the motorcycle and automobile, they
According to many social scientists, the loss of
remained a primary means of adult transport.

104

CHAPTER 31. EFFECTS OF THE CAR ON SOCIETIES

pedestrian-scale villages has also disconnected communities. Many people in developed countries have less contact with their neighbors and rarely walk unless they place
a high value on exercise.* [18]

Dorothy Levitt was among those eager to lay such concerns to rest, so much so that a century later only one
country had a women to drive movement. Where 19th
century mass media had made heroes of Casey Jones,
Allan Pinkerton and other stalwart protectors of public
transport, new road movies oered heroes who found
freedom and equality, rather than duty and hierarchy, on
the open road.

Further information: Automotive city

31.5.2

Advent of suburban society

George Monbiot writes that widespread car culture has

shifted voter's preference to the right of the political spectrum, and thinks that car culture has contributed to an increase in individualism and fewer social interactions between members of dierent socioeconomic classes.* [19]
The American Motor League had promoted the making
of more and better cars since the early days of the car, and
the American Automobile Association joined the good
roads movement begun during the earlier bicycle craze;
when manufacturers and petroleum fuel suppliers were
well established, they also joined construction contractors in lobbying governments to build public roads.* [3]

Improved transport accelerated the outward growth of

cities and the development of suburbs beyond an earlier
era's streetcar suburbs.* [9] Until the advent of the car,
factory workers lived either close to the factory or in high
density communities farther away, connected to the factory by streetcar or rail. The car and the federal subsidies
for roads and suburban development that supported car
culture allowed people to live in low density residential
areas even farther from the city center and integrated city
neighborhoods.* [9] were Industrial suburbs being few,
due in part to single use zoning, they created few local As tourism became motorized, individuals, families and
jobs and residents commuted longer distances to work small groups were able to vacation in distant locations
each day as the suburbs continued to expand.* [3]
such as national parks. Roads including the Blue Ridge
Parkway were built specically to help the urban masses
experience natural scenery previously seen only by a few.
31.5.3 Cars in popular culture
Cheap restaurants and motels appeared on favorite routes
and provided wages for locals who were reluctant to join
See also: Automobile folklore
the trend to rural depopulation.
Europe
In America
Road building was sometimes also inuenced by
Keynesian-style political ideologies. In Europe, massive
freeway building programs were initiated by a number of
social democratic governments after World War II, in an
attempt to create jobs and make the car available to the
working classes. From the 1970s, promotion of the automobile increasingly became a trait of some conservatives.
Margaret Thatcher mentioned agreat car economyin
the paper on Roads for Prosperity.

James Dean inside a Porsche Speedster

The car had a signicant eect on the culture of the

United States. As other vehicles had been, cars were
incorporated into artworks including music, books and
movies. Between 1905 and 1908, more than 120 songs
were written in which the automobile was the subject.* [9]
Although authors such as Booth Tarkington decried the
automobile age in books including The Magnicent Ambersons (1918), novels celebrating the political eects of
motorization included Free Air (1919) by Sinclair Lewis,
which followed in the tracks of earlier bicycle touring
novels. Some early 20th century experts doubted the
safety and suitability of allowing female automobilists.

31.5.4 Cinema
Automobile gain in the twentieth century, also an important cultural role in cinema, mainly through blockbusters.
Important characters such as James Bond, or the ones performed by James Dean, were always provided on scene
with powerful automobiles, which through time, have become cultural icons.

31.5.5 Cars as a hobby

Over time, the car has evolved beyond being a means of
transportation or status symbol and into a subject of interest and a cherished hobby amongst many people in the

31.6. SAFETY

105
teractions and companionships amongst those who take
pride in owning, maintaining, driving and showing their
cars. Many prestigious social events around the world today are centered around the hobby, a notable example is
the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance classic car show.

31.6 Safety
Main articles: Automobile safety, Trac collision and
Epidemiology of motor vehicle collisions
Motor vehicle accidents account for 37.5% of accidental

International Saab Club meeting in Latvia.

world, who appreciate cars for their craftsmanship, their

performance, as well as the vast arrays of activities one
can take part in with his/her car.* [20] People who have a
keen interest in cars and/or participate in the car hobby
are known as Car Enthusiasts.
One major aspect of the hobby is collecting, cars, especially classic vehicles, are appreciated by their owners
as having aesthetic, recreational and historic value.* [21]
Such demand generates investment potential and allows
some cars to command extraordinarily high prices and
become nancial instruments in their own right.* [22]

According to Eurostat the automobile is one of the less safe means

of transport, if safety is measured as the less number of fatalities per travelled passenger-distance. Based on data by EU-27
member nations, 2008-2010.* [23]* [24]

A second major aspect of the car hobby is vehicle modication, as many car enthusiasts modify their cars to
achieve performance improvements or visual enhancements. Many subcultures exist within this segment of the
car hobby, for example, those building their own custom
vehicles, primarily appearance-based on original examples or reproductions of pre-1948 US car market designs
and similar designs from the World War II era and earlier
from elsewhere in the world, are known as hot rodders,
while those who believe cars should stay true to their original designs and not be modied are known as "Purists".
In addition, motorsport (both professional and amateur)
as well as casual driving events, where enthusiasts from
around the world gather to drive and display their cars,
are important pillars of the car hobby as well. Notable
examples such events are the annual Mille Miglia classic
car rally and the Gumball 3000 supercar race.

US annual deaths per billion vehicle miles traveled (VMT) vs annual VMT (tens of billions), 1921 to 2009.

deaths in the United States, making them the country's

leading cause of accidental death.* [25] Though travelers
Many car clubs have been set up to facilitate social in- in cars suer fewer deaths per journey, or per unit time

106

CHAPTER 31. EFFECTS OF THE CAR ON SOCIETIES

or distance, than most other users of private transport

such as bicyclers or pedestrians , cars are also more used,
making automobile safety an important topic of study.
For those aged 534 in the United States, motor vehicle
crashes are the leading cause of death, claiming the lives
of 18,266 Americans each year.* [26]
It is estimated that motor vehicle collisions caused the
death of around 60 million people during the 20th century* [27] around the same number of World War II casualties. Just in 2010 alone, 1.23 million people were killed
due to trac collisions.* [28]
Notwithstanding the high number of fatalities, the trend
of motor vehicle collision is showing a decrease. Road
toll gures in developed nations show that car collision
fatalities have declined since 1980. Japan is an extreme
example, with road deaths decreasing to 5,115 in 2008,
which is 25% of the 1970 rate per capita and 17% of
the 1970 rate per vehicle distance travelled. In 2008, for
the rst time, more pedestrians than vehicle occupants
were killed in Japan by cars.* [29] Besides improving general road conditions like lighting and separated walkways,
Japan has been installing intelligent transportation system
technology such as stalled-car monitors to avoid crashes.
In developing nations, statistics may be grossly inaccurate or hard to get. Some nations have not signicantly
reduced the total death rate, which stands at 12,000 in
Thailand in 2007, for example.* [30] In the United States,
twenty-eight states had reductions in the number of automobile crash fatalities between 2005 and 2006.* [31]
55% of vehicle occupants 16 years or older in 2006 were
not using seat belts when they crashed.* [32] Road fatality trends tend to follow Smeed's law,* [33] an empirical
schema that correlates increased fatality rates per capita
with trac congestion.

noise costs,
climate change costs,
costs for nature and landscape,
costs for water pollution,
costs for soil pollution and
costs of energy dependency.
Use of cars for transportation creates barriers by reducing
the landscape required for walking and cycling. It may
look like a minor problem initially but in the long run, it
poses a threat to children and the elderly. Transport is
a major land use, leaving less of this resource for other
purposes.
Cars also contribute to pollution of air and water. Though
a horse produces more waste, cars are cheaper, thus far
more numerous in urban areas than horses ever were.
Emissions of harmful gases like carbon monoxide, ozone,
carbon dioxide, benzene and particulate matter can damage living organisms and the environment. The emissions from cars cause disabilities, respiratory diseases,
and ozone depletion. Noise pollution from cars can also
potentially result in hearing disabilities, headaches, and
stress to those frequently exposed to it.

31.7 External and internal costs

Main article: Economics of automobile usage

31.7.1

Public or external costs

Congestion is a notorious external cost of driving, such as in So

Paulo (pictured).

Main article: Externalities of automobiles

In countries such as the United States the infrastructure
According to the Handbook on estimation of external costs that makes car use possible, such as highways, roads and
in the transport sector* [34] made by the Delft University parking lots is funded by the government and *supported
and which is the main reference in European Union for through zoning and construction requirements. [35] Fuel
assessing the externalities of cars, the main external costs taxes in the United States cover about 60% of highway
construction and repair costs, but little of the cost to
of driving a car are:
construct or repair local roads.* [36]* [37] Payments by
motor-vehicle users fall short of government expenditures
congestion and scarcity costs,
tied to motor-vehicle use by 2070 cents per gallon of
gas.* [38] Zoning laws in many areas require that large,
accident costs,
free parking lots accompany any new buildings. Munici air pollution costs,
pal parking lots are often free or do not charge a market

31.7. EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL COSTS

107

rate. Hence, the cost of driving a car in the US is subsi- cost of ownership for an automobile in the United States
dized, supported by businesses and the government who is rising about 2% per year.* [44]
cover the cost of roads and parking.* [35]
This government support of the automobile through subsidies for infrastructure, the cost of highway patrol enforcement, recovering stolen cars, and many other factors
makes public transport a less economically competitive
choice for commuters when considering Out-of-pocket
expenses. Consumers often make choices based on those
costs, and underestimate the indirect costs of car ownership, insurance and maintenance.* [36] However, globally and in some US cities, tolls and parking fees partially
oset these heavy subsidies for driving. Transportation
planning policy advocates often support tolls, increased
fuel taxes, congestion pricing and market-rate pricing for
municipal parking as a means of balancing car use in urban centers with more ecient modes such as buses and
trains.
When cities charge market rates for parking, and when
bridges and tunnels are tolled, driving becomes less competitive in terms of out-of-pocket costs. When municipal
parking is underpriced and roads are not tolled, most of
the cost of vehicle usage is paid for by general government revenue, a subsidy for motor vehicle use. The size
of this subsidy dwarfs the federal, state, and local subsidies for the maintenance of infrastructure and discounted
fares for public transportation.* [36]

Kinetic speed vs. Consumer speed

The Austrian philosopher Ivan Illich, a critic of the modern society habits, was one of the rst thinkers to establish
the so-called consumer speed concept. He wrote in his
book Energy and Habits* [45] published in 1974:
It is known by classical mechanics that the average kinetic
speed vk of an automobile and its passengers is simply the
amount of space the car travels, divided by the elapsed
time, i.e.:

vk =

d
tt

where d is the distance travelled by the car and tt is the

travelled time, i.e., the time elapsed during the travel.
Though, to assess the consumer speed, we must sum the
amount of time the car owner strictly allocates to work to
aord such travelled distance. Then the consumer speed
vv is:

vv =

d
tt + tw

By contrast, although there are environmental and social where t is the time the driver needs to work, to aord
w
costs for rail, there is a very small impact.* [36]
doing that specic travelled distance d using such car.

31.7.2

Private or internal costs

Main article: Automobile costs

Compared to other popular modes of passenger transportation, especially buses or trains, the car has a relatively high cost per passenger-distance travelled.* [39]
Motorists in the United Kingdom seem to spend on the
car an average of roughly 1/3 of their average net income,* [40] while motorists in Portugal seem to spend
1/2 of their net income. For the average car owner,
depreciation constitutes about half the cost of running
a car,* [40] nevertheless the typical motorist underestimates this xed cost by big margin, or even ignores it
altogether.* [41]
In the United States, out of pocket expenses for car ownership can vary considerably based on the state in which
you live. In 2013, annual car ownership costs including
repair, insurance, gas and taxes were highest in Georgia ($4,233) and lowest in Oregon ($2,024) with a national average of $3,201.* [42] Furthermore, the IRS considers, for tax deduction calculations, that the automobile has a total cost for drivers in the USA, of 0.55
USD/mile, around 0.26 EUR/km.* [43] Data provided by
the American Automobile Association indicates that the

Example James (an example), a common car owner

and driver who takes his car to get to work, spends totally (standing and running costs) on his car an average
of 5000 per year. Considering James just uses his car
to get to work and that one year has around 250 business
days, James pays on average 20 per working day to afford his car. Consider the James' average net salary is
10 per hour; then James needs to work 2 hours per day
just to aord his mean of transport to get to work, time
strictly allocated to pay his car bills.
If he lives 20 km away from his workplace and he gets
there in half an hour, then he makes 40 km per day during
one hour (round trip). His kinetic average speed would
then be:
40 km
= 40 km/h
1h
Though, James needs on average 2 hours per day just to
aord his car, working time budget strictly allocated for
paying his car bills, so his consumer speed would be:

vk =

vv =

40 km
13 km/h
1h+2h

just 1/3 of his kinetic speed.

108

CHAPTER 31. EFFECTS OF THE CAR ON SOCIETIES

31.8 See also

[19] George Monbiot (2005-12-20). George Monbiot,

''The Guardian'', December 20, 2005. London: Politics.guardian.co.uk. Retrieved 2011-01-09.

31.9 References
[1] "The Enigma of Automobility" by Sudhir Chella Rajan.
University of Pittsburgh Press (1996)
[2] The Systemof Automobility by John Urry. Theory,
Culture & Society, Vol. 21, No. 45, 25-39 (2004)
[3] Asphalt Nation: how the automobile took over America,
and how we can take it back By Jane Holtz Kay Published
1998 ISBN 0-520-21620-2
[4] DeLong, Bradford. The Roaring Twenties.Slouching
Towards Utopia? The Economic History of the Twentieth
Century.. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
[5] Gilbert, Alan (1996). The mega-city in Latin America.
United Nations University Press. ISBN 92-808-0935-0.
[6] Madagascar: The Development of a National Rural
Transport Program. Worldbank.org. 2010-11-23. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
[7] "''China Through a Lens: Rural Road Construction
Speeded Up''". China.org.cn. 2003-05-16. Retrieved
2011-01-09.
[8] Joseph M.D. McCormick, Susan Fisher-Hoch and Leslie
Alan Horvitz, Virus Hunters of the CDC, Turner Publishing (April 1997) IS 978-1570363979
[9] Jackson, Kenneth T. (1985). Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504983-7.
[10] Sidewalks? Too Pedestrian by: Mary Jane Smetanka
Minneapolis-St Paul Star Tribune, Aut 18, 2007
[11] Lots of Parking: Land Use in a Car Culture By John A.
Jakle, Keith A. Sculle. 2004. ISBN 0-8139-2266-6

[20] http://www.aaca.org/About-AACA/
an-introduction-to-aaca.html. A Concise History of
AACA in the Beginning. Antique Automobile Club of
America. Retrieved on February 20, 2014
[21] http://www.wealthdaily.com/articles/
investing-in-classic-cars/4748.
Investing in classic
cars. Retrieved on April 5, 2014
[22] http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/
info-invcar04.html. The Dow Jones Classic Car Index
. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on July 14, 2015
[23] Statistics database for transports. http://epp.eurostat.ec.
europa.eu (statistical database). Eurostat, European Commission. 20 April 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2014. External link in |website= (help)
[24] Vojtech Eksler, ed. (5 May 2013). Intermediate report on the development of railway safety in the European Union 2013(PDF). http://www.era.europa.eu (report). Safety Unit, European Railway Agency & European Union. p. 1. Retrieved 12 May 2014. External link
in |website= (help)
[25] Directly from: http://www.benbest.com/lifeext/causes.
html See Accident as a Cause of Death
Derived from: National Vital Statistics Report, Volume
50, Number 15 (September 2002)
[26] http://www.cdc.gov/injury/overview/data.html
[27] ROBERTA PESCE (Apr 2, 2013). Death in the 20th
Century. The Infographic.
[28] World Health Organization. Number of road trac
deaths.
[29] Pedestrians become chief victims of road accident deaths
in 2008
[30] 365 Days for Stopping Accident Deaths

[12] When Work Disappears by William Julius Wilson. ISBN

0-679-72417-6
[13] Motorisation Rate; Cars per 1000 inhabitants in Europe,
Eurostat
[14] Economic Growth, Real GDP growth rate - volume, Percentage change on previous year, Eurostat.
[15] Carriage trade The Free Dictionary
[16] Susan Strasser, Waste and Want: A Social History of
Trash, Owl Books, 355 pages (1999) ISBN 978-0-80506512-1

[31] People Killed in Motor Vehicle Crashes, by State, 20052006

[32] NCSA Research Note (DOT-HS-810-948). US National
Highway Trac Safety Administration. May 2008.
[33] Adams, John. Smeed's Law : some further thoughts
(PDF). University College London.
[34] M. Maibach; et al. (February 2008). Handbook on estimation of external costs in the transport sector(PDF).
Delft, February: 332. Retrieved 2015-09-20.
[35] The High Cost of Free Parking by Donald C. Shoup

[17] Smith, Robert (1972). A Social History of the Bicycle,

its Early Life and Times in America. American Heritage
Press.

[36] Graph based on data from Transportation for Livable

Cities By Vukan R. Vuchic p. 76. 1999. ISBN 0-88285161-6

[18] From Highway to Superhighway: The Sustainability,

Symbolism and Situated Practices of Car Culture GravesBrown. Social Analysis. Vol. 41, pp. 6475. 1997.

[37] MacKenzie, J.J., R.C. Dower, and D.D.T. Chen. 1992.

The Going Rate: What It Really Costs to Drive. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

31.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

[38] http://www.its.ucdavis.edu/people/faculty/delucchi
[39] Diesendorf, Mark. The Eect of Land Costs on the Economics of Urban Transportation Systems (PDF). Proceedings of Third International Conference on Trac and
Transportation Studies (ICTTS2002). pp. 14221429.
ISBN 978-0-7844-0630-4. Retrieved 2008-04-15.
[40] Osborne, Hilary (2006-10-20). Cost of running a car
'exceeds 5,000'". The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group).
[41] Meek, James (2004-12-20). The slow and the furious
. The Guardian (London: Guardian Media Group).
[42] Car-ownership costs by state. Retrieved 2013-08-22
[43] IRS (June 23, 2011). IRS Increases Mileage Rate to
55.5 Cents per Mile.
[44] Which state is the most expensive for driving?. Retrieved
2013-08-22
[45] Illich, Ivan (1974). Energy and Habits (PDF).
[46] Ivan Illich, excerpts from Energy and Equity; also collected
in Toward a History of Needs. The industrialization of
trac.

31.10 External links

Forum for the Automobile and Society
website for the book Carjacked: The Culture of the
Automobile and its Eect on Our Lives
Trac Volumes & Highway Capacity

109

Chapter 32

Emission standard
Further information: Air quality law
Emission standards are the legal requirements governing air pollutants released into the atmosphere. Emission standards set quantitative limits on the permissible
amount of specic air pollutants that may be released
from specic sources over specic timeframes. They are
generally designed to achieve air quality standards and to
protect human health.

to Environment Canada from Transport Canada's Motor Vehicle Safety Act. The Regulations align emission standards with the U.S. federal standards and apply to light-duty vehicles (e.g., passenger cars), light-duty
trucks (e.g., vans, pickup trucks, sport utility vehicles),
heavy-duty vehicles (e.g., trucks and buses), heavy-duty
engines and motorcycles.* [2]

32.3.2 United States of America

32.1 Regulated sources

Main article: United States emission standards

Many emissions standards focus on regulating pollutants

released by automobiles (motor cars) and other powered
vehicles. Others regulate emissions from industry, power
plants, small equipment such as lawn mowers and diesel
generators, and other sources of air pollution.

In the United States, emissions standards are managed by

the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The state
of California has special vehicle emissions standards, and
other states may choose to follow either the national or
California standards.

32.2 Vehicle emission performance

standard
An emission performance standard is a limit that sets
thresholds above which a dierent type of emission control technology might be needed. While emission performance standards have been used to dictate limits for conventional pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen and oxides
of sulfur (NOx and SOx),* [1] this regulatory technique
may be used to regulate greenhouse gasses, particularly
carbon dioxide (CO2 ). In the US, this is given in pounds
of carbon dioxide per megawatt-hour (lbs. CO2 /MWhr),
and kilograms CO2 /MWhr elsewhere.

California's emissions standards are set by the California

Air Resources Board, known locally by its acronym
CARB. Given that California's automotive market is
one of the largest in the world, CARB wields enormous
inuence over the emissions requirements that major automakers must meet if they wish to sell into that market.
In addition, several other U.S. states also choose to follow the CARB standards, so their rulemaking has broader
implications within the U.S. By mid-2009, 16 other states
had adopted CARB rules.* [3] CARB's policies have also
inuenced EU emissions standards.
Federal (National) Tier 1regulations went into effect starting in 1994, and Tier 2standards are being phased in from 2004 to 2009. Automobiles and light
trucks (SUVs, pickup trucks, and minivans) are treated
dierently under certain standards.

California is attempting to regulate greenhouse gas emissions from automobiles, but faces a court challenge from
32.3 America
the federal government. The states are also attempting
to compel the federal EPA to regulate greenhouse gas
emissions, which as of 2007 it has declined to do. On
32.3.1 Canada
May 19, 2009 news reports indicate that the Federal EPA
In Canada, the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, will largely adopt California's standards on greenhouse
1999 (CEPA 1999) transfers the legislative authority for gas emissions.
regulating emissions from on-road vehicles and engines California and several other western states have passed
110

32.5. ASIA

111

bills requiring performance-based regulation of green- 32.4.2 UK

house gases from electricity generation.
Several local authorities in the UK have introduced Euro
In an eort to decrease emissions from heavy-duty diesel
4 or Euro 5 emissions standards for taxis and licensed
engines faster, the California Air Resources Board's Carl
private hire vehicles to operate in their area.* [5]* [6]* [7]
Moyer Program funds upgrades that are in advance of
regulations.
The California ARB standard for light vehicle emissions
is a regulation of equipment rst, with verication of
emissions second. The property owner of the vehicle is
not permitted to modify, improve, or innovate solutions
in order to pass a true emissions only standard set for
their vehicle. Therefore, California's attempt at regulation of emissions is a regulation of equipment not of air
quality. This form of regulation prevents most grassroots
type creative individuals from participating in the math
science and engineering that could lead to breakthroughs
in this area of research. They are wholly excluded from
modifying their property in any way that has not been extensively researched and approved by CARB. This could
be entirely prevented by regulating and testing emissions
only.

32.4.3 Germany

The EPA has separate regulations for small engines, such

as groundskeeping equipment. The states must also promulgate miscellaneous emissions regulations in order to
comply with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.

Due to rapidly expanding wealth and prosperity, the number of coal power plants and cars on China's roads is
rapidly growing, creating an ongoing pollution problem.
China enacted its rst emissions controls on automobiles
in 2000, equivalent to Euro I standards. China's State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) upgraded
emission controls again on July 1, 2004 to the Euro II
standard.* [8] More stringent emission standard, National
Standard III, equivalent to Euro III standards, went into
eect on July 1, 2007.* [9] Plans are for Euro IV standards to take eect in 2010. Beijing introduced the Euro
IV standard in advance on January 1, 2008, became the
rst city in mainland China to adopt this standard.* [10]

32.4 Europe
32.4.1

European Union

Main article: European emission standards

According to the German federal automotive oce

37.3% (15.4 million) cars in Germany (total car population 41.3 million) conform to the Euro 4 standard from
Jan 2009.

32.5 Asia
32.5.1 China
See also: Energy policy of China

32.5.2 Hong Kong

See also: Air pollution in Hong Kong

The European Union has its own set of emissions standards that all new vehicles must meet. Currently, standards are set for all road vehicles, trains, barges and 'non- From Jan 1, 2006, all new passenger cars with sparkroad mobile machinery' (such as tractors). No standards ignition engines in Hong Kong must meet either Euro
IV petrol standard, Japanese Heisei 17 standard or US
apply to seagoing ships or airplanes.
EPA Tier 2 Bin 5 standard. For new passenger cars with
EU Regulation No 443/2009 sets an average CO2 emiscompression-ignition engines, they must meet US EPA
sions target for new passenger cars of 130 grams per kiloTier 2 Bin 5 standard.
metre. The target is gradually being phased in between
2012 and 2015. A target of 95 grams per kilometre will
apply from 2021.

32.5.3 India

For light commercial vehicle, an emissions target of 175

g/km applies from 2017, and 147 g/km from 2020,* [4] a Main article: Bharat Stage emission standards
reduction of 16%.
The EU is to introduced Euro 4 eective January 1, 2008,
Euro 5 eective January 1, 2010 and Euro 6 eective
January 1, 2014. These dates had been postponed for two
years to give oil reneries the opportunity to modernize
their plants.

Bharat stage emission standards are emission standards

instituted by the Government of India to regulate the
output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine
equipment, including motor vehicles. The standards and
the timeline for implementation are set by the Central

112

CHAPTER 32. EMISSION STANDARD

Pollution Control Board under the Ministry of Environ- existing NOx requirements and to add PM control proviment & Forests.
sions. The amended rule is called the Law Concerning
The standards, based on European regulations were rst Special Measures to Reduce the Total Amount of Nitrointroduced in 2000. Progressively stringent norms have gen Oxides and Particulate Matter Emitted from Motor
been rolled out since then. All new vehicles manufac- Vehicles in Specied Areas, or in short the Automotive
tured after the implementation of the norms have to be NOx and PM Law.
compliant with the regulations. As of 2014, the country is under a combination of Euro 3 and Euro 4-based Emission Standards
norms. Euro 6 norms are planned to be introduced across
the country by the April 1, 2020.
The NOx and PM Law introduces emission standards for
specied categories of in-use highway vehicles including commercial goods (cargo) vehicles such as trucks and
32.5.4 Japan
vans, buses, and special purpose motor vehicles, irrespective of the fuel type. The regulation also applies to diesel
Background
powered passenger cars (but not to gasoline cars).
Starting June 10, 1968, the Japanese Government passed In-use vehicles in the specied categories must meet
the (Japanese: Air Pollution Control Act) which reg- 1997/98 emission standards for the respective new vehiulated all sources of air pollutants. As a result of the cle type (in the case of heavy duty engines NOx = 4.5
1968 law, dispute resolutions were passed under the 1970 g/kWh, PM = 0.25 g/kWh). In other words, the 1997/98
(Japanese: Air Pollution Dispute Resolution Act). As new vehicle standards are retroactively applied to older
a result of the 1970 law, in 1973 the rst installment of vehicles already on the road. Vehicle owners have two
four sets of new emissions standards were introduced. methods to comply:
Interim standards were introduced on January 1, 1975
and again for 1976. The nal set of standards were in1. Replace old vehicles with newer, cleaner models
troduced for 1978.* [11] While the standards were introduced they were not made immediately mandatory,
2. Retrot old vehicles with approved NOx and PM
instead tax breaks were oered for cars which passed
control devices
them.* [12] The standards were based on those adopted
by the original US Clean Air Act of 1970, but the test cyVehicles have a grace period, between 8 and 12 years
cle included more slow city driving to correctly reect the
from the initial registration, to comply. The grace period
Japanese situation.* [13] The 1978 limits for mean emisdepends on the vehicle type, as follows:
sions during a Hot Start Testof CO, hydrocarbons,
and NOx were 2.1 grams per kilometre (3.38 g/mi) of
Light commercial vehicles (GVW 2500 kg): 8
CO, .25 grams per kilometre (0.40 g/mi) of HC, and
years
.25 grams per kilometre (0.40 g/mi) of NOx respec*
tively. [13] Maximum limits are 2.7 grams per kilome Heavy commercial vehicles (GVW > 2500 kg): 9
tre (4.35 g/mi) of CO, .39 grams per kilometre (0.63
years
g/mi) of HC, and .48 grams per kilometre (0.77 g/mi)
of NOx. The "10 - 15 Mode Hot Cycle" test, used to
Micro buses (11-29 seats): 10 years
determine individual fuel economy ratings and emissions
Large buses ( 30 seats): 12 years
observed from the vehicle being tested, use a specic test*
*
*
ing regime. [14] [15] [16]
Special vehicles (based on a cargo truck or bus): 10
In 1992, to cope with NOx pollution problems from
years
existing vehicle eets in highly populated metropoli Diesel passenger cars: 9 years
tan areas, the Ministry of the Environment adopted
the (Japanese: Law Concerning Special Measures
to Reduce the Total Amount of Nitrogen Oxides Furthermore, the regulation allows fulllment of its reEmitted from Motor Vehicles in Specied Areas), quirements to be postponed by an additional 0.5-2.5
called in short The Motor Vehicle NOx Law. The regula- years, depending on the age of the vehicle. This delay
tion designated a total of 196 communities in the Tokyo, was introduced in part to harmonize the NOx and PM
Saitama, Kanagawa, Osaka and Hyogo Prefectures as ar- Law with the Tokyo diesel retrot program.
eas with signicant air pollution due to nitrogen oxides The NOx and PM Law is enforced in connection
emitted from motor vehicles. Under the Law, several with Japanese vehicle inspection program, where nonmeasures had to be taken to control NOx from in-use ve- complying vehicles cannot undergo the inspection in the
hicles, including enforcing emission standards for speci- designated areas. This, in turn, may trigger an injunced vehicle categories.
tion on the vehicle operation under the Road Transport
The regulation was amended in June 2001 to tighten the Vehicle Law.

32.8. REFERENCES

32.5.5

Israel

Since January 2012 vehicles which do not comply with

Euro 6 emission values are not allowed to be imported to
Israel.

113

32.8 References
[1] Archived November 20, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
[2] Vehicle and Engine Regulations. Environment Canada.
Jul 17, 2013.
[3] How Stu Works: CARB

32.6 Africa
32.6.1

South Africa

South Africas rst clean fuels programme was implemented in 2006 with the banning of lead from petrol and
the reduction of sulphur levels in diesel from 3 000 parts
per million (ppm) to 500ppm, along with a niche grade
of 50ppm.
The Clean Fuels 2 standard, expected to begin in 2017,
includes the reduction of sulphur to 10ppm; the lowering
of benzene from 5 percent to 1 percent of volume; the
reduction of aromatics from 50 percent to 35 percent of
volume; and the specication of olens at 18 percent of
volume.

32.7 See also

Air pollution
C. Arden Pope
Carbon dioxide equivalent
The Center for Clean Air Policy (in the US)
Emission factor
Emission test cycle
Emissions trading
Environmental standard

[4] International Council on Clean Transportation (January

2014). EU CO2 standards for passenger cars and lightcommercial vehicles. Retrieved 5 February 2014.
[5] Taxi emissions ruling set for January start. Woking
News & Mail. 18 October 2013. Retrieved 17 December
2013.
[6] Chichester District Council: European emission standard EURO 4. Chichester District Council. Retrieved
2013-12-13.
[7] European technology emission standards: how to check
your vehicle (PDF). Plymouth City Council. Retrieved
2013-12-13.
[8] China to adopt auto emission standard equal to Euro III
in 2008. Chinadaily.com.cn. 2004-07-07. Retrieved
2011-02-02.
[9] China Launches Tougher Auto Emission Standard.
English.cri.cn. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
[10] China: Beijing launches Euro 4 standards. Automotiveworld.com. 2008-01-04. Retrieved 2011-02-02.
[11] Yamaguchi, Jack K. (1979), Lsch, Annamaria, ed.,The
Year of Uncertainty?", World Cars 1979 (Pelham, NY:
The Automobile Club of Italy/Herald Books): 6162,
ISBN 0-910714-11-8
[12] Yamaguchi, Jack K. (1977), The Year of the Third
Power, World Cars 1977 (Pelham, NY: The Automobile
Club of Italy/Herald Books): 54, ISBN 0-910714-09-6
[13] Yamaguchi, Jack K. (1978), Lsch, Annamaria, ed.,
Successes- Excesses, World Cars 1978 (Pelham, NY:
The Automobile Club of Italy/Herald Books): 61, ISBN
0-910714-10-X

European emission standards

[14] http://www.walshcarlines.com/pdf/Global%20Vehicle%
20Emissions%20Standards%20Tables.pdf
Japanese
gasoline emission limits page 28

Flexible-fuel vehicle

[15] Emission Test Cycles: Japanese 10-15 Mode

Fuel eciency

[16] fuel$aver.govt.nz

Mobile Emission Reduction Credit (MERC)

Motor vehicle emissions
National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air
Pollutants
Ultra-low-sulfur diesel
Vehicle emissions control

32.9 External links

Dieselnet pages on vehicle emission standards.
EPA National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory.
Emission Standards Reference Guide PDF (141
KB) for heavy duty and nonroad engines.

114
Federal Income Tax Credits for Hybrids placed in
service.
Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends:
1975 Through 2008
EU
Directive 1999/94/EC of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 13 December 1999, relating
to the availability of consumer information on fuel
economy and CO2 emissions in respect of the marketing of new passenger cars PDF (140 KB).
Council Directive 80/1268/EEC Fuel consumption
of motor vehicles.

CHAPTER 32. EMISSION STANDARD

Chapter 33

Emissions & Generation Resource

Integrated Database
The Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated
Database (eGRID) is a comprehensive source of data
on the environmental characteristics of almost all electric
power generated in the United States. eGRID is issued
by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

eGRID1997 was released in December 1999.

eGRID1996 was rst rst released in December
1998.

As of October 2015, the available editions of eGRID contain data for years 2012, 2010, 2009, 2007, 2005, 2004, 33.2 Data summary
and 1996 through 2000. eGRID is unique in that it links
air emissions data with electric generation data for United
eGRID data include emissions, dierent types of emisStates power plants.* [1]
sion rates, electricity generation, resource mix, and heat
input. eGRID data also include plant identication,
location, and structural information. The emissions
33.1 History
information in eGRID include carbon dioxide (CO2 ),
nitrogen oxides (NO), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), methane
eGRID2012 was released by EPA on October 8, (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O),and carbon dioxide equiv2015. It is the 10th edition and contains year 2012 alent (CO2 e). CO2 , CH4 , and N2 O are greenhouse
data.
gases (GHG) that contribute to global warming or climate
change. NO and SO2 contribute to unhealthy air quality
eGRID2010 Version 1.0 with year 2010 data was and acid rain in many parts of the country. eGRID's rereleased on February 24, 2014.
source mix information includes the following fossil fuel
eGRID2009 Version 1.0, with year 2009 data was resources: coal, oil, gas, other fossil; nuclear resources;
and the following renewable resources: hydroelectric
release on May 10, 2012.
(water), biomass (including biogas, landll gas and di eGRID2007 Version 1.0 was released on February gester gas), wind, solar, and geothermal.
23, 2011 and Version 1.1 was released May 20, eGRID2012 data is presented as an Excel workbook with
2011.
nine data worksheets and a table of contents. The eGRID
eGRID2005 Version 1.0 was released in October workbook contains data at the boiler, generator, and plant
2008 and Version 1.1 was released in January 2009. levels and aggregated data by state, power control area,
eGRID subregion, NERC region, and U.S. The work eGRID2004 Version 1.0 was released in December book also includes a worksheet that displays the grid gross
2006; Version 2.0 was released in early April 2007; loss (%).
and Version 2.1, was released in late April 2007 and eGRID2012 also contains the Technical Support Docuupdated for typos in May 2007.
ment (PDF), Summary Tables (PDF), Subregion GHG
output emission rates (PDF) for CO2 , CH4 , and N2 O (for
GHG inventory and registry work), NERC region Map
(JPG), eGRID2012 subregion map (JPG), and release
notes (TXT). These les are available as separate downloadable les or all of them are contained in a ZIP le, "all
eGRID2012 les.The current eGRID version and all
eGRID1998 was released in March and September previous versions are available in a ZIP le, "all eGRID
2001.
les (1996-2012)". This les can be downloaded from
eGRID2000 Version 1.0 was released in December 2002; Version 2.0 was released in April
2003; and Version 2.01 was released in May
2003. (eGRID2000 replaced eGRID versions 1996
through 1998).

115

116

CHAPTER 33. EMISSIONS & GENERATION RESOURCE INTEGRATED DATABASE

EPAs eGRID website.

Electrical power industry

The primary data sources used for eGRID include data

reported by electric generators to EPAs Clean Air Markets Division (pursuant to 40 CFR Part 70) and to the
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA).

Electricity generation

33.3 Data use

eGRID data are used for carbon footprinting; emission
reduction calculations; calculating indirect greenhouse
gas emissions for The Climate Registry, the California
Climate Action Registry, Californias Mandatory GHG
emissions reporting program (Global Warming Solutions
Act of 2006, AB 32), and other GHG protocols; were
used as the starting point for the new international carbon emissions database, CARMA. EPA tools and programs such as Power Proler (which has been updated
with eGRID year 2012 data), Portfolio Manager, the
WasteWise Oce Carbon Footprint Tool, the Green
Power Equivalency Calculator, the Personal Greenhouse
Gas Emissions Calculator, and the Greenhouse Gas
Equivalencies Calculator use eGRID. Other tools such as
labeling/environmental disclosure, Renewable Portfolio
Standards (RPS) and Renewable Energy Credits (RECs)
attributes are supported by eGRID data. States also rely
on eGRID data for electricity labeling (environmental
disclosure programs), emissions inventories, and for policy decisions such as output based standards. eGRID is
additionally used by nongovernmental organizations for
tools and analysis by the International Council for Local
Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI), the Northeast States
for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM), the
Rocky Mountain Institute, the National Resource Defense Council (NRDC), the Ozone Transport Commission (OTC), Powerscorecard.org, and the Greenhouse
Gas Protocol Initiative.
In 2010, Executive Order 13514 was issued, requiring
Federal agencies to measure, report, and reduce their
greenhouse gas emissions from direct and indirect activities.The Federal GHG Accounting and Reporting
Guidance accompanied this order and recommended using eGRID non-baseload emission rates to estimate the
Scope 2 (indirect) emission reductions from renewable
energy.

33.4 See also

External combustion engine

Gas turbine
Power station
Renewable energy
Steam turbine

33.5 References
[1] EPA - Clean Energy - EE Action Plan

33.6 External links

EIAs Electricity Database Files
EPAs Clean Air Markets - Data and Maps
EPAs Clean Energy Homepage
EPAs Climate Change Homepage
EPA's eGRID paper How to use eGRID for Carbon Footprinting Electricity Purchases in Greenhouse Gas Emission Inventories
EPAs eGRID website (Data years 2012, 2010,
2009, 2007, 2005, and 2004)
EPA's Power Proler
EPAs Energy Star Portfolio Manager
EPA's Acid Rain Program
EPA's Combined Heat and Power Partnership
Homepage
Executive Order 13514
Federal GHG Accounting and Reporting Guidance
Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator
Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management (NESCAUM)
Ozone Transport Commission (OTC)

Air pollution

Personal Greenhouse Gas Emissions Calculator

Combined Heat and Power (CHP)

Powerscorecard.org

Combined cycle

World Business Council for Sustainable Development

Electric power
Electric utility

World Resources Institute Homepage

Chapter 34

Environmental impact of aviation

Radiative forcings from aviation emissions (gases and aerosols)

in 1992 as estimated by the IPCC

case of CO2 ) ocean acidication.* [7] These concerns are

highlighted by the present volume of commercial aviation
and its rate of growth. Globally, about 8.3 million people y daily (3 billion occupied seats per year), twice the
A C-141 Starlifter leaves contrails over Antarctica.
total in 1999.* [8] U.S. airlines alone burned about 16.2
billion gallons of fuel during the twelve months between
The environmental impact of aviation occurs because October 2013 and September 2014.* [9]
aircraft engines emit heat, noise, particulates and gases
In addition to the CO2 released by most aircraft in ight
which contribute to climate change* [1]* [2] and global
through the burning of fuels such as Jet-A (turbine airdimming.* [3] Despite emission reductions from automocraft) or Avgas (piston aircraft), the aviation industry
biles and more fuel-ecient and less polluting turbofan
also contributes greenhouse gas emissions from ground
and turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in
airport vehicles and those used by passengers and sta
recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution
to access airports, as well as through emissions generated
attributable to aviation. From 1992 to 2005, passenger
by the production of energy used in airport buildings, the
kilometers increased 5.2% per year. And in the European
manufacture of aircraft and the construction of airport
Union, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased
infrastructure.* [10]
by 87% between 1990 and 2006.* [4]
While the principal greenhouse gas emission from powThere is an ongoing debate about possible taxation of air
ered aircraft in ight is CO2 , other emissions may intravel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading
clude nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (together termed
scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external
oxides of nitrogen or NO), water vapour and particulates
costs of aviation are taken into account.* [5]
(soot and sulfate particles), sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide (which bonds with oxygen to become CO2 immediately upon release), incompletely burned hydrocarbons,
34.1 Climate change
tetraethyllead (piston aircraft only), and radicals such as
hydroxyl, depending on the type of aircraft in use.* [11]
Like all human activities involving combustion, most Emissions weighting factor (EWFs) i.e., the factor by
forms of aviation release carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and other which aviation CO2 emissions should be multiplied to
greenhouse gases into the Earth's atmosphere, contribut- get the CO2 -equivalent emissions for annual eet average
ing to the acceleration of global warming* [6] and (in the conditions is in the range 1.32.9.* [12]
117

118

34.1.1

CHAPTER 34. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION

Mechanisms and Cumulative Effects of aviation on Climate

The contribution of civil aircraft-in-ight to global

CO2 emissions has been estimated at around 2%.* [11]
However, in the case of high-altitude airliners which
frequently y near or in the stratosphere, non-CO2
altitude-sensitive eects may increase the total impact
on anthropogenic (human-made) climate change significantly.* [11] A 2007 report from Environmental Change
Institute / Oxford University posits a range closer to 4 percent cumulative eect.* [13] Subsonic aircraft-in-ight
contribute to climate change* [11] in four ways:
Contrails
Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
CO2 emissions from aircraft-in-ight are the most significant and best understood* [14] element of aviation's total
contribution to climate change. The level and eects of
CO2 emissions are currently believed to be broadly the
same regardless of altitude (i.e. they have the same atmospheric eects as ground based emissions). In 1992,
emissions of CO2 from aircraft were estimated at around
2% of all such anthropogenic emissions, and that year the
atmospheric concentration of CO2 attributable to aviation was around 1% of the total anthropogenic increase
since the industrial revolution, having accumulated primarily over just the last 50 years.* [15]
Oxides of nitrogen (NO)
At the high altitudes own by large jet airliners around
the tropopause, emissions of NO are particularly eective in forming ozone (O3 ) in the upper troposphere. High
altitude (813 km) NO emissions result in greater concentrations of O3 than surface NO emissions, and these
in turn have a greater global warming eect. The eect
of O3 concentrations are regional and local (as opposed
to CO2 emissions, which are global).

Cirrus cloud formation

line clouds that form in cold, humid atmospheres and are

thought to have a global warming eect (though one less
signicant than either CO2 emissions or NO induced
eects).* [16] Contrails are extremely rare from loweraltitude aircraft, or from propeller-driven aircraft or roNO emissions also reduce ambient levels of methane, torcraft.
another greenhouse gas, resulting in a climate cooling effect. But this eect does not oset the O3 forming eect Cirrus clouds have been observed to develop after the
of NO emissions. It is now believed that aircraft sulfur persistent formation of contrails and have been found
and water emissions in the stratosphere tend to deplete to have a global warming eect over-and-above that of
O3 , partially osetting the NO-induced O3 increases. contrail formation alone. There is a degree of scientic
These eects have not been quantied.* [15] This prob- uncertainty about the contribution of contrail and cirrus
lem does not apply to aircraft that y lower in the tropo- cloud formation to global warming and attempts to essphere, such as light aircraft or many commuter aircraft. timate aviation's overall climate change contribution do
not tend to include its eects on cirrus cloud enhancement.* [14] However, a 2015 study found that articial
cloudiness caused by contrail outbreaksreduce the
Water vapor (H2 O), and contrails
dierence between daytime and nighttime temperatures.
One of the products of burning hydrocarbons in oxygen The former are decreased and the latter are increased,
is water vapour, a greenhouse gas. Water vapour pro- in comparison to temperatures the day before and the
duced by aircraft engines at high altitude, under certain day after such outbreaks.* [17] On days with outbreaks
atmospheric conditions, condenses into droplets to form the day/night temperature dierence was diminished by
Condensation trails, or contrails. Contrails are visible about 6F in the U.S. South and 5F in the Midwest.* [18]

34.1. CLIMATE CHANGE

Particulates

119
Emissions by passenger class, and eects of seating
conguration

Least signicant is the release of soot and sulfate particles. Soot absorbs heat and has a warming eect; sulfate
particles reect radiation and have a small cooling eect.
In addition, they can inuence the formation and properties of clouds.* [19] All aircraft powered by combustion
will release some amount of soot.

In 2013 the World Bank published a study of the eect

on CO2 emissions of its sta's travel in business class or
rst class, versus using economy class.* [25] Among the
factors considered was that these premium classes displace proportionately more economy seats for the same
total aircraft space capacity, and the associated diering
load factors and weight factors. This was not accounted
34.1.2 Greenhouse gas emissions per pas- for in prior standard carbon accounting methods. The
study concluded that when considering respective aversenger kilometre
age load factors (percent of occupied seats) in each of
the seating classes, the carbon footprints of business class
Averaged emissions
and rst class are three-times and nine-times higher than
economy class.* [25]* [26]* [27] A related article by the
Emissions of passenger aircraft per passenger kilometre International Council on Clean Transport notes further
vary extensively because of diering factors such as the regarding the eect of seating congurations on carbon
size and type aircraft, the altitude and the percentage of emissions that:* [27]
passenger or freight capacity of a particular ight, and
the distance of the journey and number of stops en route.
The A380 is marketed as a green giAlso, the eect of a given amount of emissions on climate
antand one of the most environmentally ad(radiative forcing) is greater at higher altitudes: see bevanced aircraft out there. But that spin is based
low. Some representative gures for CO2 emissions are
on a maximum-capacity aircraft conguration,
provided by LIPASTO's survey of average direct emisor about 850 economy passengers. In realsions (not accounting for high-altitude radiative eects)
ity, a typical A380 aircraft has 525 seats. Its
of airliners expressed as CO2 and CO2 equivalent per
fuel performance is comparable to that of a
*
passenger kilometre: [20]
B747-400 ER and even about 15% worse than
a B777-300ER on a passenger-mile basis (calculated using Piano-5 on a ight from AUH to
Domestic, short distance, less than 463 km (288 mi):
LHR, assuming an 80% passenger load factor,
257 g/km CO2 or 259 g/km (14.7 oz/mile) CO2 e
and in-service eet average seat counts).
Domestic, long distance, greater than 463 km (288
mi): 177 g/km CO2 or 178 g/km (10.1 oz/mile)
34.1.3 Total climate eects
CO2 e
Long distance ights: 113 g/km CO2 or 114 g/km
(6.5 oz/mile) CO2 e
These emissions are similar to a four-seat car with one
person on board;* [21] however, ying trips often cover
longer distances than would be undertaken by car, so the
total emissions are much higher. For perspective, per passenger a typical economy-class New York to Los Angeles round trip produces about 715 kg (1574 lb) of CO2
(but is equivalent to 1,917 kg (4,230 lb) of CO2 when the
high altitude climatic forcingeect is taken into account).* [22] Within the categories of ights above, emissions from scheduled jet ights are substantially higher
than turboprop or chartered jet ights. About 60% of aviation emissions arise from international ights, and these
ights are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol and its emissions reduction targets.* [23]

In attempting to aggregate and quantify the total climate

impact of aircraft emissions the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) has estimated that aviation
s total climate impact is some 2-4 times that of its direct CO2 emissions alone (excluding the potential impact
of cirrus cloud enhancement).* [11] This is measured as
radiative forcing. While there is uncertainty about the exact level of impact of NO and water vapour, governments
have accepted the broad scientic view that they do have
an eect. Globally in 2005, aviation contributed possibly as much as 4.9% of radiative forcing.* [23] UK
government policy statements have stressed the need for
aviation to address its total climate change impacts and
not simply the impact of CO2 .* [28]

The IPCC has estimated that aviation is responsible for

around 3.5% of anthropogenic climate change, a gure
which includes both CO2 and non-CO2 induced eects.
The IPCC has produced scenarios estimating what this
Figures from British Airways suggest carbon dioxide gure could be in 2050. The central case estimate is
emissions of 100g per passenger kilometre for large jet that aviations contribution could grow to 5% of the toairliners (a gure which does not account for the produc- tal contribution by 2050 if action is not taken to tackle
tion of other pollutants or condensation trails).* [24]
these emissions, though the highest scenario is 15%.* [11]

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CHAPTER 34. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION

Moreover, if other industries achieve signicant cuts in to 17 MT in 2012, at the UK's historic annual emission
their own greenhouse gas emissions, aviations share as growth rate of 7%. Beyond 2012 if the growth rate were
a proportion of the remaining emissions could also rise. reduced to 3% yearly, carbon emissions in 2030 would
be 28 MT, which is 70% of the UK's entire carbon emissions budget that year for all sectors of society. This
34.1.4 Future emission levels
work also suggests the foreseeable future which confronts
many other nations that have high dependency on aviaEven though there have been signicant improvements tion.Hypermobile Travelers,* [33] an academic study
in fuel eciency through aircraft technology and oper- by Stefan Gssling et al. (2009) in the book Climate
ational management as described here, these improve- Change and Aviation,* [34] also points to the dilemma
ments are being continually eclipsed by the increase in caused by the increasing hypermobility of air travelers
air trac volume.
both in particular nations and globally.* [35]
Continual increases in travel & freight

What is the scope for improving eciency, to reduce

From 1992 to 2005, passenger kilometers increased 5.2% emissions?
per year, even with the disruptions of 9/11 and two sigAircraft eciency
nicant wars. Since the onset of the current recession:
While it is true that late model jet aircraft are signicantly
more fuel ecient (and thus emit less CO2 in particuDuring the rst three quarters of 2010, air
lar) than the earliest jet airliners,* [36]* [37] new airliner
travel markets expanded at an annualized rate
models in the rst decade of the 21st Century were barely
approaching 10%. This is similar to the rate
more ecient on a seat-mile basis than the latest pistonseen in the rapid expansion prior to the recespowered airliners of the late 1950s (e.g. Constellation
sion. Novembers results mean the annualL-1649-A and DC-7C).* [37] Claims for a high gain in
ized rate of growth so far in Q4 drops back to
eciency for airliners over recent decades (while true
around 6%. But this is still in line with long run
in part) has been biased high in most studies, by using
rates of trac growth seen historically. The
the early inecient models of jet airliners as a baselevel of international air travel is now 4% above
line. Those aircraft were optimized for increased revthe pre-recession peak of early 2008 and the
enue, including increased speed and cruising altitude, and
current expansion looks to have further to run.
*
were quite fuel inecient in comparison to their piston[29]
powered forerunners.* [37]
Air freight reached a new high point in May
(2010) but, following the end of inventory restocking activity, volumes have slipped back to
settle at a similar level seen just before the onset of recession. Even so, that means an expansion of air freight during 2010 of 5-6% on
an annualized basis close to historical trend.
With the stimulus of inventory restocking activity removed, further growth in air freight demand will be driven by end consumer demand
for goods which utilize the air transport supply
chain. ... The end of the inventory cycle does
not mean the end of volume expansion but markets are entering a slower growth phase.* [29]
In a 2008 presentation* [6] and paper * [30] Professor Kevin Anderson of the Tyndall Centre for Climate
Change Research showed how continued aviation growth
in the UK threatens the ability of that nation to meet
CO2 emission reduction goals necessary to contain the
century-end temperature increase to even 4 or 6C. (See
also: the 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate
Conference (2009)* [31] and its proceedings.)* [32] His
charts show the projected domestic aviation carbon emission increase for the UK as growing from 11 MT in 2006

Today, turboprop aircraft - probably in part because of

their lower cruising speeds and altitudes (similar to the
earlier piston-powered airliners) compared to jet airliners - play an obvious role in the overall fuel eciency of
major airlines that have regional carrier subsidiaries.* [38]
For example, although Alaska Airlines scored at the top
of a 2011-2012 fuel eciency ranking, if its large regional carrier - turbo-prop equipped Horizon Air - were
dropped from the lumped-in consideration, the airline's
ranking would be somewhat lower, as noted in the ranking study.
Aircraft manufacturers are striving for reductions in both
CO2 and NOx emissions with each new generation of design of aircraft and engine.* [39] While the introduction
of more modern aircraft represents an opportunity to reduce emissions per passenger kilometre own, aircraft
are major investments that endure for many decades, and
replacement of the international eet is therefore a longterm proposition which will greatly delay realizing the climate benets of many kinds of improvements. Engines
can be changed at some point, but nevertheless airframes
have a long life. Moreover, rather than being linear from
one year to the next the improvements to eciency tend
to diminish over time, as reected in the histories of both
piston and jet powered aircraft.* [37]

34.1. CLIMATE CHANGE

A 2014 life-cycle assessment of the cradle-to-grave reduction in CO2 by a carbon-ber-reinforced polymer
(CFRP) airliner such as a Boeing 787 including its manufacture, operations and eventual disposal has shown
that by 2050 such aircraft could reduce the airline industry's CO2 emissions by 14-15%, compared use of conventional airliners.* [40] The benet of CFRP technology
is not higher than that amount of reduction, despite the
lighter weight and substantially lower fuel consumption
of such aircraft, because of the limited eet penetration by 2050 and the increased demand for air travel due
to lower operating costs.* [40]
Operations eciency
Adding an electric drive to the airplane's nose wheel may
improve fuel eciency during ground handling. This addition would allow taxiing without use of the main engines.[33][34][35] * [41]* [42]* [43]

121
from London Heathrow Airport to Amsterdam Schiphol
Airport on 24 February 2008, with one engine burning a combination of coconut oil and babassu oil.* [46]
Greenpeace's chief scientist Doug Parr said that the ight
was high-altitude greenwash" and that producing organic oils to make biofuel could lead to deforestation and
a large increase in greenhouse gas emissions.* [46] Also,
the majority of the world's aircraft are not large jetliners
but smaller piston aircraft, and with major modications
many are capable of using ethanol as a fuel.* [47] Another consideration is the vast amount of land that would
be necessary to provide the biomass feedstock needed
to support the needs of aviation, both civil and military.* [48]
In December 2008, an Air New Zealand jet completed
the world's rst commercial aviation test ight partially
using jatropha-based fuel. Jatropha, used for biodiesel,
can thrive on marginal agricultural land where many trees
and crops won't grow, or would produce only slow growth
yields.* [49]* [50] Air New Zealand set several general
sustainability criteria for its Jatropha, saying that such
biofuels must not compete with food resources, that they
must be as good as traditional jet fuels, and that they
should be cost competitive with existing fuels.* [51]

Other opportunities arise from the optimisation of airline

timetables, route networks and ight frequencies to increase load factors (minimise the number of empty seats
own),* [44] together with the optimisation of airspace.
However, these are each one-time gains, and as these opportunities are successively fullled, diminishing returns In January 2009, Continental Airlines used a sustainable biofuel to power a commercial aircraft for the rst
can be expected from the remaining opportunities.
time in North America. This marks the rst sustainable
Another possible reduction of the climate-change impact biofuel demonstration ight by a commercial carrier usis the limitation of cruise altitude of aircraft. This would ing a twin-engined aircraft, a Boeing 737-800, powered
lead to a signicant reduction in high-altitude contrails by CFM International CFM56-7B engines. The biofuel
for a marginal trade-o of increased ight time and an blend included components derived from algae and jatestimated 4% increase in CO2 emissions. Drawbacks ropha plants.* [52]
of this solution include very limited airspace capacity to
do this, especially in Europe and North America and in- One fuel biofuel alternative to avgas that is under develcreased fuel burn because jet aircraft are less ecient at opment is Swift Fuel. Swift fuel was approved as a test
fuel by ASTM International in December 2009, allowing
lower cruise altitudes.* [45]
the company to continue their research and to pursue cerWhile they are not suitable for long-haul or transoceanic tication testing. Mary Rusek, president and co-owner
ights, turboprop aircraft used for commuter ights bring of Swift Enterprises predicted at that time that 100SF
two signicant benets: they often burn considerably less will be comparably priced, environmentally friendlier and
fuel per passenger mile, and they typically y at lower more fuel-ecient than other general aviation fuels on the
altitudes, well inside the tropopause, where there are no market.* [53]* [54]
concerns about ozone or contrail production.
As of June 2011, revised international aviation fuel standards ocially allow commercial airlines to blend conventional jet fuel with up to 50 percent biofuels. The reAlternative fuels
newable fuels can be blended with conventional commercial
and military jet fuel through requirements in the
Main article: Aviation_fuel Chemical_composition
newly issued edition of ASTM D7566, Specication for
Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized HydrocarSome scientists and companies such as GE Aviation and
bons.* [55]
Virgin Fuels are researching biofuel technology for use in
jet aircraft.* [46] Some aircraft engines, like the Wilksch In December 2011, the FAA announced it is awarding
WAM120 can (being a 2-stroke Diesel engine) run on $7.7 million to eight companies to advance the develstraight vegetable oil. Also, a number of Lycoming en- opment of drop-in commercial aviation biofuels, with a
special focus on ATJ (alcohol to jet) fuel. As part of
gines run well on ethanol.
its CAAFI (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuel IniIn addition, there are also several tests done combining
tiative) and CLEEN (Continuous Lower Emissions, Enregular petrofuels with a biofuel. For example, as part
ergy and Noise) programs, the FAA plans to assist in the
of this test Virgin Atlantic Airways ew a Boeing 747

122

CHAPTER 34. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION

development of a sustainable fuel (from alcohols, sugars,

biomass, and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils) that
can be dropped into aircraft without changing current infrastructure. The grant will also be used to research
how the fuels aect engine durability and quality control
standards.* [56]

34.1.5

Reducing air travel

Personal choices and social pressure

The German video short The Bill* [57] explores how
travel and its impacts are commonly viewed in everyday developed-world life, and the social pressures that are
at play. British writer George Marshall has investigated
common rationalizations that act as barriers to making
personal choices to travel less, or to justify recent trips.
In an informal research project, one you are welcome
to join,he says, he deliberately steered conversations
with people who are attuned to climate change problems
to questions about recent long-distance ights and why
the travel was justied. Reecting on actions contrary to
their beliefs, he noted, "(i)ntriguing as their dissonance
may be, what is especially revealing is that every one of
these people has a career that is predicated on the assumption that information is sucient to generate change -- an
assumption that a moments introspection would show
them was deeply awed.* [58]

through the mechanics of partnerships with credit card

companies and other businesses, in which high prot margin revenue streams can amount to selling free seats for
a high price.* [63] The only part of United Airlines business that was making money when the company led for
bankruptcy in 2002 was its frequent yer program.* [63]
Concerning business travel,The ease of international air
travel and the fact that, for most of us, the costs are met
by our employers, means that ... globe trotting conference travel is often regarded as a perk of the job.* [59]
However, the perk usually is not only the business trip
itself, but also the frequent yer points which the individual accrues by taking the trip, and which can be redeemed later for personal air travel. Thus a conict of
interest is established, whereby bottom-up pressure may
be created within a rm or government agency for travel
that is really not necessary. Even when such conict is not
a motivation, the perk of frequent yer miles can be expected to lead in many cases to personal trips that would
not be taken if a ticket had to be paid for with personal
funds.* [64]
By just using an airline-sponsored credit card to pay one's
household expenses, personal or business bills, or even
expense bills charged to an employer, frequent yer points
can be racked up quickly.* [63] Thus, free travel for
which the individual has to pay nothing extrabecomes
a reality. Across society, this too can be expected to lead
to much air traveland greenhouse gas emissionsthat
otherwise would not occur.* [65]

Several studies have contemplated the elimination of frequent yer programmes (FFPs), on the grounds of anticompetitiveness,* [66] ethics,* [67] conict with society's
With most international conferences having
overall well-being,* [68] or climate eects.* [69] There is
hundreds if not thousands of participants, and
a record of governments disallowing or banning FFPs and
the bulk of these usually traveling by plane,
of industry players requesting bans. Denmark did not alconference travel is an area where signicant
low the programs until 1992, then changing its policy bereductions in air-travel-related GHG emissions
cause its airlines were disadvantaged.* [66] In 2002, Norcould be made. ... This does not mean nonway banned domestic FFPs in order to promote compeattendance.(Reay, 2004)* [59]
tition among its airlines.* [70] In the U.S. in 1989, a vice
president of Brani said the government should conFor example, by 2003 Access Grid technology has al- sider ordering an end to frequent-yer programs, which
ready been successfully used to host several international he said allow unfair competition.* [71]
conferences,* [59] and technology has likely progressed
substantially since then. The Tyndall Centre for Climate A Canadian study said that because of competition no
Change Research has been systematically studying means airline could unilaterally end its FFP, but that a national
to change common institutional and professional prac- government could use its regulatory power to end the protices that have led to large carbon footprints of travel by grams broadly, which in Canada's case would also require
*
research scientists, and issued a report. (Le Qur et al. North America-wide cooperation. [68] In further analy*
*
*
sis,
a
Scandinavian
study
which
recommended
an end to
2015). [60] [61] [62]
frequent yer plans said, the only possible way of prohibiting FFPs successfully now that they have spread from
Ending incentives to yfrequent yer programs
the US to Europe to the Far East would be to do so on a
global basis. The basis exists: it could be done by the
Over 130 airlines have "frequent yer programs" based at World Trade Organization.* [66] A recent study which
least in part on miles, kilometers, points or segments for surveyed frequent yers in the U.K. and Norway, looked
ights taken. Globally, such programs included about 163 into behavioral addition to frequent ying and theyer's
million people as reported in 2006.* [63] These programs dilemmaof the conict between the social and perbenet airlines by habituating people to air travel and,
Business and professional choices

34.1. CLIMATE CHANGE

123

sonal benets of ying and air travel's impact on climate International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) to limit
change.* [69] It concluded that:
or reduce emissions and to nd a solution to the allocation
of emissions from international aviation in time for the
second period of the Kyoto Protocol starting from 2009;
Continued growth in both frequent ying
however, the Copenhagen climate conference failed to
practices and concern over air travel's climate
reach an agreement.* [76]
impacts are in a dynamic relationship and the
question of whether one or the other will reach
a tipping point cannot yet be determined. Selfregulation, external regulation, social norms,
technology and physical resources will continue to co-constitute the balance. An increasing stigmatisation of 'excessive' air travel may
(re)frame ying as more open to collective external mitigation,meaning government action.* [69]

Recent research points to this failure as a substantial obstacle to global policy including a CO2 emissions reduction pathway that would avoid dangerous climate change
by keeping the increase in the average global temperature
below a 2 C rise.* [77]* [78]* [79]

34.1.7 Emissions trading

As part of that process the ICAO has endorsed the adoption of an open emissions trading system to meet CO2
Potential for governmental constraints on demand
emissions reduction objectives. Guidelines for the adoption and implementation of a global scheme are currently
One means for reducing the environmental impact of avi- being developed, and will be presented to the ICAO Asation is to constrain demand for air travel, through in- sembly in 2007,* [80] although the prospects of a comprecreased fares in place of expanded airport capacity. Sev- hensive inter-governmental agreement on the adoption of
eral studies have explored this:
such a scheme are uncertain.
The UK study Predict and Decide - Aviation, climate
change and UK policy, notes that a 10% increase in
fares generates a 5% to 15% reduction in demand,
and recommends that the British government should
manage demand rather than provide for it.* [72] This
would be accomplished via a strategy that presumes
"against the expansion of UK airport capacity
and constrains demand by the use of economic instruments to price air travel less attractively.* [73]
A study published by the campaign group Aviation
Environment Federation (AEF) concludes that by
levying 9 billion of additional taxes, the annual rate
of growth in demand in the UK for air travel would
be reduced to 2%.* [74]
The ninth report of the House of Commons
Environmental Audit Select Committee, published
in July 2006, recommends that the British government rethinks its airport expansion policy and considers ways, particularly via increased taxation, in
which future demand can be managed in line with
industry performance in achieving fuel eciencies,
so that emissions are not allowed to increase in absolute terms.* [75]

34.1.6

Kyoto Protocol

Greenhouse gas emissions from fuel consumption in international aviation, in contrast to those from domestic aviation and from energy use by airports, are excluded from the scope of the rst period (2008-2012)
of the Kyoto Protocol, as are the non-CO2 climate effects. Instead, governments agreed to work through the

Within the European Union, however, the European

Commission has resolved to incorporate aviation in the
European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).* [81]
A new directive was adopted by the European Parliament
in July 2008 and approved by the Council in October
2008. It became eective on 1 January 2012.* [82]
Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute investigated the possible eects on Small Island Developing
States (SIDS) of the European Union's decision to limit
the supply of Certied Emission Reductions (CERs) to its
ETS market to Least Developed Countries (LDCs) from
2013.* [83] Most SIDS are highly vulnerable to the eects
of climate change and rely heavily on tourism as a basis
for their economies, so this decision could place them at
some disadvantage. The researchers therefore highlight
the need to ensure that any regulatory frameworks put in
place to tackle climate change take into account the development needs of the most vulnerable countries aected.
A report published by researchers at the Centre for
Aviation, Transport and Environment at Manchester
Metropolitan University found that the only way to have
a signicant impact on emissions was to put a price on
carbon and to use a market-based measure (MBM), such
as the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).* [84]

34.1.8 Eects of climate change on aviation

Increased turbulence
A report published in the science journal Nature Climate
Change forecasts that increasing CO2 levels will result in
a signicant increase in in-ight turbulence experienced

124

CHAPTER 34. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION

by trans-Atlantic airline ights the middle of the 21st century. The lead author of the study, Paul Williams, a researcher at the National Center for Atmospheric Science,
at the University of Reading stated,air turbulence does
more than just interrupt the service of in-ight drinks. It
injures hundreds of passengers and aircrew every year -sometimes fatally. It also causes delays and damage to
planes.* [85]

34.2 Noise

Sustainable biofuels
Sustainable Oils

34.6 Notes and references

[1] International Civil Aviation Organization, Air Transport
Bureau (ATB).Aircraft Engine Emissions. Retrieved
2008-03-19.
[2] Enviro.aero. What is the impact of ying?". Retrieved
2008-03-19.

Main article: Aircraft noise

Aircraft noise is seen by advocacy groups as being very
hard to get attention and action on. The fundamental issues are increased trac at larger airports and airport expansion at smaller and regional airports.* [86]

34.3 Air quality

Main article: Avgas Environmental regulation

34.4 Radiation exposure

Flying 12 kilometres (39,000 ft) high, passengers and
crews of jet airliners are exposed to at least 10 times the
cosmic ray dose that people at sea level receive. Several
times a decade, a geomagnetic storm permits a solar particle event to penetrate down to jetliner altitudes. Aircraft
ying polar routes near the geomagnetic poles are at particular risk.* [87]* [88]* [89]* [90]

34.5 See also

Air transport and the environment (United Kingdom)
Aviation Environment Federation, a UK focused
non-prot direct action group
Biofuels
Continuous descent approach
Electric aircraft
Flying Matters, a pro-aviation coalition in the United
Kingdom
Hydrogen powered aircraft
Hypermobility (travel)
Plane Mad (direct action group)

[3] Travis, David J.; Carleton, Andrew M. & Lauritsen, Ryan

G (2002). Contrails reduce daily temperature range
(PDF). Nature 418 (6898): 601. doi:10.1038/418601a.
PMID 12167846.
[4] Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air
transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme(Press release). EU press release. 2006-12-20. Retrieved 200801-02.
[5] Including Aviation into the EU ETS: Impact on EU allowance prices ICF Consulting for DEFRA February
2006
[6] Anderson, K. (17 June 2008). Reframing climate change:
from long-term targets to emission pathways (esp. slide
24 onward).
[7] McNeil BI, Matear RJ (2008). Southern Ocean acidication: A tipping point at 450-ppm atmospheric CO2. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (105:48;
p.18860). (In the Southern Ocean, an ecological tipping
point due towintertime aragonite undersaturation is projected to occur by the year 2030 and no later than 2038.
)
[8] Assoc. Press 2014. As air trac grows, safety at forefront. By S. Mayerowitz, AP Airlines Writer. 2 August
2014
[9] Why airfare keeps rising despite lower oil prices, by Scott
Mayerowitz, Assoc. Press Airlines Writer. Houston
Chron., 17 November 2014.
[10] Horvath A, Chester M (2008). Environmental Lifecycle Assessment of Passenger Transportation An Energy,
Greenhouse Gas and Criteria Pollutant Inventory of Rail
and Air Transportation. Info: University of California
Transportation Center, UC Berkeley.
[11] IPCC, Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(1999), Cambridge University Press
[12] Valuing the non-CO2 climate impacts of aviation Climatic
Change, 111 ( 3-4 ) s. 559-579 2012
[13] http://climatecare.org/wordpress/
wp-content/uploads/2013/07/
Calculating-the-Environmental-Impact-of-Aviation-Emissions.
pdf

34.6. NOTES AND REFERENCES

125

[14] Sausen; Ivar Isaksen, Volker Grewe, Didier Hauglustaine,

David S. Lee, Gunnar Myhre, Marcus O. Khler, Giovanni Pitari, Ulrich Schumann, Frode Stordal and Christos Zerefos, Robert (2005). Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: an update on IPCC (PDF). Meteorologische Zeitschrift (Gebrder Borntraeger) 14 (4): 555561.
doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2005/0049. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 2007-11-28. Retrieved 2008-01-12.

[29] IATA (2010, Nov.) Air Transport Market Analysis Accessed: 23 January 2011.

[15] Aviation and the Global Atmosphere: A Special Report of

the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1999),
Cambridge University Press

[31] 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference,

28-30 Sept 2009, Oxford, UK. http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/
4degrees/

[16] SPM-2

[32] Royal Society (2011). Special Issue: Four degrees

and beyond(Jan 2011). Philosophical Transactions
- A (369:1934). http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/
content/369/1934.toc

[17] Bernhardt, J. & Carleton, A.M. (2015). The impacts of

long-lived jet contrailoutbreakson surface station diurnal temperature range. Jrnl of Int'l Climatology. Onlineearly (July).
[18] Jet contrails aect surface temperatures. Science Daily.
18 June 2015.

[30] Anderson K, Bows A (2008). Reframing the climate

change challenge in light of post-2000 emission trends.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences (366:1882,
p.3863-3882). ,

[33] Gssling S, Ceron JP, Dubois G, Hall CM, Gssling IS,

Upham P, Earthscan L (2009). Hypermobile travellers.
Chapter 6 in: Climate Change and Aviation: Issues,
Challenges and Solutions; http://alicante.academia.edu/
documents/0076/1866/chap06_copy.pdf

[19] Questions & Answers on Aviation & Climate Change

. European Commission. 2005-09-17. Retrieved 2008- [34] Gssling S, Upham P (2009). Climate change and aviation: Issues, challenges and solutions. http://www.
01-12.
earthscan.co.uk/?tabid=42745
[20] Average passenger aircraft emissions and energy consumption per passenger kilometre in Finland 2008 ac- [35] Budd, L., Griggs, S., Howarth, D. (2013) Sustainable Aviation Futures. Bingley: Emerald
cessed 3 July 2009
[21] Average emissions and energy consumption per vehicle
kilometre of cars in Finland in 2009 accessed 3 July 2009
[22] Nevins, Joseph (2010, 13-Dec), Kicking the Habit: Air
Travel in the Time of Climate Change.
[23] Owen B, Lee DS, Lim L, 2010/04/01 P- (2010). Flying
into the Future: Aviation Emissions Scenarios to 2050.
Environmental Science & Technology (44:7, p.22552260).
[24] Goodall, Chris (2007-02-08). How to Live a Low-carbon
Life: The Individual's Guide to Stopping Climate Change.
Earthscan Publications Ltd. p. 326. ISBN 1-84407-4269.p. 222
[25] Bonger, H.; Strand, J. (2013). Calculating the carbon
footprint from dierent classes of air travel. World Bank,
Development Research Group, Env. & Energy Team.
40pp. May 2013.
[26] Washington Post (2013). How the World Bank could
slash its carbon emissions: Start ying coach. By Howard
Schneider, 13 June 2013.
[27] ICCT (2013). Inight Luxury: Who Really Pays?. By
Irene Kwan. Int'l Counc. on Clean Transport.
[28] The Future of Air Transport White Paper (2003), HMSO
The aviation industry is encouraged to take account of,
and where appropriate reduce, its contribution to global
warming...The impact of aviation on climate change is increased over that of direct CO2 emissions alone by some
of the other emissions released and their specic eects
at altitude.

[36] IATA/ATAG, Aviation & the Environment (1999) Aircraft fuel eciency has improved by some 50% over the
past 30 years
[37] Peeters P.M., Middel J., Hoolhorst A. (2005). Fuel eciency of commercial aircraft - An overview of historical
and future trends. National Aerospace Laboratory. NLRCR-2005-669, 37pp.
[38] Back to the Future: Return of the Turboprop?. By Irene
Kwan. Int'l Counc. on Clean Transport. 3 June 2014.
[39] Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research in Europe
(ACARE) Strategic Research Agenda (2002) These objectives include, inter alia, a 50% cut in CO2 and 80%
in Nox emissions[for new aircraft introduced in 2020
relative to new aircraft introduced in 2000].
[40] Timmis, A.; Hodzic, A.; Koh, L.; Bonner, M.; Soutis,
C.; Schafer, A.; Dray, L. (2014). Environmental impact assessment of aviation emission reduction through
the implementation of composite materials. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 20: 233243.
doi:10.1007/s11367-014-0824-0.
[41] EOS magazine November 2011
[42] Fuel Cell-powered Electric Nose Wheel Nears Flight
Tests, EV World, 9 Feb 2011.
[43] Tests prove electric-drive concept, Flight Global 9 Aug
2005.
[44] International Civil Aviation Organization Operational Opportunities to Minimize Fuel Use and Reduce Emissions
(2001)

126

CHAPTER 34. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF AVIATION

[45] Williams; Robert B. Nolanda, Victoria; Ralf Toumib

(November 2002).Reducing the climate change impacts
of aviation by restricting cruise altitudes (PDF). Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
7 (6): 451464. doi:10.1016/S1361-9209(02)00013-5.
Retrieved 2014-01-07.

[64] UNEP DTIE (Sustainable Consumption & Production

Branch)(undated). A Guide to Greenhouse Gas Emission
Reduction in UN Organizations (DTI/1217/PA). pp.1819.
[65] MedCaribbean.com. Making The Most Of Your Airlines
Miles Credit Cards.

[46] CBC News (February 2008). Airline ies jumbo jet

powered by biofuel. Retrieved 2008-02-24.

[66] Storm, S. (1999). Air transport policies and frequent yer programmes in the European Community: a
Scandinavian perspective. Unit of Tourism Research,
[47] South Dakota State University (2006). Active Projects
Research Centre of Bornholm: 1105. CiteSeerX:
. Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved
10.1.1.138.3305.
2008-02-19.
[48] Rapier R (2011, 20-Jan). Marginal Land Produces
Marginal Biomass. Consumer Energy Report

[67] Cognac M, DeLozier M (1997)Frequent Flyer Programs

Promotion: An Analysis Of A Paradoxical Industry.
Southwestern Marketing Association (p.1-12).

[49] Ron Oxburgh. Through biofuels we can reap the fruits of

our labours The Guardian, 28 February 2008. Retrieved
24 December 2008.

[68] Tretheway MW (1989) Frequent Flyer Programs: Marketing Bonanza or Anti-Competitive Tool? (30:1), p.445.

[50] Patrick Barta. As Biofuels Catch On, Next Task Is to Deal

With Environmental, Economic Impact Wall Street Journal, 24 March 2008. Retrieved 24 December 2008.

[69] Cohen S, Higham J, Cavaliere C (2011). Binge ying:

Behavioural addiction and climate change. Annals of
Tourism Research

[51] Air New Zealand Completes Biofuel Test GreenBiz.com,

5 January 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2009.

[70] Aftenpost (2002). Sterling polishes plans for new routes,

by Nina Berglund, 19 Mar 2002.

[52] Sustainable ight The Engineer Online, 12 January 2009.

Retrieved 12 January 2009.

[71] Orlando Sentinel (1989). Brani Will SlimDown, Keep

Flying, by Kenneth Michael, 4 Oct 1989.

[53] Grady, Mary (December 2009). Eorts Move Forward

To Produce Alternative Aviation Fuels. Retrieved 200903-05.

[72] Cairns, Dr Sally & Carey Newson; et al. (September

2006). Predict and decide - Aviation, climate change
and UK policy (PDF). pp. 96, section 11.9. Retrieved
2008-05-31.

[54] Purdue Research Park (December 2009). Indiana Airline Fuel Developer Moves Ahead With Testing. Retrieved 2009-12-17.
[55] 50 Percent Biofuels Now Allowed in Jet Fuel. Renewable Energy World. 1 July 2011.
[56] Meg Cichon (2 December 2011). FAA Awards $7.7
Million for Advancement of Aviation Biofuels. Renewable Energy World.
[57]The Bill, by Peter Wedel, distributed by GermanWatch.
[58] Marshall, G. (2009, 24-July). Why We Still Dont Believe
In Climate Change
[59] Reay DS (2004). New Directions: Flying in the face of
the climate change convention. Atmospheric Environment
(38:5, p.793-794).
[60] Le Qur, C. et al. 2015. Towards a culture of low-carbon
research for the 21st Century. Abstract page.
[61] Id. The Report.
[62] Nudging Climate Scientists To Follow Their Own Advice
On Flying. FiveThirtyEight. by Christie Aschwanden. 26
March 2015.
[63] The Economist (2005, 20-Dec), Frequent-yer miles Funny money.

[73] Cairns, Dr Sally & Carey Newson; et al. (September

2006). Predict and decide - Aviation, climate change
and UK policy (PDF). p. 4. Retrieved 2008-05-31.
[74] Sewill, Brendon (February 2003). The Hidden Cost of
Flying (PDF). Aviation Environment Federation. pp.
1920. Retrieved 2007-10-18.
[75] "Select Committee on Environmental Audit Ninth Report".
British House of Commons. 19 July 2006. pp. paras.
112, 118125, 113114 & 126133. Retrieved 2007-1112.
[76] GreenAirOnline (2009, 22-Dec). Copenhagen's failure to
deliver an aviation emissions deal leaves sector facing an
uncertain future.
[77] RTCC (2014).
[Planes and ships escape
scrutiny
in
bottom-up
climate
http://www.rtcc.org/2014/12/22/
regime
planes-and-ships-escape-scrutiny-in-bottom-up-climate-regime/].
Subtitle, International aviation and shipping are not
mentioned in the Lima call for climate action, despite
growing emissions.22 Dec. 2014.
[78] Bows, A.; Traut, M.; Gilbert, P.; Mander, S.; Walsh, C.;
& Anderson, K. (2012). Aviation and shipping privileged
again? UK delays decision to act on emissions. Brieng
Note No. 47; Tyndall Cent. for Clim. Chg. Research.
Dec. 2012.

34.7. EXTERNAL LINKS

[79] Bows-Larkin, A (2014). All adrift: aviation, shipping, and climate change policy. Clim. Policy: 122.
doi:10.1080/14693062.2014.965125.
[80] ICAO news release 30 November 2005 ICAO is also
considering market-based options to address engine emissions through the participation of aviation in emissions
trading schemes and the use of emissions levies related to
local air quality. Guidelines for Contracting States wishing to implement such measures are being formulated and
should be completed in time for the next regular Session
of the ICAO Assembly in the Fall of 2007, when direction
for future action will be set.
[81] European Commission, Reducing the Climate Change Impact of Aviation (2005)
[82] Directive 2008/101/EC of the European Parliament and
of the Council of 19 November 2008 amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to include aviation activities in the
scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading
within the Community (Text with EEA relevance)
[83] Keane, J. (2012) Brieng paper: The aviation industry, the European Union's Emissions Trading Scheme and
Small and Vulnerable Economies: development-friendly
frameworks. Overseas Development Institute
[84] Lee, D. et al 2013 Brieng paper: Bridging the aviation CO2 emissions gap: why emissions trading is needed.
Centre for Aviation, Transport and the Environment
[85] Fasten your seatbelts: Climate change to increase ight
turbulence. RT News. 9 April 2013. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
[86] Noise Pollution Clearinghouse. Aviation Noise. Retrieved 2007-12-29.
[87] Evaluation of the Cosmic Ray Exposure of Aircraft Crew
[88] Phillips, Tony (25 October 2013). The Eects of Space
Weather on Aviation. Science News. NASA.
[89] Converting Cosmic Rays to Sound During a Transatlantic Flight to Zurich on YouTube
[90] NAIRAS (Nowcast of Atmospheric Ionizing Radiation
System)

34.7 External links

Concerns
Air travel, climate change, and green consumerism. Appropedia.
planestupid.com. Plane Stupid. network of
grassroots groups that take non violent direct action
against aviation expansion
airportwatch.org.uk. AirportWatch. oppose any
expansion of aviation and airports likely to damage
the human or natural environment, and to promote

127
an aviation policy for the UK which is in full accordance with the principles of sustainable development
Industry
Aviation: Benets Beyond Borders. Air Transport Action Group. information on the many industry measures underway to limit the impact of aviation on the environment
sustainableaviation.co.uk. Sustainable Aviation.
collective approach of UK aviation to tackling the
challenge of ensuring a sustainable future
The aviation sector's climate action framework
(PDF). Air Transport Action Group. November
2015.
Research
Aviation Sustainability Center. Washington State
University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Laboratory for Aviation and the Environment.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Partnership for Air Transportation Noise and
Emissions Reduction. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Sustainable Sky Institute. Sustainable Sky Institute.
Alice Bows-Larkin.publications. ResearchGate.
Stefan Gssling. publications. Lund University
- Department of Service Management and Service
Studies.
David S. Lee (Climatologist). publications.
ResearchGate.
Studies
Aviation and the Global Atmosphere - Summary(PDF). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. 1999.
Clearing the Air: The Myth and Reality of Aviation and Climate Change (PDF). European Federation for Transport and Environment and Climate
Action Network. 2006.
Guidelines to Defra / DECC's GHG Conversion Factors for Company Reporting (PDF).
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. 2012.
Stefan Gssling and Paul Upham (2009). Climate
Change and Aviation - Issues, Challenges and Solutions (PDF). Earthscan. ISBN 978-1-84407-619-2.

Chapter 35

Exhaust gas
because of vehicle emissions.* [2] According to another
study from the same university, trac fumes alone cause
the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United
Kingdom.* [3]

35.1 Composition
The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen (N2 ),
water vapor (H2 O) (except with pure-carbon fuels), and
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) (except for fuels without carbon);
these are not toxic or noxious (although carbon dioxide is
a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming). A
relatively small part of combustion gas is undesirable noxious or toxic substances, such as carbon monoxide (CO)
from incomplete combustion, hydrocarbons (properly indicated as CHy , but typically shown simply as HC
on emissions-test slips) from unburnt fuel, nitrogen oxides (NO) from excessive combustion temperatures, and
particulate matter (mostly soot).

A diesel-powered truck emits an exhaust gas rich in black particulate matter when starting its engine.

Exhaust gas or ue gas is emitted as a result of the

combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline, petrol,
biodiesel blends,* [1] diesel fuel, fuel oil, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the
atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, ue gas stack, or
propelling nozzle. It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume.

35.2 Exhaust gas temperature

Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is important to the functioning of the catalytic converter of an internal combustion engine. It may be measured by an exhaust gas temperature gauge. EGT is also a measure of engine health
in gas-turbine engines (see below).

35.3 Cold engines

It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions (and

from stationary internal combustion engines), which can
During the rst two minutes after starting the engine of
also include:
a car that has not been operated for several hours, the
amount of emissions can be very high. This occurs for
Crankcase blow-by
two main reasons:
Evaporation of unused gasoline
Rich air-fuel ratio requirement in cold engines:
Motor vehicle emissions contribute to air pollution and
When a cold engine is started, the fuel does not
are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some
vaporize completely, creating higher emissions of
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxlarge cities. A 2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000
early deaths occur per year in the United States alone
ide, which diminishes only as the engine reaches
128

35.5. TYPES

129
Spark-ignition engines
See also: Automobile emissions control
In spark-ignition engines the gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air mix are called exhaust gases.
The composition varies from petrol to diesel engines, but
is around these levels:
This table DOES NOT correctly reect graph presented
on page 6 of referenced document!
The 10% oxygen for dieselis likely if the engine was
idling, e.g. in a test rig. It is much less if the engine is
running under load.

Steam from tailpipe of cold car

operating temperature. The duration of this startup phase has been reduced by advances in materials
and technology, including computer-controlled fuel
injection, shorter intake lengths, and pre-heating of
fuel and/or inducted air.

Nitromethane additive Exhaust gas from an internal

combustion engine whose fuel includes nitromethane will
contain nitric acid vapour, which is corrosive, and when
inhaled causes a muscular reaction making it impossible to breathe. People exposed to it should wear a gas
mask.* [8]

Inecient catalytic converter under cold condi- Diesel engines

tions: Catalytic converters are very inecient until up to their operating temperature. This time has
See Diesel exhaust; Soot.
been much reduced by moving the converter closer
to the exhaust manifold and even more so placing a
small yet quick-to-heat-up converter directly at the Gas-turbine engines
exhaust manifold. The small converter handles the
In aircraft gas turbine engines,exhaust gas temperstart-up emissions, which allows enough time for the
ature(EGT) is a primary measure of engine health.
larger main converter to heat up. Further improveTypically the EGT is compared with a primary en*
ments can be realised in many ways, [4] including
gine power indication calledengine pressure ratio
electric heating, thermal battery, chemical reaction
(EPR). For example: at full power EPR there will be
preheating, ame heating and superinsulation.
a maximum permitted EGT limit. Once an engine
reaches a stage in its life where it reaches this EGT
limit, the engine will require specic maintenance in
order to rectify the problem. The amount the EGT
35.4 Passenger car emissions sumis below the EGT limit is called EGT margin. The
mary
EGT margin of an engine will be greatest when the
engine is new, or has been overhauled. For most
airlines, this information is also monitored remotely
Comparable with the European Emission Standards
by the airline maintenance department by means of
EURO III as it was applied on October 2000
ACARS.
In 2000, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency began to implement more stringent emissions
standards for light duty vehicles. The requirements were Jet engines and rocket engines
phased in beginning with 2004 vehicles and all new cars
and light trucks were required to meet the updated stan- In jet engines and rocket engines, exhaust from propelling
nozzles which in some applications shows shock diadards by the end of 2007.
monds.

35.5 Types

35.5.2 Other types

From burning coal

35.5.1

Internal-combustion engines

Flue gas

130

CHAPTER 35. EXHAUST GAS

motor vehicles, with the second largest contributor being
non-road equipment which is mostly gasoline and diesel
stations.* [11]
The resulting nitric acid may be washed into soil, where
it becomes nitrate, which is useful to growing plants.

35.6.2 Volatile organic compounds

What looks like exhaust from jet engines, is actually contrail.

(Jet ying over the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado
Springs, Colorado).
Non-road equipment is mostly gasoline and diesel stations.* [12]

Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion

When oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, ground
level ozone is formed, a primary ingredient in smog. A
Steam engines
2005 U.S. EPA report gives road vehicles as the second
In steam engine terminology the exhaust is steam that is largest source of VOCs in the U.S. at 26% and 19% are
now so low in pressure that it can no longer do useful from non road equipment which is mostly gasoline and
diesel stations.* [12] 27% of VOC emissions are from solwork.
vents which are used in the manufacturer of paints and
paint thinners and other uses.* [13]

35.6 Main motor vehicle emissions

35.6.1

NOx

35.6.3 Ozone
Ozone is benecial in the upper atmosphere,* [14] but at
ground level, ozone irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity.* [15] It
also has many bad eects throughout the ecosystem.* [16]

35.6.4 Carbon monoxide (CO)

Smog in New York City as viewed from the World Trade Center
in 1988.

Mono-nitrogen oxides NO and NO2 (whether produced

this way or naturally by lightning) react with ammonia,
moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid vapor and related particles. Small particles can penetrate
deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, causing
premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of such
particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases such
as emphysema and bronchitis. It may also aggravate existing heart disease.* [9]* [10]* [11] In a 2005 U.S. EPA
study the largest emissions of NOx came from on road

MOPITT satellite computer image of carbon monoxide March

2010.

Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type

of fatal air poisoning in many countries.* [17] Carbon
monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless, but highly
toxic.
It combines with hemoglobin to produce
carboxyhemoglobin, which is ineective for delivering

35.7. POLLUTION REDUCTION

131

oxygen to bodily tissues. In 2011, 52% of carbon monox- 35.7 Pollution reduction
ide emissions were created by mobile vehicles in the
U.S.* [18]
Emission standards focus on reducing pollutants contained in the exhaust gases from vehicles as well as
from industrial ue gas stacks and other air pollution
exhaust sources in various large-scale industrial facili35.6.5 Hazardous air pollutants (toxics)
ties such as petroleum reneries, natural gas processChronic (long-term) exposure to benzene (C6 H6 ) dam- ing plants, petrochemical plants and chemical produc*
*
ages bone marrow. It can also cause excessive bleeding tion plants. [28] [29] However, these are often referred
and depress the immune system, increasing the chance to as ue gases. Catalytic converters in cars intend to
of infection. Benzene causes leukemia and is associ- break down the pollution of exhaust gases using a cataated with other blood cancers and pre-cancers of the lyst. Scrubbers in ships intend to remove the sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) of marine exhaust gases. The regulations on
blood.* [19]* [20]
marine sulfur dioxide emissions are tightening, however
only a small number of special areas worldwide have been
designated for low sulfur diesel fuel use only.

35.6.6

Particulate
PM2.5 )

35.6.8

Water vapor

matter

(PM10

and

One of the advantages claimed for advanced steam technology engines is that that they produce smaller quantities of toxic pollutants (e.g. oxides of nitrogen) than
The health eects of inhaling airborne particulate matpetrol and diesel engines of the same power. They proter have been widely studied in humans and animals and
duce larger quantities of carbon dioxide but less carbon
include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and
monoxide due to more ecient combustion.
premature death. Because of the size of the particles,
*
they can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs. [21] A
2011 UK study estimates 90 deaths per year due to passenger vehicle PM.* [22] In a 2006 publication, the U.S. 35.8 Health studies
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) state that in
2002 about 1 per-cent of all PM10 and 2 per-cent of all Researchers from the University of California, Los AnPM2.5 emissions came from the exhaust of on-road motor geles School of Public Health say preliminary results of
vehicles (mostly from diesel engines).* [23]
their statistical study of children listed in the California
Cancer Registry born between 1998 and 2007 found that
trac pollution may be associated with a 5% to 15% increase in the likelihood of some cancers.* [30] A World
35.6.7 Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
Health Organization study found that diesel fumes cause
an increase in lung cancer.* [31]
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Motor vehicle CO2
emissions are part of the anthropogenic contribution to
the growth of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere
which is causing climate change.* [24] Motor vehicles 35.9 Localised eects
are calculated to generate about 20% of the European
Union's man-made CO2 emissions, with passenger cars The California Air Resources Board (C.A.R.B.) found in
contributing about 12%.* [25] European emission stan- studies that 50% or more of the air pollution (smog) in
dards limit the CO2 emissions of new passenger cars and Southern California is due to car emissions.
light vehicles. The European Union average new car CO2
emissions gure dropped by 5.4% in the year to the rst
quarter of 2010, down to 145.6 g/km.* [26]
35.10 See also

Vehicle exhaust contains much water vapor.

Air pollution#Most polluted cities

Alternative propulsion
Low-emission zone
Congestion pricing

Water recovery
There has been research into ways that troops in deserts
can recover drinkable water from their vehicles' exhaust
gases. * [27]

Atmospheric dispersion modeling

Automobile#Environmental impact
Clean Air Act

132

CHAPTER 35. EXHAUST GAS

[6] Light-Duty Vehicle, Light-Duty Truck, and MediumDuty Passenger Vehicle -- Tier 2 Exhaust Emission Standards. Emission Standards Reference Guide. United
States Environmental Protection Agency. 14 November
2012.
[7] Self-Study Programme 230: Motor Vehicle Exhaust Emissions (PDF). AUDI. April 2000. Retrieved 23 March
2012.
[8] turbofast.com
[9] Health. Nitrogen Dioxide. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. 14 February 2013.

Automobile exhaust

Emission standard
European emission standards
Flue gas
Kyoto protocol
Landll gas
Mobile source air pollution

[10] The Regional Transport of Ozone: New EPA Rulemaking on Nitrogen Oxide Emissions (EPA-456/F-98-006)"
(PDF). United States Environmental Protection Agency.
September 1998.
[11] State and County Emission Summaries: Nitrogen Oxides. Air emission sources. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. 25 October 2013.
[12] State and County Emission Summaries: Volatile Organic Compounds. Air emission sources. United States
Environmental Protection Agency. 25 October 2013.
[13] Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)". Toxic Substances Hydrology Program. United States Geological
Survey (USGS). 12 April 2013.

Motor vehicle emissions and pregnancy

[14] http://www.epa.gov/ozone/basicinfo.html

United States emission standards

[15] http://www.epa.gov/airquality/ozonepollution/health.
html

Vehicle emissions control

[16] http://www.epa.gov/groundlevelozone/ecosystem.html

35.11 References
[1] Omidvarborna; et al. Characterization of particulate
matter emitted from transit buses fueled with B20 in idle
modes. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering
2 (4): 23352342. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2014.09.020.
[2] Caiazzo, Fabio; Ashok, Akshay; Waitz, Ian A.;
Yim, Steve H.L.; Barrett, Steven R.H. (November
2013). Air pollution and early deaths in the United
States.
Part I: Quantifying the impact of major
sectors in 2005. Atmospheric Environment (Elsevier) 79: 198208. Bibcode:2013AtmEn..79..198C.
doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.05.081. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
[3] Roland Pease.Trac pollution kills 5,000 a year in UK,
says study. BBC News.
[4] Pulkrabek W.W. (2004) Engineering Fundamentals of
the Internal Combustion Engine. Pearson Prentice Hall,
new Jersey
[5] Average Annual Emissions and Fuel Consumption for
Passenger Cars and Light Trucks(PDF). Transportation
and Air Quality. United States Environmental Protection
Agency.

[17] Omaye ST. (2002). Metabolic modulation of carbon monoxide toxicity. Toxicology 180 (2): 139
150. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00387-6. PMID
12324190.
[18] State and County Emission Summaries: Carbon Monoxide. Air Emission Sources. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. 25 October 2013.
[19] Exhaust emissions: What comes out of your car's exhaust?". Automobile Association Developments Limited.
23 February 2012.
[20] Air Toxics from Motor Vehicles(PDF). Transportation
and Air Quality (United States Environmental Protection
Agency).
[21] Region 4: Laboratory and Field Operations PM 2.5
(2008).PM 2.5 Objectives and History. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
[22] Mazzi, Eric A.; Dowlatabadi, Hadi (2007). Air Quality
Impacts of Climate Mitigation: UK Policy and Passenger
Vehicle Choice. Environmental Science & Technology
41 (2): 387. doi:10.1021/es060517w.
[23] Transportation Air Quality: Selected Facts and Figures
. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Highway
Commission. 2006. Retrieved 2010-04-14.

35.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

[24] IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate

Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution
of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K.
Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and
P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY,
USA.|http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/
wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf
[25] Commission plans legislative framework to ensure the
EU meets its target for cutting CO2 emissions from cars
. European Commission. 2007-02-07.
[26] EU Average New Car CO2 Emissions Down 5.4 Percent
in Q1. autoevolution. SoftNews NET. 2010-04-19.
[27] Google search
[28] EPA Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act
[29] US EPA Publication AP 42, Fifth Edition, Compilation
of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
[30] Reinberg, Steven (9 April 2013). Smog Exposure During Pregnancy Might Raise Child's Cancer Risk: Study.
USNews.
[31] http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2012/pdfs/
pr213_E.pdf

35.12 External links

Health and Air Pollution Publication of the
California Air Resources Board
Cone, Tracie (13 November 2008). California
Air Pollution Kills More People Than Car Crashes,
Study Shows. Hungton Post.
Automotive Exhaust Chemicals: disease causing
eects. Alpha Online. Environmed Research Inc.
Cars, Trucks, and Air Pollution. Clean Vehicles.
Union of Concerned Scientists. 3 September 2013.
About diesel exhaust:
U.S. Department of Labor Occupational
Safety & Health Administration: Safety and
Health Topics: Diesel Exhaust
Partial List of Chemicals Associated with
Diesel Exhaust
Diesel Exhaust Particulates: Reasonably Anticipated to Be A Human Carcinogen
Scientic Study of Harmful Eects of Diesel
Exhaust: Acute Inammatory Responses in
the Airways and Peripheral Blood After ShortTerm Exposure to Diesel Exhaust in Healthy
Human Volunteers
Diesel exhaust: what you need to know

133

Chapter 36

Flue gas
36.1 Scrubbing
At power plants, ue gas is often treated with a series of
chemical processes and scrubbers, which remove pollutants. Electrostatic precipitators or fabric lters remove
particulate matter and ue-gas desulfurization captures
the sulfur dioxide produced by burning fossil fuels, particularly coal. Nitrogen oxides are treated either by modications to the combustion process to prevent their formation, or by high temperature or catalytic reaction with
ammonia or urea. In either case, the aim is to produce
nitrogen gas, rather than nitrogen oxides. In the United
States, there is a rapid deployment of technologies to
remove mercury from ue gastypically by adsorption
on sorbents or by capture in inert solids as part of the
ue-gas desulfurization product. Such scrubbing can lead
to meaningful recovery of sulfur for further industrial
use.* [2]
Technologies based on regenerative capture by amines for
the removal of CO2 from ue gas have been deployed to
provide high purity CO2 gas to the food industry and for
enhanced oil recovery. They are now under active research as a method for CO2 capture for long-term storage as a means of greenhouse gas remediation, and have
begun to be implemented in a limited way commercially
(e.g. the Sleipner West eld in the North Sea, operating
since 1996).* [3]

Flue gas from London's Bankside Power Station, 1975

There are a number of proven technologies for removing

pollutants emitted from power plants that are now available. There is also much ongoing research into technologies that will remove even more air pollutants.* [4]
Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a ue,
which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases
from a replace, oven, furnace, boiler or steam generator.
Quite often, the ue gas refers to the combustion exhaust
gas produced at power plants. Its composition depends
on what is being burned, but it will usually consist of
mostly nitrogen (typically more than two-thirds) derived
from the combustion of air, carbon dioxide (CO2 ), and
water vapor as well as excess oxygen (also derived from
the combustion air). It further contains a small percentage of a number of pollutants, such as particulate matter
(like soot), carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur
oxides.* [1]

36.2 See also

134

Carbon capture and storage

Emission standard
Exhaust gas
Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
Flue gas stacks

36.3. REFERENCES
Integrated gasication combined cycle (often referred to as IGCC)
Landll gas

36.3 References
[1] Fossil fuel combustion ue gases Milton R. Beychok, Encyclopedia of Earth, 2012.
[2] Sulfur C. Michael Hogan, Encyclopedia of Earth, 2011.
[3] Sleipner West
[4] Conventional coal-red power plant Scroll down to the
section entitled Control of air pollutant emissions.

135

Chapter 37

Flue-gas desulfurization

Before ue gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from

this power plant in New Mexico contained a signicant amount
of sulfur dioxide.

Flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) is a set of technologies

used to remove sulfur dioxide (SO
2) from exhaust ue gases of fossil-fuel power plants, and
from the emissions of other sulfur oxide emitting processes.

37.1 Methods
As stringent environmental regulations regarding SO2
The G. G. Allen Steam Station scrubber
emissions have been enacted in many countries, SO
2 is now being removed from ue gases by a variety of
methods. Below are common methods used:
For a typical coal-red power station, ue-gas desulfurization (FGD) may remove 95 percent or more of the SO
Wet scrubbing using a slurry of alkaline sorbent, 2 in the ue gases.
usually limestone or lime, or seawater to scrub gases;
Spray-dry scrubbing using similar sorbent slurries;

37.2 History

Wet sulfuric acid process recovering sulfur in the

Methods of removing sulfur dioxide from boiler and furform of commercial quality sulfuric acid;
nace exhaust gases have been studied for over 150 years.
SNOX Flue gas desulphurisation|SNOX Flue gas Early ideas for ue gas desulfurization were established
desulfurization removes sulfur dioxide, nitrogen ox- in England around 1850.
ides and particulates from ue gases;
Dry sorbent injection systems.

With the construction of large-scale power plants in England in the 1920s, the problems associated with large volumes of SO
136

37.4. FGD CHEMISTRY

137

2 from a single site began to concern the public. The SO

2 emissions problem did not receive much attention until 1929, when the House of Lords upheld the claim of
a landowner against the Barton Electricity Works of the
Manchester Corporation for damages to his land resulting
from SO
2 emissions. Shortly thereafter, a press campaign was
launched against the erection of power plants within the
connes of London. This outcry led to the imposition of
SO
2 controls on all such power plants.* [1]

2 in that it forms a liquid aerosol known as sulfuric acid

(H
2SO
4) mist that is very dicult to remove. Generally, about
1% of the sulfur dioxide will be converted to SO
3. Sulfuric acid mist is often the cause of the blue haze
that often appears as the ue gas plume dissipates. Increasingly, this problem is being addressed by the use of
wet electrostatic precipitators.

The rst major FGD unit at a utility was installed in

1931 at Battersea Power Station, owned by London Power
Company. In 1935, an FGD system similar to that installed at Battersea went into service at Swansea Power
Station. The third major FGD system was installed in
1938 at Fulham Power Station. These three early largescale FGD installations were abandoned during World
War II. Large-scale FGD units did not reappear at utilities
until the 1970s, where most of the installations occurred
in the United States and Japan.* [1]

37.4 FGD chemistry

37.4.1 Basic principles
Most FGD systems employ two stages: one for y ash removal and the other for SO
2 removal. Attempts have been made to remove both the
y ash and SO
2 in one scrubbing vessel. However, these systems experienced severe maintenance problems and low removal
eciency. In wet scrubbing systems, the ue gas normally passes rst through a y ash removal device, either
an electrostatic precipitator or a wet scrubber, and then
into the SO
2-absorber. However, in dry injection or spray drying operations, the SO
2 is rst reacted with the sorbent, and then the ue gas
passes through a particulate control device.

As of June 1973, there were 42 FGD units in operation,

36 in Japan and 6 in the United States, ranging in capacity from 5 MW to 250 MW.* [2] As of around 1999 and
2000, FGD units were being used in 27 countries, and
there were 678 FGD units operating at a total power plant
capacity of about 229 gigawatts. About 45% of the FGD
capacity was in the U.S., 24% in Germany, 11% in Japan,
and 20% in various other countries. Approximately 79%
of the units, representing about 199 gigawatts of capacity,
were using lime or limestone wet scrubbing. About 18% Another important design consideration associated with
(or 25 gigawatts) utilized spray-dry scrubbers or sorbent wet FGD systems is that the ue gas exiting the absorber
is saturated with water and still contains some SO
injection systems.* [3]* [4]* [5]
2. These gases are highly corrosive to any downstream
equipment such as fans, ducts, and stacks. Two methods
that may minimize corrosion are: (1) reheating the gases
37.3 Sulfuric acid mist formation to above their dew point, or (2) using materials of construction and designs that allow equipment to withstand
the corrosive conditions. Both alternatives are expensive.
Fossil fuels such as coal and oil contain a signicant
Engineers determine which method to use on a site-byamount of sulfur. When fossil fuels are burned, about
site basis.
95 percent or more of the sulfur is generally converted to
sulfur dioxide (SO
2). Such conversion happens under normal conditions of
temperature and of oxygen present in the ue gas. How- 37.4.2 Scrubbing with an alkali solid or solution
ever, there are circumstances, under which such reaction
may not occur.
SO
When ue gas has too much oxygen, the SO
2 is an acid gas, and, therefore, the typical sorbent slurries
2 further oxidizes into sulfur trioxide (SO
or other materials used to remove the SO
3). Too much oxygen is only one of the ways that SO
2 from the ue gases are alkaline. The reaction taking
3 is formed. Gas temperature is also an important factor.
place in wet scrubbing using a CaCO
At about 800 C, formation of SO
3 (limestone) slurry produces CaSO
3 is favored. Another way that SO
3 (calcium sulte) and may be expressed in the simplied
3 can be formed is through catalysis by metals in the fuel.
dry form as:
Such reaction is particularly true for heavy fuel oil, where
a signicant amount of vanadium is present. In whatever
CaCO
way SO
3 (solid) + SO
3 is formed, it does not behave like SO

138

CHAPTER 37. FLUE-GAS DESULFURIZATION

HCO3 * + H* + H2 O (liquid) + CO2 (gas)
clean gas

In industry caustic (NaOH) is often used to scrub SO

2, producing sodium sulte:
2NaOH (aq) + SO2 (gas) Na2 SO3 (aq) +
H2 O (liquid)* [6]
spray tower

Types of wet scrubbers used in FGD

flue gas
stirrers

circulation pump

bottom fraction

oxidizing gas
limestone

gypsum

Schematic design of the absorber of an FGD

2 (gas) CaSO
3 (solid) + CO2 (gas)

To promote maximum gasliquid surface area and residence time, a number of wet scrubber designs have been
used, including spray towers, venturis, plate towers, and
mobile packed beds. Because of scale buildup, plugging,
or erosion, which aect FGD dependability and absorber
eciency, the trend is to use simple scrubbers such as
spray towers instead of more complicated ones. The conguration of the tower may be vertical or horizontal, and
ue gas can ow cocurrently, countercurrently, or crosscurrently with respect to the liquid. The chief drawback
of spray towers is that they require a higher liquid-to-gas
ratio requirement for equivalent SO
2 removal than other absorber designs.
Venturi-rod scrubbers Main article: venturi scrubber

When wet scrubbing with a Ca(OH)2 (hydrated lime)

slurry, the reaction also produces CaSO3 (calcium sulte) A venturi scrubber is a converging/diverging section of
and may be expressed in the simplied dry form as:
duct. The converging section accelerates the gas stream
to high velocity. When the liquid stream is injected at
Ca(OH)2 (solid) + SO2 (gas) CaSO3 (solid)
the throat, which is the point of maximum velocity, the
+ H2 O (liquid)
turbulence caused by the high gas velocity atomizes the
liquid into small droplets, which creates the surface area
When wet scrubbing with a Mg(OH)2 (magnesium necessary for mass transfer to take place. The higher the
hydroxide) slurry, the reaction produces MgSO3 pressure drop in the venturi, the smaller the droplets and
(magnesium sulte) and may be expressed in the the higher the surface area. The penalty is in power consimplied dry form as:
sumption.
Mg(OH)2 (solid) + SO2 (gas) MgSO3
(solid) + H2 O (liquid)
To partially oset the cost of the FGD installation, in
some designs, the CaSO3 (calcium sulte) is further oxidized to produce marketable CaSO4 2H2 O (gypsum).
This technique is also known as forced oxidation:
CaSO3 (aq) + 2H2 O (liquid) + O2 (gas)
CaSO4 2H2 O (solid)

For simultaneous removal of SO

2 and y ash, venturi scrubbers can be used. In fact,
many of the industrial sodium-based throwaway systems
are venturi scrubbers originally designed to remove particulate matter. These units were slightly modied to inject a sodium-based scrubbing liquor. Although removal
of both particles and SO
2 in one vessel can be economic, the problems of high
pressure drops and nding a scrubbing medium to remove
heavy loadings of y ash must be considered. However,
in cases where the particle concentration is low, such as
from oil-red units, it can be more eective to remove
particulate and SO
2 simultaneously.

A natural alkaline usable to absorb SO2 is seawater. The

SO
2 is absorbed in the water, and when oxygen is added reacts to form sulfate ions SO4 - and free H* +. The surplus
of H* + is oset by the carbonates in seawater pushing the Packed bed scrubbers A packed scrubber consists of
carbonate equilibrium to release CO2 gas:
a tower with packing material inside. This packing material can be in the shape of saddles, rings, or some highly
SO2 (gas) + H2 O (liquid) + O2 (gas)
specialized shapes designed to maximize contact area beSO4 * 2 (aq) + 2H* +
tween the dirty gas and liquid. Packed towers typically

37.5. FACTS AND STATISTICS

operate at much lower pressure drops than venturi scrubbers and are therefore cheaper to operate. They also typically oer higher SO
2 removal eciency. The drawback is that they have a
greater tendency to plug up if particles are present in excess in the exhaust air stream.

139
plication of this reaction is also known as the Wellman
Lord process.

In some ways this can be thought of as being similar to

the reversible liquidliquid extraction of an inert gas such
as xenon or radon (or some other solute which does not
undergo a chemical change during the extraction) from
water to another phase. While a chemical change does
occur during the extraction of the sulfur dioxide from the
Spray towers Main article: spray tower
gas mixture, it is the case that the extraction equilibrium
is shifted by changing the temperature rather than by the
A spray tower is the simplest type of scrubber. It consists use of a chemical reagent.
of a tower with spray nozzles, which generate the droplets
for surface contact. Spray towers are typically used when
circulating a slurry (see below). The high speed of a ven- 37.4.4 Gas phase oxidation followed by returi would cause erosion problems, while a packed tower
action with ammonia
would plug up if it tried to circulate a slurry.
Counter-current packed towers are infrequently used be- A new, emerging ue gas desulfurization technology has
*
cause they have a tendency to become plugged by col- been described by the IAEA. [7] It is a radiation techlected particles or to scale when lime or limestone scrub- nology where an intense beam of electrons is red into
the ue gas at the same time as ammonia is added to the
bing slurries are used.
gas. The Chendu power plant in China started up such a
ue gas desulfurization unit on a 100 MW scale in 1998.
The Pomorzany power plant in Poland also started up a
Scrubbing reagent
similar sized unit in 2003 and that plant removes both
As explained above, alkaline sorbents are used for scrub- sulfur and nitrogen oxides. Both plants are reported to be
*
*
bing ue gases to remove SO2 . Depending on the ap- operating successfully. [8] [9] However, the accelerator
design
principles
and
manufacturing
quality need further
plication, the two most important are lime and sodium
improvement
for
continuous
operation
in industrial conhydroxide (also known as caustic soda). Lime is typically
*
ditions.
[10]
used on large coal- or oil-red boilers as found in power
plants, as it is very much less expensive than caustic soda. No radioactivity is required or created in the process.
The problem is that it results in a slurry being circulated The electron beam is generated by a device similar to the
through the scrubber instead of a solution. This makes it electron gun in a TV set. This device is called an accelharder on the equipment. A spray tower is typically used erator. This is an example of a radiation chemistry profor this application. The use of lime results in a slurry of cess* [9] where the physical eects of radiation are used
calcium sulte (CaSO3 ) that must be disposed of. For- to process a substance.
tunately, calcium sulte can be oxidized to produce byproduct gypsum (CaSO4 2H2 O) which is marketable for The action of the electron beam is to promote the oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur(VI) compounds. The
use in the building products industry.
ammonia reacts with the sulfur compounds thus formed
Caustic soda is limited to smaller combustion units be- to produce ammonium sulfate, which can be used as a nicause it is more expensive than lime, but it has the ad- trogenous fertilizer. In addition, it can be used to lower
vantage that it forms a solution rather than a slurry. This the nitrogen oxide content of the ue gas. This method
makes it easier to operate. It produces a "spent caustic" has attained industrial plant scale.* [8]* [11]
solution of sodium sulte/bisulte (depending on the pH),
or sodium sulfate that must be disposed of. This is not a
problem in a kraft pulp mill for example, where this can
37.5 Facts and statistics
be a source of makeup chemicals to the recovery cycle.

37.4.3

Scrubbing with sodium sulte solution

It is possible to scrub sulfur dioxide by using a cold solution of sodium sulte, this forms a sodium hydrogen
sulte solution. By heating this solution it is possible to
reverse the reaction to form sulfur dioxide and the sodium
sulte solution. Since the sodium sulte solution is not
consumed, it is called a regenerative treatment. The ap-

The information in this section was obtained

from a US EPA published fact sheet.* [12]
Flue gas desulfurization scrubbers have been applied to
combustion units ring coal and oil that range in size from
5 MW to 1500 MW. Scottish Power are spending 400
million installing FGD at Longannet power station, which
has a capacity of over 2 GW. Dry scrubbers and spray
scrubbers have generally been applied to units smaller
than 300 MW.

140
FGD has been tted by RWE npower at Aberthaw Power
Station in south Wales using the seawater process and
works successfully on the 1580MW plant.

CHAPTER 37. FLUE-GAS DESULFURIZATION

37.7 See also

Incineration

Approximately 85% of the ue gas desulfurization units

installed in the US are wet scrubbers, 12% are spray dry
systems, and 3% are dry injection systems.

Scrubber

The highest SO
2 removal eciencies (greater than 90%) are achieved
by wet scrubbers and the lowest (less than 80%) by dry
scrubbers. However, the newer designs for dry scrubbers
are capable of achieving eciencies in the order of 90%.

Flue gas stacks

In spray drying and dry injection systems, the ue gas

must rst be cooled to about 1020 C above adiabatic
saturation to avoid wet solids deposition on downstream
equipment and plugging of baghouses.
The capital, operating and maintenance costs per short
ton of SO
2 removed (in 2001 US dollars) are:
For wet scrubbers larger than 400 MW, the cost is
$200 to $500 per ton
For wet scrubbers smaller than 400 MW, the cost is
$500 to $5,000 per ton
For spray dry scrubbers larger than 200 MW, the
cost is $150 to $300 per ton
For spray dry scrubbers smaller than 200 MW, the
cost is $500 to $4,000 per ton

37.6 Alternative methods of reducing sulfur dioxide emissions

Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion|Flue

gas emissions

37.8 References
[1] Biondo, S.J.; Marten, J.C. (October 1977).A History of
Flue Gas Desulphurization Systems Since 1850. Journal
of the Air Pollution Control Association 27 (10): 94861.
[2] Beychok, Milton R., Coping With SO2 , Chemical Engineering/Deskbook Issue, 21 October 1974
[3] Nolan, Paul S., Flue Gas Desulfurization Technologies for
Coal-Fired Power Plants, The Babcock & Wilcox Company, U.S., presented by Michael X. Jiang at the CoalTech 2000 International Conference, November 2000,
Jakarta, Indonesia
[4] Rubin, Edward S.; Yeh, Sonia; Hounshell, David A.; Taylor, Margaret R. (2004). Experience curves for power
plant emission control technologies. Journal International Journal of Energy Technology and Policy 2 (12):
5269. horizontal tab character in |journal= at position 8
(help)
[5] Beychok, Milton R., Comparative economics of advanced
regenerable ue gas desulfurization processes, EPRI CS1381, Electric Power Research Institute, March 1980
[6] REMOVAL OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE FROM FLUE
GASES IN THERMAL PLANTS
[7] IAEA Factsheet about pilot plant in Poland.
[8] Haifeng, Wu. Electron beam application in gas waste
treatment in China (PDF). Proceedings of the FNCA
2002 workshop on application of electron accelerator.
Beijing, China: INET Tsinghua University.

An alternative to removing sulfur from the ue gases after burning is to remove the sulfur from the fuel before
or during combustion. Hydrodesulfurization of fuel has
been used for treating fuel oils before use. Fluidized bed
combustion adds lime to the fuel during combustion. The [9]
lime reacts with the SO2 to form sulfates which become
[10]
part of the ash.

Section of IAEA 2003 Annual Report

Application of ionizing radiation to environmental protection by A.G. Chmielewski, Warsaw University of Technology, Poland.

The recently developed biological alternative Thiopaq

combines gas purication with sulfur recovery. Microorganisms in a bioreactor oxidise the sulde to elemental [11] Industrial Plant for Flue Gas Treatment with High Power
Electron Accelerator by A.G. Chmielewski, Warsaw Unisulfur. This elemental S is then separated and nally reversity of Technology, Poland.
covered at the end of the process for further usage in, for
example, agricultural products. Safety is one of the great- [12] Air Pollution Control Fact Sheet US EPA date coded
est benets of this method, as the whole process takes
2003, accessed 24 June 2006
place at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature.
This method has been developed by Paqell, a joint ven- [13] THIOPAQ Oil & Gas process description and ow diagram ocial Paqell website
ture between Shell Global Solutions and Paques.* [13]

37.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

37.9 External links

Schematic process ow of FGD plant
5000 MW FGD Plant (includes a detailed process
ow diagram)
Alstom presentation to UN-ECE on air pollution
control (includes process ow diagram for dry, wet
and seawater FGD)
Flue Gas Treatment article including the removal of
hydrogen chloride, sulfur trioxide, and other heavy
metal particles such as mercury.
Institute of Clean Air Companies national trade
association representing emissions control manufacturers

141

Chapter 38

Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel

combustion
The steam generators in large power plants and the
process furnaces in large reneries, petrochemical and
chemical plants, and incinerators burn considerable
amounts of fossil fuels and therefore emit large amounts
of ue gas to the ambient atmosphere. The table below
presents the total amounts of ue gas typically generated
by the burning of fossil fuels such as natural gas, fuel oil
and coal. The data were obtained by stoichiometric* [3]
calculations.* [4]
It is of interest to note that the total amount of ue gas
generated by coal combustion is only 10 percent higher
than the ue gas generated by natural-gas combustion.
Before ue-gas desulfurization was installed, emissions from
Four Corners Generating Station, New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion refers

to the combustion-product gas resulting from the burning
of fossil fuels.* [1] Most fossil fuels are combusted with
ambient air (as dierentiated from combustion with pure
oxygen). Since ambient air contains about 79 volume percent gaseous nitrogen (N2 ),* [2] which is essentially noncombustible, the largest part of the ue gas from most
fossil-fuel combustion is uncombusted nitrogen. Carbon
dioxide (CO2 ), the next largest part of ue gas, can be
as much as 1025 volume percent or more of the ue
gas. This is closely followed in volume by water vapor
(H2 O) created by the combustion of the hydrogen in the
fuel with atmospheric oxygen. Much of the 'smoke' seen
pouring from ue gas stacks is this water vapor forming
a cloud as it contacts cool air.
A typical ue gas from the combustion of fossil fuels contains very small amounts of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur
dioxide (SO2 ) and particulate matter.* [1] The nitrogen
oxides are derived from the nitrogen in the ambient air as
well as from any nitrogen-containing compounds in the
fossil fuel. The sulfur dioxide is derived from any sulfurcontaining compounds in the fuels. The particulate matter is composed of very small particles of solid materials
and very small liquid droplets which give ue gases their
smoky appearance.

Note: m are standard cubic meters at 0 C and

101.325 kPa, and scf is standard cubic feet at
60 F and 14.696 psia.

38.1 See also

AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Emission standard
Flue-gas stack
Flue gas
Flue-gas desulfurization
Gas stoichiometry
Stoichiometry

38.2 References

142

[1] Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors

[2] Perry, R.H. and Green, D.W. (Editors) (1997). Perry's
Chemical Engineers' Handbook (7th ed.). McGraw Hill.
ISBN ISBN 0-07-049841-5.

38.3. EXTERNAL LINKS

[3] Zumdahl, Steven S. (2005). Chemical Principles (5th ed.).

Houghton Miin College Division. ISBN 0-618-372067.
[4] Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas

38.3 External links

Article on Flue Gas Treatment including desulfurization and the removal of hydrogen chloride, sulphur trioxide, and mercury.

143

Chapter 39

Flue-gas stack
replaces, or other small sources within residential
abodes, restaurants, hotels, or other public buildings and
small commercial enterprises, their ue gas stacks are referred to as chimneys.

39.1 History
The rst industrial chimneys were built in the mid-17th
century when it was rst understood how they could improve the combustion of a furnace by increasing the draft
of air into the combustion zone.* [2] As such, they played
an important part in the development of reverberatory
furnaces and a coal-based metallurgical industry, one
of the key sectors of the early Industrial Revolution.
Most 18th-century industrial chimneys (now commonly
referred to as ue gas stacks) were built into the walls of
the furnace much like a domestic chimney. The rst freestanding industrial chimneys were probably those erected
at the end of the long condensing ues associated with
smelting lead.
A ue gas stack at GRES-2 Power Station in Ekibastuz,
Kazakhstan, the tallest of its kind in the world (420 meters)* [1]

A ue-gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe,

channel or similar structure through which combustion
product gases called ue gases are exhausted to the outside air. Flue gases are produced when coal, oil, natural
gas, wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial
furnace, a power plant's steam-generating boiler, or other
large combustion device. Flue gas is usually composed of
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapor as well as nitrogen
and excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion
air. It also contains a small percentage of pollutants such
as particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides
and sulfur oxides. The ue gas stacks are often quite tall,
up to 400 metres (1300 feet) or more, so as to disperse the
exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce
the concentration of the pollutants to the levels required
by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation.

The powerful association between industrial chimneys

and the characteristic smoke-lled landscapes of the industrial revolution was due to the universal application of
the steam engine for most manufacturing processes. The
chimney is part of a steam-generating boiler, and its evolution is closely linked to increases in the power of the
steam engine. The chimneys of Thomas Newcomens
steam engine were incorporated into the walls of the engine house. The taller, free-standing industrial chimneys
that appeared in the early 19th century were related to the
changes in boiler design associated with James Watts
double-poweredengines, and they continued to grow
in stature throughout the Victorian period. Decorative
embellishments are a feature of many industrial chimneys from the 1860s, with over-sailing caps and patterned
brickwork.

The invention of fan-assisted forced draft in the early

20th century removed the industrial chimney's original
function, that of drawing air into the steam-generating
boilers or other furnaces. With the replacement of the
steam engine as a prime mover, rst by diesel engines
When the ue gases are exhausted from stoves, ovens, and then by electric motors, the early industrial chimneys
144

39.3. FLUE-GAS FLOW-RATE INDUCED BY THE DRAFT

145

began to disappear from the industrial landscape. Building materials changed from stone and brick to steel and
later reinforced concrete, and the height of the industrial
chimney was determined by the need to disperse combustion ue gases to comply with governmental air pollution
control regulations.

column of outside air. That higher pressure outside the

chimney is the driving force that moves the required combustion air into the combustion zone and also moves the
ue gas up and out of the chimney. That movement or
ow of combustion air and ue gas is called natural
draft, natural ventilation, chimney eect, or
"stack eect". The taller the stack, the more draft is created.

39.2 Flue-gas stack draft

The equation below provides an approximation of the

pressure dierence, P, (between the bottom and the top
of the ue gas stack) that is created by the draft:* [3]* [4]
(
P = C a h

1
1

To
Ti

The above equation is an approximation because it assumes that the molar mass of the ue gas and the outside
air are equal and that the pressure drop through the ue
gas stack is quite small. Both assumptions are fairly good
but not exactly accurate.

39.3 Flue-gas ow-rate induced by

the draft
As arst guessapproximation, the following equation
can be used to estimate the ue-gas ow-rate induced by
the draft of a ue-gas stack. The equation assumes that
the molar mass of the ue gas and the outside air are equal
and that the frictional resistance and heat losses are negligible:.* [5]

Q=CA

The stack eect in chimneys: the gauges represent absolute air

pressure and the airow is indicated with light grey arrows. The
gauge dials move clockwise with increasing pressure.

2gH

Ti To
Ti

Also, this equation is only valid when the resistance to the

draft ow is caused by a single orice characterized by the
discharge coecient C. In many, if not most situations,
the resistance is primarily imposed by the ue stack itself.
In these cases, the resistance is proportional to the stack
height H. This causes a cancellation of the H in the above
equation predicting Q to be invariant with respect to the
ue height.
Designing chimneys and stacks to provide the correct
amount of natural draft involves a great many factors such
as:

Main article: Stack eect

The height and diameter of the stack.
The combustion ue gases inside the ue gas stacks are
much hotter than the ambient outside air and therefore
less dense than the ambient air. That causes the bottom
of the vertical column of hot ue gas to have a lower pressure than the pressure at the bottom of a corresponding

The desired amount of excess combustion air

needed to assure complete combustion.
The temperature of the ue gases leaving the combustion zone.

146

CHAPTER 39. FLUE-GAS STACK

The composition of the combustion ue gas, which is known as the Good Engineering Practice (GEP)"
determines the ue-gas density.
stack height.* [7]* [8] In the case of existing ue gas stacks
that exceed the GEP stack height, any air pollution disper The frictional resistance to the ow of the ue gases sion modelling studies for such stacks must use the GEP
through the chimney or stack, which will vary with stack height rather than the actual stack height.
the materials used to construct the chimney or stack.
The heat loss from the ue gases as they ow through
the chimney or stack.
The local atmospheric pressure of the ambient air,
which is determined by the local elevation above sea
level.
The calculation of many of the above design factors requires trial-and-error reiterative methods.
Government agencies in most countries have specic
codes which govern how such design calculations must be
performed. Many non-governmental organizations also
have codes governing the design of chimneys and stacks
(notably, the ASME codes).

39.4 Stack design

The design of large stacks poses considerable engineering challenges. Vortex shedding in high winds can cause
dangerous oscillations in the stack, and may lead to its collapse. The use of helical faring is common to prevent this
process occurring at or close to the resonant frequency of
the stack.

39.6 See also

Chimney
Flue gas
Flue-gas desulfurization
Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion
Incineration
Stack eect

39.7 References
[1] Diagram of 25 tallest ue gas stacks worldwide
[2] Douet, James (1988). Going up in Smoke:The History of
the Industrial Chimney, Victorian Society, London, England. Victorian Society Casework Reports
[3] Natural Ventilation Lecture 2
[4] Perry, R.H. and Green, Don W. (1984). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (6th Edition (page 9-72) ed.).
McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 0-07-049479-7.
[5] Natural Ventilation Lecture 3

39.5 Other items of interest

Some fuel-burning industrial equipment does not rely
upon natural draft. Many such equipment items use
large fans or blowers to accomplish the same objectives,
namely: the ow of combustion air into the combustion
chamber and the ow of the hot ue gas out of the chimney or stack.
A great many power plants are equipped with facilities
for the removal of sulfur dioxide (i.e., ue-gas desulfurization), nitrogen oxides (i.e., selective catalytic reduction, exhaust gas recirculation, thermal deNOx, or low
NOx burners) and particulate matter (i.e., electrostatic
precipitator)s. At such power plants, it is possible to use a
cooling tower as a ue gas stack. Examples can be seen in
Germany at the Power Station Staudinger Grosskrotzenburg and at the Rostock Power Station. Power plants
without ue gas purication, would experience serious
corrosion in such stacks.
In the United States and a number of other countries,
atmospheric dispersion modeling* [6] studies are required
to determine the ue gas stack height needed to comply
with the local air pollution regulations. The United States
also limits the maximum height of a ue gas stack to what

[6] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas

Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-96445880-2. www.air-dispersion.com
[7] Guideline for Determination of Good Engineering Practice Stack Height (Technical Support Document for the
Stack Height Regulations), Revised (1985), EPA Publication No. EPA450/480023R, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (NTIS No. PB 85225241)
[8] Lawson, Jr., R.E. and W.H. Snyder (1983). Determination
of Good Engineering Practice Stack Height: A Demonstration Study for a Power Plant, EPA Publication No. EPA
600/383024. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(NTIS No. PB 83207407)

39.8 External links

ASHRAE's Fundamentals Handbook is available
here from ASHRAE
ASME Codes and Standards available from ASME
Diagram of 25 tallest ue gas stacks worldwide
Chimney marking (aircraft warning lights)

Chapter 40

Fugitive emissions
Fugitive emissions are emissions of gases or vapors from
pressurized equipment due to leaks and other unintended
or irregular releases of gases, mostly from industrial activities. As well as the economic cost of lost commodities,
fugitive emissions contribute to air pollution and climate
change. A detailed inventory of greenhouse gas emissions from upstream oil and gas activities in Canada for
the year 2000 estimated that fugitive equipment leaks had
a global warming potential equivalent to the release of 17
million metric tonnes of carbon dioxide, or 12 per cent
of all greenhouse gases emitted by the sector.* [1] Venting of natural gas, aring, accidental releases and storage
losses accounted for an additional 38 per cent.

purposes.

Fugitive emissions present other risks and hazards. Emissions of volatile organic compounds such as benzene from
oil reneries and chemical plants pose a long term health
risk to workers and local communities. In situations
where large amounts of ammable liquids and gases are
contained under pressure, leaks also increase the risk of
re and explosion.

Portable gas leak imaging cameras are also a new technology that can be used to improve leak detection and repair,
leading to reduced fugitive emissions. The cameras use
infrared imaging technology to produce video images in
which invisible gases escaping from leak sources can be
clearly identied.

Leaks from pressurized process equipment generally occur through valves, pipe connections, mechanical seals, or
related equipment. Fugitive emissions also occur at evaporative sources such as waste water treatment ponds and
storage tanks. Because of the huge number of potential
leak sources at large industrial facilities and the diculties in detecting and repairing some leaks, fugitive emissions can be a signicant proportion of total emissions.
Though the quantities of leaked gases may be small, gases
that have serious health or environmental impacts can
cause a signicant problem.
To minimize and control leaks at process facilities operators carry out regular leak detection and repair activities. Routine inspections of process equipment with gas
detectors can be used to identify leaks and estimate the
leak rate in order to decide on appropriate corrective action. Proper routine maintenance of equipment reduces
the likelihood of leaks.

New technologies are under development that could revolutionize the detection and monitoring of fugitive emissions. One technology, known as dierential absorption
lidar (DIAL), can be used to remotely measure concentration proles of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere up to
several hundred meters from a facility. DIAL has been
used for renery surveys in Europe for over 15 years. A
pilot study carried out in 2005 using DIAL found that actual emissions at a renery were fteen times higher than
those previously reported using the emission factor approach. The fugitive emissions were equivalent to 0.17%
of the renery throughput.* [2]

40.1 See also

Leak
Greenhouse gas
Volatile organic compound
Gas are

40.2 References

Because of the technical diculties and costs of detecting

and quantifying actual fugitive emissions at a site or facility, and the variability and intermittent nature of emission ow rates, bottom-up estimates based on standard
emission factors are generally used for annual reporting

147

[1] Clearstone Engineering (1994). A National Inventory

of Greenhouse Gas (GHG), Criteria Air Contaminant
(CAC) and Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) Emissions by the
Upstream Oil and Gas Industry, Volume 1, Overview of
the GHG Emissions Inventory. Canadian Association
of Petroleum Producers: v. Retrieved 2008-12-10.
[2] Chambers, Allan; Tony Wootton; Jan Moncrie; Philip
McCready (August 2008).Direct Measurement of Fugitive Emissions of Hydrocarbons from a Renery. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 58 (8):
10471056.

148

40.3 External links

2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas
Inventories (see Section 4.2).

CHAPTER 40. FUGITIVE EMISSIONS

Chapter 41

Gas are

North Dakota Flaring of Gas

brought to the surface as well. Especially in areas of the

world lacking pipelines and other gas transportation infrastructure, vast amounts of such associated gas are commonly ared as waste or unusable gas. The aring of associated gas may occur at the top of a vertical are stack
(as in the adjacent photo) or it may occur in a groundlevel are in an earthen pit. Preferably, associated gas
is reinjected into the reservoir, which saves it for future
use while maintaining higher well pressure and crude oil
producibility.* [6]

Flare stack at the Shell Haven renery in England.

A gas are, alternatively known as a are stack, is a

gas combustion device used in industrial plants such as
petroleum reneries, chemical plants, natural gas processing plants as well as at oil or gas production sites
having oil wells, gas wells, oshore oil and gas rigs and
landlls.
In industrial plants, are stacks are primarily used for
burning o ammable gas released by pressure relief
valves during unplanned over-pressuring of plant equipment.* [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5] During plant or partial plant
startups and shutdowns, are stacks are also often used
for the planned combustion of gases over relatively short
periods.

41.1 Overall are system in industrial plants

When industrial plant equipment items are overpressured, the pressure relief valve is an essential safety
device that automatically release gases and sometimes
liquids. Those pressure relief valves are required by industrial design codes and standards as well as by law.
The released gases and liquids are routed through large
piping systems called are headers to a vertical elevated
are. The released gases are burned as they exit the are
stacks. The size and brightness of the resulting ame depends upon the ammable material's ow rate in joules
per hour (or btu per hour).* [4]

A great deal of gas aring at many oil and gas production

sites has to do with protection against the dangers of overpressuring industrial plant equipment. When petroleum
crude oil is extracted and produced from onshore or oshore oil wells, raw natural gas associated with the oil is Most industrial plant ares have a vapor-liquid separator
149

150

CHAPTER 41. GAS FLARE

There is also a safe method to divert the are gas which
is insertion of Liquid U seal with Liquid Hold up vessel.
The Liquid U seal is designed to take pressure up to permitted back pressure of the system. This helps to divert
the are gas to recovery system. In case of plant upset,
pressure rises and liquid in the U seal will move into Liquid Hold up vessel. On normalization, the Liquid U seal
will start diverting the gas again.* [8]

41.2 Impacts of waste aring associated gas from oil drilling

sites and other facilities
Schematic ow diagram of an overall vertical, elevated are
stack system in an industrial plant.

(also known as a knockout drum) upstream of the are to

remove any large amounts of liquid that may accompany
the relieved gases.
Steam is very often injected into the ame to reduce
the formation of black smoke. When too much steam
is added, a condition known asover steamingcan occur resulting in reduced combustion eciency and higher
emissions. To keep the are system functional, a small
amount of gas is continuously burned, like a pilot light,
so that the system is always ready for its primary purpose
as an over-pressure safety system.
The adjacent ow diagram depicts the typical components
of an overall industrial are stack system:* [1]* [2]* [3]

Flaring of associated gas from an oil well site in Nigeria.

Improperly operated ares may emit methane and other

volatile organic compounds as well as sulfur dioxide
A knockout drum to remove any oil and/or water and other sulfur compounds, which are known to exacerbate asthma and other respiratory problems. Other
from the relieved gases.
emissions from improperly operated ares may include,
A water seal drum to prevent any ashback of the aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, xylenes) and
ame from the top of the are stack.
benzapyrene, which are known to be carcinogenic.
An alternative gas recovery system for use during
partial plant startups and/or shutdowns as well as
other times when required. The recovered gas is
routed into the fuel gas system of the overall industrial plant.
A steam injection system to provide an external
momentum force used for ecient mixing of air
with the relieved gas, which promotes smokeless
burning.
A pilot ame (with its ignition system) that burns all
the time so that it is available to ignite relieved gases
when needed.* [7]

Flaring can aect wildlife by attracting birds and insects

to the ame. Approximately 7,500 migrating songbirds
were attracted to and killed by the are at the liqueed natural gas terminal in Saint John, New Brunswick,
Canada on September 13, 2013.* [9] Similar incidents
have occurred at ares on oshore oil and gas installations.* [10] Moths are known to be attracted to lights. A
brochure published by the Secretariat of the Convention
on Biological Diversity describing the Global Taxonomy
Initiative describes a situation where "a taxonomist working in a tropical forest noticed that a gas are at an oil renery was attracting and killing hundreds of these [hawk
or sphinx] moths. Over the course of the months and years
that the renery was running a vast number of moths must
have been killed, suggesting that plants could not be pollinated over a large area of forest".* [11]

The are stack, including a ashback prevention

section at the upper part of the stack.
As of the end of 2011, 150 109 cubic meters (5.3 1012

41.3. SEE ALSO

151
aring decreased by about 20%. The most signicant reductions in terms of volume were made in Russia (down
40%) and Nigeria (down 29%).* [12]* [17]

41.3 See also

Blowdown stack
Environmental issues in the Niger Delta
Flue-gas stack
Fugitive emissions
Relief valve

41.4 References
[1] EPA/452/B-02-001, Section 3.0: VOC Controls, Section 3.2: VOC Destruction Controls, Chapter 1: Flares.
(A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency report, dated
September 2000.)

Flaring gases from an oil platform in the North Sea.

cubic feet) of associated gas are ared annually. That is

equivalent to about 25 per cent of the annual natural gas
consumption in the United States or about 30 per cent of
the annual gas consumption in the European Union.* [12]
If it were to reach market, this quantity of gas (at a nominal value of $5.62 per 1000 cubic feet) would be worth
$29.8 billion USD.* [13]
Also as of the end of 2011, 10 countries accounted for 72
per cent of the aring, and twenty for 86 per cent. The
top ten leading contributors to world gas aring at the end
of 2011, were (in declining order): Russia (27%), Nigeria
(11%), Iran (8%), Iraq (7%), USA (5%), Algeria (4%),
Kazakhstan (3%), Angola (3%), Saudi Arabia (3%) and
Venezuela (3%).* [14]

[2] A. Kayode Coker (2007). Ludwig's Applied Process Design for Chemical And Petrochemical Plants, Volume 1
(4th ed.). Gulf Professional Publishing. pp. 732737.
ISBN 0-7506-7766-X.
[3] Sam Mannan (Editor) (2005). Lee's Loss Prevention in
the Process Industries: Hazard Identication, Assessment
and Control, Volume 1 (3rd ed.). Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann. pp. 12/6712/71. ISBN 978-0-7506-78575.
[4] Milton R. Beychok (2005). Fundamentals of Stack
Gas Dispersion (Fourth ed.). self-published. ISBN 09644588-0-2. (See Chapter 11, Flare Stack Plume Rise).
[5] A Proposed Comprehensive Model for Elevated Flare
Flames and Plumes, David Shore, Flaregas Corporation,
AIChE 40th Loss Prevention Symposium, April 2006.
[6] Leer, William (2008). Petroleum Rening in Nontechnical Language. Tulsa, OK: PennWell. p. 9.
[7] Product Overview Ignition Systems, Smitsvonk, Novem-

That amount of aring and burning of associated gas from

ber 2001. Eexcellent source of information about are
oil drilling sites is a signicant source of carbon dioxide
stack pilot ames and their ignition systems.
(CO2 ) emissions. Coupled with fossil fuel combustion
and cement production, aring's carbon dioxide emis- [8] KP Engineers & Contractors
sions in 2010 have tripled (1300 110 GtCO2) compared [9] 7,500 songbirds killed at Canaport gas plant in Saint John
to the last recording (years 1750-1970, 420 35 GtCO
(online CBC News, September 17, 2013).
had been emitted.)* [15] 2400 106 tons of carbon dioxide are emitted annually in this way and it amounts to [10] Seabirds at Risk around Oshore Oil Platforms in the
North-west Atlantic, Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 42,
about 1.2 per cent of the worldwide emissions of carbon
No. 12, pp. 1,285-1,290, 2001.
dioxide. That may seem to be insignicant, but in perspective it is more than half of the Certied Emissions Re- [11] The Global Taxonomy Initiative - The Response to a
ductions (a type of carbon credits) that have been issued
Problem (scroll down to the section entitled Pollinating moths)
under the rules and mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol as
of June 2011.* [12]* [16]
Satellite data show that from 2005 to 2010, global gas

[12] Global Gas Flaring Reduction Partnership (GGFR),

World Bank, October 2011 Brochure.

152

[13] Annual Energy Review, Table 6.7 Natural Gas Wellhead,

Citygate, and Imports Prices, 1949-2011 (Dollars per
Thousand Cubic Feet), United States Energy Information
Administration, September 2012.
[14] Estimated Flared Volumes from Satellite Data, 20072011. From the website of the World Bank.
[15] IPCC. IPCC 2014: Summary for Policy Makers.In:
Climate Change 2014, Mitigation of Climate Change.
(pdf). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. Retrieved December
11, 2014.
[16] Global Gas Flaring Reduction. From the website of the
World Bank.
[17] Estimation of Gas Flaring Volumes Using NASA MODIS
Fire Detection Products (alternative).
Christopher
Elvidge et al, NOAA's National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) annual report, February 8, 2011.

41.5 Further reading

Banerjee K.; Cheremisinof N.P.; Cheremisino
P.N (1985). Flare gas systems pocket handbook.
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company. ISBN 087201-310-3.
Kolmetz, Karl (January 2015). Kolmetz Handbook
of Process Equipment Design, Flare systems safety,
selection and sizing (PDF). Johor Bahru, Malaysia:
KLM Technology Group.

41.6 External links

Flare System Sizing & Selection
Flare Gas Recovery - An option to stop are gas being burned to atmosphere.
Flare Stack sizing calculator
Modelling industrial ares environmental impacts
Flare Stack marking (aircraft warning lights)
Flare Gas Electricity Generator

41.7 Media

CHAPTER 41. GAS FLARE

Chapter 42

Geospatial Measurements of Air Pollution

Geospatial Measurement of Air Pollution
(GMAP)* [1] is the use of mobile measurement systems
to gain insight into air pollution emissions, population
impacts, and exposure risk management approaches.

42.1 References
[1] http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/appcd/emissions/sec_gmap.
html

153

Chapter 43

Global Emissions InitiAtive

43.4 References
[1] GEIA Steering Committee
[2] GEIA Conferences and Schools
[3] ECCAD website
GEIA logo

Global Emissions InitiAtive (GEIA) is a community effort dedicated to atmospheric emissions information exchange and competence building. GEIA was created in
1990 under the (IGBP) and is a joint IGAC / iLEAPS
/ AIMES activity. GEIA is governed by an international steering committee * [1] and hosts biennial conferences.* [2]

43.1 Goals
Access: Make emissions data and information about
emissions more readily available
Analysis: Improve the scientic basis for emissions
information and policy making
Community: Strengthen the science and policy relationships to enhance access to and analysis of emissions
information

43.2 Partnerships
Emissions of atmospheric Compounds & Compilation of Ancillary Data (ECCAD) provides data access to many emissions inventory datasets.* [3]

43.3 External links

GEIA website
ECCAD website
154

Chapter 44

Haze
For other uses, see Haze (disambiguation).
Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon

Harmattan Haze in Abuja.

A weak cold front, associated with smog, in the Yellow Sea. The
cold front, while moving south, picked up the smog from eastern
China into a smog front

haze may appear brownish or bluish, while mist tends to

be bluish-grey. Whereas haze often is thought of as a phenomenon of dry air, mist formation is a phenomenon of
humid air. However, haze particles may act as condensation nuclei for the subsequent formation of mist droplets;
such forms of haze are known as wet haze.
The termhaze, in meteorological literature, generally
is used to denote visibility-reducing aerosols of the wet
type. Such aerosols commonly arise from complex chemical reactions that occur as sulfur dioxide gases emitted
during combustion are converted into small droplets of
sulphuric acid. The reactions are enhanced in the presence of sunlight, high relative humidity, and stagnant air
ow. A small component of wet haze aerosols appear
to be derived from compounds released by trees, such as
Haze over the North China Plain.
terpenes. For all these reasons, wet haze tends to be priwhere dust, smoke and other dry particles obscure the marily a warm-season phenomenon. Large areas of haze
clarity of the sky. The World Meteorological Organiza- covering many thousands of kilometers may be produced
tion manual of codes includes a classication of horizon- under favorable conditions each summer.
tal obscuration into categories of fog, ice fog, steam fog,
mist, haze, smoke, volcanic ash, dust, sand and snow.* [1]
Sources for haze particles include farming (ploughing in 44.1 Air pollution
dry weather), trac, industry, and wildres.
Seen from afar (e.g. approaching airplane) and depend- Main article: Smog
ing upon the direction of view with respect to the sun,
155

156

CHAPTER 44. HAZE

Haze often occurs when dust and smoke particles accumulate in relatively dry air. When weather conditions
block the dispersal of smoke and other pollutants they
concentrate and form a usually low-hanging shroud that
impairs visibility and may become a respiratory health
threat. Industrial pollution can result in dense haze, which
is known as smog.

44.2 Obscuration
Haze causes issues in the area of terrestrial photography,
where the penetration of large amounts of dense atmosphere may be necessary to image distant subjects. This
results in the visual eect of a loss of contrast in the subject, due to the eect of light scattering through the haze
particles. For these reasons, sunrise and sunset colors appear subdued on hazy days, and stars may be obscured at
night. In some cases, attenuation by haze is so great that,
toward sunset, the sun disappears altogether before reaching the horizon.* [7] Haze can be dened as an aerial form
of the Tyndall eect therefore unlike other atmospheric
eects such as cloud and fog, haze is spectrally selective:
shorter (blue) wavelengths are scattered more, and longer
(red/infrared) wavelengths are scattered less. For this reason many super-telephoto lenses often incorporate yellow
lters or coatings to enhance image contrast.

Since 1991, haze has been a particularly acute problem in Southeast Asia. The main source of the haze
has been res occurring in Sumatra and Borneo. In response to the 1997 Southeast Asian haze, the ASEAN
countries agreed on a Regional Haze Action Plan (1997).
In 2002, all ASEAN countries except Indonesia signed
the Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution, but the
pollution is still a problem today. Under the agreement
the ASEAN secretariat hosts a co-ordination and support
unit.* [2] During the 2013 Southeast Asian haze, Singapore experienced a record high pollution level, with the
3-hour Pollution Standards Index reaching a record high Infrared (IR) imaging may also be used to penetrate haze
of 401.* [3]
over long distances, with a combination of IR-pass opIn the United States, the Interagency Monitoring of Pro- tical lters (such as the Wratten 89B) and IR-sensitive
tected Visual Environments (IMPROVE) program was detector.
developed as a collaborative eort between the US EPA
and the National Park Service in order to establish the
chemical composition of haze in National Parks and es- 44.3 See also
tablish air pollution control measures in order to restore
the visibility to pre-industrial levels.* [4] Additionally, the
Arctic haze
Clean Air Act requires that any current visibility prob Asian brown cloud
lems be remedied, and future visibility problems be prevented, in 156 Class I Federal areas located throughout
Coecient of haze
the United States. A full list of these areas is available on
*
EPA's website. [5]
Saharan Air Layer
Smog
Trail Smelter dispute

44.1.1

International disputes

Transboundary Haze
Haze is no longer a domestic problem. It has become one
of the causes of international disputes among neighboring countries. Haze migrates to adjacent countries and
thereby pollutes other countries as well. One of the most
recent problems concerned the two neighboring countries
Malaysia and Indonesia. In 2013, due to forest res in Indonesia, the capital city of Malaysia Kuala Lumpur and
surrounding areas became shrouded in a pall of noxious
fumes, smelling of ash and coal for more than a week,
in the countrys worst environmental crisis since 1997.
The main sources of the haze are Indonesias Sumatra
Island, Kalimantan, and Riau, where farmers, plantation
owners and miners have set hundreds of res in the forests
to clear land during dry weather. Winds blow most of the
fumes across the narrow Strait of Malacca to Malaysia, although parts of Indonesia are also aected.* [6] The 2015
Southeast Asian haze constitutes an ongoing crisis.

ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
Asian Dust

44.4 Notes
[1] WMO Manual on Codes
[2] ASEAN action hazeonline
[3] Singapore haze hits record high from Indonesia res.
BBC News. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
[4] IMPROVE Visibility Program
[5] Federal Class 1 Areas
[6] http://www.nbcnews.com/id/8908221/ns/world_
news-environment/#.VXPyvvmUdvA

44.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

[7] Figure 1. The setting sun dimmed by dense haze over

State College, Pennsylvania on 16 September 1992.
Haze over the Central and Eastern United States. The
National Weather Digest. March 1996. Retrieved April
26, 2011.

44.5 External links

National Pollutant Inventory - Particulate matter fact
sheet
Those hazy days of summer
Haze over the central and eastern United States
Chemical Composition of Haze in US National
Parks: Views Visibility Database

157

Chapter 45

1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of

Sulphur Emissions
The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of
Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by
at least 30 per cent is a 1985 protocol to the Convention
on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution agreement
that provided for a 30 per cent reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary uxes by 1993. The protocol has
been supplemented by the 1994 Oslo Protocol on Further
Reduction of Sulphur Emissions.
opened for signature - July 8, 1985
entered into force - September 2, 1987
parties - (25) Albania, Austria, Belarus, Belgium,
Bulgaria, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy,
Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Republic of
Macedonia, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Slovakia,
Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine

45.1 See also

Environmental agreements

45.2 References
This article incorporates public domain material from the
CIA World Factbook document 2003 edition.

45.3 External links

1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at
least 30 per cent, unece.org.
Text.
Signatures and ratications.

158

Chapter 46

1-Hydroxypyrene
1-Hydroxypyrene is a human metabolite. It can be found
in urine of outdoor workers exposed to air pollution.* [1]
Experiments in pig show that urinary 1-hydroxypyrene is
a metabolite of pyrene, when given orally.* [2]

metabolism. Heudorf U and Angerer J, International

Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health,
April 2001, Volume 74, Issue 3, pages 177-183,
doi:10.1007/s004200000215
[4] Metabolite production in degradation of pyrene alone or
in a mixture with another polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
by Mycobacterium sp. Zhong Y, Luan T, Zhou H, Lan C
and Tam NF, Environ Toxicol Chem., 2006 Nov, 25(11),
pages 2853-2859, PubMed

46.1 Relationship with smoking

Highly signicant dierences and dose-response relationships with regard to cigarettes smoked per day were
found for 2-, 3- and 4-hydroxyphenanthrene and 1hydroxypyrene, but not for 1-hydroxyphenanthrene.* [3]

46.2 Pyrene degradation product

by microorganisms
Pyrene alone or a mixture of pyrene with threeringed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can be degraded by a Mycobacterium sp. strain isolated from
mangrove sediments, forming amongst other products 1hydroxypyrene.* [4]

46.3 References
[1] Is urinary 1-hydroxypyrene a valid biomarker for exposure to air pollution in outdoor workers? A meta-analysis.
Manuela Ciarrocca, Maria Valeria Rosati, Francesco
Tomei, Assuntina Capozzella, Giorgia Andreozzi, Gianfranco Tomei, Alessandro Bacaloni, Teodorico Casale,
Jean Claude Andr, Mario Fioravanti, Maria Fernanda
Cuartas and Tiziana Caciari, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology, 24, 17-26 (January/February 2014), doi:10.1038/jes.2012.111
[2] Identication of 1-hydroxypyrene as a major metabolite of pyrene in pig urine. S. D. Keimig, K. W.
Kirby, D. P. Morgan, J. E. Keiser, and T. D. Hubert,
Xenobiotica, 1983, Vol. 13, No. 7 , Pages 415-420,
doi:10.3109/00498258309052279
[3] Urinary monohydroxylated phenanthrenes and hydroxypyrene the eects of smoking habits and changes
induced by smoking on monooxygenase-mediated

159

Chapter 47

Hypermobility (travel)
Hypermobile travelers are highly mobile individuals
who take frequent trips, often over great distances.
They account for a large share of the overall kilometres travelled, especially by air.* [1] These people
contribute signicantly to the overall amount of airmiles
own within a given society.* [2] Although concerns over
hypermobility apply to several modes of transport, the
environmental impact of aviation and especially its greenhouse gas emissions have brought particular focus on ying.* [3]* [4] Among the reasons for this focus is that these
emissions, because they are made at high altitude, have a
climate impact that is leveraged by a factor commonly estimated to be 2.7 higher than the same emissions if made
at ground-level.* [5]
Although the amount of time people have spent in motion has remained constant since 1950, the shift from
feet and bicycles to cars and planes has increased the
speed of travel vefold.* [6] This results in the twin eects
of wider and shallower regions of social activity around
each person (further exacerbated by electronic communication which can be seen as a form of virtual mobility),
and a degradation of the social and physical environment
brought about by the high speed trac (as theorised by
urban designer Donald Appleyard).

referred to excessive travel. [See: Hepworth and Ducatel

(1992);* [16] Whitelegg (1993);* [17] Lowe (1994);* [18]
van der Stoep (1995);* [19] Shields (1996);* [20] Cox
(1997);* [21] Adams (1999);* [22] Khisty and Zeitler
(2001);* [23] Gssling et al. (2009);* [1] Mander & Randles (2009);* [24] and (Higham 2014).* [8]] The term is
widely credited as having been coined by Adams (1999),
but apart from the title of the work it says nothing explicit
about it except that "[t]he term hypermobility is used in
this essay to suggest that it may be possible to have too
much of a good thing.* [1]* [22]

47.1 See also

Dromomania
Environmental impact of aviation

47.2 References

The changes are brought about locally due to the use of

cars and motorways, and internationally by aeroplanes.
Some of the social threats of hypermobility include:* [7]
more polarisation between rich and poor
reduced health and tness
The addictive properties of hypermobile travel have been
noted by researchers.* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11]* [12]

[1] Gssling S, Ceron JP, Dubois G, Hall CM, Gssling S,

Upham P, Earthscan L (2009). Hypermobile travellers.
and Implications for Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction. In: Climate Change and Aviation: Issues, Challenges
and Solutions, London. The chapter: . The book:
[2] Hyer, K. G. and Nss, P. (2001). Sustainable Tourism
or Sustainable Mobility? The Norwegian Case. Journal
of Sustainable Tourism, 8, 147-160.
[3] Anderson K, Bows A (2008). Reframing the climate
change challenge in light of post-2000 emission trends.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences (366:1882,
p.3863-3882).

Widespread Internet use is seen as a contributory factor

towards hypermobility due to the increased ease which
it enables travel to be desired and organized.* [13] To
the extent that the Internet perversely stimulates travel,
it represents a lost opportunity to reduce overall emissions because online communication is a straightforward
substitute for physical travel.* [14]

[4] Anderson K (2008). (Presentation slides): Reframing climate change: from long-term targets to emission pathways.

The term hypermobility arose around 1980 concerning

the ow of capital,* [15] and since the early 1990s has also

[6] John Adams (19 January 2000). Proceedings from the

Ottawa Workshop - OECD (PDF). p. 118.

160

[5] Peeters, P. & Williams, V. 2009. Calculating emissions

and radiative forcing. P.76 in: Gssling, S. & Upham, P
(Eds.), 2009. Climate change and aviation: Issues, challenges and solutions.

47.2. REFERENCES

[7] Hypermobility: The road to ruin. BBC. 11 December

1999.
[8] Higham J.E.S., Cohen S.A., Cavaliere C.T. (2014).
Climate Change, Discretionary Air Travel, and theFlyers' Dilemma. Journal of Travel Research. 53:4:pp.462475.
[9] Ram Y., Nawijn J., Peeters P.M. (2013). Happiness and
limits to sustainable tourism mobility: a new conceptual
model. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 21:7:pp.10171035.
[10] Cohen S., Higham J., Cavaliere C. (2011). Binge ying: Behavioural addiction and climate change. Annals
of Tourism Research.
[11] Cohen S.A., Higham J.E. (2011). Eyes wide shut?
UK consumer perceptions on aviation climate impacts
and travel decisions to New Zealand. Current Issues in
Tourism. 14:4:pp.323-335.
[12] Jenkins S. (2009). Hypermobility is now the opium of the
people, an obsession that wrecks communities and planet.
The Guardian. 22 Dec. 2009.
[13] Gridlock? Blame the net. BBC. 21 November 2001.
[14] Monbiot, George (2012-09-28).The case for expanding
UK airports is based on fallacy. The Guardian. Archived
from the original on 2012-09-28. Business travel, by contrast to popular perceptions, is not rising, but falling and
falling dramatically. (...) companies have begun, at last, to
use the excellent technological alternatives to face-to-face
international meetings.
[15] Damette F (1980). The regional framework of monopoly
exploitation: new problems and trends. Regions in Crisis:
New Perspectives in European Regional Theory (p.7692).
[16] Hepworth ME, Ducatel K (1992). Transport in the information age: Wheels and wires. ISBN 1-85293-220-1.
[17] Whitelegg J, Holzafel H, Whitelegg J (1993). Transport
for a sustainable future: the case for Europe. ISBN 185293-145-0.
[18] Lowe MD (1994). The global rail revival. Society (31:5,
p.51-56).
[19] van der Stoep J (1995). Hypermobility as a Challenge for
Systems Thinking and Government Policy. Proceedings
39th Annual Meeting International Society for the Systems Sciences, Louisville (p.402-411).
[20] Shields R (1996). Flow as a new paradigm. Space and
Culture (1:1, p.1-7).
[21] Cox KR (1997). Spaces of globalization: reasserting the
power of the local. The Guilford Press, New York.
[22] Adams J (1999).
The social implications of hypermobility. OECD Env. Directorate, Unclassied
ENV/EPOC/PPC/T (99) 3/FINAL/REV1 (; p.95).
[23] Khisty CJ, Zeitler U (2001). Is Hypermobility a Challenge for Transport Ethics and Systemicity? Systemic
Practice and Action Research (14:5, p.597-613).

161

[24] Mander S, Randles S (2009). Aviation Coalitions: Drivers

of Growth and Implications for Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction. In: Climate Change and Aviation: Issues,
Challenges and Solutions (ISBN 9781844076208), Earthscan, London.

Chapter 48

HYSPLIT
The Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Model (HYSPLIT) * [1] is a computer model that is
used to compute air parcel trajectories and dispersion or
deposition of atmospheric pollutants. It was developed
by NOAA and Australia's Bureau of Meteorology.
One popular use of HYSPLIT is to establish whether high
levels of air pollution at one location are caused by transport of air contaminants from another location. HYSPLIT's back trajectories, combined with satellite images
(for example, from NASA's MODIS satellites), can provide insight into whether high air pollution levels are
caused by local air pollution sources or whether an air
pollution problem was blown in on the wind.* [2]
HYSPLIT is rather unusual in that it may be run in clientserver mode (HYSPLIT-WEB) from the NOAA website,
allowing members of the public to select gridded historical or forecast datasets, to congure model runs, and retrieve model results with a web browser.

48.1 References
[1] http://ready.arl.noaa.gov/HYSPLIT.php
[2] http://www.sonomatech.com/assets/pdfs/AGU2012_
IndonesiaFires.pdf

162

Chapter 49

Indoor air pollution in developing nations

Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a signi- ative composition is determined by factors such as the
cant form of indoor air pollution (IAP) that is little known fuel type and moisture content, stove type and operation
to those in the developed world.
inuencing the amount.* [1]
Three billion people in developing nations across the
globe rely on biomass, in the form of wood, charcoal,
dung, and crop residue, as their domestic cooking fuel.
Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in
environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of
people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks. Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in
2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The
South East Asian and Western Pacic regions bear most
of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa, 200,000
in the Eastern Mediterranean region, 99,000 in Europe
and 81,000 in the Americas. The remaining 19,000
deaths occur in high income countries.* [WHO 1]

While many pollutants can evolve, most measurements

have been focused on breathing-zone exposure levels
of particulate matter (PM) and carbon monoxide (CO),
which are the main products of incomplete combustion
and are considered to pose the greatest health risks. Indoor PM2.5 exposure levels have been consistently reported to be in the range of hundreds to thousands of
micrograms per cubic meter (g/m3 ). Similarly, CO exposure levels have been measured to be as high as hundreds to greater than 1000 milligrams per cubic meter
(mg/m3 ). A recent study of 163 households in two rural
Chinese counties reported geometric mean indoor PM2.5
concentrations of 276 g/m3 (combinations of dierent
plant materials, including wood, tobacco stems, and corncobs), 327 g/m3 (wood), 144 g/m3 (smoky coal), and
3
Even though the rate of dependence on biomass fuel is 96 g/m (smokeless coal) for homes using a variety of
declining, this dwindling resource will not keep up with dierent fuel types and stove congurations (e.g., vented,
*
population growth which could ultimately put environ- unvented, portable, re pit, mixed ventilation stove). [1]
ments at even greater risk.
Over the past several decades, there have been numerous
studies investigating the air pollution generated by traditional household solid fuel combustion for space heating,
lighting, and cooking in developing countries. It is now
well established that, throughout much of the developing
world, indoor burning of solid fuels (biomass, coal, etc.)
by inecient, often insuciently vented, combustion devices results in elevated exposures to household air pollutants. This is due to the poor combustion eciency of the
combustion devices and the elevated nature of the emissions. In addition, they are often released directly into
living areas.* [1] Smoke from traditional household solid
fuel combustion commonly contains a range of incomplete combustion products, including both ne and coarse
particulate matter (e.g., PM2.5 , PM10 ), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), sulfur dioxide (SO2 ),
and a variety of organic air pollutants (e.g., formaldehyde,
1,3-butadiene, benzene, acetaldehyde, acrolein, phenols,
pyrene, benzopyrene, benzo(a)pyrene, dibenzopyrenes,
dibenzocarbazoles, and cresols).* [1] In a typical solid fuel
stove, about 620% of the solid fuel is converted into
toxic emissions (by mass). The exact quantity and rel-

49.1 Health implications

Rural Kenya has been the site of various applied research projects to determine the intensity of emissions
that commonly occur from use of biomass fuels, particularly wood, dung, and crop residue. Smoke is the result of the incomplete combustion of solid fuel which
women and children are exposed to up to seven hours
each day in closed environments.* [2] These emissions
vary from day to day, season to season and with changes
in the amount of airow within the residence. Exposure in poor homes far exceeds accepted safety levels by
as much as one hundred times over.* [2] Because many
Kenyan women utilize a three-stone re, the worst offender, one kilogram of burning wood produces tiny particles of soot which can clog and irritate the bronchial
pathways. The smoke also contains various poisonous
gases such as aldehydes, benzene, and carbon monoxide. Exposure to IAP from combustion of solid fuels
has been implicated, with varying degrees of evidence,
as a causal agent of several diseases.* [WHO 1] Acute

163

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CHAPTER 49. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING NATIONS

lower respiratory infections (ALRI) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are the leading causes
of disease and death from exposure to smoke. Cataracts
and blindness, lung cancer, tuberculosis, premature births
and low birth weight are also suspected of being caused
by IAP.
Women and primarily girls spend excess time each day
in collecting fuel-wood in Kenya which exposes them to
even further hazards including vulnerability to rape and
also fractures from the weight of carrying heavy loads.
This time could be spent in more productive ways such
as attending school or income production. The use of
biomass coupled with inecient cooking apparatus leads
to a web of social and environmental concerns which directly links to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.

49.2 Interventions

49.2.2 Improved success

Current improved interventions however, include smoke
hoods which operate in much the same manner as ues,
to extract smoke, but are found to reduce levels of IAP
more eectively than homes that relied solely on windows for ventilation.* [4] Some features of newly improved stoves include a chimney, enclosing the re to retain heat, designing a pot holder to maximize heat transfer, dampers to control air ow, a ceramic insert to reduce
heat loss, and multi-pot systems to allow for cooking multiple dishes.
Stoves are now known to be one of the least-cost means
to achieve the combined objective of reducing the health
burden of IAP and in some areas reducing environmental stress from biomass harvesting.* [5] Some success in
installation of interventions, including improved cook
stoves, has been achieved primarily due to an interdisciplinary approach which includes multiple stakeholders.
These projects have discovered that key socio-economic
issues must be addressed to ensure the success of intervention programs. A multitude of complex issues indicate improved stoves are not merely a tool to save fuel.

49.2.3 Successful interventions

Solar cookers use sunlight as energy source for outdoor cooking.

49.2.1

Early interventions

Unfortunately, nding an aordable solution to address

the many eects of IAP improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability is
complex and in need of continual improvement.* [3] Efforts to improve cook stoves in the past, beginning in the
1950s, were primarily aimed at minimizing deforestation
with no concern for IAP, though the eectiveness of these
eorts to save rewood is debatable. Various attempts
had various outcomes. For example, some improved
stove designs in Kenya signicantly reduced particulate
emissions but produced higher CO2 and SO2 emissions.
Flues to remove smoke were dicult to design and were
fragile.

The following information represents one successful intervention known as the Kenya Smoke and Health Project
(19982001)* [6] which involved fty rural households in
two separate regions, Kajiado and West Kenya. These
areas were chosen due to dierent climate, geographic,
and cultural implications. Community participation was
the primary focus for this project and as a result, those
involved indicated the results far exceeded their expectations. Local women's groups and, in the case of
the project in West Kenya, men were actively involved.
By involving the end-users the project resulted in more
widespread acceptance and created the further benet of
providing local income.
Three key interventions were discussed and disseminated;
ventilation by enlarging windows or opening eaves spaces,
adding smoke hoods over the cooking area, or the option of installing an improved cook stove such as the
Upesi stove. Smoke hoods are free-standing units that
act like ues or chimneys in their eort to draw smoke
out of the dwelling. They can be used over traditional
open res and this study showed they contribute to considerably lower levels of IAP. The smoke hood models
were made with hard manila paper and then transferred to
heavy-gauge galvanized sheet metal and manufactured locally. This resulted in further employment opportunities
for the artisans who were trained by the project. The Upesi stove, made of clay and kiln-red, was developed by
Practical Action and East African partners to utilize wood
and agricultural wastes. Because this stove was designed
and adapted for local needs it produced several winning
features. Not only does it cut the use of fuel-wood by

49.3. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

165

approximately half, and reduce exposure to household

smoke, it also empowers local women by creating employment as they are the ones who make and market the
stoves. These women's groups gain access to technical
training in production and marketing and enjoy higher
wage earnings and improved social status as a result of
the introduction of this improved stove.

also had some success in encouraging the use of improved stoves among at-risk populations. Begun in the
mid-1980s, this program provides subsidies to encourage
families to purchase the longer-lasting chulhas and have
a chimney installed. A 2005 study showed that stoves
with chimneys are associated with a lower incidence of
cataracts in women.* [13] Much of the available informaVarious benets were realized including improved health; tion from India is more of a characterization of the issue
and there is less data available from intervention trials.
the most important aspect to each of the villagers involved. The people reported less internal heat allowing China has been particularly successful at encouraging the
for better sleep, fewer headaches and less fatigue, less eye use of improved stoves, with hundreds of millions of
irritation and coughs and dizziness. Safety increased due stoves installed since the beginning of the project in the
to the smoke hoods preventing goats and children from early 1980s. The government very intentionally targeted
falling into the re and less soot contamination was ob- poorer, rural households, and by the late 1990s nearly
served, along with snakes and rodents not entering the 75% of such households containedimproved kitchens.
home. Windows allowed for the ability to view cattle * [14] A 2007 review of 3500 households showed an imfrom indoors, and also reduced kerosene needs due to provement in indoor air quality in intervention houseimproved interior lighting. Overall, the indoor environ- holds characterized by lower concentrations of small parment improved greatly from various simple things that ticles and carbon monoxide in household air.* [15] The
are taken for granted in modern western homes. Greater program in China involved intervention on a large scale,
indoor light also allows for more income generation for but the cost of stoves was heavily subsidized so it is not
women as they can do beadwork by the window when known if its success could be replicated.
weather doesn't allow for this work outdoors. Children
also benet from increased lighting for homework.
Interpersonal relationships developed among the women
due to the project, and men better supported their wives
initiative when the end result beneted them as well.
While initial eorts to improve stoves were limited in
success, current eorts are more successful due to the
recognition that sustainable domestic energy resources
are central to reducing poverty and hunger, improving healthand improving the lives of women and children* [6] The optimal short-term goal in minimizing rural poverty is to provide inexpensive and acceptable solutions to the local people. Not only can stoves contribute
to this intervention, but the use of cleaner fuels will also
provide further benets.
Similar improved-stove projects have proven successful
in other regions of the world. Improved stoves installed
as part of the Randomized Exposure Study of Pollution Indoors and Respiratory Eects (RESPIRE) study in
Guatemala were found to be acceptable to the population
and produce signicant health benets for both mothers and children.* [7] Mothers in the intervention group
had lower blood pressure and reductions in eye discomfort and back pain.* [8]* [9] Intervention households were
also found to have lower levels of small particles and carbon monoxide.* [10] Children in these households also
had lower rates of asthma.* [11] This initial pilot program
has evolved into CRECER (Chronic Respiratory Eects
of Early Childhood Exposure to Respirable Particulate
Matter), which will attempt to follow children in intervention households for a longer period of time to determine
whether the improved stoves also contribute to greater
health over the lifespan.* [12]

49.3 Environmental impacts

Mortality and burden of disease are not the only detrimental eects from utilizing inecient energy technology such as the combustion of biomass. Kenya's predominant energy source is biomass, providing more than
90 per cent of rural household energy needs, about
one-third in the form of charcoal and the rest from
rewood.* [16] Biomass energy sourced primarily from
savannah woodlands includes rewood for inhabitants
and charcoal for urban use. A small percentage is sourced
by neighboring communities from closed and protected
forests which are generally found in high population density areas.* [16] While biomass harvesting in sensitive areas is problematic, it is now determined that the great
majority of biomass clearing is due to agricultural expansion and land conversion.* [5] Approximately 38% of
households 'in high agro-ecological zones' utilize agricultural waste due to frequent shortages of conventional fuelwood.* [16] Use of crop residue and animal waste for domestic energy has detrimental results on soil quality and
agricultural and livestock productivity. These materials
are ultimately not available as soil conditioners, organic
fertilizer, and livestock fodder, not to mention the cumulative eects on national food security.* [16]

Most farmers are aware however, that when agricultural

waste and dung are not used for energy, they are important elements to maintaining soil fertility. One of the
most ecient ways to utilize crop waste and dung for domestic energy is to produce briquettes. The process of
compacting the material into a donut shape creates more
The National Program on Improved Chulhas in India has ecient combustion which contributes to reduced emission levels. A simple device allows for this process and it

166

CHAPTER 49. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING NATIONS

can be done locally.

49.3.1

Sustainable options

Large-scale combustion of biomass is only feasible if carried out in a sustainable manner. Concern is paramount
for regeneration of renewable and sustainable fuel-wood
sources if it is to continue to be available long-term. Attempts at sustainable solutions in Kenya could include
developing energy crops (trees and shrubs) which would
also provide additional income for farmers. This solution
would benet cropland or rangeland prone to erosion and
ooding as the root systems and leaf litter would enhance
soil stability.* [16] Careful selection of regenerating varieties would be most sustainable because soil stability is
not disrupted due to tilling and planting. Some people
view this solution as a way to further exploit forests, but
with proper management of forest resources this could be
a viable solution.

successful due to the inclusion of local users, particularly

women, who were involved in the design and eldwork
process.

49.5 Primary intervention for children

Children up to ve years of age spend 90% of their time

at home.* [18] Globally, 50% of pneumonia deaths among
children under ve years of age are due to particulate matter inhaled from indoor air pollution.* [19] Many homes
around the world used solid fuels for cooking. These fuels
release large amounts of carbon monoxide and ne particulate matter.* [20] These chemical irritants when inhaled
may cause dierent pulmonary conditions ranging from
pulmonary epithelial cancer or acute pulmonary tract inSolar cooking is a sustainable option for reducing the use fection.* [21]
of biomass as fuel and thereby contribute to the reduction of IAP. Energy Ecient cooking devices such as
the Wonderbag can also signicantly reduce fuel requirements for residential cooking. Kyoto Twist, an international aid organization has published an excellent case 49.6 Kenya and modern energy
study where two Cookit solar cookers saved families of 6
people 2000 pounds of wood in a year.* [17]
See also: Renewable energy in Africa

49.3.2

Challenges

Widespread education and government funding will also

be necessary to shift cultural practices to more sustainable energy use. For example, in an area in South Africa,
even though access to electricity was available, many residents continued to use biomass fuels for cooking and
heating due to cost of electrical appliances and cultural
practices. Liquid petroleum gas (LPG), which has nearly
100% combustion and negligible emissions unfortunately
is currently not cost eective. The use of solar power,
such as solar cookers, has drawbacks in practical use because they must be used outdoors, and they are slow and
do not work in the evening or on cloudy days.

49.4 Education interventions

Educational intervention can contribute to reducing exposure to smoke by developing a social marketing eort
in alerting people to the dangers and encouraging a willingness to alter living and cultural practices which could
have a signicant impact on mitigating exposure to IAP.
These interventions must be based on felt needs* [4]
with emphasis and sensitivity to gender issues. Evidence
of one successful government intervention was revealed
by China who, between 1980 and 1995, disseminated 172
million improved cookstoves. This eort proved more

As of 2004, Kenya has shown a willingness to undertake

biomass energy issues with the understanding that consumption is associated with indoor air pollution and environmental degradation.* [16] Suggestions from the United
Nations Development Programme include establishing an
institution that will deal exclusively with biomass energy
by developing policy guidelines on sustainable rewood,
charcoal, and modern biomass such as cleaner fuels and
wind, solar, and small scale hydropower. Short-term solutions rest in more ecient domestic energy use by way
of improved cook stoves which provide more aordable
options in the near future than a complete shift to nonsolid fuels. Long-term solutions rest on transition to modern cleaner fuels and alternative energy sources within
a broad international and national policy and economic
agenda. Government support for long-term solutions is
feasible as witnessed by current eorts in Zambia to develop policy to promote biofuels.
Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power
systems installed per capita (but not the number of watts
added). More than 30,000 small solar panels, each producing 12 to 30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually. For an
investment of as little as $100 for the panel and wiring,
the PV system can be used to charge a car battery, which
can then provide power to run a uorescent lamp or a
small television for a few hours a day. More Kenyans
adopt solar power every year than make connections to
the country's electric grid.* [22]

49.9. REFERENCES

49.7 Further action

National and international eort must be stepped up to
advance short and long term solutions for the millions of
women and children who suer from poverty and disease
as a result of indoor air pollution. Scientists predict the
African continent will be the rst to experience the effects of global warming where widespread poverty will
put millions at further risk due to their limited capabilities to adapt. The potential is great for a more sustainable
Africa with commitment from within and outside the region. Pneumonia is the number one killer of children in
the world and indoor air pollution is a strongly signicant
risk factor for severe pneumonia. The global health community designated 2 November to be World Pneumonia
Day in order to raise awareness about the disease and its
causes.

49.8 See also

Category:Energy by country
Envirot
Guatemala Stove Project
Rocket stove
International Association of Certied Indoor Air
Consultants (IAC2)
Rural electrication
Sick building syndrome
Renewable energy in China

49.9 References
[1] , Long, C., Valberg, P., 2014. Evolution of Cleaner Solid
Fuel Combustion, Cornerstone, http://cornerstonemag.
net/evolution-of-cleaner-solid-fuel-combustion/
[2] Smoke's increasing cloud across the globe, Practical Action, accessed 5 May 2007.
[3] Duo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R (2008). Indoor air
pollution, health and economic well-being. S.A.P.I.EN.S
1 (1).
[4] Health, Environment And The Burden Of Disease: A
Guidance Note, Cairncross, S., O'neill, D., McCoy., A.,
Sethi, D. 2003. DFID. Accessed 10 May 2007.

167

[7] Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of

Public Health, University of California, Berkeley. Randomized exposure study of pollution indoors and respiratory eects (RESPIRE). http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/
guat/page.asp?id=15. Accessed 18 March 2008.
[8] McCracken JP, Smith KR, Diaz A, Mittleman MA,
Schwartz J (July 2007). Chimney stove intervention
to reduce long-term wood smoke exposure lowers blood
pressure among Guatemalan women. Environ Health
Perspect. 115 (7): 9961001. doi:10.1289/ehp.9888.
PMC 1913602. PMID 17637912.
[9] Diaz E, Smith-Sivertsen T, Pope D, Lie RT, Diaz A,
McCracken J, et al. (January 2007). Eye discomfort, headache and back pain among Mayan Guatemalan
women taking part in a randomised stove intervention
trial. J Epidemiol Community Health. 61 (1): 749.
doi:10.1136/jech.2006.043133. PMC 2465594. PMID
17183019.
[10] Bruce N, McCracken J, Albalak R, Schei MA, Smith KR,
Lopez V, et al. (2004). Impact of improved stoves,
house construction and child location on levels of indoor
air pollution exposure in young Guatemalan children.
J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 14 (Suppl 1): S2633.
doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500355. PMID 15118742.
[11] Schei MA, Hessen JO, Smith KR, Bruce N, McCracken
J, Lopez V (2004). Childhood asthma and indoor woodsmoke from cooking in Guatemala. J
Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol. 14 (Suppl 1): S1107.
doi:10.1038/sj.jea.7500365. PMID 15118752.
[12] Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School
of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley.
Chronic respiratory eects of childhood exposure to
respirable particulate matter (CRECER). http://ehs.sph.
berkeley.edu/guat/page.asp?id=1. Accessed 18 March
2008.
[13] Pokhrel AK, Smith KR, Khalakdina A, Deuja A, Bates
MN (2005). Case-control study of indoor cooking
smoke exposure and cataract in Nepal and India. Int
J Epidemiol. 34 (3): 70910. doi:10.1093/ije/dyi077.
PMID 15833790.
[14] Smith, KR. Household monitoring project in China. Environmental Health Sciences Department website. http://
ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/hem/page.asp?id=29. Accessed 18
March 2008.
[15] Edwards RD, Liu Y, He G, Yin Z, Sinton J, Peabody J, et
al. (2007). Household CO and PM measured as part of
a review of China's National Improved Stove Program
. Indoor Air. 17 (3): 189203. doi:10.1111/j.16000668.2007.00465.x. PMID 17542832.
[16] Global Village Energy Partnership, Nairobi, Kenya,
UNDP. 2005. Accessed 30 April 2007.
[17] Kyoto Twist

[5] Healthy Stoves and Fuels for Developing Nations and the
Global Environment, Kammen, D. 2003. Accessed 12
May 2007.
[6] Kenya Smoke and Health Project, ITDG. 1998-2001. Accessed 5 May 2007.

[18] Mukesh Dherani; et al. (May 2008). Indoor air pollution from unprocessed solid fuel use and pneumonia risk
in children aged under ve years: a systematic review and
meta-analysis no.5 Genebra. Bull World Health Organization 86 (1): 321416.

168

CHAPTER 49. INDOOR AIR POLLUTION IN DEVELOPING NATIONS

[19] Zheng, Li (October 2011). Evaluation of exposure

reduction to indoor air pollution in stove intervention
projects in Peru by urinary biomonitoring of polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites. Environment International 37 (7). doi:10.1016/j.envint.2011.03.024.
[20] Fullerton, DG.; et al. (September 2008). Indoor air
pollution from biomass fuel smoke is a major health concern in the developing world.. Transactions of the
Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 102 (9).
doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.05.028.
[21] Rudan, I. (2004). Global estimate of the incidence of
clinical pneumonia among children under ve years of
age. Bull World Health Organ [online] 82 (12).
[22] The Rise of Renewable Energy
[1] Burden of disease from Indoor Air Pollution for 2012
(PDF). WHO. 2014-03-24. Retrieved 2014-03-28.

49.10 External links

World Health Organization Page on Indoor Air Pollution
Washington Post Article on Indoor Air Pollution in
Asia
IPS story on the Cost of IAP to Women's Health
Practical Action
2 November is World Pneumonia Day

Chapter 50

Indoor air quality

50.1 Common pollutants
50.1.1 Second-hand smoke
Main article: Second-hand smoke
Second-hand smoke is tobacco smoke which aects other
people other than the 'active' smoker. Second-hand tobacco smoke includes both a gaseous and a particulate
phase, with particular hazards arising from levels of carbon monoxide (as indicated below) and very small particulates (at PM2.5 size) which get past the lung's natural
defenses. The only certain method to improve indoor air
quality as regards second-hand smoke is the implementation of comprehensive smoke-free laws.

A common air lter, being cleaned with a vacuum cleaner

Indoor air quality (IAQ) is a term which refers to the

air quality within and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants. IAQ can be aected by gases (including
carbon monoxide, radon, volatile organic compounds),
particulates, microbial contaminants (mold, bacteria), or
any mass or energy stressor that can induce adverse health
conditions. Source control, ltration and the use of
ventilation to dilute contaminants are the primary methods for improving indoor air quality in most buildings.
Residential units can further improve indoor air quality
by routine cleaning of carpets and area rugs.
Determination of IAQ involves the collection of air samples, monitoring human exposure to pollutants, collection
of samples on building surfaces, and computer modelling
of air ow inside buildings.
IAQ is part of indoor environmental quality (IEQ), which
includes IAQ as well as other physical and psychological aspects of life indoors (e.g., lighting, visual quality,
acoustics, and thermal comfort).* [1]
Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a major
health hazard.* [2] A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass
(e.g. wood, charcoal, dung, or crop residue) for heating
and cooking.* [3] The resulting exposure to high levels of
particulate matter resulted in between 1.5 million and 2
million deaths in 2000.* [4]

50.1.2 Radon
Main article: Radon
Radon is an invisible, radioactive atomic gas that results from the radioactive decay of radium, which may
be found in rock formations beneath buildings or in certain building materials themselves. Radon is probably the
most pervasive serious hazard for indoor air in the United
States and Europe, probably responsible for tens of thousands of deaths from lung cancer each year.* [5] There
are relatively simple test kits for do-it-yourself radon gas
testing, but if a home is for sale the testing must be done
by licensed person in some U.S. states. Radon gas enters buildings as a soil gas and is a heavy gas and thus
will tend to accumulate at the lowest level. Radon may
also be introduced into a building through drinking water particularly from bathroom showers. Building materials can be a rare source of radon, but little testing is
carried out for stone, rock or tile products brought into
building sites; radon accumulation is greatest for well insulated homes.* [6] The half life for radon is 3.8 days, indicating that once the source is removed, the hazard will
be greatly reduced within a few weeks. Radon mitigation methods include sealing concrete slab oors, basement foundations, water drainage systems, or by increasing ventilation.* [7] They are usually cost eective and

169

170

CHAPTER 50. INDOOR AIR QUALITY

can greatly reduce or even eliminate the contamination to the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
and the associated health risks.
Hygienists (ACGIH), the time-weighted average (TWA)
limit for carbon monoxide (630-08-0) is 25 ppm.

50.1.3

Molds and other allergens

Main articles: Mold health issues, Mold growth, assessment, and remediation
These biological chemicals can arise from a host of
means, but there are two common classes: (a) moisture induced growth of mold colonies and (b) natural
substances released into the air such as animal dander
and plant pollen. Mold is always associated with moisture,* [8] and its growth can be inhibited by keeping humidity levels below 50%. Moisture buildup inside buildings may arise from water penetrating compromised areas of the building envelope or skin, from plumbing leaks,
from condensation due to improper ventilation, or from
ground moisture penetrating a building part. In areas
where cellulosic materials (paper and wood, including
drywall) become moist and fail to dry within 48 hours,
mold mildew can propagate and release allergenic spores
into the air.
In many cases, if materials have failed to dry out several
days after the suspected water event, mold growth is suspected within wall cavities even if it is not immediately
visible. Through a mold investigation, which may include
destructive inspection, one should be able to determine
the presence or absence of mold. In a situation where
there is visible mold and the indoor air quality may have
been compromised, mold remediation may be needed.
Mold testing and inspections should be carried out by an
independent investigator to avoid any conict of interest
and to insure accurate results; free mold testing oered
by remediation companies is not recommended.

Indoor levels of CO are systematically improving due to

increasing implementation of smoke-free laws.

50.1.5 Volatile organic compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases
from certain solids or liquids. VOCs include a variety
of chemicals, some of which may have short- and longterm adverse health eects. Concentrations of many
VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times
higher) than outdoors. VOCs are emitted by a wide array
of products numbering in the thousands. Examples include: paints and lacquers, paint strippers, cleaning supplies, pesticides, building materials and furnishings, ofce equipment such as copiers and printers, correction
uids and carbonless copy paper, graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers,
and photographic solutions.* [9]
Chlorinated drinking water releases chloroform when hot
water is used in the home. Benzene is emitted from fuel
stored in attached garages. Overheated cooking oils emit
acrolein and formaldehyde. A meta-analysis of 77 surveys of VOCs in homes in the US found the top ten riskiest indoor air VOCs were acrolein, formaldehyde, benzene, hexachlorobutadiene, acetaldehyde, 1,3-butadiene,
benzyl chloride, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, carbon tetrachloride, acrylonitrile, and vinyl chloride. These compounds
exceeded health standards in most homes.* [10]
Organic chemicals are widely used as ingredients in
household products. Paints, varnishes, and wax all contain organic solvents, as do many cleaning, disinfecting,
cosmetic, degreasing, and hobby products. Fuels are
made up of organic chemicals. All of these products can
release organic compounds during usage, and, to some
degree, when they are stored. Testing emissions from
building materials used indoors has become increasingly
common for oor coverings, paints, and many other important indoor building materials and nishes.* [11]

There are some varieties of mold that contain toxic compounds (mycotoxins). However, exposure to hazardous
levels of mycotoxin via inhalation is not possible in most
cases, as toxins are produced by the fungal body and are
not at signicant levels in the released spores. The primary hazard of mold growth, as it relates to indoor air
quality, comes from the allergenic properties of the spore
cell wall. More serious than most allergenic properties
is the ability of mold to trigger episodes in persons that Several initiatives envisage to reduce indoor air contamination by limiting VOC emissions from products. There
already have asthma, a serious respiratory disease.
are regulations in France and in Germany, and numerous voluntary ecolabels and rating systems containing
low VOC emissions criteria such as EMICODE,* [12]
50.1.4 Carbon monoxide
M1,* [13] Blue Angel* [14] and Indoor Air Comfort* [15]
as well as California Standard CDPH Section
One of the most acutely toxic indoor air contaminants is in Europe,
*
01350
[16]
and several others in the USA. These initiacarbon monoxide (CO), a colourless, odourless gas that
tives
changed
the marketplace where an increasing numis a byproduct of incomplete combustion of fossil fuber
of
low-emitting
products has become available during
els. Common sources of carbon monoxide are tobacco
the
last
decades.
smoke, space heaters using fossil fuels, defective central
heating furnaces and automobile exhaust. By depriving At least 18 Microbial VOCs (MVOCs) have been
the brain of oxygen, high levels of carbon monoxide can characterised* [17]* [18] including 1-octen-3-ol, 3lead to nausea, unconsciousness and death. According methylfuran, 2-pentanol, 2-hexanone, 2-heptanone,

50.1. COMMON POLLUTANTS

171

3-octanone, 3-octanol, 2-octen-1-ol, 1-octene, 2pentanone, 2-nonanone, borneol, geosmin, 1-butanol,

3-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-2-butanol, and thujopsene.
The rst of these compounds is called mushroom alcohol.
The last four are products of Stachybotrys chartarum,
which has been linked with sick building syndrome.* [17]

body, with large numbers of bacteria on the skin and as

gut ora.* [20] A large fraction of the bacteria found
in indoor air and dust are shed from humans. Among
the most important bacteria known to occur in indoor air
are Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Staphylococcus aureus,
Streptococcus pneumoniae.

50.1.6 Legionella

50.1.8 Asbestos bers

Legionellosis or Legionnaire's Disease is caused by a waterborne bacterium Legionella that grows best in slowmoving or still, warm water. The primary route of exposure is through the creation of an aerosol eect, most
commonly from evaporative cooling towers or showerheads. A common source of Legionella in commercial
buildings is from poorly placed or maintained evaporative
cooling towers, which often release water in an aerosol
which may enter nearby ventilation intakes. Outbreaks
in medical facilities and nursing homes, where patients
are immuno-suppressed and immuno-weak, are the most
commonly reported cases of Legionellosis. More than
one case has involved outdoor fountains in public attractions. The presence of Legionella in commercial building
water supplies is highly under-reported, as healthy people
require heavy exposure to acquire infection.

Many common building materials used before 1975 contain asbestos, such as some oor tiles, ceiling tiles, shingles, reproong, heating systems, pipe wrap, taping
muds, mastics, and other insulation materials. Normally,
signicant releases of asbestos ber do not occur unless
the building materials are disturbed, such as by cutting,
sanding, drilling, or building remodelling. Removal of
asbestos-containing materials is not always optimal because the bers can be spread into the air during the
removal process. A management program for intact
asbestos-containing materials is often recommended instead.
When asbestos-containing material is damaged or disintegrates, microscopic bers are dispersed into the air. Inhalation of asbestos bers over long exposure times is
associated with increased incidence of lung cancer, in
particular the specic form mesothelioma. The risk of
lung cancer from inhaling asbestos bers is also greater
to smokers. The symptoms of the disease do not usually
appear until about 20 to 30 years after the rst exposure
to asbestos.

Legionella testing typically involves collecting water samples and surface swabs from evaporative cooling basins,
shower heads, faucets/taps, and other locations where
warm water collects. The samples are then cultured and
colony forming units (cfu) of Legionella are quantied as
cfu/Liter.
Asbestos is found in older homes and buildings, but ocLegionella is a parasite of protozoans such as amoeba, curs most commonly in schools and industrial settings.
and thus requires conditions suitable for both organisms. The US Federal Government (www.osha.gov) and some
The bacterium forms a biolm which is resistant to chem- states have set standards for acceptable levels of asbestos
ical and antimicrobial treatments, including chlorine. Re- bers in indoor air. There are particularly stringent regumediation for Legionella outbreaks in commercial build- lations applicable to schools.
ings vary, but often include very hot water ushes (160
F; 70 C), sterilisation of standing water in evaporative
cooling basins, replacement of shower heads, and in some 50.1.9 Carbon dioxide
cases ushes of heavy metal salts. Preventative measures
include adjusting normal hot water levels to allow for 120 Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is a relatively easy to measure surF at the tap, evaluating facility design layout, removing rogate for indoor pollutants emitted by humans, and corfaucet aerators, and periodic testing in suspect areas.
relates with human metabolic activity. Carbon dioxide
at levels that are unusually high indoors may cause occupants to grow drowsy, to get headaches, or to function at
50.1.7 Other bacteria
lower activity levels. Humans are the main indoor source
of carbon dioxide in most buildings. Indoor CO2 levels
There are many bacteria of health signicance found in are an indicator of the adequacy of outdoor air ventilation
indoor air and on indoor surfaces. The role of microbes relative to indoor occupant density and metabolic activity.
in the indoor environment is increasingly studied using To eliminate most complaints, the total indoor CO level
2
modern gene-based analysis of environmental samples. should be reduced to a dierence of less than 600 ppm
Currently eorts are under way to link microbial ecolo- above outdoor levels. The National Institute for Occupagists and indoor air scientists to forge new methods for tional Safety and Health (NIOSH) considers that indoor
analysis and to better interpret the results.* [19]
air concentrations of carbon dioxide that exceed 1,000
There are approximately ten times as many bacterial ppm are a marker suggesting inadequate ventilation.* [21]
cells in the human ora as there are human cells in the The UK standards for schools say that carbon dioxide in

172
all teaching and learning spaces, when measured at seated
head height and averaged over the whole day should not
exceed 1,500 ppm. The whole day refers to normal school
hours (i.e. 9:00am to 3:30pm) and includes unoccupied
periods such as lunch breaks. In Hong Kong, the EPD established indoor air quality objectives for oce buildings
and public places in which a carbon dioxide level below
1,000 ppm is considered to be good.* [22] European standards limit carbon dioxide to 3,500 ppm. OSHA limits
carbon dioxide concentration in the workplace to 5,000
ppm for prolonged periods, and 35,000 ppm for 15 minutes. These higher limits are concerned with avoiding loss
of consciousness (fainting), and do not address impaired
cognitive performance and energy, which begin to occur
at lower concentrations of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide concentrations increase as a result of human occupancy, but lag in time behind cumulative occupancy and intake of fresh air. The lower the air exchange rate, the slower the buildup of carbon dioxide to
quasisteady stateconcentrations on which the NIOSH
and UK guidance are based. Therefore, measurements
of carbon dioxide for purposes of assessing the adequacy
of ventilation need to be made after an extended period of steady occupancy and ventilation - in schools at
least 2 hours, and in oces at least 3 hours - for concentrations to be a reasonable indicator of ventilation adequacy. Portable instruments used to measure carbon
dioxide should be calibrated frequently, and outdoor measurements used for calculations should be made close in
time to indoor measurements. Corrections for temperature eects on measurements made outdoors may also be
necessary.

CO2 levels in an enclosed oce room can increase to over 1,000

ppm within 45 minutes.

CHAPTER 50. INDOOR AIR QUALITY

50.1.10 Ozone
Ozone is produced by ultraviolet light from the Sun
hitting the Earth's atmosphere (especially in the ozone
layer), lightning, certain high-voltage electric devices
(such as air ionizers), and as a by-product of other types
of pollution.
Ozone exists in greater concentrations at altitudes commonly own by passenger jets. Reactions between ozone
and onboard substances, including skin oils and cosmetics, can produce toxic chemicals as by-products. Ozone
itself is also irritating to lung tissue and harmful to human
health. Larger jets have ozone lters to reduce the cabin
concentration to safer and more comfortable levels.* [24]
Outdoor air used for ventilation may have sucient ozone
to react with common indoor pollutants as well as skin oils
and other common indoor air chemicals or surfaces. Particular concern is warranted when using greencleaning products based on citrus or terpene extracts, because
these chemicals react very quickly with ozone to form
toxic and irritating chemicals as well as ne and ultrane
particles. Ventilation with outdoor air containing elevated ozone concentrations may complicate remediation
attempts.* [25]

50.2 Prompt cognitive decits

In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of
signicant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment
from impurities in the air breathed by test subjects who
were not informed about changes in the air quality. Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Upstate
Medical University and Syracuse University measured
the cognitive performance of 24 participants in three
dierent controlled laboratory atmospheres that simulated those found inconventionalandgreenbuildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced ventilation.
Performance was evaluated objectively using the widely
used Strategic Management Simulation software simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Signicant decits
were observed in the performance scores achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keeping other
factors constant. The highest impurity levels reached
are not uncommon in some classroom or oce environments.* [26]* [27]

Carbon dioxide concentrations in closed or conned

rooms can increase to 1,000 ppm within 45 minutes
of enclosure. For example, in a 3.5-by-4-metre (11 ft 50.3 Eect of indoor plants
13 ft) sized oce, atmospheric carbon dioxide increased from 500 ppm to over 1,000 ppm within 45 min- Main article: List of air-ltering plants
utes of ventilation cessation and closure of windows and Houseplants together with the medium in which they are
grown can reduce components of indoor air pollution,
doors.* [23]

50.4. HVAC DESIGN

173
to grow and release oxygen when they consume CO2.
A study published in the journal Environmental Science
& Technology considered uptake rates of ketones and
aldehydes by the peace lily (Spathiphyllum clevelandii)
and golden pothos (Epipremnum aureum.) Akira Tani
and C. Nicholas Hewitt found Longer-term fumigation results revealed that the total uptake amounts were
30100 times as much as the amounts dissolved in the
leaf, suggesting that volatile organic carbons are metabolized in the leaf and/or translocated through the petiole.
*
[32] It is worth noting the researchers sealed the plants
in Teon bags.No VOC loss was detected from the bag
when the plants were absent. However, when the plants
were in the bag, the levels of aldehydes and ketones both
decreased slowly but continuously, indicating removal by
the plants.* [33] Studies done in sealed bags do not faithfully reproduce the conditions in the indoor environments
of interest. Dynamic conditions with outdoor air ventilation and the processes related to the surfaces of the building itself and its contents as well as the occupants need to
be studied.

Spider plants (Chlorophytum comosum) absorb some airborne

contaminants

While results do indicate house plants may be eective at

removing some VOCs from air supplies, a review of studies between 1989 and 2006 on the performance of houseplants as air cleaners, presented at the Healthy Buildings
2009 conference in Syracuse, NY, concluded "...indoor
plants have little, if any, benet for removing indoor air
of VOC in residential and commercial buildings.* [34]

particularly volatile organic compounds (VOC) such as

benzene, toluene, and xylene. Plants remove CO2 and
release oxygen and water, although the quantitative impact for house plants is small. Most of the eect is attributed to the growing medium alone, but even this effect has nite limits associated with the type and quantity
of medium and the ow of air through the medium.* [28]
The eect of house plants on VOC concentrations was
investigated in one study, done in a static chamber, by
NASA for possible use in space colonies.* [29] The results showed that the removal of the challenge chemicals
was roughly equivalent to that provided by the ventilation
that occurred in a very energy ecient dwelling with a
very low ventilation rate, an air exchange rate of about
1/10 per hour. Therefore, air leakage in most homes,
and in non-residential buildings too, will generally remove the chemicals faster than the researchers reported
for the plants tested by NASA. The most eective household plants reportedly included aloe vera, English ivy, and
Boston fern for removing chemicals and biological compounds.

Since high humidity is associated with increased mold

growth, allergic responses, and respiratory responses, the
presence of additional moisture from houseplants may
not be desirable in all indoor settings.* [35]

When CO2 concentrations are elevated indoors relative

to outdoor concentrations, it is only an indicator that ventilation is inadequate to remove metabolic products associated with human occupancy. Plants require CO2

For the past several years, there have been many debates
among indoor air quality specialists about the proper definition of indoor air quality and specically what constitutes acceptableindoor air quality.

50.4 HVAC design

Main articles:
(architecture)

HVAC, Air handler and Ventilation

Environmentally sustainable design concepts also include

aspects related to the commercial and residential heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry.
Among several considerations, one of the topics attended
to is the issue of indoor air quality throughout the design
and construction stages of a building's life.

One technique to reduce energy consumption while maintaining adequate air quality, is demand controlled ventiPlants also appear to reduce airborne microbes, molds, lation. Instead of setting throughput at a xed air replaceand increase humidity.* [30] However, the increased hu- ment rate, carbon dioxide sensors are used to control the
midity can itself lead to increased levels of mold and even rate dynamically, based on the emissions of actual buildVOCs.* [31]
ing occupants.

174
One way of quantitatively ensuring the health of indoor
air is by the frequency of eective turnover of interior
air by replacement with outside air. In the UK, for example, classrooms are required to have 2.5 outdoor air
changes per hour. In halls, gym, dining, and physiotherapy spaces, the ventilation should be sucient to limit
carbon dioxide to 1,500 ppm. In the USA, and according to ASHRAE Standards, ventilation in classrooms is
based on the amount of outdoor air per occupant plus
the amount of outdoor air per unit of oor area, not air
changes per hour. Since carbon dioxide indoors comes
from occupants and outdoor air, the adequacy of ventilation per occupant is indicated by the concentration indoors minus the concentration outdoors. The value of
615 ppm above the outdoor concentration indicates approximately 15 cubic feet per minute of outdoor air per
adult occupant doing sedentary oce work where outdoor air contains 385 ppm, the current global average
atmospheric CO2 concentration. In classrooms, the requirements in the ASHRAE standard 62.1, Ventilation
for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality, would typically result
in about 3 air changes per hour, depending on the occupant density. Of course the occupants aren't the only
source of pollutants, so outdoor air ventilation may need
to be higher when unusual or strong sources of pollution
exist indoors. When outdoor air is polluted, then bringing
in more outdoor air can actually worsen the overall quality of the indoor air and exacerbate some occupant symptoms related to outdoor air pollution. Generally, outdoor
country air is better than indoor city air. Exhaust gas leakages can occur from furnace metal exhaust pipes that lead
to the chimney when there are leaks in the pipe and the
pipe gas ow area diameter has been reduced.

CHAPTER 50. INDOOR AIR QUALITY

growth and moisture indoors is associated with a higher
prevalence of occupant respiratory problems.
The dew point temperatureis an absolute measure of
the moisture in air. Some facilities are being designed
with the design dew points in the lower 50s F, and some
in the upper and lower 40s F. Some facilities are being
designed using desiccant wheels with gas red heater to
dry out the wheel enough to get the required dew points.
On those systems, after the moisture is removed from the
make up air, a cooling coil is used to lower the temperature to the desired level.
Commercial buildings, and sometimes residential, are often kept under slightly positive air pressure relative to the
outdoors to reduce inltration. Limiting inltration helps
with moisture management and humidity control.

Dilution of indoor pollutants with outdoor air is eective

to the extent that outdoor air is free of harmful pollutants.
Ozone in outdoor air occurs indoors at reduced concentrations because ozone is highly reactive with many chemicals found indoors. The products of the reactions between ozone and many common indoor pollutants include
organic compounds that may be more odorous, irritating, or toxic than those from which they are formed.
These products of ozone chemistry include formaldehyde, higher molecular weight aldehydes, acidic aerosols,
and ne and ultrane particles, among others. The higher
the outdoor ventilation rate, the higher the indoor ozone
concentration and the more likely the reactions will occur, but even at low levels, the reactions will take place.
This suggests that ozone should be removed from ventilation air, especially in areas where outdoor ozone levels are
frequently high. Recent research has shown that mortality
The use of air lters can trap some of the air pollutants. and morbidity increase in the general population during
The Department of Energy's Energy Eciency and Re- periods of higher outdoor ozone and that the threshold for
newable Energy section wrote "[Air] Filtration should this eect is around 20 parts per billion (ppb).
have a Minimum Eciency Reporting Value (MERV) of
13 as determined by ASHRAE 52.2-1999.* [36] Air lters are used to reduce the amount of dust that reaches the
wet coils. Dust can serve as food to grow molds on the 50.5 Building ecology
wet coils and ducts and can reduce the eciency of the
coils.
It is common to assume that buildings are simply inanMoisture management and humidity control requires op- imate physical entities, relatively stable over time. This
erating HVAC systems as designed. Moisture manage- implies that there is little interaction between the triad
ment and humidity control may conict with eorts to of the building, what is in it (occupants and contents),
try to optimize the operation to conserve energy. For ex- and what is around it (the larger environment). We comample, Moisture management and humidity control re- monly see the overwhelming majority of the mass of maquires systems to be set to supply Make Up Air at lower terial in a building as relatively unchanged physical matemperatures (design levels), instead of the higher tem- terial over time. In fact, the true nature of buildings can
peratures sometimes used to conserve energy in cooling- be viewed as the result of a complex set of dynamic indominated climate conditions. However, for most of the teractions among their physical, chemical, and biological
US and many parts of Europe and Japan, during the ma- dimensions. Buildings can be described and understood
jority of hours of the year, outdoor air temperatures are as complex systems. Research applying the approaches
cool enough that the air does not need further cooling to ecologists use to the understanding of ecosystems can
provide thermal comfort indoors. However, high humid- help increase our understanding. Building ecologyis
ity outdoors creates the need for careful attention to hu- proposed here as the application of those approaches to
midity levels indoors. High humidities give rise to mold the built environment considering the dynamic system of
buildings, their occupants, and the larger environment.

50.7. SEE ALSO

Buildings constantly evolve as a result of the changes in
the environment around them as well as the occupants,
materials, and activities within them. The various surfaces and the air inside a building are constantly interacting, and this interaction results in changes in each. For
example, we may see a window as changing slightly over
time as it becomes dirty, then is cleaned, accumulates dirt
again, is cleaned again, and so on through its life. In fact,
the dirtwe see may be evolving as a result of the interactions among the moisture, chemicals, and biological
materials found there.
Buildings are designed or intended to respond actively to
some of these changes in and around them with heating,
cooling, ventilating, air cleaning or illuminating systems.
We clean, sanitize, and maintain surfaces to enhance their
appearance, performance, or longevity. In other cases,
such changes subtly or even dramatically alter buildings
in ways that may be important to their own integrity or
their impact on building occupants through the evolution
of the physical, chemical, and biological processes that
dene them at any time. We may nd it useful to combine
the tools of the physical sciences with those of the biological sciences and, especially, some of the approaches
used by scientists studying ecosystems, in order to gain
an enhanced understanding of the environments in which
we spend the majority of our time, our buildings.
Building ecology was rst described by Hal Levin in an
article in the April 1981 issue of Progressive Architecture
magazine. A longer discussion of Building ecology can be
found at* [37] and extensive resources can be found on the
Building Ecology web site* [38] Building ecology.com.

175
On the international level, the International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate (ISIAQ), formed in 1991,
organises two major conferences, the Indoor Air and the
Healthy Buildings series.* [40] ISIAQ's journal Indoor
Air is published 6 times a year and contains peer-reviewed
scientic papers with an emphasis on interdisciplinary
studies including exposure measurements, modeling, and
health outcomes.* [41]

50.7 See also

Air quality
Air pollution
Environmental management
Green cleaning
Greenguard Environmental Institute
Guatemala Stove Project
HVAC
Home performance
Indoor bioaerosol
International Association of Certied Indoor Air
Consultants (IAC2)

50.6 Institutional programs

List of air-ltering plants

The topic of IAQ has become popular due to the greater

awareness of health problems caused by mold and triggers
to asthma and allergies. In the US, awareness has also
been increased by the involvement of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency, who have developed
an IAQ Tools for Schoolsprogram to help improve
the indoor environmental conditions in educational institutions (see external link below). The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health conducts Health
Hazard Evaluations (HHEs) in workplaces at the request
of employees, authorised representative of employees, or
employers, to determine whether any substance normally
found in the place of employment has potentially toxic
eects, including indoor air quality.* [39]

Mold health issues

A variety of scientists work in the eld of indoor air

quality including chemists, physicists, mechanical engineers, biologists, bacteriologists and computer scientists.
Some of these professionals are certied by organisations
such as the American Industrial Hygiene Association, the
American Indoor Air Quality Council and the Indoor Environmental Air Quality Council.

Second-hand smoke

Mold growth, assessment, and remediation

Olfactory fatigue
Phase I environmental site assessment
Radon
Radon mitigation
Room air distribution

Sick building syndrome

Thermal comfort
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation

176

50.8 Notes
[1] KMC Controls. What's Your IQ on IAQ and IEQ.
Retrieved 5 October 2015.
[2] Bruce, N; Perez-Padilla, R; Albalak, R (2000). Indoor
air pollution in developing countries: a major environmental and public health challenge.. Bulletin of the World
Health Organization 78 (9): 107892. PMID 11019457.
[3] Duo E, Greenstone M, Hanna R (2008). Indoor air
pollution, health and economic well-being. S.A.P.I.EN.S
1 (1).
[4] Ezzati M, Kammen DM (November 2002). The health
impacts of exposure to indoor air pollution from solid fuels in developing countries: knowledge, gaps, and data
needs. Environ Health Perspect. 110 (11): 1057
68. doi:10.1289/ehp.021101057. PMC 1241060. PMID
12417475.
[5] U.S. EPA Indoor Environment Division, Radon.
Epa.gov. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[6] C.Michael Hogan and Sjaak Slanina. 2010, Air pollution.
Encyclopedia of Earth. eds. Sidney Draggan and Cutler
Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
[7] Radon Mitigation Methods. Radon SolutionRaising
Radon Awareness. Retrieved 2008-12-02.
[8] of WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: dampness and
mold. Report on a working group meeting, 17-18 October
2007
[9] U.S. EPA IAQ - Organic chemicals. Epa.gov. 201008-05. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[10] Logue, J. M. et al. (2011) Hazard assessment of chemical air contaminants measured in residences. Indoor Air
21(2): 92-109
[11] California IAQ Information: Volatile Organic Compounds
[12] Emicode. Eurons.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[13] M1. Eurons.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[14] Blue Angel. Eurons.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[15] Indoor Air Comfort. Indoor Air Comfort. Retrieved
2012-03-02.
[16] CDPH Section 01350. Eurons.com. Retrieved 201203-02.
[17] Smelly Moldy Houses.
[18] Meruva NK, Penn JM, Farthing DE (November
2004).
Rapid identication of microbial VOCs
from tobacco molds using closed-loop stripping and
gas chromatography/time-of-ight mass spectrometry. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol. 31 (10): 4828.
doi:10.1007/s10295-004-0175-0. PMID 15517467.
[19] Microbiology of the Indoor Environment, microbe.net

CHAPTER 50. INDOOR AIR QUALITY

[20] Sears CL (2005). A dynamic partnership: celebrating

our gut ora. Anaerobe 11 (5): 24751. doi:10.1016/
j.anaerobe.2005.05.001. PMID 16701579.
[21] Indoor Environmental Quality: Building Ventilation. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Accessed 2008-10-08.
[22] Hong Kong Government Initiatives to Improve Indoor Air
Quality. Environmental Protection Department, Environment Bureau, Hong Kong Government
[23] Edaphic Scientic Knowledge Base
[24] Study: Bad In-Flight Air Exacerbated by Passengers Talk
of the Nation, National Public Radio. September 21,
2007.
[25] Outdoor ozone and building related symptoms in the
BASE study (PDF). Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[26] New Study Demonstrates Indoor Building Environment
Has Signicant, Positive Impact on Cognitive Function.
New York Times. 26 October 2015.
[27] Allen, Joseph G.; MacNaughton, Piers; Satish, Usha;
Santanam, Suresh; Vallarino, Jose; Spengler, John D.
(2015). Associations of Cognitive Function Scores
with Carbon Dioxide, Ventilation, and Volatile Organic Compound Exposures in Oce Workers: A Controlled Exposure Study of Green and Conventional Ofce Environments. Environmental Health Perspectives.
doi:10.1289/ehp.1510037.
[28] Levin, Hal (1992). Can House Plants Solve IAQ Problems
[29] Wolverton BC, Johnson A, Bounds K. (1989). Interior
Landscape Plants for Indoor Pollution Abatement.
NASA.
[30] BC Wolverton, JD Wolverton. (1996). Interior plants:
their inuence on airborne microbes inside energyecient buildings. Journal of the Mississippi Academy of
Sciences.
[31] U.S. EPA, Mold and Moisture: Mold Remediation in
Schools and Commercial Buildings Appendix B - Introduction to Molds
[32] Akira Tani and C. Nicholas HewittUptake of Aldehydes
and Ketones at Typical Indoor Concentrations by HouseplantsEnivronmental Science & Technology, American
Chemical Society, October 6, 2009
[33] S Down. Spectroscopynow.com (2009)Houseplants as
air fresheners"". Spectroscopynow.com. Retrieved 201203-02.
[34] JR Girman, T Phillips, H Levin. Critical Review: How
Well Do House Plants Perform as Indoor Air Cleaners?".
Healthy Buildings 2009, Syracuse, NY.
[35] Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences,
2004. Damp Indoor Spaces and HealthDamp Indoor
Spaces and Health. National Academy Press
[36] Indoor Air Quality.

50.10. EXTERNAL LINKS

[37] A short course ". Building Ecology. Retrieved 201203-02.

[38] Hal Levin, Editor Building Ecology. BuildingEcology.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[39] NIOSH Topic Area - Indoor Environmental Quality.
Cdc.gov. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[40] Isiaq.Org. Isiaq.Org. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
[41] Indoor Air: International Journal of Indoor Environment and Health - Journal Information. Blackwellpublishing.com. Retrieved 2012-03-02.

50.9 References
May, Jerey C.; Ouellette, Connie L. May ; with
a contribution by John J., Reed, Charles E. (2004).
The mold survival guide for your home and for your
health. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 978-0-8018-7938-8. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
May, Jerey C. (2001). My house is killing me! : the
home guide for families with allergies and asthma.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 978-0-8018-6730-9.
May, Jerey C. (2006). My oce is killing me! : the
sick building survival guide. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-83422.
Salthammer, T., ed. (1999). Organic Indoor Air
Pollutants Occurrence, Measurement, Evaluation.
Wiley-VCH. ISBN 3-527-29622-0.
Spengler, J.D., Samet, J.M. (1991). Indoor air pollution: A health perspective. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4125-9.
Spengler, J.D., Samet, J.M. & McCarthy, J.F.
(2001). Indoor Air Quality Handbook. NY:
McGrawHill. ISBN 0-07-445549-4.
Tichenor, B. (1996). Characterizing Sources of Indoor Air Pollution and Related Sink Eects. ASTM
STP 1287. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM. ISBN
0-8031-2030-3.
http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/
airindoorairpollution.html - Website of the
United States Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA)
Study: Bad In-Flight Air Exacerbated by Passengers
Talk of the Nation, National Public Radio. September 21, 2007.
Outdoor ozone and building related symptoms in the
BASE study

177

50.10 External links

US Environmental Protection Agency info on IAQ
Indoor Air Journal
IAQUK, an independent organisation with the aim
of 'raising the agenda of indoor air quality within the
home and workplace

Chapter 51

Indoor bioaerosol
Indoor bioaerosol is bioaerosol in an indoor environment. Bioaerosols are natural or articial particles
of biological (microbial, plant, or animal) origin suspended in the air. These particles are also referred to
as organic dust. Bioaerosols may consist of bacteria,
fungi (and spores and cell fragments of fungi), viruses,
microbial toxins, pollen, plant bers, etc.* [1] Size of
bioaerosol particles varies from below 1 m to 100 m
in aerodynamic diameter;* [2] viable bioaerosol particles can be suspended in air as single cells or aggregates of microorganism as small as 110 m in size.* [3]
Since bioaerosols are potentially related to various human health eects* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] and the indoor environment provides a unique exposure situation,* [7] concerns about indoor bioaerosols have increased over the
last decade.

51.1 Sources and inuencing factors

51.1.1

household waste on microbial contamination among 99

households in the Netherlands in the summer of 1997,
and indicated thatincreased microbial contaminant levels in homes are associated with indoor storage of separated organic waste, which might elevate the risk
of bioaerosol-related respiratory symptoms in susceptible people. However, the analysis by Wouters et al.* [6]
was based on the collected samples of settled house dust,
which might not serve as a strong indicator for bioaerosols
suspended in the air. Other materials in residential buildings, such as food stus, house plants, textiles, wood material and furniture stung can also become bioaerosol
sources when water content is appropriate for microorganisms to grow.* [4]* [10] For non-residential buildings,
some specic indoor environments, such as hospitals,
wastewater treatment plants, composting facilities, certain biotechnical laboratories, have been revealed to have
bioaerosol sources related to their particular environmental characteristics.* [2]* [3]* [11]* [12]* [13]

Sources for indoor environments

51.1.2 Factors
inuencing
bioaerosol generation
Indoor bioaerosols may originate from outdoor air and
indoor reservoirs.* [3]* [4] Although outdoor bioaerosols
cannot easily migrate into large buildings with complex ventilation systems, certain categories of outdoor
bioaerosols (i.e., fungal spores) do serve as major sources
for indoor bioaerosols in naturally ventilated buildings
at specic periods of time (i.e., growing seasons for
fungi).* [3] Major indoor sources for bioaerosols at residential homes include human occupants, pets, house dust,
organic waste, as well as the heating, ventilation and airconditioning (HVAC) system.* [3]* [4]* [6]* [8]* [9] Several studies have identied human activities as an important source for indoor bioaerosols.* [3]* [8]* [10]* [11]
Human bodies can generate bioaerosols directly through
activities like talking, sneezing, and coughing,* [10]
while other residential activities (i.e., washing, ushing toilet, sweeping oor) can generate bioaerosols indirectly.* [8]* [10] Since microorganisms can accumulate
and grow on dust particles, house dust is a potential
source of bioaerosols.* [4] In a study by Wouters et al.,* [6]
they investigated the eects of indoor storage of organic

indoor

According to previous studies,* [4]* [9]* [14]* [15]* [16]

major indoor environmental factors inuencing
bioaerosol concentration include relative humidity,
characteristics of air ventilation systems, seasonal
variation, temperature, and chemical composition of the
air. Other factors, such as the type of home, building
material, geographical factors, do not seem to have
signicant impacts on respirable fungi and bacteria
(important constituents of bioaerosols).* [3] Relative
humidity is one of the most widely studied inuencing
factors for indoor bioaerosols. Concentrations of two
categories of bioaerosols, endotoxin and airborne fungi,
are both positively related to indoor relative humidity
(higher concentration associated with higher relative
humidity).* [4]* [9]* [15]* [16] Relative humidity also affects the infectivity of airborne viruses.* [14] Regarding
the characterization of air ventilation system, increased
use of central air conditioning is found to be associated
with lower fungal bioaerosol concentration.* [15]

178

51.3. SAMPLING AND DETECTION METHODS

51.2 Human health eects

Adverse health eects/diseases related to indoor
bioaerosol exposure can be divided into two categories:
those conrmed to be associated with bioaerosol and
those suspected but not conrmed to be associated
with bioaerosol. Bioaerosols have been revealed to
cause certain human diseases, such as tuberculosis,
Legionnaires' disease and dierent forms of bacterial
pneumonia, coccidioidomycosis, inuenza, measles, and
gastrointestinal illness.* [7]* [17] Bioaerosols are also
associated with some noninfectious airway diseases, such
as allergies and asthma.* [5] As a known component of
indoor bioaerosol, (13)-glucan (cell wall components
of most fungi) is proposed to be the causative agent of
mold-induced nonallergic inammatory reactions.* [6] It
is reported that 25%30% of allergenic asthma cases in
industrialized countries are induced by fungi,* [17] which
has been the focus of concerns about human exposure to
airborne microorganisms in recent years.* [18]
Some other human diseases and symptoms have been
proposed to be associated with indoor bioaerosol, but
no deterministic conclusions could be drawn due to the
insuciency of evidence. One example is the wellknown sick building syndrome (SBS). SBS refers to nonspecic complaints, such as upper-respiratory irritative
symptoms, headaches, fatigue, and rash, which cannot
be related to an identiable cause but are building related.* [4]* [19] Over the last two decades, there have been
many studies indicating association of indoor bioaerosol
with sick building syndrome.* [20]* [21]* [22]* [23] However, most of the related studies based their conclusions
on statistical correlation between concentrations of certain types of bioaerosols and incidence of complaints,
which has various drawbacks methodologically. For example, some studies have a small sample size,* [21] which
critically undermines the validity of speculations based
on the statistical results. Also, many studies were not
able to exclude the inuences of other factors beside
bioaerosol in their analysis, which makes the statistical correlation theoretically inappropriate to support association of SBS with bioaerosols. Additional studies
revealed that bioaerosol is unlikely to be the cause of
SBS.* [7]* [24]* [25] Recent epidemiological and toxicological studies continued to suggest a possible link between bioaerosol exposure and sick building syndrome,
but methodological limitations remained in these studies.* [4]* [26]
The ability of bioaerosols to cause human disease depend not only on their chemical composition and biological characteristics, but also on the quantity of bioaerosol
inhaled and their size distribution, which determines the
site of bioaerosol deposition to human respiratory systems.* [3] Bioaerosols larger than 10 m in aerodynamic
diameter are generally blocked by the nasal region of the
respiratory tract, those between 5-10 m mainly deposit
in the upper respiratory system and usually induce symp-

179
toms like allergic rhinitis, and particles with aerodynamic
diameter less than 5 m can reach the alveoli and hence
lead to serious illnesses such as allergic alveolitis.* [3]
Because of the conrmed and potential adverse health effects associated with indoor bioaerosol, some concentration limits for total number of bioaerosol particles are
recommended by dierent agencies and organizations
as follow: 1000 CFUs/m3 (National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)), 1000 CFUs/m3
(American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH)) with the culturable count for total bacteria not exceeding 500 CFUs/m3 .* [10] Note that for
most types of indoor bioaerosols, the establishment of
specic concentration limits or acceptance levels presents
multiple challenges (e.g., dierences on sampling and
analysis method, irrelevance of sampling units to human exposure measurement; multiplicity and variability
of composition, etc.).* [18]

51.3 Sampling and detection methods

51.3.1 Bioaerosol sampling techniques
To enable subsequent identication and quantication,
bioaerosols need to be captured from the air rst. Different air sampling techniques have been used to realize
the goal of capturing indoor bioaerosols.. Important characteristics of bioaerosol sampling include: representativeness of sampling, sampler performance, and compatibility with subsequent analysis.* [27] Long-term sampler
theoretically has a better representativeness of sampling
than short-term sampler, but may not have a good temporary resolution. Performance of samplers (i.e., limit of
detection and upper limit of range) has a signicant impact on the reliability of results.* [27] Dierent characterizations of samplers can also limit the possibilities for
further analysis (identication and quantication). Major bioaerosol sampler types and their possible subsequent analysis are summarized in Table 1. A frequently
used sampler in previous studies is the Andersen impactor.* [3]* [11]* [28]
Certain limitations exist for commonly used bioaerosol
samplers. For most of the samplers, nonbiological environmental particles such as dust must be separated from
bioaerosols prior to detection.* [29] The diluted nature of
bioaerosol in the air also poses challenges to samplers.
While total microorganism concentrations are on the order of 106 /cm3 or greater, bioaerosol concentrations are
commonly less than 1/cm3 , and often less than 1/m3 in
the case of infectious aerosols.* [5] Moreover, many commercially available bioaerosol samplers haven not been
investigated on their collection eciencies for particles
with dierent aerodynamic diameters, which makes it
impossible to get the size-resolved bioaerosol informa-

180

CHAPTER 51. INDOOR BIOAEROSOL

tion.* [5]

51.3.2

Identication and quantication

methods

In previous research on indoor bioaerosol in residential environments, microorganisms have been quantied by conventional culture-based techniques, in which
colony forming units (CFU) on selective media are
counted.* [30] Cultivating methods have several disadvantages. Culture-based methods are known to underestimate environmental microbial diversity, based on the
fact that only a small percentage of microbes can be
cultivated in the laboratory. This underestimation is
likely to be signied for the quantication of bioaerosol,
since colony counts of airborne microbes are typically
quite dierent from direct counts.* [31] Culture-based
methods also need relatively long incubation times (over
24 hours) and are labor-intensive.* [29] Consequently,
culture-based methods are no longer suitable for effective and rapid identication and quantication of
bioaerosol,* [29] and non-culture based methods, such as
immunoassays, molecular biological tests, and optical,
and electrical methods, have been developing over the
past few decades.* [29]

Figure 1 Pathways to PCR-based bioaerosol analysis (adapted

from* [17]).The numbers listed indicate the quantities of
bioaerosols required for successful analysis.

detection, standard curves need to be developed to calibrate nal results. One study indicated thatcurves used
for quantication by qPCR needs to be prepared using
the same environmental matrix and procedures as handling of the environmental sample in questionand that
reliance on the standard curves generated with cultured
bacterial suspension (a traditional approach) may lead to
substantial underestimation of microorganism quantities
in environmental samples.* [32] Microarray techniques
Major culture-independent identication/quantication also face the challenge of natural sequence diversity and
methods adopted in previous bioaerosol studies in- potential cross-hybridization in complex environmental
clude polymerase chain reaction (PCR),* [17] quantita- bioaerosols).* [33]
tive polymerase chain reaction (qPCR),* [32] microarray (PhyloChip),* [33] uorescent in situ hybridization
(FISH),* [34] ow cytometry* [34] and solid-phase cytometry,* [18] immunoassay (i.e., enzyme-linked im- 51.4 Concentration levels in diermunosorbent assay (ELISA)).* [28] The well-known PCR
ent geographical regions
is a powerful tool in identifying and even quantifying the
biological origin of bioaerosols. PCR alone cannot ac- Concentration levels of indoor bioaerosols in dierent recomplish all the tasks related to bioaerosol detection; in- gions of the world recorded in published literatures are
stead it usually serves as the preparation tool for subse- summarized as Table 2.
quent processes like DNA sequencing, microarray, and
community ngerprinting techniques. A typical procedure for PCR-based bioaerosol analysis is shown in Fig51.5 Approaches to control indoor
ure 1.
Molecular biological methods for bioaerosol are signicantly faster and more sensitive than conventional
culture-based methods, and they are also able to reveal
a larger diversity of microbes. Targeting the variation in
the 16S rRNA gene, a microarray (PhyloChip) was used
to conduct comprehensive identication of both bacterial and archaeal organisms in bioaerosols.* [33] New U.S.
EPA methods have been developed to utilize qPCR to
characterize indoor environment for fungal spores.* [5]
In a study by Lange et al.,* [34] FISH method successfully identied eubacteria in samples of complex native
bioaerosols in swine barns. Nonetheless, molecular biological tools have limitations. Since PCR methods target
DNA, viability of cells could not be conrmed in some
cases.* [18] When qPCR technique is used for bioaerosol

bioaerosols
Based on the sources and the inuencing factors for indoor bioaerosols discussed in the section on Sources
and Inuencing Factors, corresponding remedial actions could be taken to control related contamination.
Potentially eective strategies include: 1) limiting entrance of outdoor aerosols; 2) keeping the relative humidity level below high levels (<60%);* [7] 3) installing appropriate ltration devices to air ventilation system to inlet ltered outdoor air into indoor environment; 4) reducing/removing contaminant sources (i.e., indoor organic
waste). As in the U.S., due to the increase in tuberculosis
in the mid-1980s, indoor air treatment has developed substantially during the past two decades.* [5] Current or de-

51.6. REFERENCES

181

veloping indoor air purication technologies include l- [14] Verreault, D., S. Moineau, and C. Duchaine, Methods for
sampling of airborne viruses. Microbiology and Molecutration, aerosol ultraviolet irradiation, electrostatic prelar Biology Reviews, 2008. 72(3): p. 413-444.
cipitation, unipolar ion emission, and photocatalytic oxi*
dation. [5]

51.6 References
[1] Douwes, J., et al., Bioaerosol health eects and exposure
assessment: Progress and prospects. Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 2003. 47(3): p. 187-200.
[2] Sanchez-Monedero, M.A., et al., Eect of the aeration
system on the levels of airborne microorganisms generated at wastewater treatment plants. Water Research,
2008. 42(14): p. 3739-3744.
[3] Pastuszka, J.S., et al., Bacterial and fungal aerosol in indoor environment in Upper Silesia, Poland. Atmospheric
Environment, 2000. 34(22): p. 3833-3842.
[4] Chao, H.J., et al., Populations and determinants of airborne fungi in large oce buildings. Environmental
Health Perspectives, 2002. 110(8): p. 777-782.
[5] Peccia, J., et al., A role for environmental engineering and
science in preventing bioaerosol-related disease. Environmental Science & Technology, 2008. 42(13): p. 46314637.
[6] Wouters, I.M., et al., Increased levels of markers of microbial exposure in homes with indoor storage of organic
household waste. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2000. 66(2): p. 627-631.
[7] Burge, H., Bioaerosol - prevalence and health eects in
the indoor environment. Journal of Allergy and Clinical
Immunology, 1990. 86(5): p. 687-701.
[8] Chen, Q. and L.M. Hildemann, The Eects of Human Activities on Exposure to Particulate Matter and
Bioaerosols in Residential Homes. Environmental Science & Technology, 2009. 43(13): p. 4641-4646.

[15] Dekoster, J.A. and P.S. Thorne, Bioaerosol concentrations in noncomplaint, complaint, and intervention homes
in the Midwest. American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal, 1995. 56(6): p. 573-580.
[16] Law, A.K.Y., C.K. Chau, and G.Y.S. Chan, Characteristics of bioaerosol prole in oce buildings in Hong Kong.
Building and Environment, 2001. 36(4): p. 527-541.
[17] Peccia, J. and M. Hernandez, Incorporating polymerase
chain reaction-based identication, population characterization, and quantication of microorganisms into aerosol
science: A review. Atmospheric Environment, 2006.
40(21): p. 3941-3961.
[18] Vanhee, L.M.E., H.J. Nelis, and T. Coenye, Rapid Detection and Quantication of Aspergillus fumigatus in Environmental Air Samples Using Solid-Phase Cytometry.
Environmental Science & Technology, 2009. 43(9): p.
3233-3239.
[19] Redlich, C.A., J. Sparer, and M.R. Cullen, Sick-building
syndrome. Lancet, 1997. 349(9057): p. 1013-1016.
[20] Cooley, J.D., et al., Correlation between the prevalence of
certain fungi and sick building syndrome. Occupational
and Environmental Medicine, 1998. 55(9): p. 579-584.
[21] Gyntelberg, F., et al., Dust and the sick building syndrome. Indoor Air-International Journal of Indoor Air
Quality and Climate, 1994. 4(4): p. 223-238.
[22] Teeuw, K.B., C. Vandenbrouckegrauls, and J. Verhoef,
Airborne gram-negative bacteria and endotoxin in sick
building syndrome - a study in Dutch governmental oce
buildings. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1994. 154(20):
p. 2339-2345.
[23] Li, C.S., C.W. Hsu, and M.L. Tai, Indoor pollution and
sick building syndrome symptoms among workers in daycare centers. Archives of Environmental Health, 1997.
52(3): p. 200-207.

[9] Park, J.H., et al., Predictors of airborne endotoxin in the

home. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2001. 109(8):
p. 859-864.

[24] Burge, P.S., Sick building syndrome. Occupational and

Environmental Medicine, 2004. 61(2): p. 185-190.

[10] Kalogerakis, N., et al., Indoor air quality - bioaerosol measurements in domestic and oce premises. Journal of
Aerosol Science, 2005. 36(5-6): p. 751-761.

[25] Harrison, J., et al., An investigation of the relationship between microbial and particulate indoor air pollution and
the sick building syndrome. Respiratory Medicine, 1992.
86(3): p. 225-235.

[11] Li, C.S. and P.A. Hou, Bioaerosol characteristics in hospital clean rooms. Science of the Total Environment, 2003.
305(1-3): p. 169-176.
[12] Sanchez-Monedero, M.A., E.I. Stentiford, and C. Mondini, Bioltration at composting facilities: Eectiveness
for bioaerosol control. Environmental Science & Technology, 2003. 37(18): p. 4299-4303.
[13] Bauer, H., et al., Bacteria and fungi in aerosols generated by two dierent types of wastewater treatment plants.
Water Research, 2002. 36(16): p. 3965-3970.

[26] Laumbach, R.J. and H.M. Kipen, Bioaerosols and sick

building syndrome: particles, inammation, and allergy.
Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology,
2005. 5(2): p. 135-139.
[27] Pasanen, A.L., A review: Fungal exposure assessment in
indoor environments. Indoor Air, 2001. 11(2): p. 87-98.
[28] Gorny, R.L. and J. Dutkiewicz, Bacterial and fungal
aerosols in indoor environment in Central and Eastern European countries. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 2002. 9(1): p. 17-23.

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[29] Moon, H.S., et al., Dielectrophoretic Separation of Airborne Microbes and Dust Particles Using a Microuidic
Channel for Real-Time Bioaerosol Monitoring. Environmental Science & Technology, 2009. 43(15): p. 58575863.
[30] Li, C.S. and T.Y. Huang, Fluorochrome in monitoring indoor bioaerosols. Aerosol Science and Technology, 2006.
40(4): p. 237-241.
[31] Fierer, N., et al., Short-term temporal variability in airborne bacterial and fungal populations. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 2008. 74(1): p. 200-207.
[32] An, H.R., G. Mainelis, and L. White, Development and
calibration of real-time PCR for quantication of airborne
microorganisms in air samples. Atmospheric Environment, 2006. 40(40): p. 7924-7939.
[33] Brodie, E.L., et al., Urban aerosols harbor diverse and dynamic bacterial populations. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
2007. 104(1): p. 299-304.
[34] Lange, J.L., P.S. Thorne, and N. Lynch, Application of
ow cytometry and uorescent in situ hybridization for
assessment of exposures to airborne bacteria. Applied
and Environmental Microbiology, 1997. 63(4): p. 15571563.
[35] Wan, G.H. and C.S. Li, Indoor endotoxin and glucan in
association with airway inammation and systemic symptoms. Archives of Environmental Health, 1999. 54(3): p.
172-179.
[36] Tsai, F.C. and J.M. Macher, Concentrations of airborne
culturable bacteria in 100 large US oce buildings from
the BASE study. Indoor Air, 2005. 15: p. 71-81.
[37] Jo, W.K. and Y.J. Seo, Indoor and outdoor bioaerosol levels at recreation facilities, elementary schools, and homes.
Chemosphere, 2005. 61(11): p. 1570-1579.

51.7 See also

Bioaerosol
Indoor air quality
Sick building syndrome

CHAPTER 51. INDOOR BIOAEROSOL

Chapter 52

Indoor Environmental Quality Global

Alliance
pects of indoor environmental quality and health.* [10]

52.1 Partners and governmental

organisations
Founding members of the Indoor Environmental Quality Global Alliance include organisations that broadly
deal with the indoor environments as well as those specialised primarily in Indoor Air Quality(IAQ). The Alliances current partners include the American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA),* [11] the Air Inltration and Ventilation Centre (AIVC), the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) the Air & Waste Management Association
(A&WMA), the Indoor Air Quality Association
IEQ-GA logo
(IAQA), and the Federation of European Heating and
Air-Conditioning Associations (REHVA). The Alliance
The Indoor Environmental Quality Global Alliance is also supported by governmental organisations such as
(IEQ-GA) is a U.S. building science organisation initi- the World Health Organization.* [12]
ated in 2014 * [1]* [2]* [3] that aims to improve the actual, delivered indoor environmental quality in buildings
through coordination, education, outreach and advocacy. 52.2 References
The alliance works to supply information, guidelines and
knowledge on the indoor environmental quality (IEQ) in
buildings and workplaces,* [4] and to provide occupants [1] American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers - ASHRAE: "ASHRAE Insights,
in buildings and workplaces with an acceptable indoor enAugust 2014"
vironmental quality ((indoor air quality (IAQ), thermal
conditions, visual quality, and acoustical quality)) and [2] Jessica Lyons Hardcastle, "Indoor Environmental Quality
help promote implementation in practice of knowledge
Alliance Formed", Environmental Leader, July 2014
from research on the eld.
The group has already begun work to collect and critique IEQ standards and is organising and presenting
programmes at the conferences of member organisations* [5]* [6]* [7]* [8] and others.
The Alliance was ocially launched on June 29, 2014
during ASHRAEs 2014 Annual Conference in Seattle;
a memorandum of understanding was signed and the Alliance was formed.* [9] Bill Bahneth, ASHRAE
s 20132014 president, appointed an ad-hoc committee to look
at ways for industry groups to cooperate and address as183

[3] Governo Law Firm, "Newly Formed Alliance: Premier

Resource for Indoor Environmental Quality", July 2014
[4] BUILD UP energy solutions for better buildings,
"International Societies form Indoor Environmental
Quality Global Alliance (IEQ-GA)", 2014
[5] ASHRAE: "SEMINAR 8 Indoor environmental quality: a
global and holistic perspective, part 1", 2015
[6] ASHRAE: "SEMINAR 8 Indoor environmental quality: a
global and holistic perspective, part 2", 2015

184

CHAPTER 52. INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY GLOBAL ALLIANCE

[7] Air Inltration and Ventilation Centre - AIVC: "Indoor

Environmental Quality Global Alliance rst sessions at
the June 2015 ASHRAE Annual conference", September
2015
[8] Air Inltration and Ventilation Centre - AIVC, "36th
AIVC Conference Programme", September 2015
[9] venticool: "International Societies form Indoor Environmental Quality Global Alliance (IEQ-GA)", 2014
[10] ASHRAE: "Indoor Environmental Quality--Global Alliance (IEQ-GA)", 2015
[11] American
Industrial
Hygiene
Association
(AIHA):"Memorandum of Understanding- Indoor
Environmental Quality Global Alliance (IEQ-GA)",
June 29, 2014
[12] Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
(CIBSE): "Industry seeks to redress IAQ balance", CIBSE
Journal August 2014

52.3 External links

IEQ-GA website
ASHRAE website
AIHA website
AIVC website
A&WMA website
IAQA website
REHVA website

Chapter 53

International Union of Air Pollution

Prevention and Environmental Protection
Associations
The International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations
(IUAPPA) is an international federation of civil society organisations concerned with air pollution. IUAPPA,
founded 1964 at the urging of the US Air Pollution Control Association,* [1] has 40 national organisations such
as; the United States (Air & Waste Management Association), Germany (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure) and Japan
(Japan Environmental Management Association for Industry) and has networks and representatives in most others countries. The Foundation is seen as one milestone in
the Ecological Revolutionin and around 1970.* [1]

tor general is Richard Mills.* [5]* [6] IUAPPA is governed

by an International Board which consists of the President,
Vice-Presidents, Immediate Past President and Honorary
Treasurer, together with one authorised representative
from each Full Member of the Union.

53.3 Partners and Members

IUAPPA is a partner of UNEP Climate and Clean Air
Coalition* [7] and has worked close together over the past
decades with UNEP and WHO.* [8]* [9]
Selected Members

53.1 Focus

Clean Air Society of Australia and New Zealand

The focus of IUAPPA is the development and implementation of more eective policies for the prevention
and control of air pollution, the protection of the environment and the adoption of sustainable development
.* [2] IUAPPA wants to achieve the adoption and eective implementation of policies which can secure a clean
and healthy atmospheric environment, together with scientists, policy-makers, regulators, business and citizen
groups with this same objective.

Commission on Air Pollution Prevention of VDI and

DIN KRdL, Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im
VDI und DIN - Normenausschuss KRdL* [10]
Japanese Union of Air Pollution Prevention Associations (JUAPPA), Nihon Taiki Kougai Boushi Dantai Rengoukai* [11]
Environmental Protection UK, formerly National
Society for Clean Air and Environmental Protection
- NSCA* [12]

The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum was initiated by IUAPPA and the Stockholm Environment Institute.* [3] European Federation of Clean Air and Environmental Protection Associations (EFCA) was founded by
the core of European members of the International Union
of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations, IUAPPA * [4]

53.2 Governance

Air & Waste Management Association* [13]

Cercl'Air,
Switzerland,
l'environnement* [14]

Service

de

The Swedish Clean Air Society* [15]

53.4 World Clean Air Congress

The IUAPPA secretariat is in Burgess Hill, West Sussex, The World Clean Air Congress, rst organized by
United Kingdom. The president is Kil-Choo Moon of the IUAPPA in 1966, is held every two or three years. It is
Korea Institute of Science and Technology and the direc- one of the major international gatherings on atmospheric
185

186CHAPTER 53. INTERNATIONAL UNION OF AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ASSOCIATIO
sciences and policy with 1.500 participants. Some of the
more recent congresses are;

53.8 References
[1] Joachim Radkau: The Age of Ecology. Wiley, 2014

the 16th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress, Many

Nations One Atmosphere: Plotting the Path to Sustainability was held at the Cape Town, with a call
on South African industry to show leadership and
comply with emission standards.* [16] Delegates at
the 16th congress heard mostly poor South Africans
were exposed to pollutants.* [17]The people that
are exposed to the smog are almost always the people that cannot aord to pay the doctors' bills for
bronchitis, asthma or, worse, lung cancer,Environmental Aairs Minister Edna Molewa said in a
speech.* [18]
the 17th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress, Mega
Cities Perspective, Healthier and Greener Future, to
be held in Busan,Korea in 2016* [19]

53.5 Resolutions and Declarations

[2] Statutes IUAPPA. Retrieved 2015-03-16.

[3] Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum. Stockholm Environment Institute. Retrieved 2015-03-16.
[4] About EFCA. European Federation of Clean Air and
Environmental Protection Associations. Retrieved 201503-16.
[5] New IUAAPA President (korean)". Hello DD, Koreas
Nr. 1 in Science and Media. Retrieved 2015-03-16.
[6] http://www.jsme-fed.org/events/2011/AJK2011/
documents/Biography_Dr.KC.Moon.pdf
[7] Clean Climate and Air Colaition. UNEP. Retrieved
2015-03-16.
[8] Klaus Tpfer, Executive Director Speech (PDF).
IUAPPA Newsletter 2004. Retrieved 2015-03-16.
[9] Health program of the 10th World Clean Air Congress

Ever since it was founded in 1964 the Union has had a

. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health.
long-term interest in the relationship between air polluRetrieved 2015-03-16.
tion and the earth's climate. Policy declarations in 1989
were one of the rst to focus on climate change. The fo- [10] Kommission Reinhaltung der Luft im VDI und DIN Normenausschuss KRdL. VDI. Retrieved 2015-03-16.
cus in 1995 was on the changing Arctic landscape and
pollution. In 2001 it was worldwide action on long-range
transport of air pollution. 2010's focus was One Atmo- [11] JAPANESE UNION OF AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION ASSOCIATIONS. JEMAI. Retrieved 2015-03sphere.* [20]
16.

53.6 Awards

[12] http://www.environmental-protection.org.uk
[13] Home. Air & Waste Management Association.

In collaboration with the International Academy of Sci- [14] http://www.cerclair.ch/cmsv2/index.php?news-1

ence in Munich, the Union oers the Thomas Kuhn
Award for a new understanding of problems of sustain- [15] Energi- & Miljtekniska Freningen. Energi- &
ability or the applied transfer of such new solutions and
Miljtekniska Freningen.
the Yuan T. Lee Award for multi-disciplinary or crossdisciplinary work which relates to the natural and psycho- [16] IUAPPA 2013 - Home.
sciences in pursuit of sustainability.* [21]* [22]

[17] Poor hurt most by pollution: Molewa. eNews Channel

Africa. Retrieved 2015-03-16.

53.7 Publications
Ranjeet Sokhi (ED.): World Atlas of Atmospheric
Pollution. The World Atlas was developed in conjunction with the International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations (IUAPPA) and the Global Atmospheric
Pollution Forum.
IUAPPA Three Year Review: 2007 - 2010 (PDF)
Over 1000 IUAPPA related publications (Google
scholar).

[18] Conference calls on SA to clean up over air pollution

. news24.com. Retrieved 2015-03-16.
[19] 17th IUAPPA World Clean Air Congress 2016.
[20] Press release. IUAPPEPA calls for absracts for World
CongressCheck |url= value (help). news,thomasnet.com.
Thomasnet.com. Retrieved 21 March 2015.
[21] Hope for the Future for a Sustainable World Award
. International Academy of Science. Retrieved 2015-0316.
[22] Awards & Honours. IUAPPA.

53.9. EXTERNAL LINKS

53.9 External links

IUAPPA

187

Chapter 54

Line source
For electromagnetic linear sources, the principal early advances in computer modeling arose in the Soviet Union
and USA when the end of World War II and the Cold
War were fought partially by progress in electronic warfare, including the technologies of active antenna arrays.

54.1 Linear air pollution source

Main article: Roadway air dispersion modeling
Air pollution levels near major highways and urban
arterials are in violation of U.S. National Ambient Air
North-South Expressway in Malaysia. A roadway can be a line Quality Standards where millions of Americans live or
source of air and noise pollution and need not be a straight line. work. Even the interior of a building does not really protect inhabitants from adverse exterior air quality, since
A line source, as opposed to a point source, area source, the exterior air is the intake supply, and it is well known
or volume source, is a source of air, noise, water contam- that indoor air quality is typically worse than exterior air.
ination or electromagnetic radiation that emanates from
A roadway travelled by motor vehicles can be idealized
a linear (one-dimensional) geometry. The most promiby a line source emitting air pollutants. This mathematnent linear sources are roadway air pollution, aircraft air
ical problem was rst solved in 1970 by a collaboration
emissions, roadway noise, certain types of water pollution
of physics, mathematics and computer science.* [1]* [2]
sources that emanate over a range of river extent rather
The original theory assumed steady-state trac condithan from a discrete point, elongated light tubes, certions and meteorology on a perfectly straight roadway.
tain dose models in medical physics and electromagnetic
Currently the models have evolved to treat variable meantennas. While point sources of pollution were studteorology, time-variant trac operations and complex
ied since the late nineteenth century, linear sources did
roadbed geometries. Current technology allows highway
not receive much attention from scientists until the late
designers and city planners to analyze alternative roadway
1960s, when environmental regulations for highways and
development plans and assess air quality impacts. The
airports began to emerge. At the same time, computers
same basic model theory can be applied to airport operwith the processing power to accommodate the data proations, since the linear source is merely an inclined line.
cessing needs of the computer models required to tackle
In the early 1970s these ESL models were rened into
these one-dimensional sources became more available.
area source models to account for the nite width of the
In addition, this era of the 1960s saw the rst emergence roadway.
of environmental scientists who spanned the disciplines
required to accomplish these studies. For example, meteorologists, chemists, and computer scientists in the air
pollution eld were required to build complex models to 54.2 Linear noise source
address roadway air dispersion modeling. Prior to the
1960s, these specialities tended to work within their own Main article: Roadway noise
disciplines, but with the advent of NEPA, the Clean Air Roadway noise is the most important example of a linAct, the Noise Control Act in the USA, and other semi- ear noise source, since it comprises about 80 percent
nal legislation, the era of multidisciplinary environmental of the environmental noise exposure for humans worldscience had begun.
wide. In the 1960s, when computer modeling of this
188

54.4. LIGHT EMISSION LINE SOURCE

189

The New Jersey Turnpike was one of the earliest line sources
analyzed for noise

phenomenon was perfected, the rst applications of linear source noise modeling became systematic. After passage of the National Environmental Policy Act and Noise
Control Act,* [3] the demand for detailed analysis soared,
and decision makers began to look to acoustical scientists
for answers regarding the planning of new roadways and
the design of noise mitigation. The intensity of roadway
noise is governed by the following variables: trac operations (speed, truck mix, age of vehicle eet), roadway
surface type, tire types, roadway geometrics, terrain, micrometeorology and the geometry of area structures.
Due to the complexity of the variables, a line source
acoustic model must be a computer model that can analyze sound levels in the vicinity of roadways. The rst
meaningful models arose in the late 1960s and early
1970s. Two of the leading research teams were BBN
in Boston and ESL Inc. of Sunnyvale, California. Both
of these groups developed complex mathematical models to allow the study of alternate roadway designs, trafc operations and noise mitigation strategies in an arbitrary setting.* [4] Later model alterations have come into
widespread use among state Departments of Transportation and city planners, but the accuracy of early models
has had little change in 40 years.

Colorado River, receiving eectively a linear source of silt from

the sides of the Grand Canyon.

pollution are logging, pesticide application, construction

grading, slash-and-burn activity and urban stormwater
runo.
Again computer models are needed to address the complexity of such an extended linear discharge into a dynamic medium such as owing water. The resulting surface runo water carrying pollutants may be considered a
line source discharging into a river or stream. The chemical composition of this surface runo may be characterized by a surface runo model such as the USGS runo
precipitation algorithm,* [5] while the instream transport
may be analyzed by a dynamic river pollutant model such
as DSSAM.

54.4 Light emission line source

Generally line source acoustic models trace sound ray

bundles and calculate spreading loss along with ray bundle divergence (or convergence} from refractive phenomena. Diraction is usually addressed by establishing secondary emitters at any points of topographic or
anthropomorphicsharpness(such as noise barriers or Common T8 uorescent lighting tubes used in oce environments
building surfaces. Meteorology can be addressed in a statistical manner allowing for actual wind rose and wind In the study of illumination, a variety of sources are linspeed statistics (along with thermocline data).
ear in nature, most commonly the uorescent tube, During the process of interior lighting design it is important
to calculate the light intensity at work stations or other
user areas, not only to ensure sucient light is present,
54.3 Water pollution line source
but more importantly to avoid over-illumination and its
attendant energy wastage as well as adverse health efLess common are line source applications in the eld of fects. Thus the scientists involved in light transmission
water pollutant dispersal. This phenomenon generally calculations employ computer models that recognize linarises when surface runo scours soil contaminants from ear sources when uorescent xtures are used. In a typupper soil layers and transports these pollutants to a linear ical setting there may be hundreds of nite length light
receiving water, such as a river. The underlying land man- sources that comprise the light output in an oce enviagement practices which lead to such sources of water ronment. A related concept are the ultraviolet tubes used

190
in phototherapy, where output radiation from the tube
can be accurately modeled by treating the tube as a line
source.* [6] On a larger scale, an illuminated roadway may
act as a line source of light pollution.

54.5 See also

Air pollution dispersion terminology
Area source (pollution)
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Euent
Fenceline community
Line array
List of atmospheric dispersion models
Phased array
Point source (pollution)
Roadway noise
Surface runo
Volume source (pollution)

54.6 References
[1] Michael Hogan, Theoretical basis for atmospheric diusion from a linear source, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication IR-29, Sunnyvale, Ca., May
4, 1970
[2] Richard J. Venti, Atmospheric diusion models for roadway sources, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication ET-22, Sunnyvale, Ca., October 5,
1970.
[3] Public Law No. 92-574, 86 Stat. 1234 (1972) Noise Pollution and Abatement Act of 1972, codication amended
at 42 U.S.C. 4901-4918 (1988)
[4] John Shadely, Acoustical analysis of the New Jersey Turnpike widening project between Raritan and East Brunswick,
Bolt Beranek and Newman, 1973
[5] United States Geological Survey runo precipitation algorithm
[6] David Robert Grimes, Chris Robbins, Neil John O'Hare.
Dose Modeling in Ultraviolet phototherapy, Medical
Physics, 37(10) October 2010

CHAPTER 54. LINE SOURCE

54.7 External links

EPA Support Center for Regulatory Atmospheric
Modeling
U.S. Federal Highway Administration Roadway
Construction Noise Model

Chapter 55

Liquid-to-gas ratio
An important parameter in wet scrubbing systems is the
rate of liquid ow. It is common in wet scrubber terminology to express the liquid ow as a function of the gas
ow rate that is being treated. This is commonly called
the liquid-to-gas ratio (L/G ratio) and uses the units of
gallons per 1,000 actual cubic feet or liters/cubic meter
(l/m).

55.1 Bibliography
Bethea, R. M. 1978. Air Pollution Control Technology. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
National Asphalt Pavement Association. 1978. The
Maintenance and Operation of Exhaust Systems in
the Hot Mix Batch Plant. 2nd ed. Information Series 52.

Expressing the amount of liquid used as a ratio enables

systems of dierent sizes to be readily compared. For
particulate removal, the liquid-to-gas ratio is a function
of the mechanical design of the system; while for gas absorption this ratio gives an indication of the diculty of
removing a pollutant. Most wet scrubbers used for particulate control operate with liquid-to-gas ratios in the range
of 4 to 20 gallons per 1,000 actual ft (0.5 to 3 liters per
actual m).

Perry, J. H. (Ed.). 1973. Chemical Engineers

Handbook. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Richards, J. R. 1995. Control of Particulate Emissions (APTI Course 413). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Richards, J. R. 1995. Control of Gaseous Emissions. (APTI Course 415). U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.

Depending on scrubber design, a minimum volume of liquid is required to wetthe scrubber internals and create sucient collection targets. After a certain optimum
point, adding excess liquid to a particulate wet scrubber
does not increase eciency and in fact, could be counterproductive by causing excessive pressure loss. Liquid-togas ratios for gas absorption are often higher, in the range
of 20 to 40 gallons per 1,000 actual ft (3 to 6 litres per
actual m).

Schitner, K. C. 1979, April. Venturi scrubber

operation and maintenance. Paper presented at
the U.S. EPA Environmental Research Information
Center. Atlanta, GA.
Semrau, K. T. 1977. Practical process design of particulate scrubbers. Chemical Engineering. 84:8791.

L/G ratio illustrates a number of points about the choice

of wet scrubbers used for gas absorption. For example,
because ue-gas desulfurization systems must deal with
heavy particulate loadings, open, simple designs (such as
venturi, spray chamber and moving bed) are used. Also,
the liquid-to-gas ratio for the absorption process is higher
than for particle removal and gas velocities are kept low
to enhance the absorption process.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1982,

September. Control Techniques for Particulate
Emissions from Stationary Sources. Vol. 1. EPA
450/3-81-005a.
Wechselblatt, P. M. 1975. Wet scrubbers (particulates). In F. L. Cross and H. E. Hesketh (Eds.),
Handbook for the Operation and Maintenance of
Air Pollution Control Equipment. Westport: Technomic Publishing.

Solubility is a very important factor aecting the amount

of a pollutant that can be absorbed. Solubility governs
the amount of liquid required (liquid-to-gas ratio) and
the necessary contact time. More soluble gases require
less liquid. Also, more soluble gases will be absorbed
faster.* [1]

55.2 See also

Expansion ratio
191

192

55.3 References
[1] US EPA Air Pollution Training Institute developed in collaboration with North Carolina State University, College
of Engineering (NCSU)

CHAPTER 55. LIQUID-TO-GAS RATIO

Chapter 56

List of most polluted cities in the world by

particulate matter concentration
This list contains the list of cities by PM2.5 annual
mean concentration measurement whose measurement is
greater than or equal to the air quality guideline (AQG)
of 10* [1] as documented by the World Health Organization covering the period from 2008 to 2013, with the
majority of values for the years 2011 and 2012. The
WHO database contains results of ambient (outdoor) air
pollution monitoring from almost 1600 cities in 91 countries. Air quality in the database is represented by the
annual mean concentration of particulate matter (PM10
and PM2.5, i.e. particles smaller than 10 or 2.5 micrometres).* [2]* [3]

56.1 References
[1] WHO Air Quality Guideline Page 11
[2] WHO Ambient (outdoor) air pollution in cities database
2014
[3] USA Today The most polluted city is? Hint: Not Beijing

193

Chapter 57

Low-carbon emission
The main components of automobile exhaust are carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapor (H2 O). Carbon dioxide is
the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG)
and the most signicant Greenhouse Gas emitted in the
U.S. (with 82-84% of all U.S. emissions).* [1] Increases
in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil
fuel use and land-use change.* [2]

Low-carbon economy
Sustainable mobility technology

57.3 References

The CO2 emission standards can be referred to the fuel

or to the vehicle :
The European Union is moving towards fuel mandatory CO2 standards and USA has reected it in the
Greenhouse Gas Score.
There are information, but no mandatory, standards
for CO2 limits in vehicle (engine) emissions, excepting some state regulations (i.e. California). See
hybrid vehicles.
CO2 mass emission in vehicles is measured in g/km (g/mi
* 0.621371192 = g/km).

57.1 Low carbon fuel standard

Transportation accounts for forty percent of California's
annual greenhouse gas emissions, and California relies on
petroleum-based fuels for 96 percent of its transportation
needs.
The Californian Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger issued
an Executive Order in January 2007 for California adopt
a Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS).* [3] The LCFS requires oil reneries to ensure that the mix of fuel they sell
in the California Market meets, on average, a declining
target for greenhouse gas emissions measured in CO2 equivalent grams per unit of fuel energy sold. By 2020,
the LCFS will produce a 10 % reduction in carbon intensity from production and use of transport fuels in California.* [4]

57.2 See also

Emission standard
194

[1] July 1999 SBC Newsletter

[2] IPCC, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis
PDF (2.20 MiB) .
[3] Gov. Schwarzenegger Issues Directive to Establish
World's First Low Carbon Standard for Transportation
Fuels. Press Release by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger. 2007-01-07. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
[4] Low-Carbon Fuel Standard Program. California Air
Resources Board. Retrieved 2009-04-23.

Chapter 58

Low-emission zone

Sign for Zero-Emission Zone

A Low-Emission Zone (LEZ) is a dened area where

access by certain polluting vehicles is restricted or deterred with the aim of improving the air quality. This
may favour vehicles such as hybrid electric vehicles, or
zero-emission vehicles such as all-electric vehicles.
A Zero-Emission Zone (ZEZ) is a LEZ where only
Zero-Emission Vehicles (ZEVs) are allowed. In such areas, all internal combustion engine vehicles are banned; Sign marking a German Low Emission Zone
this includes hybrid vehicles. Only all-electric vehicles
are allowed in a ZEZ, along with walking and cycling and
fully electric public transport vehicles, e.g. trams, electric conditions. All LEZs apply to heavy vehicles, some to
diesel vans, others also to diesel and petrol cars; in Italy,
buses etc.
motor cycles and three-wheelers are also liable to control.
A publicly funded website run by a network of cities and
ministries operating or preparing LEZs gives up-to-date
58.1 Europe
information on LEZs, such as which cities have LEZs, the
vehicle types aected, the required emissions standards
Over 220 cities and towns in 14 countries around Eu- and their application dates.* [2]
rope operate or are preparing Low Emission Zones,* [1]
or LEZs, to help meet EU health-based air quality limit
values. This means that vehicles may be banned from a 58.1.1 Germany
LEZ, or in some cases charged if they enter a LEZ when
their emissions are over a set level.
In Germany, an LEZ is called an environmental zone
Dierent vehicles may be regulated, depending on local (Umweltzone). There are currently 47 LEZs in opera195

196

CHAPTER 58. LOW-EMISSION ZONE

tion or in planning in Germany.* [2] The cities of Berlin, 58.2.2 Japan

Cologne and Hanover started LEZs in their respective
central city areas on 1 January 2008. LEZs also came Tokyo has been a Low Emission Zone since October
into eect in the cities of Mannheim and Stuttgart on 2003.
1 March 2008. More cities followed in the years after.* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7]

58.2.3 Singapore

Since 2008, there were plans for the low emission zone
to take place in Singapore, but however this will take effect should Volvo B10TL, Dennis Trident 3, Volvo B9TL
The cities of Gothenburg, Lund, Malm, Helsingborg, (CDGE) and Volvo B10BLE gets phased out.
Mlndal and Stockholm have Low Emission Zones.

58.1.2

Sweden

58.3 See also

58.1.3

United Kingdom

Battery electric vehicle

Main article: London low emission zone

Congestion pricing

The Mayor of London announced establishment of a Low

Emission Zone which came into eect on 4 February
2008 covering almost all of Greater London - the largest
such zone in the world. London currently has levels of
air pollution among the worst in Europe and road transport related emissions account for around half of total
emissions of PM10 and NOx in the capital. The Low
Emission Zone will target emissions of these pollutants
from older diesel-engined lorries, buses, coaches, vans,
minibuses and other heavy vehicles that are derived from
lorries and vans such as motor caravans and motorised
horse boxes. There will be a phased introduction of the
scheme from 4 February 2008 through to January 2012.
Dierent vehicles will be aected over time and increasingly tougher emissions standards will apply.* [8]

Ecopass
Electric car
List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
Plug-in electric vehicle
Plug-in hybrid
Road space rationing
Sustainable transport
Transit mall
Zero-emissions vehicle

58.4 References
58.1.4

Netherlands, Denmark and Italy

[1] http://urbanaccessregulations.eu

The Netherlands, Denmark & Italy also have LEZs. The

Netherlands for heavy goods vehicles, Denmark for vehicles over 3.5T and Italy for all vehicles.* [2]

[2] Low Emission Zones. Lowemissionzones.eu. Retrieved 2015-02-21.

[3] Archived January 24, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.

58.2 Elsewhere
58.2.1

Hong Kong

Since the end of 2015, the Hong Kong Government has

designated three major junctions in Central, Causeway
Bay and Mong Kok as low emission zone for franchised
buses. For bus routes entering the three zones, franchised bus operators are required to use only buses meeting emission standards of Euro IV or above except when
necessary. The LEZ scheme does not cover vehicles other
than franchised buses.* [9]

[4] Stadt Kln. Cologne City Low Emission Zone - Stadt

Kln. Eb.archive.org. Archived from the original on
2008-06-04. Retrieved 2014-01-26.
[5] (PDF) https://web.archive.org/20090219135400/http:
//www.hannover.de:80/data/download/h/Heft_
Umweltzone_GB.pdf.
Archived from the original
(PDF) on February 19, 2009. Retrieved February 18,
2016. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[6]
[7] http://web.archive.org/web/20110727011843/http:
//www.presse-service.de/data.cfm/static/686716.html.
Archived from the original on July 27, 2011. Retrieved
February 2, 2008. Missing or empty |title= (help)

58.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

[8] Emissions standards. Transport for London. Retrieved

2007-11-21.
[9] Government sets up franchised bus low emission zones
starting today

58.5 External links

Low Emission Zones in Europe
London low emission zone (LEZ)
TV Nord / Germany
Low Emission Zone Transport of London
BBC NEWS | England | London | 200 pollution
charge for lorries. News.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved
2014-01-26.
Low emission zones in Germany / emissions-control
windscreen sticker
Berlin's Environmental Zone Information for Foreign Tourists

197

Chapter 59

Mist
For other uses, see Mist (disambiguation).
suspended water phase can congeal. Thus even such unMist is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of usual sources as small particulates from volcanic eruptions, releases of strongly polar gases, and even the
magnetospheric ions associated with polar lights can in
right conditions trigger the formation of mist.

59.1 Description
The only dierence between mist and fog is visibility.* [1]
The phenomenon is called fog, if the visibility is one kilometre (1,100 yards) or less (in the UK for driving purposes the denition of fog is visibility less than 100 metres (UK Highway Code rule 226),* [2] for pilots the distance is 1 kilometre). Otherwise it is known as mist. Seen
from a distance, mist is bluish, and haze is more brownish.

Power station visible through mist

Mist makes a beam of light visible from the side via

refraction and reection on the suspended water droplets.
Scotch mistis a light steady drizzle.
Mist usually occurs near the shores, and is often associated with fog. Mist can be as high as mountain tops when
extreme temperatures are low.

59.2 Freezing mist

Freezing mist is similar to freezing fog, only the density
is less and the visibility greater. (When fog falls below
0 degrees Celsius in temperature it is known as freezing
fog.) * [3]

Mist near the Austria-Switzerland border in December 2006.

water suspended in air. Physically it is one instance of a

dispersion. It is most commonly seen where warm, moist
air meets sudden cooling, such as in exhaled air in the
winter, or when throwing water onto the hot stove of a
sauna. It is often created articially with aerosol canisters if the humidity and temperature conditions are right.
It can also occur as part of natural weather, when humid
air cools rapidly, for example when the air comes into
contact with surfaces that are much cooler than the air.

59.3 Examples

The formation of mist, as of other suspensions, is greatly

aided by the presence of nucleation sites on which the
198

Mist lying in the folds of hills, Australia

Sunlight through mist on a crisp winter morning
Misty morning at Swifts Creek
Mist on a lake
Curitiba, Brazil

59.5. REFERENCES

59.4 See also

Aerosol
Aeroponics
Brocken spectre
Drizzle
Haze
Spray (disambiguation)

59.5 References
[1] http://www.rcn27.dial.pipex.com/cloudsrus/mistnfog.
html
[2] Driving in adverse weather conditions (226 to 237)".
www.gov.uk.
[3] WHAT IS DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ICE FOG AND
FREEZING FOG?". theweatherprediction.com.

199

Chapter 60

Mitigation of aviation's environmental

impact
Main article: Environmental impact of aviation
and arguably the most economical of which is to reduce
Aviation aects the environment due to aircraft engines the fuel burn of the aircraft as this accounts for 28% of an
airlines costs. However, there is a wide variety of other
options available to minimise aviation's growing impact
upon the environment as are listed below:* [5]

60.1.1 Aircraft eciency

Emissions from aviation are continuing to grow despite advances

in aircraft eciency. Currently 2% of global emissions are created by the aviation industry.

emitting noise, particulates, and gases which contribute

to climate change* [1]* [2] and global dimming.* [3] Despite emission reductions from automobiles and more
fuel-ecient (and therefore less polluting) turbofan and
turboprop engines, the rapid growth of air travel in recent years contributes to an increase in total pollution attributable to aviation. In the EU, greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and
2006.* [4]

The Boeing 787 Dreamliner promises to provide 20% lower fuel

burn than current-generation aircraft.

As stated previously, reducing the direct fuel burn of an

aircraft is the most obvious and arguably the most economical way of reducing emissions attributable to aviation. Over the last 40 years, commercial jet airliners have
At present aviation accounts for 2% of global CO2 emis- become 70% more fuel ecient and are predicted to be
*
sions and this is projected by the IPCC to rise to 3% by another 25% more fuel ecient by 2025. [5]
*
2050. [5] This presents the operators of aircraft with a The next-generation of aircraft, including the Boeing 787
responsibility to reduce emissions.
Dreamliner, Airbus A350 and Bombardier CSeries, are
20% more fuel ecient per passenger kilometre than
current generation aircraft. This is primarily achieved
60.1 Methods of mitigating avia- through more fuel-ecient engines and lighter airframes
& supporting structures made of composite materials
tions CO2 emissions
but is also achieved through more aerodynamic shapes,
winglets, aone-piecefuselage and more advanced comMitigation of aviation's environmental impact can be puter systems for optimising routes and loading of the
achieved through a variety of measures, the most obvious aircraft. * [6]
200

60.2. METHODS OF MITIGATING AVIATIONS NON-CO 2 EMISSIONS

60.1.2

Route optimization

Currently, air trac corridors that aircraft are forced to

follow place unnecessary detours on an aircraft's route
forcing higher fuel burn and an increase in emissions. An
improved Air Trac Management System with more direct routes and optimized cruising altitudes would allow
airlines to reduce their emissions by up to 18%.* [5]

with Solena, is going to turn half a million tonnes of waste

annually that would normally go to landll from the City
of London into biofuel to be used in the British Airways
eet. Waste derived biofuel produces up to 95% less pollution in its life-cycle and so therefore this measure will
reduce emissions by the equivalent of taking 42,000 cars
o the road every year. * [8]

In the European Union, a Single European Sky has been

proposed for the last 15 years so that there are no over- 60.1.4
lapping airspace restrictions between countries in the EU
and so reduce emissions. As yet, the Single European
Sky is still only a plan but progress has been made. If the
Single European Sky had been created 15 years ago, 12
million tons of CO2 could have been saved.* [5]

60.1.3

201

Improved operating procedures

Biofuels

Scandinavian Airlines is operating their 737 aircraft at slower

cruising speeds to reduce emissions by 7-8%.

Airlines and airports are looking at ways of reducing

emissions and fuel burn through the use of improved operating procedures. Two of the more common ones in
operation are a single-engine taxi to and from the runway
British Airways will be using half a million tonnes of waste an- and the use of a Continuous Descent Approach, or CDA,
nually to create biofuels for commercial use from 2014 onwards. which can reduce emissions signicantly during the operations in and around an airport.* [9] Scandinavian Airlines
(SAS) is now operating its Boeing 737 eet at a slower
Biofuels are fuels derived from biomass material such as
cruising speed to help reduce emissions by 7-8%.* [10]
plants and waste. Plant derived biofuels oer large savings in CO2 emissions as they absorb Carbon Dioxide and
release it as Oxygen when they grow and so in a life-cycle,
60.1.5 Emission Trading Scheme
emissions can be drastically reduced. A number of airlines have operated biofuel test ights including Virgin
In the EU, aviation will be including the European EmisAtlantic Airways, which ew with one engine operating
sion Trading Scheme from 2012 onwards. The scheme
on a blend of 20% coconut oil and 80% traditional jet
places a cap on the emissions an aircraft operator can emit
fuel, and Continental Airlines which ew with one enand forces the operator to either lower emissions through
gine operating on a blend of 44% Jatropha oil, 6% Algae
more ecient technology or to buy Carbon Credits
oil and 50% traditional jet fuel. Other airlines to demonfrom other companies who have produced fewer emisstrate biofuels include Air New Zealand and Japan Airsions than their cap. It is thought that this will reduce
lines.* [7]
aviation's net environmental impact.* [4]
In the Continental Airlines test, the engine running partly
on biofuel burned 46 kg less fuel than the conventionally
fuelled engine in 1 and a half hours while producing more
thrust from the same volume of fuel. Continental Air- 60.2 Methods of mitigating avialines' CEO, Larry Kellner, commented This is a good
tions non-CO 2 emissions
step forward, an opportunity to really make a dierence
to the environmentciting jatropha's 50-80% lower CO2 Aviation produces a number of other pollutants beemissions as opposed to Jet-A1 in its lifecycle.* [7]
sides carbon dioxide including nitrogen oxides (NO ),
X

From 2014 onwards, British Airways, in co-operation particulates,

unburned

hydrocarbons

(UHC)

and

202

CHAPTER 60. MITIGATION OF AVIATION'S ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

contrails. A number of methods to reduce the level of 60.2.4 Contrails

these pollutants follows:
Aircraft ying at high altitude form condensation trails
or contrails in the exhaust plume of their engines. While
60.2.1 Nitrogen oxides (NOX )
in the Troposphere these have very little climatic impact.
However, jet aircraft cruising in the Stratosphere do creNitrogen oxides have a far stronger impact upon climate ate an impact from their contrails, although the extent of
change than Carbon Oxides and are produced in small the damage to the environment is as yet unknown. Conquantities from aircraft engines. Engine designers have trails can also trigger the formation of high-altitude Cirrus
worked since the start of the jet age to reduce NOX emis- cloud thus creating a greater climatic eect.* [11] A 2015
sions and the result is ever reducing levels of nitrogen study found that articial cloudiness caused by contrail
oxide emissions. For example, between 1997 and 2003, outbreaksreduce the dierence between daytime and
NOX emissions from jet engines fell by over 40%.* [11] nighttime temperatures. The former are decreased and
the latter are increased, in comparison to temperatures
the day before and the day after such outbreaks.* [12] On
60.2.2 Particulates
days with outbreaks the day/night temperature dierence
was diminished by about 6F in the U.S. South and 5F
Particulates and smoke were a problem with early jet en- in the Midwest.* [13]
gines at high power settings but modern engines are designed so that no smoke is produced at any point in the In the three days following the September 11 attacks on
the World Trade Center in New York City, when no comight.* [11]
mercial aircraft ew in the USA, climate scientists measured the daily temperature range over 5000 weather stations across the USA. The results showed a 1 Celsius
60.2.3 Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC)
change in the average daily temperature range for those
days of the year, thus showing contrails do have a signicant impact on climate.* [3] Potential ways of reducing the impact of contrails on our climate include reducing the maximum cruising altitude of aircraft so highaltitude contrails can not form. Cruising at lower altitudes would marginally increase ight time and increase
fuel consumption by 4%.* [14]

60.3 Methods of mitigating aviation's noise emissions

Main article: Aircraft noise
One of the by-products of an aircraft's engine is noise and

Contrails formed by high altitude aircraft.

Unburned hydrocarbons (UHC) are products of

incomplete combustion of fuel and are produced in
greater quantities in engines with low pressure gains in
the compressors and/or relatively low temperatures in
the combustor. As with particulates, UHC has all but
been eliminated in modern jet engines through improved
design and technology.* [11]

Serrated edges of the nacelle on the Rolls-Royce Trent 1000 tted

to the new Boeing 787 Dreamliner Dreamliner.

this has become an increasingly important issue which is

being dealt with through many dierent methods:

60.5. SEE ALSO

60.3.1

Engines

Next-Generation engines are not only more fuel-ecient

but also tend to be quieter with Pratt & Whitney's PurePower PW1000G tted to the Bombardier CSeries aircraft being 4 times quieter than aircraft currently in service.* [15] Engines can also incorporate serrated edges or
'chevrons' on the back of the nacelle to reduce noise impact as shown in this picture.* [11]

203
sions created by their proportion of the ight. Money
generated is put to projects around the world to invest
in green technology such as renewable energy and research into future technology. Airlines oering carbon osets include British Airways, easyJet, Continental
Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Lufthansa and Qantas although there are many more carriers participating in such
schemes.* [16]* [17]* [18]* [19]

60.4.1 British Airways' scheme

60.3.2

Improved operating procedures

A Continuous Descent Approach, or CDA, not only reduces fuel burn but also allows airlines to provide quieter
approaches for part of the descent to a runway. As the
engines are at close to idle power, less noise emissions
are produced and combined with new engine technology,
the reductions in noise emissions can be large.* [9]

British Airways' carbon osetting scheme involves paying a fee dependant on aircraft type, class of travel and
distance own and therefore prices vary. Funds generated are currently awarded to three renewable energy
projects around the world: Bayin'aobao wind farm in
Inner Mongolia, Faxinal dos Guedes hydroelectric power
plant in Brazil and Xiaohe hydroelctric power plant in
Gansu Province, China.* [20]

60.4 Carbon oset

60.4.2 Continental Airlines' scheme

Continental Airlines' carbon osetting scheme involves
paying a xed fee of $2 to cancel out emissions
through reforestation. Passengers can also choose to pay
$50 for osetting emissions through renewable energy
projects.* [19]

60.5 See also

Air transport and the environment (United Kingdom)
Environmental impact of aviation
Hypermobility

60.6 References
[1] International Civil Aviation Organization, Air Transport
Bureau (ATB) (n.d.).Aircraft Engine Emissions. Retrieved 2010-05-01.
[2] Enviro.aero (n.d.). What is the impact of ying?". Retrieved 2010-05-01.

Money generated by carbon osets from airlines often go to fund

green-energy projects such as wind farms.

A carbon oset is a means of reducing emissions to zero

by saving enough carbon to balance the carbon emitted
by a particular action. Several airlines have begun offering carbon osets to passengers to oset the emis-

[3] Travis, David J.; Carleton, Andrew M.; Lauritsen, Ryan

G. (2002). Contrails reduce daily temperature range
(PDF). Nature 418 (6898): 601. doi:10.1038/418601a.
PMID 12167846. Retrieved 2013-10-03.
[4] Climate change: Commission proposes bringing air
transport into EU Emissions Trading Scheme(Press release). EU press release. 2006-12-20. Retrieved 201005-01.
[5] New York Times - Aviation and global warming, New York
Times, 2007-09-20, retrieved 2010-05-01

204

CHAPTER 60. MITIGATION OF AVIATION'S ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

[6] Boeing 787 Technology, Boeing, retrieved 2010-05-01

[7]A Greener Future?" - Aircraft Illustrated, March 2009
[8] Solena Video on British Airways biofuel usage, Solena, retrieved 2010-05-01
[9] CDA Information (PDF), Civil Aviation Authority (UK),
retrieved 2010-05-01
[10] SAS reduces cruising speed to reduce emissions, Allianz,
retrieved 2010-05-01
[11] Rolls-Royce - The Jet Engine - ISBN 0 902121 2 35
[12] Bernhardt, J. & Carleton, A.M. (2015). The impacts of
long-lived jet contrailoutbreakson surface station diurnal temperature range. Jrnl of Int'l Climatology. Onlineearly (July).
[13] Jet contrails aect surface temperatures. Science Daily.
June 18, 2015.
[14] Williams, Victoria; Robert B. Nolanda; Ralf Toumib
(November 2002). Reducing the climate change impacts of aviation by restricting cruise altitudes. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment
7 (6): 451464. doi:10.1016/S1361-9209(02)00013-5.
Retrieved 2010-05-02.
[15] Bombardier CSeries Statistics, Bombardier, retrieved
2010-05-01
[16] British Airways Carbon Oset Programme, British Airways, retrieved 2010-05-02
[17] easyJet Carbon Oset Programme, easyJet, retrieved
2010-05-02
[18] Continental Airlines Carbon Oset Programme, Continental Airlines, retrieved 2010-05-02
[19] Continental Airlines Carbon Oset Schemes, Bloomberg,
retrieved 2010-05-02
[20] British Airways Carbon Oset Schemes, British Airways,
archived from the original on December 25, 2009, retrieved 2010-05-02

60.7 External links

The 'Silent' Aircraft Initiative
Check this groovy way to cut out airport noise
Wired UK (3 July 2014)

Chapter 61

Mobile source air pollution

Mobile source air pollution includes any air pollution
emitted by motor vehicles, airplanes, locomotives, and
other engines and equipment that can be moved from one
location to another. Many of these pollutants contribute
to environmental degradation and have negative eects
on human health. To prevent unnecessary damage to human health and the environment, environmental regulatory agencies such as the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency have established policies to minimize air pollution from mobile sources. Similar agencies exist at the
state level. Due to the large number of mobile sources
of air pollution, and their ability to move from one location to another, mobile sources are regulated dierently
from stationary sources, such as power plants. Instead of
monitoring individual emitters, such as an individual vehicle, mobile sources are often regulated more broadly
through design and fuel standards. Examples of this include corporate average fuel economy standards and laws
that ban leaded gasoline in the United States. The increase in the number of motor vehicles driven in the U.S.
has made eorts to limit mobile source pollution challenging. As a result, there have been a number of different regulatory instruments implemented to reach the
desired emissions goals.* [1]

61.1 Broad classication

Airplanes Produce Signicant Levels of Pollution Emissions

Cars are Major Sources of Mobile Air Pollution

There are a number of dierent mobile sources of air pollution, some contributing more to pollution than others.
As mentioned previously, mobile sources are regulated
dierently from stationary sources due to the large number of sources and their ability to move from one location
to another. Dierent mobile sources operate dierently
and generate dierent emission types and levels. The
E.P.A. dierentiates between mobile sources by classifying them as either on-road vehicles or non-road vehicles.* [2] On-road vehicles and non-road vehicles are often subject to dierent regulations.
205

206

61.1.1

CHAPTER 61. MOBILE SOURCE AIR POLLUTION

Road sources

Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are a precursor to

ground-level ozone, a serious air pollutant in cities
across the United States. A key component of
smog, ground-level ozone is formed by reactions
involving hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the
presence of sunlight. Hydrocarbon emissions result from incomplete fuel combustion and from
fuel evaporation. Ground-level ozone causes health
problems such as diculty breathing, lung damage,
and reduced cardiovascular functioning.* [7]

Cars
Light Duty and Heavy Duty Trucks
Buses
Motorbikes

61.1.2

Non-road sources

Particulate Matter: Atmospheric particulate matter or airborne particulate matter is the term for solid
or liquid particles found in the air. Some particles
are large or dark enough to be seen as soot or smoke,
but ne particulate matter is tiny and is generally
not visible to the naked eye. Fine particulate matter
is a health concern because very ne particles can
reach the deepest regions of the lungs. Health effects include asthma, dicult or painful breathing,
and chronic bronchitis, especially in children and the
elderly.* [8]

Main article: Non-road engine

Aircraft
Motorboats (Diesel and Gasoline)
Locomotives
Construction Equipment

61.2 Major
regulated
source pollutants

mobile

There are a number of dierent pollutants that are emitted by mobile sources. Some make up a large portion
of the total air concentration for that particular pollutant
while others do not make up as much of the total air concentration.* [3]

Air Toxics: The EPA lists over 1100 individual

compounds which are classied as air toxics. These
compounds are emitted by mobile sources, mostly
due to the chemical nature of the fuel source. These
compounds are known or expected to cause serious
physical damages including cancer, reproductive,
and developmental side eects. The comprehensive
list of regulated air toxics can be found at the EPA's
website. EPA - Mobile Source Air Toxics

Carbon Monoxide: Carbon monoxide forms when

carbon in fuel does not burn completely (incomplete 61.3 Laws and regulatory stancombustion). The main source of carbon monoxdards
ide in air is vehicle emissions. As much as 95 percent of the carbon monoxide in typical U.S. cities
comes from mobile sources, according to EPA stud- 61.4 U.S. enforcement agencies
ies. Carbon monoxide is harmful because it reduces
oxygen delivery to the body's organs and tissues. It
is most harmful to those who suer from heart and 61.4.1 Federal agencies
respiratory disease.* [4]
Environmental Protection Agency:
The
Carbon Dioxide: Carbon dioxide is one of the most
Environmental Protection Agency's Oce of
prominent greenhouse gasses emitted by motor veAir and Radiation (OAR) develops national prohicles. In 2006, 23.6% of the total inventory of U.S.
grams, policies, and regulations for controlling
greenhouse gasses were derived from motor vehiair pollution and radiation exposure. OAR is
cles. The compound is generated as a byproduct of
concerned with pollution prevention and energy
the combustion of any fuel source containing careciency, indoor and outdoor air quality, industrial
bon.* [5]
air pollution, pollution from vehicles and engines,
radon, acid rain, stratospheric ozone depletion,
Nitrogen Oxides: Nitrogen oxides form when fuel
climate change, and radiation protection.* [9]
burns at high temperatures, such as in motor vehicle engines. Mobile sources are responsible for
Department of Energy: The Department of Enmore than half of all nitrogen oxide emissions in the
ergy's clean air compliance activities are overseen
United States. Both on-road and non-road mobile
by its Oce of Health, Safety, and Security.
sources are major nitrogen oxide polluters. These
Department of Transportation
problems include ozone and smog.* [6]

61.5. ENFORCEMENT MECHANISMS AND POLICY INSTRUMENTS

Federal Aviation Administration:
Practically all aviation emission sources
are independently regulated through
equipment specic regulations, standards and recommended practices,
and operational guidelines, which are
established by a variety of organizations. For example, on-road vehicles,
which take passengers to and from the
airport, meet stringent Federal tailpipe
standards set by EPA. Stationary sources
on the airport, like power boilers and
refrigeration chillers, must meet independent state regulations. And FAA
certication is required for essentially
all aviation equipment and processes.
For example there are more than 60
standards* [10] that apply to aircraft
engine design, materials of construction,
durability, instrumentation and control,
and safety, among others. These are in
addition to the Fuel Venting and Exhaust
Emission Requirements for Turbine
Engine Powered Airplanes (FAR Part
34), which guide compliance with EPA
s aircraft exhaust emission standards.The
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a United Nations
intergovernmental body responsible for
worldwide planning, implementation,
and coordination of civil aviation.
ICAO sets emission standards for jet
engines. These are the basis of FAAs
aircraft engine performance certication
standards, established through EPA
regulations.* [11]
Federal Highway Administration: The
FHWA, EPA, the Health Eects Institute, and others have funded and conducted research studies to try to more
clearly dene potential risks from mobile source air toxics emissions associated with highway projects. The FHWA
policies and procedures for implementing NEPA is prescribed by regulation in
23 CFR 771.* [12]
National Highway Trac Safety Administration: NHTSA administers the
CAFE program, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) provides
the fuel economy data. NHTSA sets
fuel economy standards for cars and light
trucks sold in the U.S. while EPA calculates the average fuel economy for each
manufacturer.* [13]

207

61.4.2 State-level agencies

EPA has ten regional oces, each of which is responsible
for the execution of programs within several states and
territories. EPA's website provides a detailed list of state
agencies which administer the environmental regulations
at the state level. California is the only state which has
its own regulatory agency, the California Air Resources
Board (CARB). The other states are allowed to follow
CARB or federal regulations.

61.5 Enforcement mechanisms and

policy instruments
Federal, state, and local governments utilize a wide range
of policy instruments to control pollution from mobile
sources. On the federal level, many dierent agencies
are responsible for regulating, or at least creating policies
to limit, pollution from mobile sources. This is necessary
given the broad range of objects that are consideredmobile sources,from aircraft and o-road vehicles, to locomotives and on-road vehicles. The Federal Aviation Administration, for example, establishes standards to limit
emissions from aircraft, whereas the U.S. Department
of Transportation and Environmental Protection Agency
administer various aspects of on-road vehicle fuel economy regulations. On the state level, mandatory vehicle
emissions-testing programs are often required as part of
the annual motor-vehicle registration process.

61.5.1 Labeling policies

Many governments throughout the world require manufacturers of particular products to attach informationrelated labels to their products. Common examples in
the United States include food nutrition and ingredient labels for food products, Surgeon General labels on alcohol
and tobacco products, and labels for common household
pesticides. Like mobile sources of air pollution, there is
a broad range of products that may require government
labeling regulation, therefore numerous federal agencies
oversee various label-related regulation programs. For
example, the US Food and Drug Administration oversees
food nutrition and ingredient label regulations, whereas
the US Environmental Protection Agency sets specic
standards for the labeling of pesticides.
The primary goal of labeling regulations is to provide
consumers and other product users with important information about the product. Essentially, labeling policies
are designed to correct the market failure of imperfect
information. For consumers to make the best decisions
when allocating scarce resources, such as income, detailed information about particular products may be required. In this sense, labels also help correct information
asymmetries that often exist within many market trans-

208

CHAPTER 61. MOBILE SOURCE AIR POLLUTION

actions.
In the United States, all new cars and light-duty trucks
are required to have labels that display specic fuel economy information.* [14] The US Environmental Protection
Agency calculates the average fuel economy for each vehicle manufacturer, and provides the data to the National
Highway Trac Safety Administration (NHTSA), which
administers and enforces the Corporate Average Fuel
Economy (CAFE) program.* [15] The purpose of the
program is (1) to reduce emissions by requiring vehicle
manufacturers to meet minimum fuel economy levels,
and (2) to provide consumers with fuel economy information before purchasing new vehicles.
EPA and NHTSA are redesigning the labels to provide
even more information to consumers. The new labels
will, for the rst time, provide information about each
vehicle's greenhouse gas emissions, as required by the
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007. The
agencies are proposing two dierent label designs and are
seeking public comments about which labels will be most
helpful to consumers. Consumers can submit comments
about the two proposed label styles on EPA's website here
*
[16] and here.* [17]

61.5.2 Taxes
Another common policy instrument used by governments
to inuence market behavior is taxation. In the case of
mobile source air pollution, the United States government has established many dierent taxes to limit emissions from various mobile sources. Perhaps one of the
most well known is the gas guzzler tax, established by the
Energy Tax Act of 1978. The act set minimum fuel economy standards for all new cars sold in the United States.

Proposed CAFE Label (Model Year 2012 and Later)

The tax is levied against manufacturers of new cars that

fail to meet the minimum fuel economy level of 22.5
miles per gallon. The tax does not apply to minivans,
sport utility vehicles, or pick-up trucks, as these made
up a small portion of the US eet when the tax was established in 1978.* [18] Manufacturers pay a level of tax
based upon the average fuel economy for each particular vehicle produced, ranging from $1,000 for vehicles
achieving at least 21.5 but less than 22.5 MPG, to $7,000
for each vehicle achieving less than 12.5 MPG. Vehicles
that achieve a minimum average fuel economy of 22.5
MPG are not subject to the gas guzzler tax.

61.5.3 Tax credits

Proposed CAFE Label (Model Year 2012 and Later)

Governments may also oer tax credits to encourage certain types of behavior within market economies. For example, if a government wants to encourage consumers
to purchase more fuel-ecient vehicles, the government
could oer tax credits to eectively lower the price of
each vehicle. The logic of this approach is consistent with

61.5. ENFORCEMENT MECHANISMS AND POLICY INSTRUMENTS

209

the laws of supply and demand, namely, that as the price

of a good decreases, the quantity demanded of that good
will increase. This is true given that other important factors, such as current levels of supply and demand, remain
constant.
The US federal government currently utilizes numerous
tax credits to reduce emissions from mobile sources. One
of the more common tax credits is the Qualied PlugIn Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Tax Credit.This credit
is available for the purchase of a new qualied plug-in
electric drive motor vehicle that draws propulsion using a
traction battery that has at least four kilowatt hours of capacity, uses an external source of energy to recharge the
battery, has a gross vehicle weight rating of up to 14,000
pounds, and meets specied emission standards.* [19] The US Department of Energy's Clean Citiesprogram has
The credit ranges from $2,500 to $7,000, depending upon saved more than 3 billion US gallons (11,000,000 m3 ) of
the vehicle's weight rating. Consumers who purchase petroleum since its inception in 1993.
the new Chevrolet Volt are eligible for the full $7,500
credit.* [20] Another tax credit targeted at consumers is
1. Replacement: Replace petroleum used in the transthe Fuel Cell Motor Vehicle Tax Credit,which was
portation sector with alternative and renewable fuoriginally set at $8,000 for the purchase of qualied lightels,
duty fuel cell vehicles. On December 31, 2009, the tax
*
credit was reduced to $4,000. [21]
2. Reduction: Reduce petroleum use by promotTax credits to limit mobile source pollution can also be
ing smarter driving practices, idle reduction, fueltargeted at producers of particular products. For examecient vehicles, and advanced technologies, and
ple,Advanced Biofuel Production Paymentsare avail3. Elimination: Eliminating petroleum use by encourable toeligible producers of advanced biofuels,or for
aging greater use of mass transit systems, tripfuels derived from renewable biomass other than corn
elimination measures, and congestion mitigation.
kernel starch.* [22] Such producers may receive payments to support expanded production of advanced biofuels,dependent upon the quantity and duration of The program was initiated in 1993 and has saved nearly
production by the eligible producer; the net nonrenew- 3 billion US gallons (11,000,000 m3 ) of petroleum since
able energy content of the advanced biofuel, if sucient its inception.* [25]
data is available; the number of producers participating in
Another example of a voluntary program is the Environthe program; and the amount of funds available.* [22]
mental Protection Agency's "SmartWay Transport PartWhile many critics have argued that biofuels can actunership.This voluntary partnership between the EPA
ally increase greenhouse gas emissions, research from the
and the ground freight industry is designed to reduce
US Department of Energy indicates that biofuels burn
greenhouse gases and air pollution through increased fuel
cleaner than gasoline, resulting in fewer greenhouse gas
eciency programs. EPA provides partners withbeneemissions, and are fully biodegradable, unlike some fuel
ts and services that include eet management tools, techadditives.* [23]
nical support, information, public recognition, and use of
the SmartWay Transport Partner logo.* [26]

61.5.4

Voluntary programs

Other important policy instruments that can be utilized by governments are voluntary programs. These
programs bring together various stakeholders with the
goal of achieving some particular policy outcome.
The Department of Energy, for example, created the
"Clean Cities" program to reduce petroleum use in the
transportation sector. The Clean Cities program partners with more than 80 volunteer organizations throughout the United States, developing public-private partnerships that promote alternative fuels and advanced vehicles, fuel blends, fuel economy, hybrid vehicles, and idle
reduction.* [24] The three primary goals of the program
are

"Clean Construction USA" is an additional voluntary program administered by EPA that promotes the reduction
of diesel exhaust emissions from construction equipment
and other construction vehicles. The program encourages
proper operations and maintenance, the use of emissionreducing technologies, and the use of cleaner fuels.* [27]

61.5.5 Subsidies
Subsidies are another powerful policy tool used by governments to inuence economic behavior. Subsidies can
take many forms, ranging from tax credits to direct cash
payments. To limit mobile source pollution from airports, for example, the Federal Aviation Administra-

210
tion's "Voluntary Airport Low Emission Program" provides funding to U.S. commercial service airports located in air quality non attainment and maintenance areas. While the funding can be used to reduce emissions
from both mobile and stationary sources at the airport,
much of the program's emphasis is on mobile source
emission reduction. The program promotes the use of
electric ground support equipment, such as electric bag
tugs that take luggage from the airplane to the baggage
claim. Other airport equipment that can be electronically
operated include various types of belt loaders, along with
the pushback tractors that assist airplanes when departing
from the gate.

CHAPTER 61. MOBILE SOURCE AIR POLLUTION

can be obtained by examining its eects on the average
fuel eciency of domestic and foreign rms; these effects are largest for the domestic production of US manufacturers, whose corporate average fuel eciency would
be lower by 1.2 MPG in the absence of CAFE standards.
CAFE standards also lead to approximately 19 million US
gallons (72,000 m3 ) fuel consumption savings per year.
Contrary to the CAFE standards, gasoline taxes aect
not only new but also used cars, so that there is no reason to expect any substitution towards less fuel ecient
used cars when taxes are raised. Small tax increases are
insucient to induce fuel cost savings of the same order
of magnitude as CAFE.* [29]

Another important goal of the program is to install underground fuel hydrants at airports. These would eliminate 61.5.7 Marketable allowances
the need for fuel trucks, an important source of mobile
emissions. The Voluntary Airport Low Emission Pro- Leaded gasoline
gram was established under the Vision 100 Century of
Aviation Reauthorization Act of 2003.
Lead was originally added to fuel as an additive to prevent engine knocking. In the 1970s, virtually all gasoline
used in the United States contained lead with an average
61.5.6 Command and control: perfor- concentration of almost 2.4 grams per gallon. By the mid
mance standards
1970s, the EPA began formulating plans to phase lead out
of fuel for two main reasons. There was growing concern
Numerous states have emissions-testing programs to limit over lead's potential eects on human health, especially
pollution from on-road vehicles, such as cars and light- with respected hypertension and cognitive development
duty trucks. Each of these vehicles must meet specic in children. Additionally, the introduction of the catalytic
emissions targets before being allowed to obtain or re- converter in new automobiles manufactured after 1975
new vehicle registrations. Many of these programs are required an adjustment to the fuel standards. Catalytic
administered on the local and county level. For example, converters were utilized in new automobiles to help meet
the Clean Air Car Check is a vehicle emissions-testing the hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxide
program for all vehicles registered in Lake and Porter emission standards mandated by the 1970 Clean Air Act.
counties in Indiana. The two counties were designated as Unfortunately, the catalytic converters could only funcnon-attainment areas for ozone levels in 1977 by the Envi- tion properly with unleaded fuel.
ronmental Protection Agency. By 1990, the two counties
In order to protect human health and ensure that catalytic
were reclassied as severe non-attainment areas, a desconverters were operating properly, the EPA required
ignation which requires states to create State Implementhat the average lead content of all gasoline sold be retation Plans to attain and maintain certain air pollution
duced from 1.7 grams per gallon after January 1, 1975
standards. Although the counties were again reclassied
to 0.5 grams per gallon by January 1, 1979. Eventually,
in 2010, this time as attainment areas, the two counties
the EPA lowered the average lead concentration standard
will maintain their vehicle inspection and maintenance
goal to 0.1 gm/gal by January 1, 1986. The EPA dened
program because it is a key piece of Indiana's plan to
averagesin a way that allowed reners who owned more
prevent backsliding so that the area can remain in attainthan one renery to average ortradeamong reneries
ment.* [28]
to satisfy their lead limits each quarter. Taking note of the
trading that was taking place, the EPA permitted reners
to bank credits for use until the end of 1987. EPA enCorporate Average Fuel Eciency standard
forcement relied on reporting requirements and random
*
According to the Corporate Average Fuel Economy stan- testing of gasoline samples. [30]
dard (CAFE) regulation, which was enacted in 1975, every seller of automobiles in the US had to achieve by 1985
a minimum sales-weighted average fuel eciency of 27.5
miles per gallon (MPG). This standard had to be achieved
for domestically produced and imported cars separately.
Failure to meet the prescribed standard incurred a penalty
of $5 per car per 1/10 of a gallon that the corporate average fuel economy fell below the standard. The rst idea
about the environmental impact of the CAFE regulation

The EPA has ocially concluded its eort to phase out

lead in fuel. As of 1996, manufacturers are no longer required to place unleaded fuel onlylabels on the dashboard and on or around the fuel ller inlet area of each
new motor vehicle. Additionally, several record keeping and reporting requirements for gasoline reners and
importers have been lifted.* [31] Critics have viewed the
lead credit trading program as a successful implementation of a cap and trade system allowing for the gradual

61.7. REFERENCES
reduction of a pollutant. Lead credit trading as a percentage of lead use rose above 40 percent by 1987. An
estimated 20 percent of reneries participated in trading
early in the program, eventually rising to 60 percent of
reneries.* [32]
Benzene in gasoline
In 2007, the Mobile Source Air Toxics Rule was created
to help limit the hazardous emissions generated as a result of fuel combustion in mobile sources. Benzene is one
particular component of gasoline that is known to pose a
hazard to human health. In 2007, benzene concentrations
in gasoline averaged 1% by volume. The EPA mandated
reners and importers to begin producing gasoline with
annual an average benzene content no greater than 0.62%
beginning in 2011. The EPA has listed certain technologies that can be utilized in order to achieve the new standards, but reners can petition the EPA to approve additional technologies.
Reners and importers could earn credits by reducing
benzene levels below 0.62% before 2011. These credits could be auctioned to other companies, essentially
creating a marketable allowance approach for reducing
benzene content in gasoline. The nationwide banking
and trading system does nave some limitations. No individual rener or importer could produce gasoline with
benzene concentrations exceeding 1.3% by volume, even
with credits.* [33]
The nal rule can be found at the EPA's website. Control
of Hazardous Air Pollutants From Mobile Sources:Early
Credit Technology Requirement Revision

61.6 See also

211

[5] EPA - Emission Facts: Average Carbon Dioxide Emissions Resulting from Gasoline and Diesel Fuel http://
www.epa.gov/oms/climate/420f05001.htm
[6] EPA - Nitrogen Oxides http://www.epa.gov/oms/
invntory/overview/pollutants/nox.htm
[7] EPA - Hydrocarbons http://www.epa.gov/oms/invntory/
overview/pollutants/hydrocarbons.htm
[8] EPA - Particulate Matter http://www.epa.gov/oms/
invntory/overview/pollutants/pm.htm
[9] OAR webpage.
[10] art=1&Count=200&Expand=10See FAR Part 33 Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines Check |url=
value (help).
[11] FAA policies (PDF).
[12] FHWA site.
[13] NHTSA site.
[14] .
[15] NHTSA website.
[16] http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/gas-label-1.htm#1
[17] http://www.epa.gov/fueleconomy/gas-label-2.htm#1
[18] EPA webpage.
[19] Department of Energy.
[20] Block, Sandra (March 18, 2011). USA Today.
[21] Department of Energy website.
[22] Department of Energy.
[23] Biofuels: Myth vs. Fact (Department of Energy)"
(PDF).
[24] DOE website.
[25] NHTSA website.

Air Pollution

[26] DOE website.

Emissions Standards

[27] DOE website.

Emissions Trading
Motor Vehicle Emissions

61.7 References
[1] EPA - What are Mobile Sources? http://www.epa.gov/
otaq/invntory/overview/examples.htm
[2] EPA - On-road Vehicles and Engines http://www.epa.gov/
otaq/hwy.htm
[3] EPA - Mobile Source Emissions - Past, Present, and Future http://www.epa.gov/otaq/invntory/overview/results/
allmobile.htm
[4] EPA - Carbon Monoxide http://www.epa.gov/oms/
invntory/overview/pollutants/carbonmon.htm

[28] Clean Air Car Check.

[29]The Eects of the Corporate Average Fuel Eciency
Standards in the US. The Journal of Industrial Economics 46 (1): 133. March 1998. |rst1= missing |last1=
in Authors list (help)
[30] EPA - Lead Credit Trading http://yosemite.epa.gov/
ee/epa/eed.nsf/2602a2edfc22e38a8525766200639df0/
df94392f72ebb26085257746000aff52!OpenDocument
[31] EPA - EPA Takes Final Step in Phaseout of Leaded Gasoline http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/lead/02.htm
[32] Hahn, Robert, and Gordon Hester. 1989. Where Did All
the Markets GO? An Analysis of EPAs Emissions Trading Program. Yale Journal on Regulation. Vol.6: 109153.
[33] Federal Register Vol. 73, No. 201. Thursday, October
16, 2008. Rules and Regulations. P 61358-61363

Chapter 62

Multi-eect Protocol
produced domestically due to pollution arriving from one
or more upwind countries.* [2]

Map showing Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air

Pollution signatories (green) and ratications (dark green) as of
July 2007

The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidication, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone (known
as the Multi-eect Protocol or the Gothenburg Protocol) is a multi-pollutant protocol designed to reduce acidication, eutrophication and ground-level ozone by setting
emissions ceilings for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
volatile organic compounds and ammonia to be met by
2010. As of August 2014, the Protocol had been ratied
by 26 parties, which includes 25 states and the European
Union.* [1]

In 1976, the environment ministers from the Nordic

countries proposed a European convention on transboundary air pollution that emphasized sulphur compounds (Convention on Long-range Transboundary
Air Pollution (CLRTAP)). After negotiations, 34 countries and the European Commission signed this Convention in 1979 in Geneva.* [3] The convention came into
force in 1983, and has now been ratied by 47 European countries, two North American countries (Canada
and the United States) and Armenia.* [4] The CLRTAP
now includes eight protocols that identify specic obligations to be taken by Parties.
The Gothenburg Protocol was signed on 30 November
1999 in Gothenburg, Sweden, to support the CLRTAP.
The Gothenburg Protocol entered into force on 17 May
2005.

The Protocol is part of the Convention on Long-Range

Transboundary Air Pollution. The Convention is an inter- 62.2 Protocol contents
national agreement to protect human health and the natural environment from air pollution by control and reduc- 62.2.1 Protocol elements
tion of air pollution, including long-range transboundary
air pollution.
The following are the main provisions of the Protocol:
The geographic scope of the Protocol includes Europe,
North America and countries of Eastern Europe, Cauca Annex 1 - Critical loads and levels* [5]
sus and Central Asia (EECCA).
Annex 2 - Maximum allowable emissions (emisOn May 4, 2012, at a meeting at the United Nations Ofsion ceilings)* [6] are adopted for 2010 for sulphur,
ce at Geneva, the Parties to the Gothenburg Protocol
nitrogen oxides (NO), Volatile Organic Comagreed on a substantial number of revisions, most imporpounds (VOCs) and ammonia (NH3 ). The selectant are the inclusion of commitments of the Parties to
tion of the specic emission levels (in tons/year)
further reduce their emissions until 2020. These amendwere based on the predicted eects of the pollutants
ments now need to be ratied by Parties in order to make
and the pollutant control options and costs. Emisthem binding.
sion limits are set for each participating country.* [7]
Those countries participating in the Protocol (the
Parties) with signicant emission levels of the most
62.1 Purpose and history
harmful pollutants and whose emissions are relatively cheap to reduce must make larger emission
reductions.
Because pollutants can be carried many hundreds of kilometres by winds, pollutants emitted in one country may
be deposited in other countries. Deposition of pollutants Following the revision of the Gothenburg Protocol, to
in a country can far exceed the amount of such pollution which the Parties agreed in May 2012, Annex 2 will now
212

62.3. REVISIONS OF THE GOTHENBURG PROTOCOL

213

also contain reduction commitments, expressed as a per- in the 1970s and 1980s. As a result, the acidication of
centage reduction compared to 2005 emission levels, that forests and lakes was halted in large parts of Europe. ReParties should meet in 2020.
duction of NO emissions from trac has less than originally expected. The Protocol required only modest am Annexes 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 list 'limit values' for monia emission reductions and therefore in most parts of
deposition will be reduced only
specic emission sources, such as for combustion Europe, excess nitrogen
*
by
a
small
percentage.
[13]
plants, electricity generation, cement production or
dry cleaning. Best available techniques are required
to control emissions. With the exception of Annex
9, all the emission limit values specied were also
updated in 2012 by the Parties.

It is predicted that the implementation of the Protocol

in Europe will reduce sulphur emissions there by at least
63%, NO emissions by 41%, VOC emissions by 40%
and ammonia emissions by 17% compared to levels in
1990. In addition, Protocol implementation in Europe
Annex 4 is for sulphur from stationary
will:
sources* [8]
Annex 5 is for nitrogen oxides (NO) from stationary sources* [9]
Annex 6 is for Volatile Organic Compounds
(VOCs) from stationary sources* [10]
Annex 8 is for fuels and new mobile
sources* [11]

reduce the area of excessive acidication from 93

million hectares in 1990 to 15 million hectares;
reduce the area of excessive eutrophication from
165 million hectares in 1990 to 108 million hectares,
and;

Annex 9 is for ammonia (NH3 ) from agricultural sources* [12]

reduce the number of days with excessive ozone levels by 50%.

Guidance documents adopted together with the Protocol

provide a range of abatement techniques and economic
instruments for the reduction of emissions. Among the
specic emission sources, the Protocol establishes NO
emission limits for large stationary engines. Emission
limits for new stationary sources should be enforced
within one year after the date of entry into force of the
Protocol for the party in question.

As a result, it is estimated that human life-years lost as

a result of the chronic eects of ozone exposure will be
about 2,300,000 lower in 2010 than in 1990. In addition, there will be approximately 47,500 fewer premature
deaths resulting from ozone and particulate matter in the
air. Furthermore, the amount of vegetation exposed to
excessive ozone levels will be reduced by 44% from 1990
levels.

However, for large parts of Europe, human exposure to

Maximum sulfur content is specied for gas oil fuels particulate matter and ozone will remain higher than rec(other than fuels used in vehicles) at 0.2% eective ommended by the World Health Organization. In the
by July 2000 and 0.1% by January 2008.
Benelux, the Po-area, Russia and Ukraine, the health
risks will remain higher than for the rest of Europe.* [13]
The details of the Protocol are identied in a series of An- The East European countries that did not ratify the Pronexes that address specic pollutants and emission source tocol are expected to suer from increasing air pollusectors (e.g. Annex V:Limit values for emissions of ni- tion.* [14] Because of the great potential for low-cost
trogen oxides from stationary sources). The Annexes emission reduction measures in this region, increased
typically allow Canada and the United States to partici- related policy eorts are underway for countries such
pate with dierent commitments than other Parties to the as Russia and Ukraine. Abatement of emissions from
Protocol. This is due to the dierent regulatory nature shipping and ambitious climate policy measures, oers
of Canada and the United States versus most European possibilities to reduce air pollution in EU countries at relcountries.
atively low costs. Additional concerns include the negative eects from the combustion of biomass and biodiesel
on air quality/* [13]

62.2.2

Implementation and results

In the EU, the Gothenburg protocol is implemented

through the National Emission Ceilings (NEC) directive.

62.3 Revisions of the Gothenburg

Protocol

Of all the countries that ratied the 1999 Gothenburg

Protocol, most are expected to meet their obligations.
Progress towards reducing sulphur emissions was greater In December 2007, eorts began to revise the Gothenthan the Protocol commitments due to a widespread Eu- burg Protocol. These revisions were concluded at a meetropean shift from coal to natural gas as an industrial fuel ing of the Parties to the Protocol in Geneva in May 2012.

214
The Parties agreed to include more stringent emission reduction commitments for 2020, including reduction targets for particulate matter (PM). Subsequently, the technical annexes were also amended to update them with improved emission limit values. The protocol now also includes, as the rst international agreement between countries, measures addressing short-lived climate forcers,
such as black carbon.* [15]
The work to revise the Protocol was coordinated by the
Working Group on Strategies and Review and supported
by varies technical groups, such as the Expert Group on
Techno-Economic Issues.

62.4 References
[1] Status and ratications.
[2] UK Atmosphere, Climate and Information Program material on CLRTAP and associated Protocols
http://www.ace.mmu.ac.uk/eae/acid_rain/Older/
International_Agreements.html
[3] Miljstyrelsen. .mst.dk. 2006-07-23. Retrieved 201307-15.
[4] Status of ratication http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/
status/99multi_st.htm
[5] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=16
[6] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=18
[7] Reference document:
National emission ceilings prescribed by the NEC directive http:
//www2.dmu.dk/AtmosphericEnvironment/Expost/
database/docs/NEC_tables.pdf
[8] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=27
[9] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=31
[10] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=36
[11] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=55
[12] http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/full%20text/1999%
20Multi.E.Amended.2005.pdf#page=64
[13] Review of the Gothenburg Protocol. Report of the Task
Force on Integrated Assessment Modelling and the Centre
for Integrated Assessment Modelling - PBL Netherlands
Environmental Assessment Agency. Pbl.nl. 2007-1231. Retrieved 2013-07-15.
[14] Archived July 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine.
[15] Parties adopt new air pollution and climate change related areas of work for the Air Convention. UNECE.
Retrieved 2013-07-15.

CHAPTER 62. MULTI-EFFECT PROTOCOL

62.5 External links

Gothenburg Protocol text (pdf)
Status of Protocol signature/ ratication
Summary of Gothenburg Protocol
NO Emission Limits From New Stationary Engines

Chapter 63

National Air Pollution Symposium

SRI participant Paul Magill discussing the smog on Black Friday

in Los Angeles at the rst National Air Pollution Symposium in
1949

The National Air Pollution Symposium was held on

November 1011, 1949 in Pasadena, California by the
Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International),
along with assistance from the California Institute of
Technology, the University of Southern California and
the University of California.* [1]
SRI had performed much of the early research on air
pollution and the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere.* [2] About 400 scientists, businessmen, and politicians attended the event, which was the rst event of
its kind. The conference (and subsequent conferences)
spurred some of the early pollution and climate change
research, as well as early climate change legislation including the Air Pollution Control Act of 1955.* [3]

63.1 References
[1] The First National Air Pollution Symposium. SRI
International. Retrieved 2012-08-27.
[2] Nielson, Donald (2006). A Heritage of Innovation: SRI's
First Half Century. Menlo Park, California: SRI International. pp. 918 921. ISBN 978-0-9745208-1-0.
[3] Gibson, Weldon B. (1986). SRI: The Take-O Days. Los
Altos, California: Stanford Research Institute. pp. 48, 55,
149, 168, 181. ISBN 0-86576-103-5.

215

Chapter 64

National Ambient Air Quality Objectives

The rst Canadian National Ambient Air Quality Objectives were developed in the mid-1970s. These objectives were set for various air pollutants. The NAAQO
had three levels indicating severity (maximum desirable,
acceptable and tolerable levels) and also evaluated eect
levels (maximum desirable, acceptable and tolerable levels).

64.1 References

In 1992, a review of the NAAQOs suggested that many

air pollutants had no eect thresholds (e.g. tropospheric
ozone or very low eect thresholds). As such, scientifically defensible eect levels could not be identied. In
2000, the revised NAAQOs framework species a Reference Level, above which there are demonstrated effects on human health and/or the environment, and an
Air Quality Objective (AQO), which is meant to be protective for the general public and environment and which
also considers aspects of technical feasibility. This approach is dierent from how the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards are set in the US, where cost is explicitly not considered in the proposal to strengthen the air
quality standards to protect human health and the environment. In addition, the US NAAQS are periodically
reviewed, frequently strengthened, commonly enforced
and allow serious legal penalties if the standards are not
met. In contrast, the Canadian NAAQOs are infrequently
reviewed, rarely strengthened, not enforced, and the only
penalty for not meeting the Canadian NAAQOs is shame.
The original NAAQOs have not been formally revised to
the new two-level system. As an interim approach, data
are compared with the existing desirable and acceptable
NAAQOs for sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone.
The air quality objectives must be consistent with the
Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) 1999.
They must also be based on scientic principles, such
as risk assessment and risk management. The NAAQOs
are set by the federal government based on recommendations from a National Advisory Committee and Working
Group on Air Quality Objectives and Guidelines. Provincial governments have the option of adopting these either as objectives or as enforceable standards according
to their legislation.

216

Environment Canada's page on the NAAQOs

Chapter 65

New car smell

New car smell is the odor that comes from the combi- model years 19992002 was traced to a rust inhibitor.* [5]
nation of materials found in new automobiles. There is
some question about the possibility that these chemicals
pose a health risk.

65.2 Health hazards

65.1 Chemical composition
Both the scent and what produces it vary somewhat in
dierent kinds of cars. Most of the interior of an automobile consists of plastic held together with a number
of adhesives and sealers. Such materials release volatile
organic compounds, via outgassing or ogassing. These
fumes are generally attributed mixtures of many dierent
chemicals ogassing and to plasticizers, although their
vapor pressures are very low and they are not considered
volatile.* [1]

A two-year study* [6] released in 2001 by the CSIRO in

Australia found several health problems associated with
these chemicals. CSIRO research scientist, Dr Stephen
Brown, reported anecdotal accounts of disorientation,
headache, and irritation in some drivers of new cars. He
measured pollutant levels in new cars that were sucient
to cause similar eects within minutes in controlled experiments by other researchers. Chemicals found in the
cars included the carcinogen benzene, two other possible
carcinogens cyclohexanone and styrene, and several other
toxic chemicals.

Researchers tested more than 200 U.S. vehicles of model

years 20112012 for chemicals such as organobromine
compounds (associated with brominated ame retardants, or BFRs), organochlorine compounds (e.g.,
polyvinyl chloride, or PVC), and heavy metals that o-gas
from various parts such as the steering wheel, dashboard,
armrests and seats.* [2]

A more recent study in Japan found that the volatile organic chemicals in a new minivan were over 35 times the
health limit the day after its delivery. In four months levels had fallen under the limit but increased again in the
hot summer months, taking three years to permanently remain below the limit. The limits were set by the Japanese
health ministry in response to more car owners suering
*
Some recommend keeping new cars well ventilated while from sick building syndrome. [7] A Daily Telegraph arti*
driving, especially during the summer. A 1995 analy- cle [8] on the study described the enjoyment of new car
sis* [3] of the air from a new Lincoln Continental found smell as akin to glue-sning".
over 50 volatile organic compounds, which were iden- Yet another study showed little toxicity in new car
tied as coming from sources such as cleaning and odors.* [9]
lubricating compounds, paint, carpeting, leather and vinyl
treatments, latex glue, and gasoline and exhaust fumes.
An analysis two months after the initial one found a signicant reduction in the chemicals. The researchers observed that the potential toxicity of many of these com- 65.3 Reproduction
pounds could pose a danger to human health.
The total volatile organic compound levels can reach
7,500 micrograms per cubic meter.* [4] Concentrations
decayed approximately 90% over a three-week period.
Over sixty chemical compounds were identied inside the
interiors of the four vehicles in this study.

New-car spraysare available that purportedly reproduce the smell of a new car in older vehicles using an
aerosol spray.

With the advent of cheaper vinyl upholstery, there was an

interest in perfuming this with leather notes to regain the
In some instances the odor results from a manufacturing luxuryexperience. Today few people see leather notes
defect. According to ocial documents of Bentley Mo- as characteristic of a new car, so thenew car fragrance
tors (BT26), an obnoxious odorin Bentley cars for concept has been altered.
217

218

65.4 References
[1] Chemical and Engineering News, 2002, 80(20), 45; http:
//pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/stuff/8020stuff.html
[2] ecocenter.org
[3] Overton, Santford V., Manura, John J.Identication Of
Volatile Organic Compounds In a New Automobile. Scientic Instrument Services, Inc. Archived from the original
on March 7, 2005. Retrieved July 9, 2005.
[4] Grabbs, James S., Corsi, Richard L., Torres, Vincent
M., Volatile Organic Compounds in New Automobiles: Screening Assessment, Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 126, No. 10, October, 2000.
doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2000)126:10(974)
[5] OBNOXIOUS ODORA Lemon Makes
[6] "New car drivers exposed to toxic emissions", Commonwealth Scientic and Industrial Research Organisation,
December 19, 2001.
[7] jama-english.jp
[8] Clover, Charles (15 January 2003). Enjoying the smell
of a new car 'is like glue-sning'". The Daily Telegraph.
[9] Choi, Charles (6 April 2007). That New-Car Smell?
Not Toxic, Study Finds. Live Science.

CHAPTER 65. NEW CAR SMELL

Chapter 66

NIOSH air ltration rating

NIOSH air ltration rating refers to the publications
of National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) of US government pertaining to respirators and
masks worn to lter contaminated air, regardless of cause.

66.5 References
[1] Unmasking the Surgical Mask: Does It Really Work?".
medpagetoday.com. 5 October 2009. Retrieved 21 October 2015.
[2] CDC NIOSH-Approved N99 Particulate Filtering
Facepiece Respirators Suppliers List. cdc.gov. Retrieved 21 October 2015.

66.1 Plain surgical mask

Plain surgical masks do not carry a NIOSH rating. Recommended to prevent seasonal u and lter out larger
particulate matter, but not proven to be eective. Will
lter out larger particles if worn tightly. World Health
Organization, Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of
America, the Infectious Diseases Society of America,
the Association for Professionals in Infection Control
and Epidemiology, and the American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine still recommend
these except in cases of high risk.* [1]

66.2 NIOSH N95

One such rating is N95, which is recommended by US
CDC for most cases of air contamination. These lters
seal are made to seal tightly around mouth and nose and
is made of material certied to block 95% of particles
0.3 m or larger in diameter, roughly the size of a single
virus* [1] and include PM2.5. Nevertheless, strict protocol must be taken to wear properly these masks, even
facial hair is enough to break the seal and let in particles.

66.3 NIOSH N99

A stricter rating than N95, but still not resistant to oil.* [2]

66.4 Gas mask

A gas mask may be resistant to liquids if worn properly.
219

Chapter 67

Nitrogen Oxide Protocol

Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or Their Transboundary Fluxes, opened for signature on 31 October
1988 and entered into force on 14 February 1991, was
to provide for the control or reduction of nitrogen oxides
and their transboundary uxes. It was concluded in Soa,
Bulgaria.
Parties (as of May 2013): (34) Albania, Austria,
Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Cyprus,
Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, European Union,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland,
Italy, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Republic
of Macedonia, Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Slovakia,
Slovenia. Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, United
Kingdom, United States.
Countries that have signed the protocol but not yet ratied
it: Poland.

67.1 See also

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
environmental agreements

67.2 References
This article incorporates public domain material from the
CIA World Factbook document 2003 edition.

67.3 External links

Text.
Ratications.

220

Chapter 68

Norwegian Institute for Air Research

the Asian Development Bank and the World Health Organization.
NILU has developed an automatic surveillance program
for air quality in cities and background areas. NILU
have specialized in computerized automatic air pollution surveillance, planning and optimal abatement strategy planning. This AirQUIS system is an air pollution
management and planning system designed for managers
and decision-makers.

68.2 Companies and Locations

NILU, Norwegian Institute for Air Research at Kjeller on the outskirt of Oslo, Norway.

The Norwegian Institute for Air Research

(Norwegian: Norsk Institutt for luftforskning) or NILU
is one of the leading specialized scientic laboratories
in Europe researching issues related to air pollution,
climate change and health. NILU has a sta of scientists,
engineers and technicians with specialized expertise for
working on air pollution problems. The sta do more
than two hundred projects annually for research councils,
industries, international banks and local, national and
international authorities and organizations. Its director
since 2009 is Kari Nygaard.

NILU's head oce is at Kjeller on the outskirt of Oslo in

Norway. A specialised oce for Arctic related matters
is an integrated part of The Fram Centre (FRAM - High
North Research Centre for Climate and the Environment)
in Troms.* [2] NILU also own NILU Polska, an oce
in Katowice, Poland, working within areas of air quality monitoring, biomass, waste management and emission
reduction; and uMoya NILU, an Air Quality Consulting
company in Durban, South Africa. Innovation nilu is a
holding company for NILU's various commercial interests and subsidiaries,* [3]* [4] such as Portseye (air quality and climate monitoring within maritime and industrial
sector).* [5]

68.1 Fields of work

68.3 See also

NILU was founded in 1969 and the institute conducts

environmental research with emphasis on the sources of
air pollution and on air pollution dispersion,* [1] transport, transformation and deposition. It is also involved in
the assessment of the eects of pollution on ecosystems,
human health and materials. Integrated environmental assessments and optimal abatement strategy planning
has been a eld of priority during the last few years.
Assessment of transboundary transport of air pollutants,
acid rain and global air quality are important tasks.
NILU has the responsibility as a national research institution for air pollution in Norway and is also being used as
an international air pollution expert by the World Bank,
221

Atmospheric dispersion modeling

List of atmospheric dispersion models
Czech Hydrometeorological Institute
Finnish Meteorological Institute
National Center for Atmospheric Research
National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark
Roadway air dispersion modeling
Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute

222

CHAPTER 68. NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR AIR RESEARCH

TA Luft
UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison
Committee
UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau
University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

68.4 References
[1] About NILU, www.nilu.no
[2] The Fram Centre, Framsenteret.no
[3] NILU's Companies (Innovation nilu), www.nilu.no
[4] Innovation nilu
[5] Portseye

68.5 External links

wwww.nilu.no (English edition)
The AirQUIS system

Chapter 69

Nowcast (Air Quality Index)

itored.
Similarly, the Ozone NowCast is computed from the most
recent 8 hours of ozone monitoring data, but weights the
most recent hours of data more heavily than an eight hour
average when pollutant levels are changing. The Ozone
NowCast is used in lieu of a forward rolling 8-hour average for the calculation of the AQI until an entire calendar
day of data hourly data is available. * [1]* [2]* [3]* [4]

69.1 Calculation of the PM NowCast

PM2.5 AQI of US monitors, calculated utilizing NowCast, courtesy
US EPA

Let c1 ,c2 ,...c12 represent the hourly PM concentrations

for the most recent 12-hour period, with c1 the most
recent hourly value, and let cmin and cmax represent the
minimum and maximum hourly concentration for the
12-hour period.
Dene:

w =

cmin
cmax

and let
{
w=
PM2.5 AQI map, calculated utilizing NowCast, courtesy US EPA

w
1
2

if w > 12 ,
if w 12 .

With these denitions the PM NowCast* [5] is given by:

The NowCast is a weighted average of hourly air monitoring data used by the United States Environmental Pro12 i1
tection Agency for real-time reporting of the Air Quality N owCast = i=1 w ci .
12
i1
Index (AQI) for PM (PM10 or PM2.5 ) or Ozone data.
i=1 w
The PM NowCast is computed from the most recent 12
hours of PM monitoring data, but the NowCast weights
the most recent hours of data more heavily than an ordinary 12-hour average when pollutant levels are changing.
The PM NowCast is used in lieu of a 24-hour average PM
concentration in the calculation of the AQI until an entire calendar day of hourly concentrations has been mon-

For the special case where there is no variability in the

hourly values, cmin = cmax , w = 1, and the NowCast reduces to the twelve-hour average:
12
N owCast =

223

i=1 ci

12

224

CHAPTER 69. NOWCAST (AIR QUALITY INDEX)

For the special case where w=1/2:

N owCast =

c1 + ( 12 )c2 + ... + ( 12 )11 c12

1 + 12 + ( 12 )2 + ... + ( 12 )11

substituted into the AQI equation in place of the 24-hour

average PM2.5 concentration:

I=

Ihigh Ilow
(C Clow ) + Ilow
Chigh Clow

But 1/(1-x)=1 + x + x2 + ... , x < 1, so to a good approxiwhere:

mation, when w = 1/2:
I = the AQI,
1
1
1
N owCast = c1 + ( )2 c2 + ... + ( )12 c12
2
2
2

C = the 24-hour average PM2.5 pollutant concentration,

Because the most recent hours of data are weighted so

heavily in the NowCast when PM levels are changing,
EPA does not report the NowCast when data is missing
for c1 or c2 .

Clow = the concentration breakpoint that is

C,
Chigh = the concentration breakpoint that is
C,
Ilow = the index breakpoint corresponding to
Clow ,

69.2 Calculation of the Ozone

NowCast
Let c1 ,c2 ,...c8 represent the hourly ozone concentrations
for the most recent 8-hour period, with c1 the most
recent hourly value, and let cmin and cmax represent the
minimum and maximum hourly concentration for the
8-hour period.
Dene:

w=

cmin
cmax

With these denitions the Ozone NowCast is given by* [6]

N owCast =

8
wi1 ci
i=1
8
i1 .
i=1 w

Note: USEPA generally truncates ozone values to whole

PPB, so a value of 13.78 PPB would use a value of 13.0
in the NowCast calculation, and a value of 0.01378 PPM
would use a value 0.013 PPM. Using un-truncated numbers may yield discrepancies with forecast data presented
at the AIRNow site.

69.3 Example
Consider a day when the hourly average PM2.5 concentration is zero for all hours of the day, except for a single hour from noon to 1 pm, where a monitor records a
concentration pulse of 71 micrograms per cubic meter
(g/m3 ). According to the equation above, the Nowcast
is 71/2 g/m3 =35.5 g/m3 the hour after the pulse, two
hours later it is 71/4 g/m3 =17.8 g/m3 and three hours
later it is 71/8 g/m3 = 8.9 g/m3 . To calculate the corresponding AQI values, each NowCast concentration is

Ihigh = the index breakpoint corresponding to

Chigh .
and:
Thus, the three NowCast concentrations correspond to
air quality indices* [7] of 101, (AQI Color Code Orange,
Air Quality: Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups), 63 (AQI
Color Code Yellow, Air Quality: Moderate ), and 37
(AQI Color Code Green, Air Quality: Good) respectively. After the day is over and all of the hourly data
is available, the AQI for the day is calculated from the
24-hr average; 71/24 g/m3 = 3.0 g/m3 , an AQI of 12
(Color Code Green, Air Quality: Good). EPA has developed a calculator to compute the PM NowCast, AQI, and
AQI category and color from the most recent 12 hours of
monitoring data. * [8]

69.4 References
[1] Air Quality 101. AirNow API. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
[2] How Does AirNow Make the Current PM2.5Air
Quality Index (AQI) maps?". AirNow. Retrieved 25
September 2014.
[3]US Experience on Emergency Response System(PDF).
US Environmental Protection Agency. 24 June 2014. pp.
5557. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
[4] Transitioning to a new NowCast Method (PDF). US
Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 15 April
2015.
[5] Computing the NowCast(PPTX). US Environmental
Protection Agency. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
[6] Ozone NowCast. AirNow. Retrieved 11 May 2016.
[7] AQI Calculator: Concentration to AQI. AirNow. Retrieved 25 September 2014.

69.4. REFERENCES

[8] NowCast Calculator. AirNow. Retrieved 11 May

2016.

225

Chapter 70

Presidential Climate Action Plan

President Barack Obamas Climate Action Plan proposed a reduction in carbon dioxide emissions. It included preserving forests, encouraging the use of alternate fuels, and increased study of climate change. The
plan was rst established in 2008 and updated every two
years since.* [1]

70.3 External links

The plan would support conservation of land and water

resources and developing actionable climate science, and
to encourage other countries to take action to address climate change, including reducing deforestation and lowering subsidies that increase use of fossil fuels.
White House sta members who were directly tasked
with implementation of the plan include Heather Zichal
and Michelle Patron.

70.1 See also

Climate action
Climate Action Plan
Climate change in the United States
National Climate Assessment
National Research Council, report on climate
change
State of the Climate

70.2 References
[1] PCAP Advisory Committee. Presidential Climate Action Project. Retrieved 2014-05-07.

Executive Oce of the President. June 2013. The

Presidents Climate Action Plan. Washington, D.
C.: whitehouse.gov, retrieved June 25, 2013 Link:
President Obama is taking action on climate change
226

President's Climate Action Plan Tracker (Center for

Climate Change Law, Columbia Law School)
President Obama's Climate Action Plan. 2nd anniversary progress report
Climate change and President Obama's action plan
(White House)

Chapter 71

Organic molecular tracers

Organic molecular tracers, also referred to as organic
molecular markers, are compounds or compound classes
of interest in the eld of air quality because they can
help identify particulate emission sources, as they are relatively unique to those sources. This approach is generally applied to particulate matter under 2.5m in diameter because of the formation mechanisms and the
health risks associated with this size regime.* [1] With
tracer compounds, the principles of mass balance are
used to 'trace' emissions from the source to the receptor
site where a sample is taken. Use of organic tracers has
become more common as measurement quality has improved, costs have decreased, and compounds that were
historically good tracers, such as lead, have decreased in
ambient concentrations due to various factors including
government regulation.

retene and methoxyphenols from wood smoke, odd nalkanes and even n-alkanoic acids from vegetative detritus, cholesterol and the C16 and C18 n-alkanoic acids
from cooking, and lighter n-alkanes from brake wear.* [5]

71.3 Analytic use

Chemical analysis of ambient and source samples is performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry,
and the chemical prole of the emission sources can be
compared to an ambient sample using chemical mass balance techniques to identify the ambient mass contribution
from each pollution source. This approach assumes that
an ambient air sample has particulate matter contributions from a linear combination of emission sources. If
the chemical compositions of local sources are not available, source apportionment models such as positive ma71.1 Requirements
trix factorization and principal components analysis can
be used by employing statistical methods to identify emisIn order to be used as a tracer, a compound must be sions sources from time series of ambient samples.
emitted preferentially by some sources and not by others, giving the emission source a relatively unique chemical makeup. The compound must react slowly enough 71.4 References
in the atmosphere that it is chemically conserved from
the emission source to the receptor site where an ambi- [1] Pope, C Arden; et al. (2002).Cancer, cardiopulmonary
ent sample may be taken. Additionally, a tracer species
mortality, and long-term exposure to ne particulate air
should not be formed in the atmosphere and it should not
pollution. J. Amer. Med. Assoc. 287 (9): 11321141.
volatilize during transport so that mass balance is maindoi:10.1001/jama.287.9.1132. PMID 11879110.
tained.* [2] Tracer compounds must then be of primary
origins (not formed in the atmosphere), which are created [2] Cass, Glen R (1998). Organic molecular tracers for
particulate air pollution sources. TrAC Trends in Anthrough condensation and coagulation of mainly combusalytical Chemistry 17 (6): 356366. doi:10.1016/S0165*
tion and biological sources. [3]
9936(98)00040-5.
[3] H Seinfeld and N. Pandis. Atmospheric chemistry and
physics: from air pollution to climate change. (2006)

71.2 Examples
Samples have been analyzed from many known biogenic
and anthropogenic emissions sources such as diesel and
gasoline vehicles, cigarette smoke, road dust, vegetative
detritus, wood smoke, and meat cooking. Examples
of some results of preferential emissions from sources
include hopanes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
steranes * [4] from dierent types of mobile sources,
227

[4] Rogge, Wolfgang F.; Lynn M. Hildemann; Monica A.

Mazurek; Glen R. Cass; Bernd R. T. Simoneit (1993).
Sources of ne organic aerosol 1-9. Environmental Science and Technology 27 (13): 27002711.
doi:10.1021/es00049a008.
[5] Schauer, James J.; Michael J. Kleeman; Glen R. Cass;
Bernd R. T. Simoneit (1999). Measurement of Emissions from Air Pollution Sources. 1-5.. Environ-

228

CHAPTER 71. ORGANIC MOLECULAR TRACERS

mental Science and Technology 36 (6): 11691180.

doi:10.1021/es0108077.

71.5 External links

EPA-Chemical Mass Balance 8.2

Chapter 72

1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction

of Sulphur Emissions
The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution on Further Reduction
of Sulphur Emissions is an agreement to provide for a
further reduction in sulphur emissions or transboundary
uxes. It is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution and supplements the 1985
Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions.
opened for signature - 14 June 1994
entered into force - 5 August 1998
parties - (29) Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada,
Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, European
Union, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,
Ireland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Republic of Macedonia, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United
Kingdom
countries that have signed, but not yet ratied - (3) Poland,
Russia, Ukraine

72.1 External links

1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions, unece.org.
Text.
Signatures and ratications.

229

Chapter 73

Ozone Action Day

An Ozone Action Day, which can be declared by a local municipality, county or state, is observed at certain
times during the summer months, when weather conditions (such as heat, humidity, and air stagnation) run the
risk of causing health problems.
Ozone Action Days, alternately called anOzone Alert
or a Clean Air Alert, primarily center in the midwestern portion of the United States; particularly in wellurbanized areas such as Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, and
Indianapolis.

neries, coal-red power plants). Therefore, Ozone Action Days occur most frequently in the Midwestern United
States. In recent years, many sites have taken steps to help
reduce the amount of pollutants they discharge.
Secondary sources include automotive emissions (leaky
auto exhaust systems, excessive engine idling) and liberal
use of household chemicals or sprays. It is believed that
nearly fty percent of pollutant ozone molecules are attributed to the presence of these * [3]

73.3 Notication
73.1 Surface ozone vs. the ozone
layer

State, county, and even local governments can announce

Ozone Action Days as much as a day in advance through
the monitoring of approaching weather conditions and
Although the ozone found at the Earth's surface is the the Air Quality Index (AQI). The AQI is divided into six
same chemical species as that found in the ozone layer, levels: the higher the number (on a 0-300 scale), the more
they have very dierent sources, atmospheric chemistry, severe the ozone threat Air quality index.
and aect human health dierently as well. The ozone
layer protects people from the sun's most damaging ultraviolet rays. Because the ozone layer is located high in 73.4 What can be done
the atmosphere, people are not directly exposed to it.
Ground-level ozone, however, is a health hazard because
people breathe it. It is formed through a complex set
of chemical reactions involving hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides and sunlight on calm summer days where the
weather may also be warm and humid.* [1] High levels
of ground ozone aects the breathing process and aggravates asthma in chronic suerers. The young, elderly, and
those with lung diseases are especially susceptible.

Heavy industries make up a high percentage of pollutants causing ground ozone. Without drastically altering
or eliminating industrial production in an area altogether,
air quality improvements are very slight, though noticeable. Non-industrial pollutants, while not thought of to
be a major pollutant group, can be more controlled with
more positive change occurring.

Basic steps in limiting ground ozone during Ozone Action

Ozone is most likely to exceed safety limits from May Days are:
through October when seasonal heat and sunlight are at
their highest * [2] However, similar conditions can oc Controlling of auto emissions
cur at other times of the year in specic urbanized areas;
Eliminate excessive engine idling
namely the Los Angeles area, which is well known for
smog formation.
Ensure automotive exhaust system functions
properly
Avoid unnecessary driving whenever possible
73.2 Sources of ground ozone
Don't refuel until after 6:00 pm (or after dusk)
Take public transportation (some cities proA major cause of the conditions is due to pollutants in the
vide free or discounted public transportation
air released by heavy industry (manufacturing plants, reon Ozone Action Days).
230

73.6. REFERENCES
Bring lunch to work
Walk or ride a bicycle
Limit the use of lawn mowers and outdoor grills to
after 6:00 pm
Limit the use of aerosol cans around the home (for
example, hair gel instead of hair spray)
Conserve energy
Turn home air conditioning thermostat up (at
least 78)
Turn o or unplug electrical devices when not
in use
Some cities, such as Phoenix, Arizona and Evansville,
Indiana, prohibit outdoor burning during Ozone Action
Days.

73.5 External links

Smart Communities Network website listing strategies, state ordinances, additional articles and resources
Vast link page to various worldwide sites on general
air pollution, pollution monitoring, and the environment - courtesy Louisville (KY) Metro Air Pollution
Control District
Tulsa's Ozone Alert Oklahoma pollution gallery,
alerts, and information
Ozone Prevention success stories - Georgia-based
website

73.6 References
[1] Archived September 29, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
[2] SETRPC. SETRPC. Retrieved 2013-06-28.
[3] Archived September 29, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.

231

Chapter 74

Particulates
This article is about particles suspended in air. For general discussion of particulate types, see Particle Distribution of particles.
For other uses, see Particulates (disambiguation).
Atmospheric particulate matter also known as
0.001

0.01

10

100

1000

Mold Spores
House Dust Mite Allergenes

This animation shows aerosol optical thickness of emitted and

transported key tropospheric aerosols from 17 August 2006 to
10 April 2007, from a 10 km resolution GEOS-5 nature run
using the GOCART model.* [1]* [2] (click for more detail)
* green: black and organic carbon
* red/orange: dust
* white: sulfates
* blue: sea salt

Bacteria
Cat Allergenes

Types of Dust

Viruses
Heavy Dust
Settling Dust
Suspended Atmospheric Dust
Cement Dust

Particulate Contaminants
Gas Molecules

0.0001

0.1

Pollen

Biological Contaminants

0.0001

Fly Ash
Oil Smoke
Smog
Tabacco Smoke
Soot

Gaseous
Contaminants

0.001

0.01

0.1

10

100

1000

This diagram shows types, and size distribution in micrometres,

of atmospheric particulate matter

particulate matter (PM) or particulates are microscopic solid or liquid matter suspended in the Earth's atmosphere. The term aerosol commonly refers to the particulate/air mixture, as opposed to the particulate matter alone.* [3] Sources of particulate matter can be manmade or natural. They have impacts on climate and precipitation that adversely aect human health.
Subtypes of atmospheric particulate matter include:

Movie map of distribution of aerosol particles, based on

data from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite.
* Green areas show aerosol plumes dominated by larger particles.
* Red areas show aerosol plumes dominated by small particles.
* Yellow areas show where large and small aerosol particles are
mixing.
* Gray shows where the sensor did not collect data.

Suspended particulate matter (SPM)

Fine particles with a diameter of 2.5 m or less* [5]

Thoracic and respirable particles* [4]

Inhalable coarse particle, which are [coarse]
particles with a diameter between 2.5 and 10
micrometres (m)* [5]
232

PM2.5 * [6]
PM10 (PM10 is particulate matter with a mean aerodynamic diameter of 10 m)

74.3. SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF PARTICULATES

Ultrane particles, and
Soot
The IARC and WHO designate airborne particulates a
Group 1 carcinogen. Particulates are the deadliest form
of air pollution due to their ability to penetrate deep
into the lungs and blood streams unltered, causing permanent DNA mutations, heart attacks, and premature
death.* [7] In 2013, a study involving 312,944 people in
nine European countries revealed that there was no safe
level of particulates and that for every increase of 10
g/m3 in PM10 , the lung cancer rate rose 22%. The
smaller PM2.5 were particularly deadly, with a 36% increase in lung cancer per 10 g/m3 as it can penetrate
deeper into the lungs.* [8]

233
solution); in the absence of ammonia, secondary compounds take an acidic form as sulfuric acid (liquid aerosol
droplets) and nitric acid (atmospheric gas), all of which
may contribute to the health eects of particulates.* [14]
Secondary sulfate and nitrate aerosols are strong lightscatterers.* [15] This is mainly because the presence of
sulfate and nitrate causes the aerosols to increase to a size
that scatters light eectively.

Organic matter (OM) can be either primary or secondary,

the latter part deriving from the oxidation of VOCs; organic material in the atmosphere may either be biogenic
or anthropogenic. Organic matter inuences the atmospheric radiation eld by both scattering and absorption.
Another important aerosol type is elemental carbon (EC,
also known as black carbon, BC): this aerosol type includes strongly light-absorbing material and is thought to
yield large positive radiative forcing. Organic matter and
74.1 Sources of atmospheric par- elemental carbon together constitute the carbonaceous
fraction of aerosols.* [16] Secondary organic aerosols,
ticulate matter
tinytar ballsresulting from combustion products of internal combustion engines, have been identied as a danSome particulates occur naturally, originating from ger to health.* [17]
volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland res, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as The chemical composition of the aerosol directly aects
the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles,* [9] power plants how it interacts with solar radiation. The chemical conand various industrial processes also generate signicant stituents within the aerosol change the overall refractive
amounts of particulates. Coal combustion in developing index. The refractive index will determine how much
countries is the primary method for heating homes and light is scattered and absorbed.
supplying energy. Because salt spray over the oceans is The composition of particulate matter that generally
the overwhelmingly most common form of particulate in causes visual eects such as smog consists of sulfur dioxthe atmosphere, anthropogenic aerosolsthose made by ide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, mineral dust, orhuman activitiescurrently account for about 10 percent ganic matter, and elemental carbon also known as black
of the total mass of aerosols in our atmosphere.* [10]
carbon or soot. The particles are hygroscopic due to the
presence of sulfur, and SO2 is converted to sulfate when
high humidity and low temperatures are present. This
causes the reduced visibility and yellow color.* [18]
74.2 Composition
The composition of aerosols and particles depends on
their source. Wind-blown mineral dust* [11] tends to be
made of mineral oxides and other material blown from
the Earth's crust; this particulate is light-absorbing.* [12]
Sea salt* [13] is considered the second-largest contributor in the global aerosol budget, and consists mainly of
sodium chloride originated from sea spray; other constituents of atmospheric sea salt reect the composition of
sea water, and thus include magnesium, sulfate, calcium,
potassium, etc. In addition, sea spray aerosols may contain organic compounds, which inuence their chemistry.
Secondary particles derive from the oxidation of primary
gases such as sulfur and nitrogen oxides into sulfuric acid
(liquid) and nitric acid (gaseous). The precursors for
these aerosols i.e. the gases from which they originatemay have an anthropogenic origin (from fossil fuel
or coal combustion) and a natural biogenic origin. In
the presence of ammonia, secondary aerosols often take
the form of ammonium salts; i.e. ammonium sulfate
and ammonium nitrate (both can be dry or in aqueous

74.3 Size distribution of particulates

Aerosol particles of natural origin (such as windblown
dust) tend to have a larger radius than human-produced
aerosols such as particle pollution. The false-color maps
in the third image on this page show where there are
natural aerosols, human pollution, or a mixture of both,
monthly.
Among the most obvious patterns that the size distribution time series shows is that in the planets most
southerly latitudes, nearly all the aerosols are large, but
in the high northern latitudes, smaller aerosols are very
abundant. Most of the Southern Hemisphere is covered
by ocean, where the largest source of aerosols is natural
sea salt from dried sea spray. Because land is concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere, the amount of small
aerosols from res and human activities is greater there

234

CHAPTER 74. PARTICULATES

than in the Southern Hemisphere. Over land, patches of

large-radius aerosols appear over deserts and arid regions,
most prominently, the Sahara Desert in north Africa
and the Arabian Peninsula, where dust storms are common. Places where human-triggered or natural re activity is common (land-clearing res in the Amazon from
AugustOctober, for example, or lightning-triggered res
in the forests of northern Canada in Northern Hemisphere
summer) are dominated by smaller aerosols. Humanproduced (fossil fuel) pollution is largely responsible for
the areas of small aerosols over developed areas such as
the eastern United States and Europe, especially in their
summer.* [19]

ne particulates, and may be operated continuously without requiring frequent shutdowns for maintenance.* [22]

Satellite measurements of aerosols, called aerosol optical

thickness, are based on the fact that the particles change
the way the atmosphere reects and absorbs visible and
infrared light. As shown in the seventh image on this
page, an optical thickness of less than 0.1 (palest yellow) indicates a crystal clear sky with maximum visibility, whereas a value of 1 (reddish brown) indicates very
hazy conditions.* [20]

Wet scrubbers pass the dirty air through a scrubbing solution (usually a mixture of water and other compounds)
allowing the particulate to attach to the liquid molecules.
Electrostatic precipitators electrically charge the dirty air
as it passes through. The now charged air then passes by
large electrostatic plates which attract the charged particle in the airstream collecting them and leaving the now
clean air to be exhausted or recirculated.

74.4 Deposition processes

Fabric lters or baghouses are the most commonly employed in general industry.* [23] They work by forcing
dust laden air through a bag shaped fabric lter leaving
the particulate to collect on the outer surface of the bag
and allowing the now clean air to pass through to either be
exhausted into the atmosphere or in some cases recirculated into the facility. Common fabrics include polyester
and berglass and common fabric coatings include PTFE
(commonly known as Teon). The excess dust buildup is
then cleaned from the bags and removed from the collector.

74.6 Climate eects

Main article: Deposition (aerosol physics)

Radiative forcing components

2.5

-1.5

Albedo

Linear contrails

Cloud albedo
effect

Direct effect

Black carbon
on snow

Stratospheric
water vapour

Ozone

Solar irradiance

-1

Greenhouse
gases

Net anthropogenic
component

-0.5

Land use

N20

Aerosols

Stratospheric

0.5

CH4

CO2

1.5

Tropospheric

Halocarbons

Radiative forcing (W/m2)

In general, the smaller and lighter a particle is, the longer

it will stay in the air. Larger particles (greater than 10
micrometers in diameter) tend to settle to the ground by
gravity in a matter of hours whereas the smallest particles
(less than 1 micrometer) can stay in the atmosphere for
weeks and are mostly removed by precipitation. Diesel
particulate matter is highest near the source of emission. Any info regarding DPM and the atmosphere, ora,
height, and distance from major sources would be useful
to determine health eects.

74.5 Control technologies

Main article: Dust collector
A complicated blend of solid and liquid particles result in
particulate matter and these particulate matter emissions
are highly regulated in most industrialized countries. Due
to environmental concerns, most industries are required
to operate some kind of dust collection system to control
particulate emissions.* [21] These systems include inertial collectors (cyclonic separators), fabric lter collectors
(baghouses), wet scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators.
Cyclonic separators are useful for removing large, coarse
particles and are often employed as a rst step or precleanerto other more ecient collectors. Well-designed
cyclonic separators can be very ecient in removing even

2005 radiative forcings and uncertainties as estimated by the

IPCC.

Atmospheric aerosols aect the climate of the earth by

changing the amount of incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial long wave radiation retained in the earth's
system. This occurs through several distinct mechanisms
which are split into direct, indirect* [24]* [25] and semidirect aerosol eects. The aerosol climate eects are
the biggest source of uncertainty in future climate predictions.* [26] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Third Assessment Report, says: While the radiative forcing due to greenhouse gases may be determined
to a reasonably high degree of accuracy... the uncertainties relating to aerosol radiative forcings remain large, and
rely to a large extent on the estimates from global modelling
studies that are dicult to verify at the present time.* [27]

74.6. CLIMATE EFFECTS

74.6.1

Aerosol radiative eects

Global aerosol optical thickness. The aerosol scale (yellow to

dark reddish-brown) indicates the relative amount of particles
that absorb sunlight.

235
magnitude of the resultant radiative forcing due to the direct eect of an aerosol is dependent on the albedo of
the underlying surface, as this aects the net amount of
radiation absorbed or scattered to space. e.g. if a highly
scattering aerosol is above a surface of low albedo it has a
greater radiative forcing than if it was above a surface of
high albedo. The converse is true of absorbing aerosol,
with the greatest radiative forcing arising from a highly
absorbing aerosol over a surface of high albedo.* [24] The
direct aerosol eect is a rst order eect and is therefore
classied as a radiative forcing by the IPCC.* [26] The
interaction of an aerosol with radiation is quantied by
the single-scattering albedo (SSA), the ratio of scattering
alone to scattering plus absorption (extinction) of radiation by a particle. The SSA tends to unity if scattering
dominates, with relatively little absorption, and decreases
as absorption increases, becoming zero for innite absorption. For example, sea-salt aerosol has an SSA of
1, as a sea-salt particle only scatters, whereas soot has
an SSA of 0.23, showing that it is a major atmospheric
aerosol absorber.

Indirect eect

These maps show average monthly aerosol amounts around

the world based on observations from the Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite.

Direct eect

Particulates in the air causing shades of grey and pink in Mumbai

during sunset

The direct aerosol eect consists of any direct interaction

of radiation with atmospheric aerosol, such as absorption
or scattering. It aects both short and longwave radiation to produce a net negative radiative forcing.* [28] The

The Indirect aerosol eect consists of any change to the

earth's radiative budget due to the modication of clouds
by atmospheric aerosols, and consists of several distinct
eects. Cloud droplets form onto pre-existing aerosol
particles, known as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN).
For any given meteorological conditions, an increase in
CCN leads to an increase in the number of cloud droplets.
This leads to more scattering of shortwave radiation i.e.
an increase in the albedo of the cloud, known as the
Cloud albedo eect, First indirect eect or Twomey
eect.* [25] Evidence supporting the cloud albedo effect has been observed from the eects of ship exhaust
plumes* [29] and biomass burning* [30] on cloud albedo
compared to ambient clouds. The Cloud albedo aerosol
eect is a rst order eect and therefore classied as a
radiative forcing by the IPCC.* [26]
An increase in cloud droplet number due to the introduction of aerosol acts to reduce the cloud droplet size,
as the same amount of water is divided between more
droplets. This has the eect of suppressing precipitation, increasing the cloud lifetime, known as the cloud
lifetime aerosol eect, second indirect eect or Albrecht
eect.* [26] This has been observed as the suppression
of drizzle in ship exhaust plume compared to ambient
clouds,* [31] and inhibited precipitation in biomass burning plumes.* [32] This cloud lifetime eect is classied
as a climate feedback (rather than a radiative forcing) by
the IPCC due to the interdependence between it and the
hydrological cycle.* [26] However, it has previously been
classied as a negative radiative forcing.* [33]

236

CHAPTER 74. PARTICULATES

Semi-direct eect

permeating an EC buckyball. BC from fossil fuels is estimated by the IPCC in the Fourth Assessment Report
of the IPCC, 4AR, to contribute a global mean radiative
forcing of +0.2 W/m (was +0.1 W/m in the Second Assessment Report of the IPCC, SAR), with a range +0.1 to
+0.4 W/m. Bond et al., however, states thatthe best estimate for the industrial-era (1750 to 2005) direct radiative forcing of atmospheric black carbon is +0.71 W/m
with 90% uncertainty bounds of (+0.08, +1.27) W/m"
with total direct forcing by all black carbon sources,
without subtracting the preindustrial background, is estimated as +0.88 (+0.17, +1.48) W/m"* [37]

The Semi-direct eect concerns any radiative eect

caused by absorbing atmospheric aerosol such as soot,
apart from direct scattering and absorption, which is classied as the direct eect. It encompasses many individual mechanisms, and in general is more poorly dened
and understood than the direct and indirect aerosol effects. For instance, if absorbing aerosols are present in
a layer aloft in the atmosphere, they can heat surrounding air which inhibits the condensation of water vapour,
resulting in less cloud formation.* [34] Additionally, heating a layer of the atmosphere relative to the surface results
in a more stable atmosphere due to the inhibition of atmospheric convection. This inhibits the convective uplift 74.6.3
of moisture,* [35] which in turn reduces cloud formation.
The heating of the atmosphere aloft also leads to a cooling of the surface, resulting in less evaporation of surface
water. The eects described here all lead to a reduction in cloud cover i.e. an increase in planetary albedo.
The semi-direct eect classied as a climate feedback)
by the IPCC due to the interdependence between it and
the hydrological cycle.* [26] However, it has previously
been classied as a negative radiative forcing.* [33]

74.6.2

Instances of aerosol aecting climate

Roles of dierent aerosol species

Sulfate aerosol
Main article: stratospheric sulfur aerosols
Solar radiation reduction due to volcanic eruptions

Sulfate aerosol has two main eects, direct and indirect. The direct eect, via albedo, is a cooling eect
that slows the overall rate of global warming: the IPCC's
best estimate of the radiative forcing is 0.4 watts per
square meter with a range of 0.2 to 0.8 W/m* [36]
but there are substantial uncertainties. The eect varies
strongly geographically, with most cooling believed to be
at and downwind of major industrial centres. Modern
climate models addressing the attribution of recent climate change take into account sulfate forcing, which appears to account (at least partly) for the slight drop in
global temperature in the middle of the 20th century. The
indirect eect (via the aerosol acting as cloud condensation nuclei, CCN, and thereby modifying the cloud properties -albedo and lifetime-) is more uncertain but is believed to be a cooling.

Volcanoes are a large natural source of aerosol and

have been linked to changes in the earth's climate often
with consequences for the human population. Eruptions
linked to changes in climate include the 1600 eruption of
Huaynaputina which was linked to the Russian famine of
1601 - 1603,* [38]* [39]* [40] leading to the deaths of two
million, and the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo which
caused a global cooling of approximately 0.5 C lasting
several years.* [41]* [42] Research tracking the eect of
light-scattering aerosols in the stratosphere during 2000
and 2010 and comparing its pattern to volcanic activity
show a close correlation. Simulations of the eect of
anthropogenic particles showed little inuence at present
levels.* [43]* [44]

Aerosols are also thought to aect weather and climate on

a regional scale. The failure of the Indian Monsoon has
been linked to the suppression of evaporation of water
Black carbon
from the Indian Ocean due to the semi-direct eect of
*
Black carbon (BC), or carbon black, or elemental carbon anthropogenic aerosol. [45]
(EC), often called soot, is composed of pure carbon clus- Recent studies of the Sahel drought* [46] and major inters, skeleton balls and buckyballs, and is one of the most creases since 1967 in rainfall over the Northern Territory,
important absorbing aerosol species in the atmosphere. It Kimberley, Pilbara and around the Nullarbor Plain have
should be distinguished from organic carbon (OC): clus- led some scientists to conclude that the aerosol haze over
tered or aggregated organic molecules on their own or South and East Asia has been steadily shifting tropical

74.7. HEALTH EFFECTS

rainfall in both hemispheres southward.* [45]* [47]
The latest studies of severe rainfall declines over southern
Australia since 1997* [48] have led climatologists there
to consider the possibility that these Asian aerosols have
shifted not only tropical but also midlatitude systems
southward.

74.7 Health eects

Air pollution measurement station in Emden, Germany

237
10 micrometer size does not represent a strict boundary between respirable and non-respirable particles, but
has been agreed upon for monitoring of airborne particulate matter by most regulatory agencies. Because of their
small size, particles on the order of ~10 micrometers or
less (PM10 ) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs
such as the bronchioles or alveoli.* [49]
Similarly, so called ne PM, (often referred to as PM2.5 ),
tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the
lung (alveolus), and very small particles (< 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to aect other organs.
Penetration of particles is not wholly dependent on their
size; shape and chemical composition also play a part. To
avoid this complication, simple nomenclature is used to
indicate the dierent degrees of relative penetration of
a PM particle into the cardiovascular system. Inhalable
particles penetrate no further than the bronchi as they
are ltered out by the cilia. Thoracic particles can penetrate right into terminal bronchioles whereas PM which
can penetrate to alveoli, the gas exchange area, and hence
the circulatory system are termed respirable particles.
In analogy, the inhalable dust fraction is the fraction of
dust entering nose and mouth which may be deposited
anywhere in the respiratory tract. The thoracic fraction is
the fraction that enters the thorax and is deposited within
the lung's airways. The respirable fraction is what is deposited in the gas exchange regions (alveoli).* [50]
The smallest particles, less than 100 nanometers
(nanoparticles), may be even more damaging to the cardiovascular system.* [51] Nanoparticles can pass through
cell membranes and migrate into other organs, including
the brain. Particles emitted from modern diesel engines
(commonly referred to as Diesel Particulate Matter, or
DPM) are typically in the size range of 100 nanometers (0.1 micrometer). These soot particles also carry
carcinogens like benzopyrenes adsorbed on their surface.
Particulate mass is not a proper measure of the health
hazard, because one particle of 10 m diameter has approximately the same mass as 1 million particles of 100
nm diameter, but is much less hazardous, as it unlikely to
enter the alveoli. Legislative limits for engine emissions
based on mass are therefore not protective. Proposals for
new regulations exist in some countries, with suggestions
to limit the particle surface area or the particle count (numerical quantity) instead.

The site and extent of absorption of inhaled gases and vapors are determined by their solubility in water. Absorption is also dependent upon air ow rates and the partial
pressure of the gases in the inspired air. The fate of a
specic contaminant is dependent upon the form in which
74.7.1 Size, shape and solubility matter
it exists (aerosol or particulate). Inhalation also depends
*
The size of the particle is a main determinant of where upon the breathing rate of the subject. [52]
in the respiratory tract the particle will come to rest Another complexity not entirely documented is how the
when inhaled. Larger particles are generally ltered in shape of PM can aect health, except for the needle-like
the nose and throat via cilia and mucus, but particulate shape of asbestos which can lodge itself in the lungs. Gematter smaller than about 10 micrometers, can settle in ometrically angular shapes have more surface area than
the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. The
See also: Environmental impact of the coal industry

238

CHAPTER 74. PARTICULATES

rounder shapes, which in turn aects the binding capac- wide..* [61] Short-term exposure at elevated concentraity of the particle to other, possibly more dangerous sub- tions can signicantly contribute to heart disease. A 2011
stances.
study concluded that trac exhaust is the single most serious preventable cause of heart attack in the general public, the cause of 7.4% of all attacks.* [62]

74.7.2

Health problems

Air quality information on PM10 displayed in Katowice, Poland

The largest US study on acute health eects of coarse particle pollution between 2.5 and 10 micrometers in diameter. was published 2008 and found an association with
hospital admissions for cardiovascular diseases but no evidence of an association with the number of hospital admissions for respiratory diseases.* [63] After taking into
account ne particle levels (PM 2.5 and less), the association with coarse particles remained but was no longer
statistically signicant, which means the eect is due to
the subsection of ne particles.
Particulate matter studies in Bangkok Thailand from
2008 indicated a 1.9% increased risk of dying from cardiovascular disease, and 1.0% risk of all disease for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter. Levels averaged 65
in 1996, 68 in 2002, and 52 in 2004. Decreasing levels
may be attributed to conversions of diesel to natural gas
combustion as well as improved regulations.* [64]

The eects of inhaling particulate matter that have been

widely studied in humans and animals include asthma, The Mongolian government agency recorded a 45% inlung cancer, cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases, crease in the rate of respiratory illness in the past ve
years (reported in September 2014). Bronchial asthma,
premature delivery, birth defects, and premature death.
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and interstitial
Increased levels of ne particles in the air as a result of
pneumonia were the most common ailments treated by
anthropogenic particulate air pollution is consistently
area hospitals. Levels of premature death, chronic bronand independently related to the most serious eects,
chitis, and cardiovascular disease are increasing at a rapid
including lung cancer* [8] and other cardiopulmonary
rate.* [18]
mortality.* [53] The large number of deaths* [54] and
other health problems associated with particulate pollution was rst demonstrated in the early 1970s* [55] and
has been reproduced many times since. PM pollution is 74.8 Eects on vegetation
estimated to cause 22,00052,000 deaths per year in the
United States (from 2000)* [56] contributed to ~370,000 Particulate matter can clog stomatal openings of plants
premature deaths in Europe during 2005.* [57] and 3.22 and interfere with photosynthesis functions.* [65] In this
million deaths globally in 2010 per the global burden of manner high particulate matter concentrations in the atdisease collaboration.* [58]
mosphere can lead to growth stunting or mortality in some
A 2002 study indicated that PM2.5 leads to high plaque plant species.
deposits in arteries, causing vascular inammation and
atherosclerosis a hardening of the arteries that reduces
elasticity, which can lead to heart attacks and other car- 74.9 Regulation
diovascular problems.* [59] A 2014 meta analysis reported that long term exposure to particulate matter is Due to the highly toxic health eects of particulate matlinked to coronary events. The study included 11 cohorts ter, most governments have created regulations both for
participating in the European Study of Cohorts for Air the emissions allowed from certain types of pollution
Pollution Eects (ESCAPE) with 100,166 participants, sources (motor vehicles, industrial emissions etc.) and
followed for an average of 11.5 years. An increase in es- for the ambient concentration of particulates. The IARC
timated annual exposure to PM 2.5 of just 5 g/m3 was and WHO designates particulates a Group 1 carcinogen.
linked with a 13% increased risk of heart attacks.* [60]
Particulates are the deadliest form of air pollution due to
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated in
2005 that "... ne particulate air pollution (PM(2.5)),
causes about 3% of mortality from cardiopulmonary disease, about 5% of mortality from cancer of the trachea,
bronchus, and lung, and about 1% of mortality from acute
respiratory infections in children under 5 years, world-

their ability to penetrate deep into the lungs and blood

streams unltered, causing permanent DNA mutations,
heart attacks and premature death.* [7] In 2013, the ESCAPE study involving 312,944 people in nine European
countries revealed that there was no safe level of particulates, and that for every increase of 10 g/m3 in PM10,

74.9. REGULATION

239

the lung cancer rate rose 22%. For PM2.5 there was 74.9.9 Taiwan
a 36% increase in lung cancer per 10 g/m3.* [8] In a
2014 metaanalysis of 18 studies globally including the Taiwan has set limits for particulates in the air:* [79]* [80]
ESCAPE data, for every increase of 10 g/m3 in PM2.5,
the lung cancer rate rose 9%.* [66]

74.9.10 United States

74.9.1

Australia

Australia has set limits for particulates in the air:* [67]

74.9.2

Canada

In Canada the standard for particulate matter is set nationally by the federal-provincial Canadian Council of
Ministers of the Environment (CCME). Jurisdictions
(provinces) may set more stringent standards. The
CCME standard for particulate matter 2.5 (PM2.5) as of
2015 is 30 g/m3 (daily average, i.e. 24-hour period, 3year average, 98th percentile).* [68]

74.9.3

China

China has set limits for particulates in the air:* [69]

74.9.4

European Union

The United States Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) has set standards for PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations.* [81] (See National Ambient Air Quality Standards)
California
In October 2008, the Department of Toxic Substances
Control (DTSC), within the California Environmental
Protection Agency, announced its intent to request information regarding analytical test methods, fate and transport in the environment, and other relevant information
from manufacturers of carbon nanotubes.* [83] DTSC is
exercising its authority under the California Health and
Safety Code, Chapter 699, sections 57018-57020.* [84]
These sections were added as a result of the adoption of
Assembly Bill AB 289 (2006).* [84] They are intended to
make information on the fate and transport, detection and
analysis, and other information on chemicals more available. The law places the responsibility to provide this information to the Department on those who manufacture
or import the chemicals.

On 22 January 2009, a formal information request letThe European Union has established the European emis- ter* [85] was sent to manufacturers who produce or imsion standards which include limits for particulates in the port carbon nanotubes in California, or who may export
carbon nanotubes into the State.* [86] This letter constiair:* [70]
tutes the rst formal implementation of the authorities
placed into statute by AB 289 and is directed to manufacturers of carbon nanotubes, both industry and academia
74.9.5 Hong Kong
within the State, and to manufacturers outside California
*
Hong Kong has set limits for particulates in the air: [71] who export carbon nanotubes to California. This request
for information must be met by the manufacturers within
one year. DTSC is waiting for the upcoming 22 January
2010 deadline for responses to the data call-in.

74.9.6

Japan

Japan has set limits for particulates in the air:* [72]* [73]

74.9.7

Russia

Russia has set limits for particulates in the air.* [75]

74.9.8

South Korea

The California Nano Industry Network and DTSC hosted

a full-day symposium on 16 November 2009 in Sacramento, CA. This symposium provided an opportunity to
hear from nanotechnology industry experts and discuss
future regulatory considerations in California.* [87]
DTSC is expanding the Specic Chemical Information
Call-in to members of the nanometal oxides, the latest
information can be found on their website.* [88]
Colorado

South Korea has set limits for particulates in the Key points in the Colorado Plan include reducing emisair:* [76]* [77]
sion levels and solutions by sector. Agriculture, transLimit on annual average of PM2.5 will be lowered to 20 portation, green electricity, and renewable energy reg/m3 in 2020.* [78]
search are the main concepts and goals in this plan. Politi-

240

CHAPTER 74. PARTICULATES

cal programs such as mandatory vehicle emissions testing

and the prohibition of smoking indoors are actions taken
by local government to create public awareness and participation in cleaner air. The location of Denver next to
the Rocky Mountains and wide expanse of plains makes
the metro area of Colorado's capital city a likely place for
smog and visible air pollution.

74.10 Aected areas

74.10.3 Ulaanbaatar
Mongolia's capital city Ulaanbaatar has an annual average
mean temperature of about 0 C, making it the world's
coldest capital city. About 40% of the population lives
in apartments, 80% of which are supplied with central
heating systems from 3 combined heat and power plants.
In 2007, the power plants consumed almost 3.4 million
tons of coal. The pollution control technology is in poor
condition.
The other 60% of the population reside in shantytowns
(Ger districts), which have developed due to the country's new market economy and the very cold winter seasons. The poor in these districts cook and heat their
wood houses with indoor stoves fueled by wood or coal.
The resulting air pollution is characterized by raised sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide levels and very high concentrations of airborne particles and particulate matter
(PM).* [18] Annual seasonal average particulate matter
concentrations have been recorded as high as 279 g/m3
(micrograms per cubic meter). The World Health Organization's recommended annual mean PM10 level is 20
g/m3 ,* [91] which means that Ulaanbaatar's PM10 annual mean levels are 14 times higher than recommended,
and that it has left Northern China's most polluted cities
in its wake.

During the winter months in particular, the air pollution

obscures the air, aecting the visibility in the city to such
an extent that airplanes on some occasions are prevented
The most concentrated particulate matter pollution re- from landing at the airport.
sulting from the burning of fossil fuels by transportation
and industrial sources tends to be in densely populated In addition to stack emissions, another source unacmetropolitan areas in developing countries such as Delhi counted for in the emission inventory is y ash from ash
ponds, the nal disposal place for y ash that has been coland Beijing.
lected in settling tanks. Ash ponds are continually eroded
by wind during the dry season.
Concentration of PM10 * [57] in Europe

74.10.1

Australia

PM10 pollution in coal mining areas in Australia such

as the Latrobe Valley in Victoria and the Hunter Region
in New South Wales signicantly increased during 2004
to 2014. Although the increase did not signicantly add
to non-attainment statistics the rate of increase has risen
each year during 2010 to 2014.* [89]

74.11 See also

74.12 References
[1] GMAO - Research
[2] GMAO - Research

74.10.2

China

Some cities in Northern China and South Asia have had

concentrations above 200 g/m3 up to a few years ago.
The PM levels in Chinese cities have been extreme in recent years, reaching an all-time high in Beijing on 12 January 2013, of 993 g/m3 .* [18]
To monitor the air quality of south China, the U.S. Consulate Guangzhou set a PM 2.5 monitor on Shamian Island in Guangzhou, and displays readings on its ocial
website and social platforms.* [90]

[3] Seinfeld, John; Spyros Pandis (1998). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change
(2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. p. 97. ISBN 0-471-17816-0.
[4] Thoracic and respirable particle denitions for human
health risk assessment
[5] Particulate Matter | Air & Radiation | US EPA
[6] PM2.5 is correctly dened as particulate matter with a
mean aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 m, nih though most
often quoted as being of a diameter of less than 2.5 m
see description of PM denition here

74.12. REFERENCES

241

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[62] Nawrot, Tim S; Laura Perez; Nino Knzli; Elke Munters;
Benoit Nemery (2011). Public health importance
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Taking into account the OR and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for trac exposure (7.4%)... " :"[O]dds ratios and frequencies of each
trigger were used to compute population-attributable fractions (PAFs), which estimate the proportion of cases that
could be avoided if a risk factor were removed. PAFs
depend not only on the risk factor strength at the individual level but also on its frequency in the community.
... [T]he exposure prevalence for triggers in the relevant
control time window ranged from 0.04% for cocaine use
to 100% for air pollution. ... Taking into account the OR
and the prevalences of exposure, the highest PAF was estimated for trac exposure (7.4%) ...
[63] Newswise: National Study Examines Health Risks of
Coarse Particle Pollution
[64] Health Eects of Air Pollution in Bangkok Archived 17
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Australia Air quality fact sheet. Environment.gov.au.
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Council of Ministers of the Environment, 56 June 2000
[69] http://kjs.mep.gov.cn/hjbhbz/bzwb/dqhjbh/dqhjzlbz/
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[70] Air Quality Standards Environment European Commission. Ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
[71] Air Quality Objectives. Environmental Protection Department, Hong Kong. 19 December 2012. Retrieved 27
July 2013.
[72] " 2.5
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Retrieved 1 February 2015.
[73] http://www2.dmu.dk/AtmosphericEnvironment/Expost/
database/docs/AQ_limit_values.pdf
[74] Referred to as Suspended Particulate Matter
[75] http://30.rospotrebnadzor.ru/s/30/files/ntd/37163.doc
[76] http://www.airkorea.or.kr/
[77]
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February 2015.

(28 November 2009). "

". Cafe.naver.com. Retrieved 1

[78] 5 20 ..
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'' ' ' ?
[79] " ". Environmental Protection Administration, ROC. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
[80] FEATURE: Air pollution reason for concern: groups Taipei Times
[81] Pm Naaqs | Us Epa. Epa.gov. Retrieved 1 February
2015.
[82] Environmental Protection Agency Particulate Matter
(PM-10)". Epa.gov. 28 June 2006. Retrieved 1 February
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[83] Nanotechnology web page. Department of Toxic Substances Control. 2008. Archived from the original on 1
January 2010.
[84] Chemical Information Call-In web page. Department
of Toxic Substances Control. 2008.
[85] Wong, Jerey (22 January 2009), Call in letter (PDF)

[65] Hogan, C.Michael (2010). Emily Monosson and C.

Cleveland, ed. Abiotic factor. Encyclopedia of Earth.
National Council for Science and the Environment.
[66] Ghassan B. Hamra,1 Neela Guha,1 Aaron Cohen; et al.
(September 2014). Outdoor Particulate Matter Exposure and Lung Cancer: A Systematic Review and MetaAnalysis. Environmental Health Perspectives 122 (9).
doi:10.1289/ehp.1408092. Retrieved 2 September 2014.

[86] Contact List for CNT January 22 & 26 2009 Document

(PDF).
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original on 1 January 2010.
[88] dtsc.ca.gov Archived 1 January 2010 at the Wayback Machine.

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[89] Oliver Milman (1 April 2015). Call for action on pollution as emissions linked to respiratory illnesses double
. The Guardian. Retrieved 3 April 2015. emissions of
a key pollutant linked to respiratory illness have doubled
over the past ve years
[90] Consulate General of the United States of America
Guangzhou, China (n.d.). U.S. Consulate Air Quality
Monitor and StateAir. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
[91] WHO | Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health

74.13 Further reading

Article at earthobservatory.nasa.gov describing the
possible inuence of aerosols on the climate
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(the principal international scientic body on climate change) chapter on atmospheric aerosols and
their radiative eects
InsideEPA.com, Study Links Air Toxics To Heart
Disease In Mice Amid EPA Controversy
Preining, Othmar and E. James Davis (eds.), History of Aerosol Science,sterreichische Akademie
der Wissenschaften, ISBN 3-7001-2915-7 (pbk.)
G Invernizzi et al., Particulate matter from tobacco
versus diesel car exhaust: an educational perspective.
Tobacco Control 13, S.219221 (2004)
JEFF CHARLTON Pandemic planning: a review of
respirator and mask protection levels.
Hinds, William C., Aerosol Technology: Properties,
Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles,
Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-19410-7

74.14 External links

National Pollutant Inventory Particulate matter
fact sheet
CDC NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
American Association for Aerosol Research
Particulate Air Pollution
Watch and read 'Dirty Little Secrets', 2006 Australian science documentary on health eects of ne
particle pollution from vehicle exhausts
Little Green Data Book 2007, World Bank. Lists
C02 and PM statistics by country.
Air Pollution in World Cities (PM10 Concentrations)

CHAPTER 74. PARTICULATES

Airborne Particles and their Health Eects A
multinational research network
Measurement of personal exposure to PM10 in the
Non-Workplace Environment using Passive Sampling Techniques by RJ Aitken, LC Kenny and A
Soutar. IOM Research Report TM/01/05
Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (Report)
Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (Annexes Only) (PDF) (1157 pages) 52 MB

Chapter 75

Partnership for a New Generation of

Vehicles

The 80 mpg diesel-hybrid General Motors Precept

The 72 mpg diesel-hybrid Chrysler ESX-3

75.1 Results
The PNGV programovercame many challenges and has
forged a useful and productive partnership of industry and
government participants,* [2] resulting in three concept cars that demonstrate the feasibility of a variety of
new automotive technologieswith Diesel-electric transmission.* [3]
GM, Ford, and Chrysler all created working concept vehicles of 5 passenger family cars that achieved at least 72
mpg.* [4] GM created the 80 mpg Precept, Ford created
the 72 mpg Prodigy, and Chrysler created the 72 mpg
ESX-3.

The 72 mpg diesel-hybrid Ford Prodigy

The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles was a

cooperative research program between the U.S. government and major auto corporations, aimed at bringing extremely fuel-ecient (up to 80 mpg) vehicles to market by
2003. The partnership, formed in 1993, involved 8 federal agencies,* [1] the national laboratories, universities,
and the United States Council for Automotive Research
(USCAR), which comprises DaimlerChrysler, Ford Motor Company and General Motors Corporation. On track
to achieving its objectives, the program was cancelled by
the Bush Administration in 2001 at the request of the automakers, with some of its aspects shifted to the much
more distant FreedomCAR program.

Researchers for the PNGV identied a number of ways

to reach 80 mpg including reducing vehicle weight, increasing engine eciency, combining gasoline engines
and electric motors in hybrid vehicles, implementing regenerative braking, and switching to high eciency fuel
cell powerplants. Specic new technology breakthroughs
achieved under the program include:* [5]

245

Development of carbon foam with extremely high

heat conductivity (2000 R&D 100 Award)
Near frictionless carbon coating, many times slicker
than Teon (1998 R&D 100 Award)

246

CHAPTER 75. PARTNERSHIP FOR A NEW GENERATION OF VEHICLES

Oxygen-rich air supplier for clean diesel technology

(1999 R&D 100 Award)
Development of a compact microchannel fuel vaporizer to convert gasoline to hydrogen for fuel cells
(1999 R&D 100 Award)
Development of aftertreatment devices to remove
nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust with eciencies
greater than 90 percent, when used with diesel fuel
containing 3 ppm of sulfur
Improvement of the overall eciency and power-toweight ratios of power electronics to within 25 percent of targets, while reducing cost by 86 percent to
$10/kW since 1995
Reduction in cost of lightweight aluminum, magnesium, and glass-ber-reinforced polymer components to less than 50 percent the cost of steel
Reduction in the costs of fuel cells from
$10,000/kW in 1994 to $300/kW in 2000
Substantial weight reduction to within 5 to 10 percent of the vehicle weight reduction goal

75.2 Criticisms
Ralph Nader called PNGV an eort to coordinate the
transfer of property rights for federally funded research
and development to the automotive industry. * [6]
PNGV was also criticized by some groups for a focus on
diesel solutions, a fuel that is seen by some as having inherently high air pollutant emissions. * [7]
Elizabeth Kolbert in her article in the 2007-11-05 New
Yorker Running on Fumes, noted that renewable energy
is the main problem, and that If someone, somewhere,
comes up with a source of power that is safe, inexpensive,
and for all intents and purposes inexhaustible, then we,
the Chinese, the Indians, and everyone else on the planet
can keep on truckin. Barring that, the car of the future
may turn out to be no car at all.
See peak oil.

75.3 Notes
[1] Departments of Commerce, Energy, Defense, Interior
and Transportation, the National Science Foundation
(NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), and Environmental Protection Agency
[2] National Research Council Review of the Research Program of the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles:
Seventh Report (2001)
[3] U.S. Department of Energy publication New concept
cars demonstrate clean, ecient transportation technologiespublished April 2001, accessed April 16, 2007

[4] DoE PNGV summary

[5] Testimony to U.S Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Technology by Dr. Claude Gravatte, Director
PNGV
[6] http://www.nader.org/releases/63099.html
[7] http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYH/is_
5_5/ai_71836367

75.4 External links

Review Of The Research Program Of The Partnership For A New Generation Of Vehicles: Seventh
Report, the National Research Council's nal report
on PNGV
Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles Organization
Updating Automotive Research, commentary on
PNGV and FreedomCAR by Daniel Sperling, professor of civil engineering and environmental science at University of California, Davis
DOE vehicle technologies homepage
USCAR Website
Supercar: The tanking of an American dream

Chapter 76

Passive smoking
Second hand smokeredirects here. For the Sublime tral role in the debate over the harms and regulation of toalbum, see Second-hand Smoke.
bacco products. Since the early 1970s, the tobacco industry has viewed public concern over second-hand smoke
as a serious threat to its business interests.* [7] Harm to
bystanders was perceived as a motivator for stricter regulation of tobacco products. Despite the industry's awareness of the harms of second-hand smoke as early as the
1980s, the tobacco industry coordinated a scientic controversy with the aim of forestalling regulation of their
products.* [3]* :1242* [5]

76.1 Eects
Second-hand smoke causes many of the same diseases as
direct smoking, including cardiovascular diseases, lung
cancer, and respiratory diseases.* [1]* [2]* [8] These diseases include:
Cancer:
General: overall increased risk;* [9] reviewing
the evidence accumulated on a worldwide basis, the International Agency for Research on
Cancer concluded in 2004 that Involuntary
smoking (exposure to secondhand or 'environmental' tobacco smoke) is carcinogenic to humans.* [2]
Tobacco smoke in an Irish pub before a smoking ban came into
eect on March 29, 2004

Passive smoking is the inhalation of smoke, called

second-hand smoke (SHS), or environmental tobacco
smoke (ETS), by persons other than the intended activesmoker. It occurs when tobacco smoke permeates
any environment, causing its inhalation by people within
that environment. Exposure to second-hand tobacco
smoke causes disease, disability, and death.* [1]* [2] The
health risks of second-hand smoke are a matter of
scientic consensus.* [3]* [4]* [5] These risks have been a
major motivation for smoke-free laws in workplaces and
indoor public places, including restaurants, bars and night
clubs as well as some open public spaces.* [6]
Concerns around second-hand smoke have played a cen247

Lung cancer: passive smoking is a risk factor

for lung cancer.* [10]* [11] In the United States
passive smoke is estimated to cause more than
7,000 deaths from lung cancer a year among
non-smokers.* [12]
Breast cancer: The California Environmental Protection Agency concluded in 2005 that
passive smoking increases the risk of breast
cancer in younger, primarily premenopausal
women by 70%* [8] and the US Surgeon
General has concluded that the evidence is
suggestive,but still insucient to assert
such a causal relationship.* [1] In contrast, the
International Agency for Research on Cancer
concluded in 2004 that there was no support for a causal relation between involuntary

248

CHAPTER 76. PASSIVE SMOKING

exposure to tobacco smoke and breast cancer
in never-smokers.* [2] A 2015 meta-analysis
found that the evidence that passive smoking
moderately increased the risk of breast cancer
had becomemore substantial than a few years
ago.* [13]
Pancreatic cancer: A 2012 meta-analysis
found no evidence that passive smoking was
associated with an increased risk of pancreatic
cancer.* [14]

Risk of carrying Neisseria meningitidis or

Streptococcus pneumoniae.* [15]
Overall increased risk of death in both adults, where
it is estimated to kill 53,000 nonsmokers per year,
making it the 3rd leading cause of preventable death
in the U.S,* [32]* [33] and in children.* [34] The
World Health Organization states that passive smoking causes about 600,000 deaths a year, and about
1% of the global burden of disease.* [35]

Cervical cancer: A 2015 overview of systematic reviews found that exposure to second- 76.1.1 Risk to children
hand smoke increased the risk of cervical can Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).* [36] In his
cer.* [15]
2006 report, the US Surgeon General concludes:
Circulatory system: risk of heart disease,* [16] reThe
evidence is sucient to infer a causal relationduced heart rate variability.* [17]
ship between exposure to secondhand smoke and
sudden infant death syndrome.* [37] Secondhand
Epidemiological studies have shown that both
smoking has been estimated to be associated with
active and passive cigarette smoking increase
430 SIDS deaths in the United States annually.* [38]
*
the risk of atherosclerosis. [18]
Asthma* [39]* [40]

Lung problems:
Risk of asthma.* [19]
Risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD)* [20]
According to a 2015 review, passive smoking
may increase the risk of tuberculosis infection
and accelerate the progression of the disease,
but the evidence remains weak.* [21]
Cognitive impairment and dementia: Exposure to
secondhand smoke may increase the risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in adults 50 and
over.* [22]
During pregnancy:

Lung infections,* [41]* [42]* [43] also including

more severe illness with bronchiolitis* [44] and
bronchitis,* [45] and worse outcome,* [44] as well as
increased risk of developing tuberculosis if exposed
to a carrier.* [46] In the United States, it is estimated
that second-hand smoke has been associated with
between 150,000 and 300,000 lower respiratory
tract infections in infants and children under 18
months of age, resulting in between 7,500 and
15,000 hospitalizations each year.* [38]
Impaired respiratory function and slowed lung
growth* [45]
Allergies* [47]

Low birth weight [8] , part B, ch. 3. [23]

*

Premature birth* [8]* , part B, ch. 3 (Note that

evidence of the causal link is only described
assuggestiveby the US Surgeon General in
his 2006 report.* [24]) Laws limiting smoking
decrease premature births.* [25]
Recent studies comparing women exposed
to Environmental Tobacco Smoke and nonexposed women, demonstrate that women exposed while pregnant have higher risks of delivering a child with congenital abnormalities,
longer lengths, smaller head circumferences,
and low birth weight.* [26]
General:
Worsening of asthma, allergies, and other conditions.* [27]
Type 2 diabetes.* [28]* [29]* [30] It remains
unclear whether the association between passive smoking and diabetes is causal.* [31]

Maternal passive smoking increases the risk of nonsyndromic orofacial clefts by 50% among their children.* [48]
Prenatal and childhood passive smoke exposure does
not appear to increase the risk of inammatory
bowel disease.* [49]
Learning diculties,
developmental delays,
executive function problems,* [50] and neurobehavioral eects.* [51]* [52] Animal models suggest
a role for nicotine and carbon monoxide in
neurocognitive problems.* [43]
An increase in tooth decay (as well as related salivary biomarkers) has been associated with passive
smoking in children.* [53]
Increased
risk
of
tions.* [43]* [54]* [55]

middle

Invasive meningococcal disease.* [15]

ear

infec-

76.2. EVIDENCE

76.2 Evidence

Exposure to secondhand smoke by age, race, and poverty level in

the US.

Epidemiological studies show that non-smokers exposed

to second-hand smoke are at risk for many of the health
problems associated with direct smoking. Most of the
research has come from studies of nonsmokers who
are married to a smoker. Those conclusions are also
backed up by further studies of workplace exposure to
smoke.* [56]* [57]
In 1992, a review estimated that second-hand smoke exposure was responsible for 35,000 to 40,000 deaths per
year in the United States in the early 1980s.* [58] The
absolute risk increase of heart disease due to ETS was
2.2%, while the attributable risk percent was 23%. A
1997 meta-analysis found that second-hand smoke exposure increased the risk of heart disease by a quarter,* [59] and two 1999 meta-analyses reached similar
conclusions.* [60]* [61]
Evidence shows that inhaled sidestream smoke, the main
component of second-hand smoke, is about four times
more toxic than mainstream smoke. This fact has been
known to the tobacco industry since the 1980s, though it
kept its ndings secret.* [62]* [63]* [64]* [65] Some scientists believe that the risk of passive smoking, in particular
the risk of developing coronary heart diseases, may have
been substantially underestimated.* [66]
In 1997, a meta-analysis on the relationship between secondhand smoke exposure and lung cancer concluded that
such exposure caused lung cancer. The increase in risk
was estimated to be 24 percent among non-smokers who
lived with a smoker.* [67] In 2006, Takagi et al. reanalyzed the data from this meta-analysis to account for
publication bias and estimated that the relative risk of
lung cancer among those exposed to secondhand smoke
was 1.19, slightly lower than the original estimate.* [68]
A 2000 meta-analysis found a relative risk of 1.48 for
lung cancer among men exposed to secondhand smoke,

249
and a relative risk of 1.16 among those exposed to it
at work.* [69] Another meta-analysis conrmed the nding of an increased risk of lung cancer among women
with spousal exposure to secondhand smoke the following year. It found a relative risk of lung cancer of 1.29
for women exposed to secondhand smoke from their
spouses.* [70] A 2014 meta-analysis noted thatthe association between exposure to secondhand smoke and lung
cancer risk is well established.* [71]
A minority of epidemiologists have found it hard to understand how second-hand smoke, which is more diluted
than actively inhaled smoke, could have an eect that is
such a large fraction of the added risk of coronary heart
disease among active smokers.* [72]* [73] One proposed
explanation is that second-hand smoke is not simply a diluted version ofmainstreamsmoke, but has a dierent
composition with more toxic substances per gram of total particulate matter.* [72] Passive smoking appears to
be capable of precipitating the acute manifestations of
cardio-vascular diseases (atherothrombosis) and may also
have a negative impact on the outcome of patients who
suer acute coronary syndromes.* [74]
In 2004, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO)
reviewed all signicant published evidence related to tobacco smoking and cancer. It concluded:
These meta-analyses show that there is a
statistically signicant and consistent association between lung cancer risk in spouses of
smokers and exposure to second-hand tobacco
smoke from the spouse who smokes. The excess risk is of the order of 20% for women and
30% for men and remains after controlling for
some potential sources of bias and confounding.* [2]
Subsequent meta-analyses have conrmed these ndings.* [75]* [76]
The National Asthma Council of Australia cites studies
showing that second-hand smoke is probably the most
important indoor pollutant, especially around young children:* [77]
Smoking by either parent, particularly by the
mother, increases the risk of asthma in children.
The outlook for early childhood asthma is less
favourable in smoking households.
Children with asthma who are exposed to smoking
in the home generally have more severe disease.
Many adults with asthma identify ETS as a trigger
for their symptoms.
Doctor-diagnosed asthma is more common among
non-smoking adults exposed to ETS than those not

250

CHAPTER 76. PASSIVE SMOKING

exposed. Among people with asthma, higher ETS
exposure is associated with a greater risk of severe
attacks.

In France, exposure to second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause between 3,000* [78] and 5,000 premature
deaths per year, with the larger gure cited by Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin during his announcement of
a nationwide smoke-free law:That makes more than 13
deaths a day. It is an unacceptable reality in our country
in terms of public health.* [79]
There is good observational evidence that smoke-free legislation reduces the number of hospital admissions for
heart disease.* [80]* [81]

76.2.1

Risk level

The International Agency for Research on Cancer of the

World Health Organization concluded in 2004 that there
was sucient evidence that second-hand smoke caused
cancer in humans.* [2] Those who work in environments
where smoke is not regulated are at higher risk. Workers
particularly at risk of exposure include those in installation repair and maintenance, construction and extraction,
and transportation.* [82]
The US Surgeon General, in his 2006 report, estimated
that living or working in a place where smoking is permit- Breath CO monitor displaying carbon monoxide concentration of
ted increases the non-smokers' risk of developing heart an exhaled breath sample (in ppm) with corresponding percent
disease by 2530% and lung cancer by 2030%.* [83] concentration of carboxyhemoglobin displayed below.
Long term rsthand smoking increases the risk more than
1000%.
Cotinine

76.2.2

Biomarkers

Environmental tobacco smoke can be evaluated either

by directly measuring tobacco smoke pollutants found in
the air or by using biomarkers, an indirect measure of
exposure. Carbon monoxide monitored through breath,
nicotine, cotinine, thiocyanates, and proteins are the
most specic biological markers of tobacco smoke exposure.* [84]* [85] Biochemical tests are a much more reliable biomarker of second-hand smoke exposure than surveys. Certain groups of people are reluctant to disclose
their smoking status and exposure to tobacco smoke, especially pregnant women and parents of young children.
This is due to their smoking being socially unacceptable.
Also, it may be dicult for individuals to recall their exposure to tobacco smoke.* [86]
A 2007 study in the Addictive Behaviors journal found a
positive correlation between second-hand tobacco smoke
exposure and concentrations of nicotine and/or biomarkers of nicotine in the body. Signicant biological levels of
nicotine from second-hand smoke exposure were equivalent to nicotine levels from active smoking and levels
that are associated with behaviour changes due to nicotine consumption.* [87]

Cotinine, the metabolite of nicotine, is a biomarker of

second-hand smoke exposure. Typically, cotinine is measured in the blood, saliva, and urine. Hair analysis has
recently become a new, noninvasive measurement technique. Cotinine accumulates in hair during hair growth,
which results in a measure of long-term, cumulative exposure to tobacco smoke.* [88] Urinary cotinine levels have
been a reliable biomarker of tobacco exposure and have
been used as a reference in many epidemiological studies. However, cotinine levels found in the urine only reect exposure over the preceding 48 hours. Cotinine levels of the skin, such as the hair and nails, reect tobacco
exposure over the previous three months and are a more
reliable biomarker.* [84]

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide monitored via breath is also a reliable biomarker of second-hand smoke exposure as well
as tobacco use. With high sensitivity and specicity, it
not only provides an accurate measure, but the test is
also non-invasive, highly reproducible, and low in cost.
Breath CO monitoring measures the concentration of

76.4. OPINION OF PUBLIC HEALTH AUTHORITIES

CO in an exhalation in parts per million, and this can
be directly correlated to the blood CO concentration
(carboxyhemoglobin).* [89] Breath CO monitors can also
be used by emergency services to identify patients who
are suspected of having CO poisoning.

76.3 Pathophysiology
A 2004 study by the International Agency for Research
on Cancer of the World Health Organization concluded
that non-smokers are exposed to the same carcinogens as
active smokers. Sidestream smoke contains more than
4,000 chemicals, including 69 known carcinogens. Of
special concern are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons,
tobacco-specic N-nitrosamines, and aromatic amines,
such as 4-aminobiphenyl, all known to be highly carcinogenic. Mainstream smoke, sidestream smoke, and
second-hand smoke contain largely the same components, however the concentration varies depending on
type of smoke.* [2] Several well-established carcinogens
have been shown by the tobacco companies' own research
to be present at higher concentrations in sidestream
smoke than in mainstream smoke.* [90]
Second-hand smoke has been shown to produce more
particulate-matter (PM) pollution than an idling lowemission diesel engine. In an experiment conducted by
the Italian National Cancer Institute, three cigarettes were
left smoldering, one after the other, in a 60 m garage
with a limited air exchange. The cigarettes produced PM
pollution exceeding outdoor limits, as well as PM concentrations up to 10-fold that of the idling engine.* [91]
Second-hand tobacco smoke exposure has immediate and
substantial eects on blood and blood vessels in a way that
increases the risk of a heart attack, particularly in people already at risk.* [92] Exposure to tobacco smoke for
30 minutes signicantly reduces coronary ow velocity
reserve in healthy nonsmokers.* [93] Second-hand smoke
is also associated with impaired vasodilation among adult
nonsmokers.* [94] Second-hand smoke exposure also affects platelet function, vascular endothelium, and myocardial exercise tolerance at levels commonly found in
the workplace.* [95]
Pulmonary emphysema can be induced in rats through
acute exposure to sidestream tobacco smoke (30
cigarettes per day) over a period of 45 days.* [96] Degranulation of mast cells contributing to lung damage has also
been observed.* [97]
The term "third-hand smoke" was recently coined to identify the residual tobacco smoke contamination that remains after the cigarette is extinguished and second-hand
smoke has cleared from the air.* [98]* [99]* [100] Preliminary research suggests that by-products of third-hand
smoke may pose a health risk,* [101] though the magnitude of risk, if any, remains unknown. In October 2011,
it was reported that Christus St. Frances Cabrini Hospital

251
in Alexandria, Louisiana would seek to eliminate thirdhand smoke beginning in July 2012, and that employees
whose clothing smelled of smoke would not be allowed to
work. This prohibition was enacted because third-hand
smoke poses a special danger for the developing brains
of infants and small children.* [102]
In 2008, there were more than 161,000 deaths attributed
to lung cancer in the United States. Of these deaths,
an estimated 10% to 15% were caused by factors other
than rst-hand smoking; equivalent to 16,000 to 24,000
deaths annually. Slightly more than half of the lung cancer deaths caused by factors other than rst-hand smoking
were found in nonsmokers. Lung cancer in non-smokers
may well be considered one of the most common cancer
mortalities in the United States. Clinical epidemiology of
lung cancer has linked the primary factors closely tied to
lung cancer in non-smokers as exposure to second-hand
tobacco smoke, carcinogens including radon, and other
indoor air pollutants.* [103]

76.4 Opinion of public health authorities

There is widespread scientic consensus that exposure
to second-hand smoke is harmful.* [3] The link between
passive smoking and health risks is accepted by every major medical and scientic organisation, including:
World Health Organization* [2]
U.S. National Institutes of Health* [104]
Centers for Disease Control* [105]
United States Surgeon General* [1]
U.S. National Cancer Institute* [106]
United
States
Agency* [107]

Environmental

Protection

California Environmental Protection Agency* [8]

American Heart Association,* [108] American Lung
Association,* [109] and American Cancer Society* [110]
American Medical Association* [111]
American Academy of Pediatrics* [112]
Australian National Health and Medical Research
Council* [113]
United Kingdom Scientic Committee on Tobacco
and Health* [114]

252

CHAPTER 76. PASSIVE SMOKING

76.5 Public opinion

Recent major surveys conducted by the U.S. National
Cancer Institute and Centers for Disease Control have
found widespread public awareness that second-hand
smoke is harmful. In both 1992 and 2000 surveys,
more than 80% of respondents agreed with the statement that second-hand smoke was harmful. A 2001 study
found that 95% of adults agreed that second-hand smoke
was harmful to children, and 96% considered tobaccoindustry claims that second-hand smoke was not harmful
to be untruthful.* [115]
A 2007 Gallup poll found that 56% of respondents felt
that second-hand smoke wasvery harmful, a number
that has held relatively steady since 1997. Another 29%
believe that second-hand smoke issomewhat harmful";
10% answered not too harmful, while 5% said not
at all harmful.* [116]

76.6 Controversy over harm

As part of its attempt to prevent or delay tighter regulation of smoking, the tobacco industry funded a number
of scientic studies and, where the results cast doubt on
the risks associated with second-hand smoke, sought wide
publicity for those results. The industry also funded libertarian and conservative think tanks, such as the Cato Institute in the United States and the Institute of Public Affairs in Australia which criticised both scientic research
on passive smoking and policy proposals to restrict smoking.* [117]* [118] New Scientist and the European Journal
of Public Health have identied these industry-wide coordinated activities as one of the earliest expressions of
corporate denialism. Further, they state that the disinformation spread by the tobacco industry has created a tobacco denialism movement, sharing many characteristics
of other forms of denialism, such as HIV-AIDS denialism.* [119]* [120]

76.6.1

Cancer Society (ACS), whose database Enstrom and Kabat used to compile their data, criticized the paper as
neither reliable nor independent, stating that scientists at the ACS had repeatedly pointed out serious aws
in Enstrom and Kabat's methodology prior to publication.* [125] Notably, the study had failed to identify a
comparison group of unexposedpersons.* [126]
Enstrom's ties to the tobacco industry also drew scrutiny;
in a 1997 letter to Philip Morris, Enstrom requested a
substantial research commitment... in order for me to
eectively compete against the large mountain of epidemiologic data and opinions that already exist regarding
the health eects of ETS and active smoking.* [127]
In a US racketeering lawsuit against tobacco companies,
the Enstrom and Kabat paper was cited by the US District Court as a prime example of how nine tobacco
companies engaged in criminal racketeering and fraud to
hide the dangers of tobacco smoke.* [128] The Court
found that the study had been funded and managed by
the Center for Indoor Air Research,* [129] a tobacco industry front group tasked with osettingdamaging
studies on passive smoking, as well as by Philip Morris
who stated that Enstrom's work was clearly litigationoriented.* [130] A 2005 paper in Tobacco Control argued that the disclosure section in the Enstrom and Kabat
BMJ paper, although it met the journal's requirements,
does not reveal the full extent of the relationship the authors had with the tobacco industry.* [131]
In 2006, Enstrom and Kabat published a meta-analysis of
studies regarding passive smoking and coronary heart disease in which they reported a very weak association between passive smoking and heart disease mortality.* [132]
They concluded that exposure to second-hand smoke increased the risk of death from CHD by only 5%, although this analysis has been criticized for including
two previous industry-funded studies that suered from
widespread exposure misclassication.* [5]
Gori
Gio Batta Gori, a tobacco industry spokesman and con-

Industry-funded studies and cri- sultant* [133]* [134]* [135] and an expert on risk utility
tiques
and scientic research, wrote in the libertarian Cato In-

stitute's magazine Regulation that "...of the 75 published

studies of ETS and lung cancer, some 70 percent did not
report statistically signicant dierences of risk and are
A 2003 study by James Enstrom and Georey Kabat, moot. Roughly 17 percent claim an increased risk and 13
published in the British Medical Journal, argued that the percent imply a reduction of risk.* [136]
harms of passive smoking had been overstated.* [121]
Their analysis reported no statistically signicant relationship between passive smoking and lung cancer, coro- Milloy
nary heart disease (CHD), or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, though the accompanying editorial noted Steven Milloy, the "junk science" commentator for Fox
that they may overemphasise the negative nature of News and a former Philip Morris consultant,* [137]* [138]
their ndings.* [122] This paper was widely promoted claimed thatof the 19 studieson passive smokingonly
by the tobacco industry as evidence that the harms of pas- 8slightly more than 42 percentreported statistically
sive smoking were unproven.* [123]* [124] The American signicant increases in heart disease incidence..* [139]
Enstrom and Kabat

76.6. CONTROVERSY OVER HARM

Another component of criticism cited by Milloy focused
on relative risk and epidemiological practices in studies
of passive smoking. Milloy, who has a master's degree
from the Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public
Health, argued that studies yielding relative risks of less
than 2 were meaningless junk science. This approach to
epidemiological analysis was criticized in the American
Journal of Public Health:
A major component of the industry attack
was the mounting of a campaign to establish
a barfor sound sciencethat could not
be fully met by most individual investigations,
leaving studies that did not meet the criteria to
be dismissed as junk science.* [140]
The tobacco industry and aliated scientists also put forward a set of Good Epidemiology Practiceswhich
would have the practical eect of obscuring the link between secondhand smoke and lung cancer; the privately
stated goal of these standards was to impede adverse
legislation.* [141] However, this eort was largely abandoned when it became clear that no independent epidemiological organization would agree to the standards proposed by Philip Morris et al.* [142]
Levois and Layard

253
In response, the WHO issued a press release stating that
the results of the study had been completely misrepresentedin the popular press and were in fact very much
in line with similar studies demonstrating the harms of
passive smoking.* [152] The study was published in the
Journal of the National Cancer Institute in October of the
same year, and concluded the authors foundno association between childhood exposure to ETS and lung cancer
riskbut did nd weak evidence of a doseresponse
relationship between risk of lung cancer and exposure to
spousal and workplace ETS.* [146] An accompanying
editorial summarized:
When all the evidence, including the important new data reported in this issue of the
Journal, is assessed, the inescapable scientic
conclusion is that ETS is a low-level lung carcinogen.* [153]
With the release of formerly classied tobacco industry documents through the Tobacco Master Settlement
Agreement, it was found (by Elisa Ong and Stanton
Glantz) that the controversy over the WHO's alleged suppression of data had been engineered by Philip Morris, British American Tobacco, and other tobacco companies in an eort to discredit scientic ndings which
would harm their business interests.* [154] A WHO inquiry, conducted after the release of the tobacco-industry
documents, found that this controversy was generated by
the tobacco industry as part of its larger campaign to cut
the WHO's budget, distort the results of scientic studies
on passive smoking, and discredit the WHO as an institution. This campaign was carried out using a network
of ostensibly independent front organizations and international and scientic experts with hidden nancial ties
to the industry.* [155]

In 1995, Levois and Layard, both tobacco industry consultants, published two analyses in the journal Regulatory
Toxicology and Pharmacology regarding the association
between spousal exposure to second-hand smoke and
heart disease. Both of these papers reported no association between second-hand smoke and heart disease.* [143]* [144] These analyses have been criticized for
failing to distinguish between current and former smokers, despite the fact that former smokers, unlike current
ones, are not at a signicantly increased risk of heart dis- EPA lawsuit
ease.* [5]* [145]
In 1993, the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) issued a report estimating that 3,000 lung
World Health Organization controversy
cancer related deaths in the United States were caused by
passive smoking annually.* [156]
A 1998 report by the International Agency for Research
on Cancer (IARC) on environmental tobacco smoke Philip Morris, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, and
(ETS) foundweak evidence of a dose-response relation- groups representing growers, distributors and marketers
ship between risk of lung cancer and exposure to spousal of tobacco took legal action, claiming that the EPA had
and workplace ETS.* [146]
manipulated this study and ignored accepted scientic
In March 1998, before the study was published, reports and statistical practices.
appeared in the media alleging that the IARC and the
World Health Organization (WHO) were suppressing information. The reports, appearing in the British Sunday
Telegraph* [147] and The Economist,* [148] among other
sources,* [149]* [150]* [151] alleged that the WHO withheld from publication of its own report that supposedly
failed to prove an association between passive smoking
and a number of other diseases (lung cancer in particular).

The United States District Court for the Middle District

of North Carolina ruled in favor of the tobacco industry
in 1998, nding that the EPA had failed to follow proper
scientic and epidemiologic practices and had cherry
pickedevidence to support conclusions which they had
committed to in advance.* [157] The court stated in part,
EPA publicly committed to a conclusion before research
had begun adjusted established procedure and scientic norms to validate the Agency's public conclusion... In

254

CHAPTER 76. PASSIVE SMOKING

conducting the ETS Risk Assessment, disregarded inforwould then be 'ltered' by lawyers to eliminate
mation and made ndings on selective information; did
areas of sensitivity.* [164]
not disseminate signicant epidemiologic information;
deviated from its Risk Assessment Guidelines; failed to Philip Morris reported that it was putting "...vast amounts
disclose important ndings and reasoning"
of funding into these projects... in attempting to coordiIn 2002, the EPA successfully appealed this decision to nate and pay so many scientists on an* international basis
the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. to keep the ETS controversy alive. [164]
The EPA's appeal was upheld on the preliminary grounds
that their report had no regulatory weight, and the earlier 76.6.2
nding was vacated.* [158]
In 1998, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, through the publication by its National Toxicology
Program of the 9th Report on Carcinogens, listed environmental tobacco smoke among the known carcinogens,
observing of the EPA assessment that The individual
studies were carefully summarized and evaluated.* [159]
Tobacco-industry funding of research

Tobacco industry response

Measures to tackle second-hand smoke pose a serious

economic threat to the tobacco industry, having broadened the denition of smoking beyond a personal habit
to something with a social impact. In a condential 1978
report, the tobacco industry described increasing public
concerns about second-hand smoke asthe most dangerous development to the viability of the tobacco industry
that has yet occurred.* [165] In United States of America
v. Philip Morris et al., the District Court for the District
of Columbia found that the tobacco industry "... recognized from the mid-1970s forward that the health eects
of passive smoking posed a profound threat to industry
viability and cigarette prots,and that the industry responded with eorts to undermine and discredit the
scientic consensus that ETS causes disease.* [3]

The tobacco industry's role in funding scientic research

on second-hand smoke has been controversial.* [160] A
review of published studies found that tobacco-industry
aliation was strongly correlated with ndings exonerating second-hand smoke; researchers aliated with the
tobacco industry were 88 times more likely than independent researchers to conclude that second-hand smoke Accordingly, the tobacco industry have developed several
was not harmful.* [161] In a specic example which came strategies to minimise the impact on their business:
to light with the release of tobacco-industry documents,
The industry has sought to position the second-hand
Philip Morris executives successfully encouraged an ausmoke debate as essentially concerned with civil libthor to revise his industry-funded review article to downerties and smokers' rights rather than with health, by
play the role of second-hand smoke in sudden infant death
funding groups such as FOREST.* [166]
*
syndrome. [162] The 2006 U.S. Surgeon General's report criticized the tobacco industry's role in the scientic
Funding bias in research;* [7] in all reviews of the
debate:
eects of second-hand smoke on health published
between 1980 and 1995, the only factor associated with concluding that second-hand smoke is not
The industry has funded or carried out reharmful was whether an author was aliated with
search that has been judged to be biased, supthe tobacco industry.* [161] However, not all studies
ported scientists to generate letters to editors
that failed to nd evidence of harm were by industrythat criticized research publications, attempted
aliated authors.
to undermine the ndings of key studies, assisted in establishing a scientic society with a
Delaying and discrediting legitimate research
journal, and attempted to sustain controversy
(see* [7] for an example of how the industry ateven as the scientic community reached contempted to discredit Takeshi Hirayama's landmark
sensus.* [163]
study, and* [167] for an example of how it attempted
to delay and discredit a major Australian report on
This strategy was outlined at an international meeting of
passive smoking)
tobacco companies in 1988, at which Philip Morris pro Promotinggood epidemiologyand attacking soposed to set up a team of scientists, organized by comcalled junk science (a term popularised by industry
pany lawyers, tocarry out work on ETS to keep the con*
Steven Milloy): attacking the methodology
lobbyist
troversy alive. [164] All scientic research was subject
behind
research
showing health risks as awed and
to oversight andlteringby tobacco-industry lawyers:
attempting to promote sound science. Ong & Glantz
(2001) cite an internal Phillip Morris memo giving
Philip Morris then expect the group of scievidence of this as company policy.* [142]
entists to operate within the connes of deci Creation of outlets for favourable research. In 1989,
sions taken by PM scientists to determine the
the tobacco industry established the International
general direction of research, which apparently

76.7. SMOKE-FREE LAWS

Society of the Built Environment, which published
the peer-reviewed journal Indoor and Built Environment. This journal did not require conict-ofinterest disclosures from its authors. With documents made available through the Master Settlement, it was found that the executive board of
the society and the editorial board of the journal
were dominated by paid tobacco-industry consultants. The journal published a large amount of
material on passive smoking, much of which was
industry-positive.* [168]
Citing the tobacco industry's production of biased research and eorts to undermine scientic ndings, the
2006 U.S. Surgeon General's report concluded that the
industry had attempted to sustain controversy even as
the scientic community reached consensus... industry
documents indicate that the tobacco industry has engaged
in widespread activities... that have gone beyond the
bounds of accepted scientic practice.* [169] The U.S.
District Court, in U.S.A. v. Philip Morris et al., found that
"...despite their internal acknowledgment of the hazards
of secondhand smoke, Defendants have fraudulently denied that ETS causes disease.* [170]
Position of major tobacco companies
The positions of major tobacco companies on the issue
of second-hand smoke is somewhat varied. In general,
tobacco companies have continued to focus on questioning the methodology of studies showing that second-hand
smoke is harmful. Some (such as British American Tobacco and Philip Morris) acknowledge the medical consensus that second-hand smoke carries health risks, while
others continue to assert that the evidence is inconclusive. Several tobacco companies advocate the creation of
smoke-free areas within public buildings as an alternative
to comprehensive smoke-free laws.* [171]

76.6.3

US racketeering lawsuit against tobacco companies

On September 22, 1999, the U.S. Department of Justice led a racketeering lawsuit against Philip Morris
and other major cigarette manufacturers.* [172] Almost 7
years later, on August 17, 2006 U.S. District Court Judge
Gladys Kessler found that the Government had proven its
case and that the tobacco company defendants had violated the Racketeer Inuenced Corrupt Organizations Act
(RICO).* [3] In particular, Judge Kessler found that PM
and other tobacco companies had:

255
that second-hand tobacco smoke is harmful to nonsmokers, and
destroyed documents relevant to litigation.
The ruling found that tobacco companies undertook joint
eorts to undermine and discredit the scientic consensus that second-hand smoke causes disease, notably by
controlling research ndings via paid consultants. The
ruling also concluded that tobacco companies were fraudulently continuing to deny the health eects of ETS exposure.* [3]
On May 22, 2009, a three-judge panel of the U.S.
Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit unanimously upheld the lower court's 2006 ruling.* [173]* [174]* [175]

76.7 Smoke-free laws

See also: Smoking ban, List of smoking bans, and
Smoking bans in private vehicles
As a consequence of the health risks associated with
second-hand smoke, smoke-free regulations in indoor
public places, including restaurants, cafs, and nightclubs
have been introduced in a number of jurisdictions, at national or local level, as well as some outdoor open areas.* [176] Ireland was the rst country in the world to institute a comprehensive national smoke-free law on smoking in all indoor workplaces on 29 March 2004. Since
then, many others have followed suit. The countries
which have ratied the WHO Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control (FCTC) have a legal obligation to implement eective legislation for protection from exposure to tobacco smoke in indoor workplaces, public transport, indoor public places and, as appropriate, other public places.(Article 8 of the FCTC* [177]) The parties
to the FCTC have further adopted Guidelines on the Protection from Exposure to Second-hand Smoke which state
that eective measures to provide protection from exposure to tobacco smoke ... require the total elimination
of smoking and tobacco smoke in a particular space or
environment in order to create a 100% smoke-free environment.* [178]
Opinion polls have shown considerable support for
smoke-free laws. In June 2007, a survey of 15 countries
found 80% approval for smoke-free laws.* [179] A survey
in France, reputedly a nation of smokers, showed 70%
support.* [79]

76.7.1 Eects
conspired to minimize, distort and confuse the pubIn the rst 18 months after the town of Pueblo, Colorado
lic about the health hazards of smoking;
enacted a smoke-free law in 2003, hospital admis publicly denied, while internally acknowledging, sions for heart attacks dropped 27%. Admissions in

256

CHAPTER 76. PASSIVE SMOKING

neighbouring towns without smoke-free laws showed

no change, and the decline in heart attacks in Pueblo
was attributed to the resulting reduction in second-hand
smoke exposure.* [180] A 2004 smoking ban instituted
in Massachusetts workplaces decreased workers' secondhand smoke exposure from 8% of workers in 2003 to
5.4% of workers in 2010.* [82]

of the public, towards smoke-free policies in outdoor

areas. A vast majority of the public supports restricting smoking in various outdoor settings. The respondents reasons for supporting the polices were for varying reasons such as, litter control, establishing positive
smoke-free role models for youth, reducing youth opportunities to smoke, and avoiding exposure to secondhand
*
In April 2010 the Canadian Medical Association Jour- smoke. [186]
nal published a study evaluating the eects of a 10year, three-stage smoke-free regulatory programme in
Toronto. The study found that during the implementation 76.7.3 Alternative forms
of a restaurant smoke-free ordinance, hospital admissions
for cardiovascular conditions declined by 39%, and ad- Alternatives to smoke-free laws have also been proposed
missions for respiratory conditions declined by 33%. No as a means of harm reduction, particularly in bars and
signicant reductions in hospital admissions occurred in restaurants. For example, critics of smoke-free laws cite
other cities which did not have smoke-free ordinances. studies suggesting ventilation as a means of reducing to*
The authors concluded that the study justied further ef- bacco smoke pollutants and improving air quality. [187]
forts to reduce public exposure to tobacco smoke. In Ventilation has also been heavily promoted by the toMay 2006, Ontario instituted a comprehensive province- bacco industry as an alternative to outright bans, via a netwide smoke-free law which extended the restrictions to work of ostensibly independent experts with often undis*
all cities and municipalities in Ontario.* [181] However, closed ties to the industry. [188] However, not all critics
not all researchers agree that this was a causal relation- have connections to the industry.
ship, and a 2009 study of many smoke-free ordinances in The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Airthe United States disagreed with these conclusions.* [182] Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) ocially concluded
in 2005 that while completely isolated smoking rooms do
eliminate the risk to nearby non-smoking areas, smoking
bans are the only means of completely eliminating health
risks associated with indoor exposure. They further concluded that no system of dilution or cleaning was eective
at eliminating risk.* [189] The U.S. Surgeon General and
the European Commission Joint Research Centre have
reached similar conclusions.* [169]* [190] The implementation guidelines for the WHO Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control states that engineering approaches, such
as ventilation, are ineective and do not protect against
second-hand smoke exposure.* [178] However, this does
While a number of studies funded by the tobacco industry
not necessarily mean that such measures are useless in
have claimed a negative economic impact from smokereducing harm, only that they fall short of the goal of refree laws, no independently funded research has shown
ducing exposure completely to zero.
any such impact. A 2003 review reported that independently funded, methodologically sound research consis- Others have suggested a system of tradable smoking
tently found either no economic impact or a positive im- pollution permits, similar to the cap-and-trade pollution permits systems used by the Environmental Propact from smoke-free laws.* [184]
tection Agency in recent decades to curb other types
Air nicotine levels were measured in Guatemalan bars
of pollution.* [191] This would guarantee that a portion
and restaurants before and after an implemented smokeof bars/restaurants in a jurisdiction will be smoke-free,
free law in 2009. Nicotine concentrations signicantly
while leaving the decision to the market.
decreased in both the bars and restaurants measured.
Also, the employees support for a smoke-free workplace
substantially increased in the post-implementation survey
compared to pre-implementation survey. The result of 76.8 In animals
this smoke-free law provides a considerably more healthy
work environment for the sta.* [185]
Main article: Animals and tobacco smoke
In 2001, a systematic review for the Guide to Community
Preventative Services acknowledged strong evidence of
the eectiveness of smoke-free policies and restrictions
in reducing expose to second-hand smoke. A follow up
to this review, identied the evidence on which the eectiveness of smoking bans reduced the prevalence of tobacco use. Articles published until 2005, were examined
to further support this evidence. The examined studies
provided sucient evidence that smoke-free policies reduce tobacco use among workers when implemented in
worksites or by communities.* [183]

76.7.2

Public opinion

Multiple studies have been conducted to determine the

carcinogenicity of environmental tobacco smoke to aniRecent surveys taken by the Society for Research on mals. These studies typically fall under the categories of
Nicotine and Tobacco demonstrates supportive attitudes simulated environmental tobacco smoke, administering

76.10. SEE ALSO

257

condensates of sidestream smoke, or observational stud- ondhand smoke.* [198] In contrast, a 2011 commentary
ies of cancer among pets.
in Environmental Health Perspectives argued that research
To simulate environmental tobacco smoke, scientists ex- intothirdhand smokerenders it inappropriate to refer
,
pose animals to sidestream smoke, that which emanates to passive smoking with the termsecondhand smoke
*
which
the
authors
stated
constitutes
a
pars
pro
toto.
[198]
from the cigarette's burning cone and through its paper, or a combination of mainstream and sidestream
smoke.* [2] The IARC monographs conclude that mice
with prolonged exposure to simulated environmental tobacco smoke, that is 6hrs a day, 5 days a week, for ve
months with a subsequent 4 month interval before dissection, will have signicantly higher incidence and multiplicity of lung tumors than with control groups.
The IARC monographs concluded that sidestream smoke
condensates had a signicantly higher carcinogenic eect
on mice than did mainstream smoke condensates.* [2]

76.8.1

Observational studies

Second-hand smoke is popularly recognised as a risk factor for cancer in pets.* [192] A study conducted by the
Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine and the
University of Massachusetts Amherst linked the occurrence of feline oral cancer to exposure to environmental tobacco smoke through an overexpression of the p53
gene.* [193] Another study conducted at the same universities concluded that cats living with a smoker were
more likely to get feline lymphoma; the risk increased
with the duration of exposure to secondhand smoke and
the number of smokers in the household.* [194] A study
by Colorado State University researchers, looking at cases
of canine lung cancer, was generally inconclusive, though
the authors reported a weak relation for lung cancer in
dogs exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. The
number of smokers within the home, the number of packs
smoked in the home per day, and the amount of time that
the dog spent within the home had no eect on the dog's
risk for lung cancer.* [195]

76.9 Terminology

76.10 See also

Health eects of tobacco
Third-hand smoke
Tradable smoking pollution permits
Tobacco Control
Philip Morris v. Uruguay

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[163] The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to [177] WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control
Tobacco Smoke (PDF). Executive Summary. Surgeon
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trieved 2009-01-12. Parties recognize that scientic ev2009-01-28.
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[164] Minutes of a meeting of Philip Morris with British tobacco companies to discuss tobacco-industry strategy on [178] Guidelines on the Protection from Exposure to Secondpassive smoking. Retrieved 2007-08-27.
hand Smoke(PDF). Framework Convention for Tobacco
Control. World Health Organization. 2007. Retrieved
[165] A Study of Public Attitudes toward Cigarette Smoking
2009-01-29.
and the Tobacco Industry in 1978, produced for the
Tobacco Institute and released under the terms of the [179] Market Research World
Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement.
[180] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (Jan[166] Smith EA, Malone RE; Malone (June 2007). "'We will
uary 2009).Reduced hospitalizations for acute myocarspeak as the smoker': the tobacco industry's smokers'
dial infarction after implementation of a smoke-free ordirights groups. Eur J Public Health 17 (3): 306
nanceCity of Pueblo, Colorado, 20022006. MMWR
13. doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckl244. PMC 2794244. PMID
Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 57 (51): 13737. PMID
17065174.
19116606.
[167] Trotter L, Chapman S; Chapman (2003). ""Conclusions [181] Naiman A, Glazier RH, Moineddin R; Glazier; Moinedabout exposure to ETS and health that will be undin (April 2010). Association of anti-smoking legishelpful to us"*: How the tobacco industry attempted
lation with rates of hospital admission for cardiovascuto delay and discredit the 1997 Australian National
lar and respiratory conditions. CMAJ 182 (8): 761
Health and Medical Research Council report on pas7. doi:10.1503/cmaj.091130. PMC 2871198. PMID
sive smoking. Tob Control 12 (Suppl 3:iii): 1026.
20385737.
doi:10.1136/tc.12.suppl_3.iii102. PMC 1766130. PMID
[182] Shetty, Kanaka D.,; et al. (April 2009). Changes in
14645955.
U.S. Hospitalization and Mortality Rates Following Smok[168] Garne D, Watson M, Chapman S, Byrne F; Watson; Chaping Bans. NBER.
man; Byrne (2005). Environmental tobacco smoke research published in the journal Indoor and Built Environ- [183] Hopkins DP, Razi S, Leeks KD, Priya Kalra G, Chattopadhyay SK, Soler RE; Razi; Leeks; Priya Kalra; Chatment and associations with the tobacco industry. Lancet
topadhyay; Soler; Task Force on Community Preven365 (9461): 8049. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)17990tive Services (2010). Smokefree policies to reduce to2. PMID 15733724.
bacco use. A systematic review. Am J Prev Med 38
[169] The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to
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Tobacco Smoke (PDF). Executive Summary. Surgeon
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28.
Glantz (Mar 2003). Review of the quality of stud[170] Kessler 2006, p. 1523
ies on the economic eects of smoke-free policies on
the hospitality industry. Tobacco Control 12 (1): 13
[171] The most current positions of major tobacco companies
20. doi:10.1136/tc.12.1.13. PMC 1759095. PMID
on the issue of passive smoking can be found on their web12612356.
sites. As of 13 January 2009, the following websites contain tobacco-industry positions on the topic:
[185] Barnoya J, Arvizu M, Jones MR, Hernandez JC, Breysse
PN, Navas-Acien A; Arvizu; Jones; Hernandez; Breysse;
British American Tobacco:
Navas-Acien (November 2010). Secondhand smoke
Imperial Tobacco:
exposure in bars and restaurants in Guatemala City: before and after smoking ban evaluation. Cancer Causes
Philip Morris: USA and International
Control 22 (1): 1516. doi:10.1007/s10552-010-9673-8.
R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company:
PMID 21046446.
[172] Litigation Against Tobacco Companies U.S. Department [186] Thomson G, Wilson N, Edwards R; Wilson; Edwards
of Justice
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brief review of public attitudes toward smoke-free out[173] Appeal Ruling, U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of
door places. Nicotine Tob. Res. 11 (6): 58490.
Columbia Circuit, 22 May 2009
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[174] Altria, Cigarette Makers Lose 'Lights' Ruling Appeal
[187] Geens, Andrew; Max Graham (March 2005). No ifs or
Bloomberg news, 22 May 2009
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[175] U.S. appeals court agrees tobacco companies lied Reuters,
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[188] Drope J, Bialous SA, Glantz SA; Bialous; Glantz (March
[176] Smokers Daring Bloomberg To Ticket Them Under Park
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76.12. EXTERNAL LINKS

North America. Tob Control 13 (Suppl 1): i417.

doi:10.1136/tc.2003.004101. PMC 1766145. PMID
14985616. The industry developed a network of ventilation 'experts' to promote its position that smoke-free environments were not necessary, often without disclosing
the nancial relationship between these experts and the
industry.
[189] Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Position Document
(PDF). American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers. June 30, 2005. Retrieved
2009-01-28.
[190] Institute for Health and Consumer Protection Activity
Report 2003 (PDF). European Commission Joint Research Centre. 2003. Archived from the original (PDF)
on March 27, 2009. Retrieved 2009-01-28.
[191] Haveman, Robert; John Mullahy (September 25, 2005).
Let Bars Buy, Sell Smoking Permits. Wisconsin State
Journal. p. B2. Retrieved 2009-01-28.
[192] Thompson, Andrea (2007-08-31). Secondhand Smoke
Causes Cancer in Pets. LiveScience. Retrieved 200708-31.
[193] Snyder LA, Bertone ER, Jakowski RM, Dooner MS,
Jennings-Ritchie J, Moore AS.; Bertone; Jakowski;
Dooner; Jennings-Ritchie; Moore (2004). p53 expression and environmental tobacco smoke exposure in feline
oral squamous cell carcinoma. Vet Pathol 41 (3): 209
14. doi:10.1354/vp.41-3-209. PMID 15133168.
[194] Bertone ER, Snyder LA, Moore AS.; Snyder; Moore
(2002).Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Risk of Malignant Lymphoma in Pet Cats. American Journal of Epidemiology 156 (3): 268273. doi:10.1093/aje/kwf044.
PMID 12142262.
[195] Reif JS, Dunn K, Ogilvie GK, Harris CK.; Dunn; Ogilvie;
Harris (1992). Passive smoking and canine lung cancer
risk. Am J Epidemiol. 135 (3): 2349. PMID 1546698.
[196] Chapman, S (1 June 2003). Other people's smoke:
what's in a name?". Tobacco Control 12 (2): 113114.
doi:10.1136/tc.12.2.113.
[197] Health Eects of Exposure to Secondhand Smoke.
EPA. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
[198] Protano, Carmela; Vitali, Matteo (1 October 2011).
The New Danger of Thirdhand Smoke: Why Passive
Smoking Does Not Stop at Secondhand Smoke. Environmental Health Perspectives 119 (10): a422a422.
doi:10.1289/ehp.1103956.

76.12 External links

Scientic bodies
Health Eects of Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke, from the U.S. National Cancer Institute

265
Environmental Tobacco Smoke PDF (219 KB).
From the 11th Report on Carcinogens of the U.S.
National Institutes of Health
U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Coordinating Center for Health Promotion; National Center
for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; Oce on Smoking and Health (2006-06-27).
The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure
to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta, Ga.: Surgeon General of the United
States. O2NLM: WA 754 H4325 2006. Secondhand smoke exposure causes disease and premature
death in children and adults who do not smoke
World Health Organization; International Agency
for Research on Cancer (2004). Tobacco Smoke and
Involuntary Smoking (PDF). IARC monographs on
the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans 83.
Lyon, France: IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. ISBN 92832-1283-5.
Secondhand Smoke Fact Sheet from the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Tobacco Smoke in the Workplace from the U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Health Eects of Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke, from the California Environmental
Protection Agency
Environmental Tobacco Smoke Exposure in Children Aged 3-19 Years with and Without Asthma in
the United States, 1999-2010 National Center for
Health Statistics
Tobacco industry
Tobacco Company Strategies to Undermine Tobacco Control Activities PDF (1.55 MB): Report
of the Committee of Experts on Tobacco Industry
Documents from the World Health Organization
The Legacy Tobacco Documents Library and
British American Tobacco Documents Archive
from the University of California, San Francisco
Philip Morris USA Document Archive, made public
as a result of the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement
Other links
Guidelines Protection from Exposure to Secondhand Smoke, by WHO Framework Convention on
Tobacco Control

266
WHO Policy recommendations on protection from
exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke
Rodent smoke screen: Rat model shows tobacco
smoke exposure induces brain changes indicative of
nicotine dependence, in Science Daily
Kessler, Gladys (August 17, 2006). United States
of America v. Philip Morris et al.: Final Opinion of
Judge Gladys Kessler(PDF). United States District
Court for the District of Columbia.
How Secondhand Cigarette Smoke Changes Your
Genes

CHAPTER 76. PASSIVE SMOKING

Chapter 77

Photoinitiator
Certain azo compounds (such as azobisisobutyronitrile),
can also photolytically cleave, forming two alkyl radicals
and nitrogen gas:
RCH2 -N=N-H2 CR 2 RCH2 + N2
These free radicals can now promote other reactions.

77.2 Atmospheric photoinitiators

77.2.1 Peroxides
Large format sheets with a thin photopolymer coating cured with
a UV lamp.

A photoinitiator is a molecule that creates reactive

species (free radicals, cations or anions) when exposed
to radiation (UV or visible). Synthetic photoinitiators
are key components in photopolymers (i.e. photo-curable
coatings, adhesives and dental restoratives).
Some small molecules in the atmosphere can also act as
photoinitiators by decomposing to give free radicals (in
photochemical smog). For instance, nitrogen dioxide is
produced in large quantities by gasoline-burning internal
combustion engines. NO2 in the troposphere gives smog
its brown coloration and catalyzes production of toxic
ground-level ozone. Molecular oxygen (O2 ) also serves
Hydrogen peroxide, the simplest peroxide
as a photoinitiator in the stratosphere, breaking down into
atomic oxygen and in order to form the ozone in the ozone
Since molecular oxygen can abstract H atoms from cerlayer.
tain radicals, the HOOradical is easily created. This
particular radical can further abstract H atoms, creating H2 O2 , or hydrogen peroxide; peroxides can further
cleave photolytically into two hydroxyl radicals. More
77.1 Reactions
commonly, HOO can react with free oxygen atoms to
yield a hydroxy radical (OH) and oxygen gas. In both
Photoinitators can create reactive species by dierent cases, the OH radicals formed can serve to oxidize orpathways including photodissociation and electron trans- ganic compounds in the atmosphere.* [1]
fer. As an example of dissociation, hydrogen peroxide can undergo homolytic cleavage, with the O-O bond
H2 O2 2 OH
cleaving to form two hydroxyl radicals.
HOO+ O O2 + OH
H2 O2 2 OH

OH + CH4 CH3 + H2 O
267

268

CHAPTER 77. PHOTOINITIATOR

77.2.2

Nitrogen dioxide

O + O3 2 O2
This set of reactions govern the production of ozone and
can combine to calculate its equilibrium concentration.

77.3 Commercial
and uses

photoinitiators

77.3.1 AIBN

Nitrogen dioxide, a large contributor to the production of smog

Nitrogen dioxide can also be photolytically cleaved by Azobisisobutyronitrile, a commonly used industrial photoinitiator, and its breakdown into two radicals and nitrogen gas
photons of wavelength less than 400 nm* [2] producing
atomic oxygen and nitric oxide.
Main article: Azobisisobutyronitrile
NO2 NO + O
Azobisisobutyronitrile is a white powder often used as a
Atomic oxygen is a highly reactive species, and can ab- photoinitiator for vinyl-based polymers such as polyvinyl
chloride, also known as PVC. Because this particular
stract a H atom from anything, including water.
photoinitiator produces nitrogen gas (N2 ) upon decomposition, it is often used as a blowing agent to change the
O + H2 O 2 OH
shape and/or texture of plastics.
Nitrogen dioxide can be regenerated through a reaction
between certain peroxy-containing radicals and NO.

77.3.2 Benzoyl peroxide

ROO+ NO NO2 + RO

77.2.3

Molecular oxygen

In the stratosphere, molecular oxygen (O2 ) is an important photoinitiator that begins the ozone-production process in the ozone layer. Oxygen can be photolyzed into
atomic oxygen by light with wavelength less than 240
nm.* [3]
O2 2O

Benzoyl peroxide, a common photoinitiator used in plastics production and in acne medication

Atomic oxygen can then combine with more molecular

Main article: Benzoyl peroxide
oxygen to form ozone.
Benzoyl peroxide, much like azobisisobutyronitrile, is a
white powder used as a photoinitiator in various commerHowever, ozone can also be photolyzed back into O and cial and industrial processes, including plastics production. Unlike AIBN, however, benzoyl peroxide produces
O2 .
oxygen gas upon decomposing, giving this compound a
host of medical uses as well.* [4]
O O+O
O + O2 O3

Upon contact with the skin, benzoyl peroxide breaks

Furthermore, atomic oxygen and ozone can combine into down, producing oxygen gas, among other things. The
O and O3 .
oxygen gas is absorbed into the pores of the skin, where

77.6. BIBLIOGRAPHY

269

it kills o the acne-causing bacteria Propionibacterium

acnes.
In addition, the free radicals produced can break down
dead skin cells. Clearing out these dead cells prevents
pore blockage and, by extension, acne breakouts.* [5]
Materials

DMPA

PEGDA

2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone
(radical photoinitiator)

TPT

polyelthene glycol diacrylate

(acrylate monomer)

trimethylolpropane triacrylate
(crosslinking monomer)

Acryloyl Chloride
(reactive acryl)

O
O

MeO OMe

O
O

O
n

Cl

O
O

Radical Generation
O

O
O

hv
MeO OMe

MeO OMe

MeO O

MeO

Me

Me

Initiation and propagation of polymerazation

Me

O
n

O
O

O
n

O
n

Me

example of acrylate polymerization via radical photoinitiation.

This type of hydrogel is sometimes used for biosensors as the
conditions used are relatively mind to protein allowing them to
be entrapped in the hydrogel, whilst retaining functionality and
are porous enough to allow the diusion of small molecules.* [6]

77.3.3

Camphorquinone

Main article: camphorquinone

Camphorquinone (CQ) amine photoinitiator system, generate primary radicals with light irradiation that attack the
double bonds of resin monomers. The physical properties
of the cured resins are aected by the generation of primary radicals during the initial stage of polymerization.

77.4 See also

Radical initiator

77.5 References
[1] vanLoon, pp. 5253
[2] vanLoon, pp. 7479
[3] vanLoon, pp. 4849
[4] Benzoyl Peroxide, chemicalland21.com, accessed October 29, 2009
[5] Benzoyl Peroxide, http://www.about.com, accessed
October 29, 2009
[6] Liao KC, Hogen-Esch T, Richmond FJ, Marcu
L, Clifton W, Loeb GE (2008).
Percutaneous
ber-optic sensor for chronic glucose monitoring in
vivo (PDF). Biosens Bioelectron 23 (10): 145865.
doi:10.1016/j.bios.2008.01.012. PMID 18304798.

77.6 Bibliography
vanLoon, Gary W.; Duy, Stephen J. (2005). Environmental Chemistry: A Global Perspective. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19927499-1.

Chapter 78

Pollen count
Pollen count is the measurement of the number of grains
of pollen in a cubic meter of air. The higher the number,
the more people will suer if they are allergic to a particular pollen (hay fever). Usually, the counts are announced
for specic plants such as grass, ash, or olive. These are
tailored to what is usually a common plant in the area being measured.
One method of taking the sample uses a silicone greasecovered rod that is rotated in the air to collect the pollen.
The rod is rotated periodically during the collection period to gather samples through an entire 24-hour day. The
rod is then removed and taken to a lab where the collected
material is analyzed for the type of pollen and its concentration.
In the UK, the public announcement of the pollen count
was popularised by Dr. William Frankland, an immunologist.
According to a study by Leonard Bielory, M.D. that was
presented to the American College of Allergy, Asthma
& Immunology, climate changes are expected to cause
pollen counts to more than double by 2040.* [1]

78.1 References
[1] http://www.newswise.com/articles/
the-year-2040-double-the-pollen-double-the-allergy-suffering

78.2 External links

Daily pollen reports in the US
Daily pollen reports in the UK
Daily and Historical Pollen Counts US

270

Chapter 79

Pollutant Standards Index

This article is about the air pollution index used in
Singapore. For air pollution indices in general, see Air
quality index.

79.2 Denition of the PSI used in

Singapore

The PSI considers six air pollutants - sulphur dioxide

The Pollutant Standards Index, or PSI, is a type of air
(SO2 ), particulate matter (PM10 ), ne particulate matter
quality index, which is a number used to indicate the level
(PM2.5 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), carbon monoxide (CO)
of pollutants in air.
and ozone (O3 ).
Initially PSI was based on ve air pollutants, but since
The concentrations of these pollutants in the ambient air
1 April 2014 it has also included ne particulate matter
are measured via a network of air monitoring stations lo(PM2.5 ).
cated around Singapore.* [4]
In addition to the PSI derived by averaging data collected
A sub-index value is computed for each pollutant based
for the past 24 hours, Singapore also publishes a 3h-PSI
on the pollutant's ambient air concentration. The highest
based on PM2.5 concentrations for the past 3 hours. 1-hr
sub-index value is then taken as the PSI value. In other
PM2.5 concentrations are also published every hour.* [1]
words, the PSI is determined by the pollutant with the
Besides Singapore, some other countries also use air qual- most signicant concentration.* [5]
ity indices. However, the calculations used to derive their
During haze episodes, PM2.5 is the most signicant polair quality indices may dier.* [2] Dierent countries also
lutant.* [6]
use dierent names for their indices such as Air Quality
Health Index, Air Pollution Index and Pollutant Standards The PSI is reported as a number on a scale of 0 to 500.
The index gures enable the public to determine whether
Index.
the air pollution levels in a particular location are good,
unhealthy, hazardous or worse. The following PSI table is
grouped by index values and descriptors, explaining the
eects of the levels, according to Singapore's National
Environment Agency (NEA).* [7]
Note: This chart reects the guidelines used in Singapore
and may dier from other countries. Health advisories
are based on the USEPAs guidelines. Only the 24-hour
PSI value and not the 3-hour PSI value is correlated to
the health eects outlined in NEAs advisories.

79.1 History

The PSI is based on a scale devised by the United States

Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to provide a
way for broadcasts and newspapers to report air quality 79.2.1 Record values of the PSI
on a daily basis. The PSI has been used in a number of
countries including the United States and Singapore.
Main article: Southeast Asian haze
Since 1999, the United States EPA has replaced the Pollution Standards Index (PSI) with the Air Quality Index Singapore has been regularly hit by smoke haze from for(AQI) to incorporate new PM2.5 and ozone standards.
est res in nearby Sumatra, Indonesia, brought over by
Prior to 1 April 2014, Singapore published the PSI and
the PM2.5 Concentration separately. This 3-hour PSI is
unique to Singapore and was introduced in 1997 to provide additional air quality information which would better
reect a more current air quality situation.* [3]

wind. These forest res have been attributed to the slashand-burn method favoured by several farmers to clear
their land, as opposed to a more expensive and inconvenient mechanical approach using excavators and bulldozers.* [8] In June 2013, severe haze hit Singapore, pushing

271

272
the nation's PSI into Hazardous levels for the rst time in
its history.* [9] Presently, the highest 3-hour PSI reading
on record in Singapore is 401 on 21 June 2013 at 12 noon
(GMT+8).* [10]

79.3 References
[1] PSI Reading. National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
[2] Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) On Haze. National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 15
April 2014.
[3] Govt says it will move towards publishing 24-hour PSI,
PM2.5 data on hourly basis. TODAY. 20 June 2013.
Retrieved 20 June 2013.
[4] Written Reply by Dr Vivian Balakrishnan, Minister for
the Environment and Water Resources to Parliamentary
Question on Air Quality Reporting. Ministry of the Environment & Water Resources (Singapore). 10 September
2012. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
[5] Computation of the Pollutant Standards Index (PSI)"
(PDF). National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 15 April 2014.
[6] Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) On Haze. National Environment Agency of Singapore. Retrieved 13
March 2016.
[7] PSI Readings. National Environment Agency. Retrieved 21 January 2014.
[8] Singapore hit by highest haze levels in 16 years. BBC
News. 18 June 2013. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
[9] Haze in Singapore hits new high, PSI at 321 at 10pm
. The Straits Times. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 20 June
2013.
[10] PSI hits new all-time high of 401 on Friday. Channel
NewsAsia. 21 June 2013. Retrieved 21 June 2013.

79.4 External links

Past and present PSI readings in Singapore published by the NEA

CHAPTER 79. POLLUTANT STANDARDS INDEX

Chapter 80

POP Air Pollution Protocol

The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range 80.2 References
Transboundary Air Pollution on Persistent Organic
Pollutants is an agreement to provide for the control and This article incorporates public domain material from the
reduction of emissions of persistent organic pollutants CIA World Factbook document 2003 edition.
(POPs) in order to reduce their transboundary uxes so
as to protect human health and the environment from adverse eects.

80.3 External links

The Executive Body adopted the Protocol on Persistent

Organic Pollutants on 24 June 1998 in Aarhus (Denmark). It focuses on a list of 16 substances that have been
singled out according to agreed risk criteria. The substances comprise eleven pesticides, two industrial chemicals and three by-products/contaminants.
It opened for signature on 1998-06-24 and entered into
force on 2003-10-23.
As of May 2013, 32 states and the European Union have
ratied the treaty; six have signed but not yet ratied.

Map showing Persistent Organic Pollutants signatories (green)

and ratications (dark green) as of July 2007

80.1 See also

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
environmental agreements
International POPs Elimination Network (IPEN)
273

Status of Ratication
Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants

Chapter 81

Portable optical air sensor

Optical air sensors center around detection of some
form of light created by a chemical process, in order
to identify or measure amounts of individual molecules.
Portable sensors are specically sensors that are easy to
transport and use in the eld.

81.1 Air pollution

Air pollution is a large player in the mortality rate of people today, particularly in newly developing countries with
heavy industrial presence. A study done in 2000 showed
that the World Health Organization estimated ne particulate air pollution, which could be a number of components, including acids (such as nitrates and sulfates), organic chemicals, metals, and soil or dust particles, caused
800,000 deaths and a total loss of 6.4 million years of
life in major cities alone around the globe in 2000.* [1]
These numbers are shown to be increasing due to urbanization, and the future numbers predicted in that study
have already been exceeded.* [1] A study done by Ezzati
et al. shows that indoor smoke from solid fuels and urban outdoor air pollution are a close second to unsafe
water in terms of burden of disease and death due to environmental concerns.* [2] To measure this air pollution,
the commonly accepted methods involve expensive, complex, and stationary equipment. Recently, there is a push
to move away from those expensive, stationary, and complex pieces of equipment to cheaper, portable sensors to
aid in eld observations with high speeds.* [3]

81.2 Sol-gel
One of the primary methods of optical air sensing involves taking a sol-gel, which is created by taking a sol, a
liquid with stable colloidal particles, and mixing it with a
gel, which is a three dimensional continuous network encompassing a liquid.* [4] The sol-gel is then exposed to a
certain indicator which becomes part of the sol-gel. Typically the production of a sol-gel follows a hydrolysis and
then condensation pathway.
Hydrolysis involves adding a hydrogen atom onto the

gel. Condensation is a method involving bonding two

dierent gel molecules together to create a sol-gel as a
whole.* [5] This method consists of dissolving some solid
into a solvent and then maintaining a basic pH as the mixture is reuxed to condense and produce a gel.* [6]* [7]
One example of the sol-gel method in use today is the
sensing of air acidity. The sol-gel is made with an
organic dye, (2-[4-(dimethylamino)- phenylazo]benzoic
acid). The dye has a pH color range of 6.7-8.7. This
means that below a pH of 6.7 you see one color, in this
case a red-pink, and at a pH higher than 8.7 you see a different color, in this case yellow, and you see a changing
orange in between.* [8] The testing procedure is incredibly simple since all you have to do is expose the sol-gel to
the air and monitor the color change.* [8]
Sol-gels can also be formed into monoliths, or columns,
which are larger structures of sol-gel, unlike the typical
thin layer. These monoliths are shown to be better for
sensing molecules with smaller molar absorbtivity, which
are molecules that dont absorb into something very well.
An example of a molecule that would be measured here
is a metal-ligand complex. These monoliths operate in a
similar method to the thin layer sol-gels in that they trap
some analyte and show a color change.* [5]

81.3 Fluorescence
Another example of portable optical air sensors can involve uorescence. One example of a uorescence based
sensor is an electronic nose, which can measure analytes
in vapor or air. It operates so that an analyte is detected
by dierent sensors in dierent ways to ensure what is
being measured can be dierentiated.* [9] As the vapor
ows into the system it is hit with a high intensity light
so that dierent organic dyes located in dierent small
holes, or micropores, emit a certain wavelength and varied intensity of light based on what vapor compound they
are in contact with. The light from the dierent sensors
can then be compiled and used to determine what analytes
were present. One large application of the uorescent
method is the detection of volatile organic compounds
(VOCs).* [9] Another type of uorescent sensor fo-

274

81.5. REFERENCES
cuses on metal complexes, rather than organic complexes.
One example is the use of dirhodium tetracarboxylate
structure to detect nitrogen monoxide, a common pollutant. This involves a nitrogen monoxide molecule coming in and bonding to the dirhodium tetracarboxylate to
cause a shift in the intensity of the uorescence of the
molecule.* [10]

81.4 Future
The future of the portable air sensors is to design them
better able to detect small amounts and better able to
quantify the amounts that are detected. Most portable
sensors are now used in conjunction with some larger,
more accurate system within a lab. The advent of microfabrication techniques, microelectro-mechanical systems, energy ecient sensor circuits, and advanced computer power has allowed portable sensors to thrive, but
continued advancement of those components would further advance the benets of using portable systems.* [3]

81.5 References
[1] Brauer, M. (2011).Exposure Assessment for Estimation
of the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to Outdoor
Air Pollution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 46: 652660.
[2] Ezzati, M (2002). Selected Major Risk Factors and
Global and Regional Burden of Disease. The Lancet
360 (9343): 13471360.
[3] Snyder, E. (2013). The Changing Paradigm of Air Pollution Monitoring.. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47: 11369
11377.
[4] Sol-Gel Methods (PDF).
[5] Carrington, N. (2006).
Inorganic Sensing using
Organofunctional Sol-Gel Materials. Acc. Chem. Res.
40: 343350.
[6] Lopez, T. (1996). Synthesis and Characterization of
Sol-Gel Hydrotalcites Structure and Texture. Langmuir
12: 189192.
[7] Prince, J. (2009). Proposed General Sol-Gel Method to
Prepare Multimetallic Layered Double Hydroxides: Synthesis, Characterization, and Envisaged Application.
Chem. Mater 21: 58265835.
[8] Garcia-Heras, M. (2005). Evaluation of Air Acidity
through Optical Sensors. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39:
37433747.
[9] Aernecke, M. (2009). Design, Implementation, and
Field Testing of a Portable Fluorescence-Based Vapor
Sensor. Anal. Chem. 81: 52815290.
[10] Hilderbrand, S. (2004). Dirhodium Tetracarboxylate
Scaolds as Reversible Fluorescence-Based Nitric Oxide
Sensors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126: 49724978.

275

Chapter 82

Ramboll Environ
Ramboll Environ, Inc., is a privately held, international
environmental, safety and health sciences consulting rm
headquartered in Arlington, Virginia. Formed by the December 2014 acquisition of ENVIRON by Danish-based
Ramboll* [2] the rm has operations across 128 oces
in 26 countries, with more than 2,100 consultants.* [3]
Ramboll Environ's work frequently involves addressing
interrelated scientic, business and policy issues to help
clients assess and mitigate potential risks, to ensure regulatory compliance or to achieve sustainable performance
targets.

82.2 Operations and services

The rm oers various environmental, health and safety,
sustainability and health sciences services, including air
quality and climate change management, regulatory compliance assistance, due diligence, remedial design and engineering, ecology and sediment management, and risk
and exposure assessment and management.* [1]
In its April 28, 2014 edition, Engineering News-Record
ranked ENVIRON Holdings, Inc., as the 27th largest
pure design rm; the 35th largest design rm in international markets; and the 49th largest overall U.S. design
rm.* [8]

82.2.1 Environment

82.1 History
The rm was founded as ENVIRON in Washington,
D.C., in 1982.

Ramboll Environ provides assistance in assessing and

mitigating potential environmental risks so that companies can operate more eciently, address legal and regulatory challenges and reduce or eliminate future liabilities.* [9] Key services include: air quality management; climate change and energy management; due diligence; ecology and sediment management; risk assessment and management; and site investigation and remediation.* [10]* [11]* [12]* [13]* [14]

In 1996 the rm acquired EAG, a consulting rm in the

United Kingdom. In 2003 ENVIRON merged with Applied Epidemiology, Inc., a provider of epidemiological
consulting services in occupational health, environmental health and injury, and disability research. ENVIRON
then merged in 2005 with The ADVENT Group, an engineering consulting rm specializing in industrial wastew- 82.2.2 Facilities
ater management and related areas, and developer of the
patented ADVENT Integral System (AIS).* [4]
The rm provides assistance so that industrial facilities
In 2007 ENVIRON acquired Boelter Associates, Inc., a are regulatory compliant, manage potential liabilities, and
consulting rm with expertise in industrial hygiene and can assess environmental, health, and safety risks when
*
building forensics. In 2009, the rm acquired Brazil- making an acquisition. [15] Key services include: Buildian consultancy ARQUIPLAGO Engenharia Ambien- ing Performance and Property Loss Consulting, Compliance Assistance, Dose Reconstruction, Occupational
tal Ltda.(Arquiplago).
Health and Safety; and Site Investigation and RemediaENVIRON acquired Mexican rm Hicks Environmention.* [16]* [17]* [18]
tal in February 2014, expanding into Mexico with an ofce in Monterrey.* [5] In March 2014, ENVIRON established operations in Yangon, Myanmar, becoming the 82.2.3 Human health
rst global environmental consultancy in the country.* [6]
The Danish company Ramboll acquired ENVIRON Ramboll Environ assesses and addresses potential hu2014-12-16.* [7] The acquisition makes the companies man health risks associated with environmental, residenamong the top 10 environmental consultants in the world. tial and workplace exposures and product-related expo276

82.4. AWARDS AND HONORS

277

sures.* [19] This work includes product safety and stew- Environmental Council.
ardship, industrial hygiene and safety, risk assessment
and management, and industrial chemical safety evaluations.* [20]* [21]* [22]* [23]* [24]
82.4 Awards and

82.3 Notable projects

honors

An environmental impact assessment (EIA) prepared for

the proposed expansion of the Kemira Chemicals production plant in Sastamala, Finland received an honorary award from the Finnish National EIA Association
(YVA ry) for exceptionally good assessment of risks
and the potential environmental impacts of disturbances
and emergency situations.* [30]

At the request of the Hong Kong Environmental Protection Department the company developed a comprehensive air quality model system to address air quality concerns, including ozone, particulate matter, and other pollutants due to local sources, as well as transport from
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency USEPA seChina and other areas in Asia.* [25]
lected Principal Dr. Carl Adams to join its task force for
Ramboll Environ was engaged to deliver a wide range of the Wastewater Treatment and Related Modeling Techsocial and environmental services to international stan- nical Workshop.* [31] During the opening panel of the
dards related to a 13,000-km-long bre optic subma- rst task force meeting, Dr. Adams spoke on Zero
rine telecommunications cable system running the entire Discharge of Water from Hydrofracturing Activities, a
length of the Indian Ocean coast of Africa, from South unique concept he has developed to recycle 100 percent
Africa to Egypt.
of all wastewaters related to hydraulic fracturing activIn the United States, the rm has worked with the ities, including spills and rainwater. The concept inMarathon Petroleum Company at its major gulf coast volves no contact with air, ground and surface water or
*
renery in Garyville, Louisiana, to develop VOC soils. [32]
BioTreat, a patent-pending biotreatment solution to
reduce volatile organic compound emissions at oil and
chemical reneries. The company asserts that the system achieves regulatory compliance and cost savings of
an order of magnitude.* [26]

In January 2013, the Climate Change Business Journal

awarded ENVIRON its Gold Medal Business Achievement Award in Energy and Carbon Management.* [33]

The company and another prominent engineering and

scientic rm, Exponent, were employed by GeorgiaPacic to conduct research intended for its defense in
an asbestos-related lawsuit. Controversially, the dissemination of the research was controlled by Georgia-Pacic
*
[29] and is subject to ongoing litigation. Environ International failed to evaluate the use of Zirconium catalysts
for Sarin gas disposal at Mel Chemicals aka Luxfer plant
in Flemington, NJ. It failed to include sarin as a chemical in its inventory report to the NJDEP and Kingwood

ENVIRON won the Chemical Industry Awards REACH

Service Provider Award 2010.

The Port of Los Angeles, an ENVIRON client, received

the Environmental Campaign of the Year Award in 2012
Their studies uncovered the chemical mechanism that es- given by Containerisation International, an international
tablished a link between certain types of gypsum wall- shipping publication.* [34]
board (Chinese drywall) and corrosive eects on copper
DP World awarded ENVIRON the Golden Dhow Award
and silver components in residential properties across the
for its environmental consultancy services to the London
southeastern United States. ENVIRON scientists were
Gateway super port.* [35]
the rst to recognize and publish ndings about the proENVIRON also assisted a client in Milan, Italy that
gressive nature of the corrosion.* [27]* [28]
received the rst award for Leadership in Energy and
BP Remediation Management awarded ENVIRON four
Environmental Design (LEED) Platinum certication,
framework agreements for a range of strategic worldthe U.S. Green Building Councils highest certication
wide environmental services. Two agreements call for
level.* [36]
the rm to provide a broad spectrum of environmental services for upstream, rening and marketing, ship- In 2011, the American Academy of Environmental
ping and remediation that include regulatory compliance; Engineers Excellence in Environmental Engineering
multimedia modeling; environmental, social and health Competition awarded ENVIRON its Grand Prize, Reimpact assessments; natural resource management; due search for ENVIRONs American patent-pending VOC
diligence support; and sustainability services around the BioTreat Technology.* [37]
world. Two additional agreements focus on global inland Also in 2011, the rm won the UK's Edie Environmental
and oshore oil spill preparedness and response planning. Excellence Award: Best Consultancy for Due Diligence.

82.5 Published articles

Ramboll Environ professionals have published more than
20 articles in peer-reviewed and scientic publications
since 2013.* [38]

278
Principal Doug Daugherty co-authored a chapter inResponsible Mining: Case Studies in Managing Social &
Environmental Risks in the Developed World, a trade
book published by the Society for Mining, Metallurgy and
Exploration (SME) in January 2015.* [39] The chapter
details Molycorps Mountain Pass rare-earth resource
and processing facility in southeastern California as it
aims to become one of the largest rare-earth production
centers in the world in a sustainable way that minimize
environmental impacts.

CHAPTER 82. RAMBOLL ENVIRON

[10] ENVIRON completes life cycle assessment for National

Geographic Society National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[11] Corporate Governance for Main Market and AIM CompaniesLondon Stock Exchange. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[12] Climate Action Plan Green Santa Clarita. Retrieved
2013-07-30.
[13] Study: Tier 3 sulfur rule would do little to improve air
quality American Petroleum Institute. Retrieved 201307-30.

Principal P. Robinan Gentry co-authored Evaluation

of gene expression changes in human primary uroepithelial cells following 24-Hr. exposures to inorganic arsenic [14] CLIA Position on North American ECA CLIA. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
and its methylated metabolites,in the publication Envi*
ronmental and Molecular Mutagenesis. [40] This publi[15] Facilities ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
cation was honored with the Editors Choice.

Four Principals have contributed to The EU Environmen- [16] ENVIRON appointed on Georgia's largest container
freight port developmentWorld Port Development. Retal Liability: A Commentary. Written for lawyers and
trieved 2013-07-30.
others, this Oxford University Press publication examines
the legal, administrative, scientic, and economic issues [17] Chinese Drywall The Science and The MythsBuildrelating to the directive.* [41]
ing Health Sciences. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
In 2011, Dr. Joseph V. Rodricks, a co-founder and [18] Sun Chemical Issues Carbon Footprint Report Sun
Principal of ENVIRON International, prepared a chapChemical. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
ter on exposure science appearing in the third edition of
the National Academies of Sciences Reference Manual [19] Human Health ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
on Scientic Evidence.* [42] He has also written for the
[20] Study: No health risks at Samsung factories CNN.
International Journal of Toxicology.* [43]
Retrieved 2013-07-30.

82.6 References
[1] Company Overview of ENVIRON International Corporation Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Retrieved 2013-0607.
[2]Ramboll
Acquires
Environ(http:
//environment-analyst.com/7297/
ramboll-acquires-environ)
Environment
Analyst.
Retrieved 2015-06-28.
[3]Environment & Health(http://www.ramboll.com/
services/environment-and-health) Ramboll Group.
Retrieved 2015-06-28.
[4] Press Release: Steven H. Kahn Joins ENVIRONENVIRON. 04 June 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[5]Environ establishes presence in Mexico via acquisition
Environment Analyst. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
[6]Environ Establishes Operations in MyanmarMyanmar
Business Today. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
[7] News story on ENVIRON website 2014-12-17
[8] ENR: The Top 500 ENR. From the original on 29
April 2013, pp, 9, 10, and 14. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[9] Environment ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-06-07.

[21] Firm to create design for asbestos removal at Carpenter

Trib Local - Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[22] Ocials: Air OK in mobile classrooms The CourierNews - Chicago Sun-Times. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[23] Beverage patterns may make or break dietBoca Raton
News. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[24] Costs Go Up When Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease Patients Develop Anemia DocGuide.com. Retrieved 2013-07-30.
[25] Air Quality Management: Modeling Hong Kong Air
Quality ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[26] VOC Biotreat: A cost-eective solution for the biodestruction of volatile organic compound emissions ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[27] Chinese Drywall Cited in Building Woes The Wall
Street Journal. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[28] Builder's study nds drywall tied to corrosion The
Sarasota Herald-Tribune. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[29] Morris, Jim (21 October 2013). Facing asbestos lawsuits, paper giant launched research program. Salon.
Retrieved 23 October 2013.
[30]Environment & Health(http://www.ramboll.com/
services/environment-and-health) Ramboll Group.
Retrieved 2015-06-26.

82.7. EXTERNAL LINKS

[31] Technical Worshop on Wastewater Treatment and Related ModelingU.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
18 April 2013. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[32] Dr. Carl Adams selected for USEPA task force on hydrofracturing waste water treatment ENVIRON. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
[33] 2012 CCBJ Business Achievement Award Environmental Business International. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[34] Containerisation 2013 AwardsContainerisation International. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[35] ENVIRON wins award for environmental services to DP
World ENVIRON. 05 October 2012. Retrieved 201306-07.
[36] ENVIRON assists client in achieving Italy's rst LEED
Platinum building ENVIRON. 21 March 2012. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[37] Patented & Innovative Cost-Saving Control Device for
Facility-Generated Volatile Organic Compound (VOC)
Emissions, Marathon ReneryAAEES. Retrieved 201306-07.
[38]2015 Publications(http://www.ramboll-environ.com/
news/publications) Ramboll Environ. Retrieved 201506-28.
[39]Responsible Mining(http://www.smenet.org/store/
mining-books.cfm/Responsible-Mining/373-1)
Society for Mining Metallurgy & Exploration. Retrieved
2015-06-26.
[40] Evaluation of gene expression changes in human primary
uroepithelial cells following 24-Hr exposures to inorganic
arsenic and methylated metabolites Wiley Online Library. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis. 2013
March. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[41]The EU Environmental Liability Directive: A CommentaryOxford University Press. Retrieved 2014-06-24.
[42] Reference Guide on Exposure Science The National
Academies Press. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
[43] Dr. Joseph V. RodricksInternational Journal of Toxicology. Retrieved 2013-06-07.

82.7 External links

279

Chapter 83

RIMPUFF
RIMPUFF is a local-scale pu diusion model devel- it is suggested that either one of the following books be
oped by Ris DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable read:
Energy, Denmark.* [1] It is an emergency response model
to help emergency management organisations deal with
Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dischemical, nuclear, biological and radiological releases to
persion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modthe atmosphere.
eling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
RIMPUFF is in operational use in several European na Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
tional emergency centres for preparedness and predicDispersion (4th ed.). air-dispersion.com. ISBN 0tion of nuclear accidental releases (RODOS, EURANOS,
9644588-0-2.
ARGOS), chemical gas releases (ARGOS), and for airborne Foot-and Mouth Disease virus spread * [2]

83.4 References
83.1 Description

[1] Danmarks Tekniske Universitet. dtu.dk.

RIMPUFF builds from parameterized formulas for pu [2] The Foot and Mouth Disease
diusion, wet and dry deposition, and gamma dose radiation. Its range of application covers distances up to (Click on the blue uparrow to display the text portion rel~1000 km from the point of release.
evant to the reference)
RIMPUFF calculates the instantaneous atmospheric dispersion taking into account the local wind variability and
the local turbulence levels. The pu sizes represent in- 83.5 External links
stantaneous relative diusion (no averaging) and is calculated from similarity scaling theory. Pu diusion is
Model Documentation System - a detailed catalogue
patameterized for travel times in the range from a few
of the models developed in Europe.
seconds and up to ~1 day.
Wet and dry deposition is also calculated as a function of
local rain intensity and turbulence levels.

83.2 See also

List of atmospheric dispersion models
UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison
Committee
UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau

83.3 Further reading

For those who are unfamiliar with air pollution dispersion
modelling and would like to learn more about the subject,
280

Chapter 84

Roadway air dispersion modeling

not usually warranted, because the best models have been
extensively validated over a wide spectrum of input data
variables.
The product of the calculations is usually a set of isopleths
or mapped contour lines either in plan view or cross sectional view. Typically these might be stated as concentrations of carbon monoxide, total reactive hydrocarbons,
oxides of nitrogen, particulate or benzene. The air quality scientist can run the model successively to study techniques of reducing adverse air pollutant concentrations
Roadway air dispersion is applied to highway segments
(for example, by redesigning roadway geometry, altering
speed controls or limiting certain types of trucks). The
Roadway air dispersion modeling is the study of air
model is frequently utilized in an Environmental Impact
pollutant transport from a roadway or other linear emitter.
Statement involving a major new roadway or land use
Computer models are required to conduct this analysis,
change which will induce new vehicular trac.
because of the complex variables involved, including vehicle emissions, vehicle speed, meteorology, and terrain
geometry. Line source dispersion has been studied since
at least the 1960s, when the regulatory framework in the 84.2 History
United States began requiring quantitative analysis of the
air pollution consequences of major roadway and airport
The logical building block for this theory was the use of
projects. By the early 1970s this subset of atmospheric
the Gaussian air pollutant dispersion equation for point
dispersion models were being applied to real world cases
sources.* [1]* [2] One of the early point source air polluof highway planning, even including some controversial
tant plume dispersion equations was derived by Bosancourt cases.
quet and Pearson* [3] in 1936. Their equation did not
include the eect of ground reection of the pollutant
plume. Sir Graham Sutton derived a point source air
pollutant plume dispersion equation in 1947* [4] which
84.1 How the model works
included the assumption of Gaussian distribution for the
vertical and crosswind dispersion of the plume and also
The basic concept of the roadway air dispersion model is
to calculate air pollutant levels in the vicinity of a highway addressed the eect of ground reection of* the plume.
in model
or arterial roadway by considering them as line sources. Further advances were made by G. A. Briggs [5]
*
[1]
for his
renement
and
validation
and
by
D.B.
Turner
The model takes into account source characteristics such
user-friendly
workbook
that
included
screening
calculaas trac volume, vehicle speeds, truck mix, and eet
emission controls; in addition, the roadway geometry, tions which do not require a computer.
surrounding terrain and local meteorology are addressed. In seeing the need to develop a line source model to apFor example, many air quality standards require that cer- proach the study of roadway air pollution, Michael Hogan
tain near worst case meteorological conditions be applied. and Richard Venti developed a closed form solution to
the point source equation in a series of publiThe calculations are suciently complex that a computer integrating
*
*
[6]
[7]
cations.
model is essential to arrive at authoritative results, although workbook type manuals have been developed as
screening techniques. In some cases where results must
be refereed (such as legal cases), model validation may be
needed with eld test data in the local setting; this step is

While the ESL mathematical model was completed for a

line source by 1970, model renement resulted in astrip
source, emulating the horizontal extent of the roadway surface. This theory would be the precursor of area

281

282

CHAPTER 84. ROADWAY AIR DISPERSION MODELING

84.3 The theory

The resulting solution for an innite line source is:
(
)

2
= 0 (ucdx2q)(cos ) exp 2cy2 x2 dx
where:
x is the distance from the observer to the roadway
y is the height of the observer
u is the mean wind speed
is the angle of tilt of the line source relative to the reference frame
The source of virtually all roadway air pollution emissions is the
exhaust

c and d are the standard deviation of horizontal and vertical wind directions (measured in radians) respectively.
This equation was integrated into a closed form solution
using the error function (erf), and variations in geometry can be performed to include the full innite line,
line segment, elevated line, or arc made from segments.
In any case one can calculate three-dimensional contours of resulting air pollutant concentrations and use the
mathematical model to study alternative roadway designs,
various assumptions of worst case meteorology or varying
trac conditions (for example, variations in truck mix,
eet emission controls, or vehicle speed).

source dispersion models. But their focus was roadway

simulation, so they proceeded with the development of a
computer model by adding to the team Leda Patmore, a
computer programmer in the eld of atmospheric physics
and satellite trajectory calculations. A working computer
model was produced by late 1970; then the model was
calibrated with carbon monoxide eld measurements tar- The ESL research group also extended their model by ingeting from trac on U.S. Route 101 in Sunnyvale, Cal- troducing the area source concept of a vertical strip to
simulate the mixing zone on the highway produced by veifornia.
hicle turbulence. This model too was validated in 1971
The ESL model received endorsement from the U.S. and showed good correlation with eld test data.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the form of
a major grant to validate the model using actual roadway
tests of tracer gas sulfur hexauoride dispersion. That
gas was chosen since it does not occur naturally or in ve- 84.4 Example applications of the
hicular emissions and provides a unique tracer for such
model
dispersion studies. Part of the Environmental Protection
Agencys motives may have been to bring the model into
public domain. After a successful validation through the
EPA research, the model was soon put to use in a variety of settings to forecast air pollution levels in the vicinity of roadways. The ESL group applied the model to
the U.S. Route 101 bypass project in Cloverdale, California, the extension of Interstate 66 through Arlington, Virginia, the widening of the New Jersey Turnpike through
Raritan and East Brunswick, New Jersey, and several
transportation projects in Boston for the Boston Transportation Planning Review.
By the early 1970s at least two other research groups
were known to be actively developing some type to roadway air dispersion model: the Environmental Research
and Technology group of Lexington, Massachusetts and
Caltrans headquarters in Sacramento, California. The
Caline model of Caltrans borrowed some of the technology from the ESL Inc. group, since Caltrans funded
some of the early model application work in Cloverdale
and other locations and was given rights to use parts of
their model.

Roadway air dispersion modeling is also done for curved

roadways-North-South Express Highway, Malaysia

There were several early applications of the model in

somewhat dramatic cases. In 1971 the Arlington Coalition on Transportation (ACT) was the plainti in an ac-

84.6. RECENT APPLICATIONS IN LEGAL CASES

tion against the Virginia Highway Commission over the
extension of Interstate 66 through Arlington, Virginia,
having led a suit in the federal district court. The ESL
model was used to produce calculations of air quality in
the vicinity of the proposed highway. ACT won this case
after a decision by the U.S. Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals. The court paid special attention to the plainti's expert calculations and testimony projecting that air quality
levels would violate Federal ambient air quality standards
as set forth in the Clean Air Act.

283
second-by-second modal emissions, and Gaussian pu
dispersion into a fully integrated system (a true simulation) that models individual vehicles as discrete moving
sources. TRAQSIM was developed as a next generation
model to be the successor to the current CALINE3 and
CAL3QHC regulatory models. The next step in the development of TRAQSIM is to incorporate methods to
model the dispersion of particulate matter (PM) and hazardous air pollutants (HAPs).

Several models have been developed that handle complex urban meteorology resulting from urban canyons
and highway congurations. The earliest such model
development (1968-1970) was by the Air Pollution
Control Oce of the U.S. EPA in conjunction with
New York City.* [8] The model was successfully applied to the Spadina Expressway in Toronto by Jack
Fensterstock of the New York City Department of
Air Resources,.* [9]* [10] Other examples include the
Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center's* [11]
Canyon Plume Box model,* [12] now in version 3
(CPB-3), the National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark's Operational Street Pollution Model
(OSPM), and the MICRO-CALGRID model, which
includes photochemistry, allowing for both primary and
secondary species to be modeled. Cornell University's
model, which resolves vehicle-induced turbulence
84.5 More recent model rene- CTAG
(VIT), road-induced turbulence (RIT),* [13] chemical
ments
transformation and aerosol dynamics of air pollutants
using turbulence reacting ow models. The CTAG model
The CALINE3 model is a steady-state Gaussian disper- has also been applied to characterize highway-building
sion model designed to determine air pollution concen- environments and study eects of vegetation barriers on
trations at receptor locations downwind of highways lo- near-road air pollution.
cated in relatively uncomplicated terrain. CALINE3 is
incorporated into the more elaborate CAL3QHC and
CAL3QHCR models. CALINE3 is in widespread use
84.6 Recent applications in legal
due to its user friendly nature and promotion in governmental circles, but it falls short of analyzing the complexcases
ity of cases addressed by the original Hogan-Venti model.
CAL3QHC and CAL3QHCR models are available in the
Recent health literature indicating that residents near maFortran programming language. They have options to jor roads face elevated rates of several adverse health outmodel either particulate matter or carbon monoxide, and
comes has prompted legal dispute over the responsibility
include algorithms to simulate queued trac at signalized of transportation agencies to use roadway air dispersion
intersections .
models to characterize the impacts of new and expanded
In addition, several more recent models have been de- roadways, bus terminals, truck stops, and other sources.
veloped that employ non-steady state Lagrangian pu Recently, the Sierra Club of Nevada sued the Nevada Dealgorithms.
The HYROAD dispersion model has partment of Transportation and the Federal Highway Adbeen developed through the National Cooperative High- ministration over its failure to assess the impact of the exway Research Program's Project 25-06, incorporating pansion of U.S. Route 95 in Las Vegas on neighborhood
ROADWAY-2 model pu and steady-state plume algo- air quality. The Sierra Club asserted that a supplemenrithms (Rao et al., 2002).
tal Environmental Impact Statement should be issued to
A second contentious case took place in East Brunswick,
New Jersey where the New Jersey Turnpike Authority
planned a major widening of the Turnpike. Again the
roadway air dispersion model was employed to predict
levels of air pollution for residences, schools and parks
near the Turnpike. After an initial hearing in Superior
Court where the ESL model results were set forth, the
judge ordered the Turnpike Authority to negotiate with
the plainti, Concerned Citizens of East Brunswick and
develop air quality mitigation for the adverse eects. The
Turnpike Authority hired ERT as its expert, and the two
research teams negotiated a settlement to this case using
the newly created roadway air dispersion models.

The TRAQSIM model, developed as part of a Ph.D dissertation with support by the U.S. Department of Transportation's Volpe National Transportation Systems Center's Air Quality Facility is currently under the care of
Wyle. The model incorporates dynamic vehicle behavior with a non-steady state Gaussian pu algorithm. Unlike HYROAD, TRAQSIM combines trac simulation,

address emissions of hazardous air pollutants and particulate matter from new motor vehicle trac. The plaintis
asserted that modeling tools were available, including the
Environmental Protection Agency's MOBILE6.2 model,
the CALINE3 dispersion model, and other relevant models. The defendants won in the U.S. District Court under
Judge Philip Pro, who ruled that the transportation agen-

284
cies had acted in a manner that was not arbitrary and
capricious,despite the agencies' technical arguments regarding the lack of available modeling tools being contradicted by a number of peer-reviewed studies published in
scientic journals (e.g. Korenstein and Piazza, Journal
of Environmental Health, 2002). On appeal to the U.S.
Ninth Circuit, the Appeals Court stayed new construction
on the highway pending the court's nal decision. The
Sierra Club and the defendants settled out of court, setting up a research program on the air quality impacts of
U.S. Route 95 on nearby schools.
A number of other high-prole cases have prompted environmental groups to call for dispersion modeling to be
used to assess the air quality impacts of new transportation projects on nearby communities, but to date state
transportation agencies and the Federal Highways Administration has claimed that no tools are available, despite models and guidance available through EPA's Support Center for Regulatory Air Models (SCRAM).
Among the more contentious of cases the Detroit Intermodal Freight Terminal and Detroit River International Crossing (Michigan, USA), and the expansion of
Interstate 70 East in Denver (Colorado, USA).

CHAPTER 84. ROADWAY AIR DISPERSION MODELING

[2] Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-02. www.air-dispersion.com
[3] C.H. Bosanquet and J.L. Pearson, The spread of smoke
and gases from chimneys, Trans. Faraday Soc., 32:1249,
1936
[4] O.G. Sutton,The theoretical distribution of airborne pollution from factory chimneys, QJRMS, 73:426, 1947
[5] G.A. Briggs, A plume rise model compared with observations, JAPCA, 15:433-438, 1965
[6] Michael Hogan, Theoretical basis for atmospheric diusion from a linear source, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication IR-29, Sunnyvale, Ca., May
4, 1968
[7] Richard J. Venti, Atmospheric diusion models for roadway sources, ESL Inc., Environmental Systems Laboratory, Publication ET-22, Sunnyvale, Ca., October 5,
1970.
[8] Fensterstock, J.C. et al, Reduction of air pollution
potential through environmental planning, JAPCA,
Vol.21,No.7, 1971.

In all of these cases, community-based organizations have [9] The Globe and Mail, 1971-01-21, James MacKenzie,
Pollution Predicted to be worse than New Yorks,
asserted that modeling tools are available, but transportaToronto.
tion planning agencies have asserted that too much uncertainty exists in all of the steps. A major concern for [10] The Globe and Mail, 1971-01-22, James MacKenzie,
community-based organizations has been transportation
Monoxide level safe on present Spadina, expert tells
OMB, Toronto.
agencies' unwillingness to dene the level of uncertainty
that they are willing to tolerate in air quality analyses, how
[11] Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center
that compares to the Environmental Protection Agency's
guideline on air quality models, which addresses uncer- [12] Canyon Plume Box model
tainty and accuracy in model use.

84.7 See also

Air pollution dispersion terminology
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling
Line source
List of atmospheric dispersion models
Point source (pollution)
Volume source (pollution)

84.8 References
[1] Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion
estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.).
CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X. www.crcpress.com

[13] Y. Wang and Zhang, K.M,Modeling near-road air quality using computational uid dynamics (CFD) model,
ES&T, 43:7778-7783, 2009

84.9 External links

EPA Support Center for Regulatory Atmospheric
Modeling
EPA Preferred/Recommended Models
EPA's Air Quality Modeling Group (AQMG)
Air Dispersion Modeling at DMOZ
EPA's Air Toxics Risk Assessment (ATRA) Reference Library

Chapter 85

Rolling coal
black coal can make visibility dicult.* [8]
In March 2015, Illinois General Assembly Representative Will Guzzardi published a bill proposing to impose
a $5,000 ne on anyone who removes or alters their vehicle's EPA emissions equipment. Guzzardi has made it
clear that The ne would come on top of any penalties
enforced by the current law that prohibits emissions tampering.* [9] In May 2015, New Jersey Governor Chris
Christie signed a bill into law which prohibits retrotting
diesel-powered vehicles to increase particulate emissions
for the purpose of coal rolling. Those found in violation
are subject to a ne by the state's Department of Environmental Protection. The bill was introduced by state
Assemblyman Tim Eustace after a pickup truck blasted
smoke at Eustace's Nissan Leaf while driving.* [10]

85.1 References
A Ford F-450 monster truck rolling coal, or blowing large
clouds of dark grey diesel smoke.

Rolling coal is the practice of intentionally disabling the

Clean Burn Programming of a computer controlled diesel
engine, so that the vehicle can emit an under-aspirated
sooty exhaust that visibly pollutes the air. It also may include the intentional removal of the particulate lter.* [1]
Practitioners often additionally modify their vehicles by
installing smoke switches and smoke stacks. Modications to a vehicle to enable rolling coal may cost from
$200 to $5,000.* [2]* [3]
Rolling coal is a form of conspicuous air pollution by antienvironmentalists: a very public way for conservative
drivers to simultaneously broadcast that they aren't worried about whether humans are the cause of global warming and to openly mock the people who are.* [2] Targets of coal rolling often include owners of hybrid vehicles (hence the nickname "Prius duster) as well as foreign vehicles, bicyclists and pedestrians.* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7]
In addition to environmentalism concerns, it's been noted
that this phenomenon also has health risks associated with
it, particularly respiratory issues, as well as safety, as the
285

[1] Abel, David (July 28, 2014). Rules have diesel enthusiasts fuming. The Boston Globe. Retrieved July 30,
2014.
[2] Dahl, Melissa (July 24, 2014). Why Pickup Truck
Drivers Are Paying $5,000 to Pollute More. New York
(New York City). Retrieved January 25, 2016.
[3] Kulze, Elizabeth (June 16, 2014). ""RollinCoalIs Pollution Porn for Dudes With Pickup Trucks. Vocativ.
Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[4] Colbert Pokes Fun at Rolling Coal,the Insecure
Trucker Driver
s Response to Environmentalists. EcoWatch. July 18, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[5] Rolling coal: Canadian diesel truck lovers insist they're
not like U.S. counterparts. CTV News. July 16, 2014.
Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[6] Oberg, Jamie (July 18, 2014). Police warn drivers
against 'rolling coal'". KCTV. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[7] Political Protest Or Just Blowing Smoke? AntiEnvironmentalists Are Now 'Rolling Coal'". Hungton
Post. July 6, 2014. Retrieved July 30, 2014.
[8] Boyd, Shaun. Lawmaker Wants To StopCoal Rollers
From Intentionally Blasting Black Smoke. CBS Denver.
Retrieved 7 April 2016.

286

[9] Illinois bill would make 'rolling coal' illegal. Autoblog.com. 27 March 2015.
[10] Bruce, Chris (May 13, 2015). Rolling coal now illegal
in New Jersey. Autoblog. Retrieved August 21, 2015.

85.2 External links

Diesel Technology Forum Statement onRolling
Coal"". Diesel Technology Forum. July 17, 2014.
Statement from the diesel industry criticising the
practice.

CHAPTER 85. ROLLING COAL

Chapter 86

Sick building syndrome

Sick building syndrome (SBS) is used to describe situations in which building occupants experience acute health
and comfort eects that appear to be linked to time spent
in a building, but no specic illness or cause can be identied. SBS is also used interchangeably with buildingrelated symptoms[,]" which orients the name of the condition around patients rather than a sickbuilding.
A 1984 World Health Organization (WHO) report suggested up to 30% of new and remodeled buildings worldwide may be subject of complaints related to poor indoor
air quality.* [1]
Sick building causes are frequently pinned down to aws
in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems. Other causes have been attributed to contaminants produced by outgassing of some types of building materials, volatile organic compounds (VOC), molds
(see mold health issues), improper exhaust ventilation of
ozone (byproduct of some oce machinery), light industrial chemicals used within, or lack of adequate fresh-air
intake/air ltration (see Minimum Eciency Reporting
Value).

which do not appear to be connected. The key to discovery is the increased incidence of illnesses in general
with onset or exacerbation within a fairly close time frame
usually within a period of weeks. In most cases, SBS
symptoms will be relieved soon after the occupants leave
the particular room or zone.* [7] However, there can be
lingering eects of various neurotoxins, which may not
clear up when the occupant leaves the building. In some
casesparticularly in sensitive individualsthere can be
long-term health eects.

86.2 Psychological factors

One study looked at commercial buildings and their

employees, comparing some environmental factors suspected of inducing SBS to a self-reported survey of the
occupants,* [8] nding that the measured psycho-social
circumstances appeared more inuential than the tested
environmental factors.* [9] The list of environmental factors in the study can be found here.* [10] Limitations of
the study include that it only measured the indoor environment of commercial buildings, which have dierent
86.1 Symptoms
building codes than residential buildings, and that the assessment of building environment was based on layman
Human exposure to bioaerosols has been documented observation of a limited number of factors.
to give rise to a variety of adverse health eects.* [2] Research has shown that SBS shares several symptoms
Building occupants complain of symptoms such as sen- common in other conditions thought to be at least partially
sory irritation of the eyes, nose, throat; neurotoxic caused by psychosomatic tendencies. The umbrella term
or general health problems; skin irritation; nonspecic 'autoimmune/inammatory syndrome induced by adjuhypersensitivity reactions; infectious diseases;* [3] and vants' has been suggested. Other members of the sugodor and taste sensations.* [4]
gested group include Siliconosis, Macrophagic myofasciExtrinsic alergic alveolitis has been associated with the tis, The Gulf War syndrome, Post-vaccination phenompresence of fungi and bacteria in the moist air of residen- ena.* [11]
tial houses and commercial oces.* [5]
The WHO has classied the reported symptoms into
broad categories, including: mucous membrane irritation (eye, nose, and throat irritation), neurotoxic effects (headaches, fatigue, and irritability), asthma and
asthma-like symptoms (chest tightness and wheezing),
skin dryness and irritation, gastrointestinal complaints
and more.* [6]

86.3 Workplace

Greater eects were found with features of the psychosocial work environment including high job demands and
low support. The report concluded that the physical environment of oce buildings appears to be less imporSeveral sick occupants may report individual symptoms tant than features of the psychosocial work environment
287

288
in explaining dierences in the prevalence of symptoms.
However, there is still a relationship between sick building syndrome and symptoms of workers regardless of
workplace stress.* [12]
Excessive work stress or dissatisfaction, poor interpersonal relationships and poor communication are often
seen to be associated with SBS, recent studies show that
a combination of environmental sensitivity and stress can
greatly contribute to Sick Building Syndrome.
Specic work-related stressors are related with specic
SBS symptoms. Workload and work conict are signicantly associated with general symptoms (headache, abnormal tiredness, sensation of cold or nausea). While
crowded workspaces and low work satisfaction are associated with upper respiratory symptoms.* [13]
Specic careers are also associated with specic SBS
symptoms. Transport, communication, healthcare, and
social workers have highest prevalence of general symptoms. Skin symptoms such as eczema, itching, and rashes
on hands and face are associated with technical work.
Forestry, agriculture, and sales workers have the lowest
rates of sick building syndrome symptoms.* [14]
Milton et al. determined the cost of sick leave specic for
one business was an estimated $480 per employee, and
about ve days of sick leave per year could be attributed
to low ventilation rates. When comparing low ventilation
rate areas of the building to higher ventilation rate areas,
the relative risk of short-term sick leave was 1.53 times
greater in the low ventilation areas.* [15]
Work productivity has been associated with ventilation
rates, a contributing factor to SBS, and theres a signicant increase in production as ventilation rates increase by
1.7% for every two-fold increase of ventilation rate.* [16]

86.4 Causes

CHAPTER 86. SICK BUILDING SYNDROME

dition, pollution from outdoors, such as motor vehicle
exhaust, can contribute to SBS.* [1] ASHRAE has recognized that polluted Urban Air, designated within the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)s
Air Quality ratings as unacceptable requires the installation of gas phase ltration for which the HVAC practitioners generally apply carbon impreganated lters and
their like. ASHRAE alleges that excessive energy is used
to comply with its previous issues of the referenced IAQ
Standard which coupled with improvements in furnishings, nishes and cleaning materials allow for these surprising reductions in fresh air ventilation rates.* [17]

86.5 Prevention
toxin-absorbing
plants,
sansevieria.* [18]* [19]* [20]

such

as

Roof shingle non-pressure cleaning for removal of

algae, mold, and Gloeocapsa magma.
Using ozone to eliminate the many sources, such
as VOC, molds, mildews, bacteria, viruses, and
even odors however numerous studies identify Highozone shock treatment as ineective despite commercial popularity and popular belief.
Replacement of water-stained ceiling tiles and carpeting.
Use of paints, adhesives, solvents, and pesticides
in well-ventilated areas and use of these pollutant
sources during periods of non-occupancy.
Increasing the number of air exchanges; the American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AirConditioning Engineers recommend a minimum of
8.4 air exchanges per 24-hour period.

Proper and frequent maintenance of HVAC systems.

It has been suggested that sick building syndrome could
UV-C light in the HVAC plenum.
be caused by inadequate ventilation, chemical contaminants from indoor or outdoor sources, and biological
Installation of HVAC Air Cleaning systems or decontaminants. Many volatile organic compounds, which
vices to remove VOC's, bioeuents (people odors)
are considered chemical contaminants, can cause acute
from HVAC systems conditioned air.
eects on the occupants of a building. Bacteria,
molds, pollen, and viruses are types of biological con Regular vacuuming with a HEPA lter vacuum
taminantsand can all cause SBS. The American Socicleaner to collect and retain 99.97% of particles
ety of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Endown to and including 0.3 micrometers.
gineers (ASHRAE) recently revised its ventilation standard, ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013 Ventilation for Ac Increased ventilation rates that are above the miniceptable Indoor Air Quality (Tables 6.2.2.2.1) reduces
mum guidelines.* [16]
previous minimum of 15 CFM of outdoor air per person
Lighting in the workplace should be designed to
(20 CFM/person in oce spaces) to 10 CFM per classgive individuals control, and be natural when posroom person and 5 CFM per oce occupant. The ve
sible.* [21]
CFM per oce person correlates with a predicted carbon dioxide 5.000 PPM occupancy level set by OSHA
and adopted for federal workplaces and regulated energy There might be a gender dierence in reporting rates of
policy during the late 1980s energy scarcity years. In ad- sick building syndrome because women tend to report

86.7. SICK BUILDING SYNDROME VERSUS BUILDING-RELATED ILLNESS

more symptoms than men do. Along with this, some
studies have found that women have a more responsive
immune system and are more prone to mucosal dryness
and facial erythema. Also, women are alleged by some
to be more exposed to indoor environmental factors because they have a greater tendency to have clerical jobs,
wherein they are exposed to unique oce equipment and
materials (example: blueprint machines), whereas men
often have jobs based outside of oces.* [22]

86.6 History

289

therefore an expression used especially in the context of

workplace health.
Sick building syndrome made a rapid journey from media to courtroom where professional engineers and architects became named defendants and were represented by
their respective professional practice insurers. Proceedings invariably relied on expert witnesses, medical and
technical experts along with building managers, contractors and manufacturers of nishes and furnishings, testifying as to cause and eect. Most of these actions resulted in sealed settlement agreements, none of these being dramatic. The insurers needed a defense based upon
Standards of Professional Practice to meet a court decision that declaredthat in a modern, essentially sealed
building, the HVAC systems must produce breathing air
for suitable human consumption. ASHRAE (American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Engineers, currently with over 50,000 international members) undertook the task of codifying its IAQ (Indoor Air
Quality) standard.

In the late 1970s, it was noted that nonspecic symptoms

were reported by tenants in newly constructed homes, ofces, and nurseries. In media it was called oce illness. The termSick Building Syndromewas coined
by the WHO in 1986, when they also estimated that 1030% of newly built oce buildings in the West had indoor
air problems. Early Danish and British studies reported
ASHRAE empirical research determined that acceptsymptoms.
abilitywas a function of outdoor (fresh air) ventilation
Poor indoor environments attracted attention. The
rate and used carbon dioxide as an accurate measurement
Swedish allergy study (SOU 1989:76) designated sick
of occupant presence and activity. Building odors and
buildingas a cause of the allergy epidemic as was feared.
contaminants would be suitably controlled by this diluIn the 1990s, therefore, extensive research into sick
tion methodology. ASHRAE codied a level of 1,000
buildingwas carried out. Various physical and chemppm of carbon dioxide and specied the use of widely
ical factors in the buildings were examined on a broad
available sense-and-control equipment to assure complifront.
ance. The 1989 issue of ASHRAE 62.1-1989 published
The problem was highlighted increasingly in media and the whys and wherefores and overrode the 1981 requirewas described as a ticking time bomb. Many studies ments that were aimed at a ventilation level of 5,000 ppm
were performed in individual buildings.
of carbon dioxide, (the OAHA workplace limit), federIn the 1990s sick buildingswere contrasted against ally set to minimize HVAC system energy consumption.
healthy buildings. The chemical contents of build- This apparently ended the SBS epidemic.
ing materials was highlighted. Many building material
manufacturers were actively working to gain control of
the chemical content and to replace criticized additives.
The ventilation industry advocated above all more wellfunctioning ventilation. Others perceived ecological construction, natural materials, and simple techniques as a
solution.

Over time, building materials changed with respect to

emissions potential. Smoking vanished and dramatic improvements in ambient air quality, coupled with code
compliant ventilation and maintenance, per ASHRAE
standards have all contributed to the acceptability of
the indoor air environment. With the publication of
ASHRAE 62.1-2013 ASHRAE has reactivated 1981
At the end of the 1990s came an increased distrust of the with respect to ventilation rates. Only time* and *the courts
concept ofsick building. A dissertation at the Karolin- will tell how right, or wrong ASHRAE is. [23] [24]
ska Institutet in Stockholm 1999 questioned the methodology of previous research, and a Danish study from 2005
showed these aws experimentally. It was suggested that 86.7 Sick Building Syndrome verSick Building Syndrome was not really a coherent synsus Building-Related Illness
drome and was not a disease to be individually diagnosed.
In 2006 the Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare recommended in the medical journal Lkartidningen While Sick building syndrome (SBS) encompasses a multhat Sick building syndromeshould not be used as titude of non-specic symptoms, Building-related illness
a clinical diagnosis. Thereafter, it has become increas- (BRI) comprises specic, diagnosable symptoms caused
ingly less common to use terms such as sick buildings by certain etiological agents (chemicals, bacteria, fungi,
and Sick Building Syndromein research. However, etc.). For instance, Legionnaires disease, usually caused
the concept remains alive in popular culture and is used by Legionella pneumophila, involves a specic organism
to designate the set of symptoms related to poor home which could be ascertained through clinical ndings as
or work environment engineering. Sick buildingis the source of contamination within a building. SBS does

290

CHAPTER 86. SICK BUILDING SYNDROME

not have any known cure; alleviation consists of remov- [12] Bauer, R. M., Greve, K. W., Besch, E. L., Schramke, C.
J., Crouch, J., Hicks, A., . . . Lyles, W. B. (1992).
ing the aected person from the building associated with
The role of psychological factors in the report of buildingnon-specic symptoms. BRI, on the other hand, utirelated symptoms in sick building syndrome. Journal
lizes treatment appropriate for the contaminant identied
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(2), 213-219.
within the building (e.g., antibiotics for Legionnaires
doi:10.1037/0022-006x.60.2.213
disease). In most cases, simply improving the indoor air
quality (IAQ) of a particular building will attenuate, or [13] Azuma, K., Ikeda, K., Kagi, N., Yanagi, U., & Osawa, H.
even eliminate, the acute symptoms of SBS, while re(2014).Prevalence and risk factors associated with nonmoval of the source contaminant would prove more efspecic building-related symptoms in oce employees in
Japan: Relationships between work environment, Indoor
fective for a specic illness, as in the case of BRI.* [25]
Air Quality, and occupational stress.Indoor Air, 25(5),
499-511. doi:10.1111/ina.12158

86.8 See also

Aerotoxic syndrome
Multiple chemical sensitivity
NASA Clean Air Study
Somatization disorder

86.9 References
[1] Sick Building Syndrome. United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Retrieved 2009-02-19.
[2] Sundell, J; Lindval, T; Berndt, S (1994).Association between type of ventilation and airow rates in oce buildings and the risk of SBS-symptoms among occupants..
Eviron.Int. 20 (2): 239251.
[3] Rylander, R (1997). Investigation of the relationship
between disease and airborne (1P3)-b-D-glucan in buildings.. Med. Of Inamm. (6): 275277.
[4] Godish, Thad (2001). Indoor Environmental Quality.
New York: CRC Press. pp. 196-197. ISBN 1-56670402-2
[5] Teculescu, D.B. (1998). Sick Building Symptoms in
oce workers in northern France: a pilot study.. Int
Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 71: 353356.
[6] Apter, A (1994). Epidemiology of the sick building
syndrome.. Journ. Alergy. Clin. Immunol. (94): 277
288.
[7]Sick Building Syndrome. National Safety Council.
(2009) Retrieved April 27, 2009. nsc.org

[14] Norback, D., & Edling, C. (1991). Environmental, occupational, and personal factors related to the prevalence
of sick building syndrome in the general population. Occupational and Environmental Medicine,48(7), 451-462.
doi:10.1136/oem.48.7.451
[15] Milton, D. K., Glencross, P. M., & Walters, M. D.
(2000). Risk of Sick Leave Associated with Outdoor Air
Supply Rate, Humidication, and Occupant Complaints.
Indoor Air, 10(4), 212-221. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0668.
2000.010004212.x
[16] Wargocki, P., Wyon, D. P., Sundell, J., Clausen, G.,
& Fanger, P. O. (2000). The Eects of Outdoor Air
Supply Rate in an Oce on Perceived Air Quality, Sick
Building Syndrome (SBS) Symptoms and Productivity.
Indoor Air, 10(4), 222-236. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0668.
2000.010004222.x
[17] ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013
[18] nasa techdoc 19930072988
[19] news.softpedia.com
[20] zone10.com
[21] How to deal with sick building syndrome: Guidance
for employers, building owners and building managers.
(1995). Sudbury: The Executive.
[22] Godish, Thad (2001). Indoor Environmental quality. New
York: CRC Press. pp. 196-197. ISBN 1-56670-402-2
[23] Sick Building Syndrome - Fact Sheet (PDF). United
States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved
2013-06-06.
[24] Sick Building Syndrome. National Health Service,
England. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
[25] Indoor Air Facts No. 4 (revised) Sick building syndrome.
Available from: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/sbs.html.

[8] Taken from another study: Whitehead II

[9] Building health: an epidemiological study ofsick building syndrome
[10] ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
[11] The sick building syndrome as a part of the autoimmune (auto-inammatory) syndrome induced by adjuvants. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

86.10 Further reading

Martn-Gil J, Yanguas MC, San Jos JF, ReyMartnez and Martn-Gil FJ.Outcomes of research
into a sick hospital. Hospital Management International, 1997, pp 8082. Sterling Publications Limited.

86.10. FURTHER READING

ke Thrn, The Emergence and preservation of sick
building syndrome, KI 1999.
Charlotte Brauer, The sick building syndrome revisited, Copenhagen 2005.
Michelle Murphy, Sick Building Syndrome and the
Problem of Uncertainty, 2006.
Johan Carlson, "Gemensam frklaringsmodell fr
sjukdomar kopplade till inomhusmiljn nns inte"
[Unied explanation for diseases related to indoor
environment not found.]. Lkartidningen 2006/12.
Research Committee Report on Diagnosis and
Treatment of Chronic Inammatory Response Syndrome Caused by Exposure to the Interior Environment of Water-Damaged Buildings (PDF)

291

Chapter 87

TA Luft
Germany has an air pollution control regulation titled
Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control(Technische Anleitung zur Reinhaltung der Luft) and commonly
referred to as the TA Luft.* [1]
The rst version of the TA Luft was established in 1964.
It has subsequently been revised in 1974, 1983, 1988 and
2002.* [2] Parts of the TA Luft have been adopted by other
countries as well.
In 1974, 10 years after the TA Luft was rst established,
the German government enacted the Federal Pollution
Control Act(Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetz). It also has
subsequently been amended a number of times, the last
of which was in 2002.* [3] Although the rst version of
the TA Luft existed 10 years before the enactment of the
Federal Pollution Control Act, it is often called the
First General Administrative Regulationpertaining to
the Federal Pollution Control Act.
The German government created the Federal Ministry for
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety
(Bundesministerium fr Umwelt, Naturschutz und Reaktorsicherheit) in June, 1986* [4] and it is now responsible
for implementing the TA Luft regulation under theFederal Air Pollution Control Act.

87.1 Overview
The TA Luft is a comprehensive air pollution control regulation that includes:

lead compounds, cadmium and inorganic cadmium compounds, nickel and inorganic nickel
compounds, mercury and inorganic mercury compounds, thallium and inorganic thallium compounds, ammonia from farming and livestock breeding operations, inorganic gases and particulates,
organic substances and others.
Emission limits may also be set for hazardous, toxic,
carcinogenic or mutagenic substances as part of the
TA Luft review procedures.
Other limits or requirements related to stack heights
(for ue gases or other process vents) and for storing,
loading or working with liquid or solid substances.
Various requirements for sampling measuring and
monitoring emissions.
Listing of the industries subject to the requirements
of the TA Luft, such as mining, electric power generation, glass and ceramics, steel, aluminum and
other metals, chemical plants, oil rening, plastics,
food, and others.
Annex 3 is devoted to guidelines on: how the
atmospheric dispersion modeling required during
the TA Luft review is to be performed, and the acceptable type of dispersion model to be used. In
essence, the modeling must be in accordance with
the VDI Guidelines 3782 Parts 1 and 2, 3783 Part
8, 3784 Part 2, and 3945 Part 3.* [5]

A discussion of the scope of the TA Luft application, The full text of the TA Luft is available on the Interwhich is to review applications for licenses to con- net.* [1]
struct and operate new industrial facilities (or altered
existing facilities) and to determine whether the proposed new or altered facilities will comply with the
requirements of the TA Luft and the requirements 87.2 AUSTAL2000
of other air pollutant emission regulations promulAUSTAL2000 is an atmospheric dispersion model for
gated under the Federal Pollution Control Act.
simulating the dispersion of air pollutants in the ambi Air pollutant emission limits for dust, sulfur diox- ent atmosphere. It was developed by Ingenieurbro Janide, nitrogen oxides, hydrouoric acid and other icke* [6] in Dunum, Germany under contract to the Fedgaseous inorganic uorine compounds, arsenic and eral Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation and
inorganic arsenic compounds, lead and inorganic Nuclear Safety. Although not named in the TA Luft, it is
292

87.6. REFERENCES

293

the reference dispersion model accepted as being in compliance with the requirements of Annex 3 of the TA Luft
and the pertinent VDI Guidelines.

87.6 References

It simulates the dispersion of air pollutants by utilizing a

random walk process (Lagrangian simulation model) and
it has capabilities for building eects, complex terrain,
pollutant plume depletion by wet or dry deposition, and
rst order chemical reactions. It is available for download
on the Internet free of cost.* [7]

[2] History of the TA Luft

Austal2000G is a similar model for simulating the dispersion of odours and it was also developed by Ingenieurbro Janicke. The development of Austal 2000G
was nanced by three German states: Niedersachsen,
Nordrhein-Westfalen and Baden-Wrttemberg.

87.3 Further reading

Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.
www.crcpress.com
Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack
Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). self-published. ISBN 09644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com

87.4 See also

Air Quality Modeling Group
Air Resources Laboratory
AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling
List of atmospheric dispersion models
UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison
Committee
UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau

87.5 External links

UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau web site
UK ADMLC web site
Air Resources Laboratory (ARL)
Air Quality Modeling Group
Error propagation in air dispersion modeling

[1] Complete text of the TA Luft

[3] Complete text of the Federal Air Pollution Control Act

[4] Web site of the Federal Ministry for Environment, Nature
Conservation and Nuclear Safety
[5] The VDI web site
[6] http://www.austal2000.de/en/history.html
[7] Austal2000 download web site

Chapter 88

Toxic hotspot
Toxic hotspots are locations where emissions from specic sources such as water or air pollution may expose
local populations to elevated health risks, such as cancer.* [1] These emissions contribute to cumulative health
risks of emissions from other sources nearby. Urban,
highly populated areas around pollutant emitters such
as old factories and waste storage sites are often toxic
hotspots.

88.1 Soil contamination hotspots

posure to pollution by race and/or income (cite one of the

early readings from our syllabus, e.g. Mohai & Pellow, or
Saha). Hazardous land uses (toxic storage and disposal
facilities, manufacturing facilities, major roadways) tend
to be located where property values and income levels
are low. Low socioeconomic status can be a proxy for
other kinds of social vulnerability, including race, a lack
of ability to inuence regulatory permitting and a lack of
ability to move to neighborhoods with less environmental pollution. These communities bear a disproportionate
burden of environmental pollution and are more likely to
face health risks such as cancer or asthma.* [6]

Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities

not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also
higher risk of adverse health outcomes.* [7] Communities characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial
minorities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse
health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pollutants than more privileged communities.* [7] Blacks and
Latinos generally face more pollution than whites and
Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher burden of risk than auent ones.* [6] Racial discrepancies
are particularly distinct in suburban areas of the South
88.2 Air pollution hotspots
and metropolitan areas of the West.* [8] Residents in public housing, who are generally low-income with poor acAir pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emiscess to health care and cannot move to healthier neighborsions expose individuals to increased negative health efhoods, are highly aected by nearby reneries and chem*
fects. [3] Hotspots denote areas in which a population
ical plants.* [9]
s exposure to pollution and estimated health risks are
high.* [4] Air pollution hotspots are particularly common Community groups and academic researchers have arin highly populated, urban areas, where there may a com- gued the unequal distribution of pollution on the poor and
bination of stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) communities of color is an environmental justice.
and mobile sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Policy makers and researchers concerned with improving
Emissions from these sources can cause respiratory dis- environmental justice for communities situated next to
ease, childhood asthma, cancer, and other health prob- major sources of air pollution have developed a number
lems. Fine particulate matter such as diesel soot, which of regulatory tools to identify air pollution hotspots. The
contributes to more than 3.2 million premature deaths EPA, for example, utilizes their Risk-Screening Environaround the world each year, is a signicant problem. It is mental Indictors (RSEI) model to identify hotspots from a
very small and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter score of 3 to 15, with higher scores indicating closer proxthe bloodstream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely imity to hazards.* [10] Individual states have also taken
populated areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live steps to improve identication and surveillance. Calinear a diesel pollution hot spot.* [5]
fornias AB 2588 Air Toxics Hot SpotsProgram,
The 1984 Bhopal disaster in India, the worlds worst
chemical disaster, is a prime example of a signicant
toxic hotspot. The toxic gas leaked from the understaed
Union Carbide plant killed up to 20,000 people and left
120,000 others chronically ill.* [2] Bhopal continues to
face pollution problems from the abandoned factory today.

While air pollution hotspots aect a variety of popu- enacted in 1987, seeks to collect emission data, deterlations, some groups are more likely to be located in mine health risks, and notify local residents of major
hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in ex- risks.* [11] By identifying hotspots regulators hope these
294

88.2. AIR POLLUTION HOTSPOTS

295

tools will help them reduce pollution and inform nearby

populations through the health risk assessments of individual pollutants and facilities that are summed in each
zone to develop a total lifetime cancer risk. Air pollution
hot spots are also at issue in pollution-trading programs,
such as cap-and-trade systems designed to control pollution. These programs can potentially exacerbate eects
from air pollution hotspots if the dierences in chemical
hazards are ignored. These programs also cause pollution to be mitigated towards where credit-buying rms
are located.* [6] Factories can purchase emissions reduction credits from other rms, which leads to concentrated
areas of pollution, since facilities that sell their credits
are exportingtheir pollution to rms more likely to
buy credits. However, some studies have noted that these
claims have not materialized. Evan Ringquist, a professor
at Indiana University of Public and Environmental Affairs, states that there is little empirical evidence to suggest the emergence of hotspots.* [12]

Hills.* [14] Children 5 and under in west Oakland visit the

emergency room for asthma three times more often than
children in the county as a whole.* [16]

88.2.1

88.2.2 Richmond, California

West Oakland, California

Located in the East San Francisco Bay, the neighborhood

of West Oakland is home to mainly low-income, African
American and Latino residents who are exposed to a disproportionate amount of airborne toxins, as compared to
the rest of the surrounding Alameda County. West Oaklands close proximity to highways and the Port of Oakland leave residents highly exposed to pollutants caused
by moving and stationary sources of diesel pollution, thus
leaving them at higher risk for health complications such
as asthma and even shorter life expectancy than surrounding neighborhoods averages.* [13]
High emissions of toxic chemicals and airborne particulate matter in West Oakland that cause health issues are
due to diesel fuels used for transportation in the Port of
Oakland and surrounding highways. Trac and transportation related air pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, black carbon, and diesel particulate
matter.* [14] Residents are more exposed to harmful pollutants compared to other areas of the Bay Area and Oakland and therefore more at risk for harmful health effects. Compared to the State of California, West Oakland produces 90 times more diesel emission particulates
per square mile per day.* [15] These pollutants have detrimental health eects such as asthma and reduced life expectancy while putting children at higher susceptibility
for health complications.* [14]
Inequitable economic, residential, and environmental
conditions in this low-income community of color leave
residents of West Oakland with poor and inequitable
health outcomes. African-American and Latino children
of 1018 years in West Oakland are more susceptible
to onset lung defects such as asthma.* [13] According to
Alameda County Vital Statistics, an African American
child born in West Oakland is expected to live 14 fewer
years than a white child born in the more wealthy Oakland

There are multiple eorts and strategies to spur legislation for equitable environmental conditions in lowincome communities. There are many environmental justice groups and organizations in the Bay Area that encourage community participation in pursuing environmental
justice. For example, data is collected by a Communitybased participatory research (CBPR) and collaborated
with West Oakland Environmental Indicators Project
(WOEIP) in order to nd eective and accurate ndings to prove injustice and eventually spur reform in environmental policy. These research eorts can be used to
document and communicate trends in air quality in West
Oakland to policy makers.* [14] Eectiveness of eorts
by these groups are multiplied by and increasing availability of environmental poverty lawyers who empower
legislation in the legal system.* [17]

Richmond, located in the San Francisco Bay Area, is an

evolving, multi-cultural community that has transformed
itself from an over-polluted industrial town to a pioneer
in an environmental justice movement. The city has been
host to numerous oil reneries, including the Chevron
Corporation renery, which opened in 1901 under the
ownership of Pacic Coast Oil.* [18] The Chevron Renery is a leading source of air quality violations in the
state of California. Richmond residents are also exposed
to pollution from the Santa Fe train line and the presence of heavy trac and diesel trucks along the Richmond Parkway. However, residents are most concerned
with air pollution health impacts from the Chevron Renery.* [19] In 1999, Richmond measure signicantly
higher on Air Quality Indices (AQI) (an indicator of how
polluted is air is) compared to national level.* [20] Air
pollution emission from the Chevron renery includes
benzene, ethyl benzene, toluene, xylene, nitrous dioxide, and sulfur dioxide,* [21] which are known to cause
elevated cancer risks and respiratory illness.* [22] Rates
of child and adult asthma are especially elevated among
Richmond residents.* [19]
Richmond residents have struggled to improve local air
quality. The city has a signicant non-white, low-income
population.* [23] According to 2010 U.S. Census, of
Richmonds 103,701 person populations,* [24] one
in six residents lives below the federal poverty level, and
more than eight in 10 are people of color. In North Richmond, next to one of the nations largest reneries, 97
percent of residents are non-white and nearly one in four
live in poverty.* [25] Low-income communities have
dierential access to political power, and their collective political voice is often less able to contest decisions
impacting industrial operations.* [26] The combination of
poverty, poor access to clean air, and poor political power

296

CHAPTER 88. TOXIC HOTSPOT

can result in inequality in which communities of color the Constitution because it violates equal protection of
bear a disproportionate burden of pollution and, there- residentspublic health.* [35]
fore, suer from greater environmental health risks.* [27] Los Angeles is known for the nations worst air quality
Because Richmond is an air pollution hotspot, Richmond and its sharp inequalities in environmental exposures
residents have applied dierent strategies since the 1980s .* [36] Wilmington, Los Angeles is a neighborhood loto try to improve local air quality. The rst EJ movement cated on the southern part of Los Angeles, California.
in the area started in the late 1980s, when the activist tried 54,512 people live in Wilmington, the median houseto stop construction of a garbage incinerator near North hold income is $40,627, about 86 percentage of them are
Richmond.* [28] Sixteen years later, local citizen utilizes Latino and only 5.1% of Wilmington residents 25 or older
Bucket Brigadesto document a handful of criteria air have a four-year degree.* [37]
pollutants such as sulfur dioxide [SO2], carbon monox- Wilmington, most of its residents are ethnic minorities,
ide [CO], nitrous dioxide [NO2], and ozone [O3].This is possible to bear more environmental burden than other
study involves citizens to actively collecting the samples communities in Los Angeles because it is located next to
of emissions from Chevrons reneries, especially dur- several sources of air pollution. For example, Wilminging accidents, res, leaks, and explosions.The sniers ton has the highest concentration of reneries in the
alert thesamplersto collect the air samples when they State. Emissions from reneries in Wilmington include
notice a problem.Thesamplersthen contact the Coor- carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and benzene.* [38] Wilmdinator to check the bucket and perform the paperwork ington has higher concentration of diesel particulate matbefore submitting the samples to the Laboratory, in which ter due to emissions from diesel trucks from the ports
the results will be reported to CBE, an environmental jus- of Los Angeles and Long Beach.* [39] The risks associtice organization. The Bucket Brigadesdid not only ated with diesel are often underestimated since existing
raise the awareness local citizens to ght against the air epidemiological studies cannot isolate exposure to diesel
pollution in their area, but also their participation.* [29]
PM.* [39] However, exposure to diesel particulate matter
As the number of activists and participants grew in numbers, their position in the battle against environmental
injustice was further fortied with the election Greenparty mayor of Richmond, Gayle McLaughlin, as well as
three new council members sympathetic to their cause in
2008.* [30] In July 2008, despite the council failure to halt
the Chevrons plan to build more reneries in the area
due to rising gasoline prices during that time, the council
succeeded to acquire $61 million from the oil company
for community programs.* [31]

can cause irritation to the eyes, nose, throat and lungs

, asthma, exhaust immunological eects, and cancer.* [40]
Several NGOs have worked to improve the accuracy of
Wilmington air quality data and air quality in order to
protect approximately 1400 children who live or visit
schools or childcare facilities at Wilmington.* [41] The
environmental group Coalition For a Safe Environmentinstalled an air pollution monitoring devices on
the residential buildings in Wilmington in order to prove
that emissions from local oil reneries and diesel trucks
to the ports pollute the air in Wilmington, disproportionately aecting Wilmington residents to suer from
health problems including lung diseases and respiratory
diseases.* [42]

Due to great forces from the local communities and fellow

EJ activists in Richmond area, Chevron has been making progress to embrace cleaner environment. In 2005,
local activists managed to convince Bay Area Air Quality Management District to tighten the air pollution regulations by increasing the frequency of nes of facility
incidents.* [29] Since then, Chevron has been aring 10
times less than before.* [23] On top of that, Chevron has
88.3 Groundwater contamination
invested $150 million for building gas turbine in order to
reduce air emission, increase energy eciency, as well
as provide most electrical and steam power Chevron re- The town of Hinkley, California, located in the
Mojave Desert, had its groundwater contaminated with
quires to operate.* [32]
hexavalent chromium starting in 1952, resulting in a legal case against Pacic Gas & Electric (PG&E) and a
multimillion-dollar settlement in 1996. The legal case
88.2.3 Wilmington, Los Angeles
was dramatized in the lm Erin Brockovich, released in
Bonnoris noted, The environmental justice movement 2000.
posits that the distribution of environmental harms and
benets should be fairly apportioned among all communities.* [33] As Bonnoris argued, the burden of air pollution is disproportionally distributed among communities
based on their racial, social or economic status.* [34] Disproportion distribution of air pollution among communities can be a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of

PG&E operates a compressor station in Hinkley for natural gas transmission pipelines. The natural gas has to be
re-compressed approximately every 350 miles (560 km),
and the station uses large cooling towers to cool the gas after it has been compressed. Between 1952 and 1966, the
water used in these cooling towers contained hexavalent
chromium now recognized as a carcinogen to prevent

88.4. RADIOACTIVE CONTAMINATION

297

rust in the machinery. The water was stored between uses ing the Castle Bravo accident, $15.3 million was paid to
in unlined ponds, which allowed it to percolate into the Japan.* [46]
groundwater. This severely contaminated the groundwater, aecting soil and contaminating water wells near the
compressor station, with a plume approximately 2 miles 88.4.2 Nevada Test Site
(3.2 km) long and nearly 1 mile (1.6 km) wide.* [43]
Main article: Nevada Test Site
The Nevada Test Site (NTS), is a United States Depart-

88.4 Radioactive contamination

88.4.1

Pacic Proving Grounds

Main article: Pacic Proving Grounds

The Pacic Proving Grounds was the name used to de-

The Castle Bravo test of 1954 spread nuclear fallout across the
Marshall Islands, parts of which were still inhabited.

scribe a number of sites in the Marshall Islands and a few

other sites in the Pacic Ocean, used by the United States
to conduct nuclear testing at various times between 1946
and 1962. In July 1947, after the rst atomic weapons
testing at Bikini Atoll, the United States entered into an
agreement with the United Nations to govern the Trust
Territory of the Pacic Islands as a strategic trusteeship
territory. The Trust Territory is composed of 2,000
islands spread over 3,000,000 square miles (7,800,000
km2 ) of the North Pacic Ocean. On July 23, 1947, the
United States Atomic Energy Commission announced the
establishment of the Pacic Proving Grounds.* [44]
105 atmospheric (i.e., not underground) nuclear tests
were conducted there, many of which were of extremely
high yield. While the Marshall Islands testing composed
14% of all U.S. tests, it composed nearly 80% of the total
yields of those detonated by the U.S., with an estimated
total yield of around 210 megatons, with the largest being
the 15 Mt Castle Bravo shot of 1954 which spread considerable nuclear fallout on many of the islands, including
several which were inhabited, and some that had not been
evacuated.* [45]
Many of the islands which were part of the Pacic Proving Grounds continue to be contaminated by nuclear fallout, and many of those who were living on the islands at
the time of testing have suered from an increased incidence of various health problems. Through the Radiation
Exposure Compensation Act of 1990, at least $759 million has been paid to Marshall Islanders as compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear testing. Follow-

Mushroom cloud from the Nevada Test Site seen from downtown
Las Vegas.

ment of Energy reservation located in southeastern Nye

County, Nevada, about 65 miles (105 km) northwest of
the city of Las Vegas. Formerly known as the Nevada
Proving Grounds,* [47] the site was established on 11
January 1951 for the testing of nuclear devices, covering
approximately 1,360 square miles (3,500 km2 ) of desert
and mountainous terrain. Nuclear testing at the Nevada
Test Site began with a 1-kiloton-of-TNT (4.2 TJ) bomb
dropped on Frenchman Flat on 27 January 1951. Many
of the iconic images of the nuclear era come from the
NTS.
During the 1950s, the mushroom clouds from atmospheric tests could be seen for almost 100 mi (160 km).
The city of Las Vegas experienced noticeable seismic
eects, and the distant mushroom clouds, which could
be seen from the downtown hotels, became tourist attractions. St. George, Utah, received the brunt of
the fallout of above-ground nuclear testing in the Yucca
Flats/Nevada Test Site. Winds routinely carried the fallout of these tests directly through St. George and southern Utah. Marked increases in cancers, such as leukemia,
lymphoma, thyroid cancer, breast cancer, melanoma,
bone cancer, brain tumors, and gastrointestinal tract
cancers, were reported from the mid-1950s through
1980.* [48]* [49]
From 1986 through 1994, two years after the United
States put a hold on full-scale nuclear weapons testing,
536 anti-nuclear protests were held at the Nevada Test
Site involving 37,488 participants and 15,740 arrests, according to government records.* [50] Those arrested included the astronomer Carl Sagan and the actors Kris

298

CHAPTER 88. TOXIC HOTSPOT

Kristoerson, Martin Sheen, and Robert Blake.

[3] Air pollution hot spot. Retrieved 24 April 2014.

The Nevada Test Site contains 28 areas, 1,100 buildings,

400 miles (640 km) of paved roads, 300 miles of unpaved
roads, ten heliports, and two airstrips. The most-recent
test was a sub-critical test of the properties of plutonium,
conducted underground on December 7, 2012.

[4] Glossary of Air Pollution Terms. Retrieved 30 April

2014.

88.4.3

Semipalatinsk Test Site

Main article: Semipalatinsk Test Site

The Semipalatinsk Test Site, also known as The Polygon, was the primary testing venue for the Soviet
Union's nuclear weapons. It is located on the steppe in
northeast Kazakhstan (then the Kazakh SSR), south of
the valley of the Irtysh River. The scientic buildings for
the test site were located around 150 km west of the town
of Semipalatinsk (later renamed Semey), near the border
of East Kazakhstan Province and Pavlodar Province with
most of the nuclear tests taking place at various sites further to the west and south, some as far as into Karagandy
Province.

[5] Pettit, David (14 December 2014). Global Toll of Air

Pollution: Over 3 Million Deaths Each Year. Switchboard NRDC.
[6] Drury, Richard; Belliveau, Michael; Kuhn, J Scott;
Shipra, Bansal (Spring 1999). Pollution Trading and
Environmental Justice: Los Angeles' Failed Experiment
in Air Pollution Policy. Duke Environmental Law &
Policy Forum 9 (231).
[7] Morello-Frosch, Rachel; Zuk, Miriam; Jerrett, Michael;
Shamasunder, Bhavna; Kyle, Amy D. (2011). Understanding the Cumulative Impacts of Inequalities in Environmental Health: Implications for Policy. Health Affairs 30: 879887. doi:10.1377/hltha.2011.0153.
[8]Racial and Socioeocnomic Disparities in Residential
Proximity. American Journal of Public Health 99 (3):
S649S656. 2009. doi:10.2105/ajph.2007.131383.
[9] Lerner, Steve (2010). Sacrice Zones: The Front Lines
of Toxic Chemical Exposure in the United States. MIT
Press. |chapter= ignored (help)

The Soviet Union conducted 456 nuclear tests at Semipalatinsk from 1949 until 1989 with little regard for their [10] Risk Assessment. EPA. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
eect on the local people or environment. The full im- [11] Overview of the Air ToxicsHot SpotsInformation and
pact of radiation exposure was hidden for many years by
Assessment Act. California Environmental Protection
Agency Air Resources Board. 9 October 2013.
Soviet authorities and has only come to light since the test
site closed in 1991.
[12] Indiana University (23 May 2011). Emissions trading

From 1996 to 2012, a secret joint operation of Kazakh,

doesn't cause pollution 'hot spots,' study nds. ScienceDaily.
Russian, and American nuclear scientists and engineers
secured the waste plutonium in the tunnels of the moun[13] Pastor, Manuel. Still Toxic After All These Years
tains.* [51]
(PDF). Bay Area Environmental Health Collaborative.

88.5 See also

Health eects of pollution
Japanese nuclear disaster, Fukushima
Goinia accident
Chernobyl disaster and Chernobyl disaster eects
Three Mile Island accident and Three Mile Island
accident health eects
Cuban missile crisis
SL-1 nuclear meltdown

[14] Gonzalez, Priscilla;

Meredith Minkler (2011).
Community-Based Participatory Research and Policy
Advocacy to Reduce Diesel Exposure in West Oakland,
California. American Journal of Public Health 101
(S1): S166S175. doi:10.2105/ajph.2010.196204.
[15] Palaniappan, Meena.Clearing the Air: Reducing Dielsel
Pollution in West Oakland(PDF). Pacic Institute. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
[16] Advancing environmental justice in the Bay Area.
Sierra Club: San Francisco Bay Chapter. Retrieved 30
April 2014.
[17] Cole, Luke (1992). Empowerment as the Key to Environmental Protection: The Need for Environmental
Poverty Law. Ecology Law Quarterly. 19:619.
[18] The Early Years: 1902 - 1914. Chevron Richmond.
Retrieved 30 April 2014.

88.6 References
[1] Glossary of Air Pollution Terms. Retrieved 4 May
2014.
[2] Bhopal Disaster. Retrieved 26 April 2014.

[19] Lopez, Andrea. Richmond Health Survey Report

(PDF). Communities for a Better Environment. Retrieved
7 May 2014.
[20] Richmond, CA Air Quality. USA. Retrieved 6 May
2014.

88.6. REFERENCES

[21] List of Air Emissions That Chevrons Richmond Renery Project Could Increase If Mitigation Is Not Required
According To The Revised Draft EIR*" (PDF). Communities for a Better Environment. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[22]Fenceline Monitoring Chemical Denitions. Richmond
Community Air Monitoring Program. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[23] Manuel Pastor; James Sadd; Rachel Morello-Frosch
(2007). Still toxic after all these years (PDF). Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[24] State & County QuickFacts: Richmond (city), California. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[25] Brody, Julia Green; Morello-Frosch R; Zota A; Brown
P; Prez C; Rudel RA. (November 2009). Linking exposure assessment science with policy objectives for environmental justice and breast cancer advocacy: the northern California household exposure
study. American Journal of Public Health 99: S600
S609. doi:10.2105/ajph.2008.149088. Retrieved 30
April 2014.
[26] Schlosberg, David (2003). The Justice of Environmental
Justice: Reconciling Equity, Recognition, and Participation
in a Political Movement. Cambridge: MIT Press.
[27] Morello-Frosch, Rachel A (2002). Discrimination
and the political economy of environmental inequality
(PDF). Environment and Planning C website 20 (4): 477
496. doi:10.1068/c03r. Retrieved 7 May 2014.
[28] Cheryl Katz; Jane Kay (2012). "'We are Richmond.' A
beleaguered community earns multicultural clout.. Environmental Health News. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[29] O'rourke, Dara; Gregg P. Macey (2003). Community environmental policing: Assessing new strategies of
public participation in environmental regulation(PDF).
Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 22 (3): 383
414. doi:10.1002/pam.10138. Retrieved 30 April 2014.
[30] Jane Kay; Cheryl Katz (June 5, 2012). We are Richmond. A Beleaguered Community Earns Multicultural
Clout. Environmental Health News. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[31] Jones, Carolyn (July 18, 2008). Richmond Council Oks
Chevron Renery Plan. SF Gate. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[32] Environment. Chevron Richmond. Retrieved 30 April
2014.
[33] Bonorris, Steven (February 15, 2010). Environmental
Justice for All: A Fifty State Survey of Legislation, Policies and Cases (PDF). University of California Hasting
College of the Law (4th Edition).
[34] O
Rourke, Dara; Macey, G. P. (2003).Community Environmental Policing: Assessing New Strategies of Public
Participation in Environmental Regulation(PDF). Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 22 (3).

299

[35] Gerrard, Michael B.; editors, Sheila R. Foster, (2008).

Law of environmental justice : theories and procedures
to address disproportionate risks (2nd ed.). Chicago, Ill.:
American Bar Association, Section of Environment, Energy, and Resources. ISBN 1604420839. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coauthors= (help)
[36] Bullard, Robert (October 1, 2005). The Quest for Environmental Justice: Human Rights and the Politics of Pollution. Sierra Club Books. pp. 108124.
[37] Wilmington Prole - Mapping L.A.. Los Angeles
Times. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[38] California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board (November 2013).Community Air Quality Monitoring: Special Studies Wilmington (PDF).
California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources
Board. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[39] Di, Pingkuan (April 2006). Diesel Particulate Matter
Exposure Assessment Study for the Ports of Los Angeles
and Long Beach (PDF). California Environmental Protection Agency Air Resources Board. Retrieved 24 April
2014.
[40] Diesel Particulate Matter. United States Environmental
Protection Agency. Retrieved 24 April 2014.
[41] Wilmington Study - Reason for Choosing Wilmington
. California Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved
24 April 2014.
[42] Maio, Pat (February 26, 2014).Monitoring air pollution,
one home at a time. Orange Counter Register. Retrieved
29 April 2014.
[43] PG&E Hinkley Chromium Cleanup California Environmental Protection Agency, 9/10/08
[44] McDougal, Myres S. and Schlei, Norbert A. The Hydrogen Bomb Tests in Perspective: Lawful Measures for
Security. In Myres S. McDougal, et al. (1987), Studies
in World Public Order, p. 766. New Haven: New Haven
Press. ISBN 0-89838-900-3.
[45] The evacuation of Rongelap
[46] http://www.brook.edu/fp/projects/nucwcost/50.htm
[47] National Nuclear Security Administration / Nevada Site
Oce (January 2011).Miss Atom Bomb(PDF). Fact
Sheets. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
[48] Johnson, Carl (1984). Cancer Incidence in an Area
of Radioactive Fallout Downwind From the Nevada Test
Site. Journal of the American Medical Association 251
(2): 230. doi:10.1001/jama.1984.03340260034023.
[49] Falk, Jim (1982). Gobal Fission:The Battle Over Nuclear
Power, p. 134.
[50] Western Shoshone spiritual leader dies
[51] Plutonium Mountain: Inside the 17-Year Mission to Secure a Legacy of Soviet Nuclear Testing, Eben Harrell &
David E. Homan, Belfer Center for Science and International Aairs, Harvard University, 15 August 2013, accessed 21 August 2013

Chapter 89

Twomey eect
The Twomey eect describes how cloud condensation
nuclei (CCN), possibly from anthropogenic pollution,
may increase the amount of solar radiation reected by
clouds. This is an indirect eect.
Aerosol particles can act as CCN's creating more droplets
which have a smaller size distribution. This increases the
cloud albedo as clouds appear whiter and larger, leading to a cooling of between 0.3 and 1.8 Wm* 2.* [1]
For example we observe trails of white clouds from ships
crossing the oceans due to this eect.

89.1 See also

Albrecht eect
Sulfate
Aerosols and soot

89.2 References
[1] IPCC 4th Assessment Report, 2005

89.3 Bibliography
Twomey, S. (December 1974). Pollution and
the planetary albedo. Atmos. Environ. 8
(12): 12516. Bibcode:1974AtmEn...8.1251T.
doi:10.1016/0004-6981(74)90004-3.
Twomey, S. (July 1977). The Inuence of
Pollution on the Shortwave Albedo of Clouds
(PDF). J. Atmos. Sci. 34 (7): 114952.
Bibcode:1977JAtS...34.1149T. doi:10.1175/15200469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2.
Rosenfeld, D. (2006). Aerosol-Cloud Interactions Control of Earth Radiation and Latent
Heat Release Budgets. Space Sci Rev 125
(1-4): 149157. Bibcode:2006SSRv..125..149R.
doi:10.1007/s11214-006-9053-6.
300

Lohmann, U. (2006).
Aerosol Eects on
Clouds and Climate. Space Sci Rev 125 (1Bibcode:2006SSRv..125..129L.
4): 129137.
doi:10.1007/s11214-006-9051-8.

Chapter 90

Urban dust dome

Urban dust domes are a meteorological phenomenon in
which soot, dust, and chemical emissions become trapped
in the air above urban spaces. This trapping is a product
of local air circulations. Calm surface winds are drawn to
urban centers, they then rise above the city and descend
slowly on the periphery of the developed core. This cycle
is often a cause of smog through photochemical reactions
that occur when strong concentrations of the pollutants in
this cycle are exposed to solar radiation. These are one
result of urban heat islands: pollutants concentrate in a
dust dome because convection lifts pollutants into the air,
where they remain because of somewhat stable air masses
produced by the urban heat island.
The urban heat island which causes a city to heat up, caps
the dust and other particulates at a low level in the atmosphere. If there is not a strong enough wind, then this
dome that is created remains intact and causes that heated
up air within the urban heat island. Though if the wind
does blow strong enough, then this dome is blown downwind causing it to move out of the city.* [1]

90.1 References
[1] http://test.ourhomeground.com/entries/definition/dust_
dome

301

Chapter 91

Useful conversions and formulas for air

dispersion modeling
Various governmental agencies involved with
environmental protection and with occupational safety
and health have promulgated regulations limiting the
allowable concentrations of gaseous pollutants in the
ambient air or in emissions to the ambient air. Such
regulations involve a number of dierent expressions of
concentration. Some express the concentrations as ppmv
and some express the concentrations as mg/m, while
others require adjusting or correcting the concentrations
to reference conditions of moisture content, oxygen content or carbon dioxide content. This article presents a set
of useful conversions and formulas for air dispersion
modeling of atmospheric pollutants and for complying
with the various regulations as to how to express the
concentrations obtained by such modeling.* [1]

91.1 Converting air pollutant concentrations

1 percent by volume = 10,000 ppmv (i.e., parts per

million by volume).
atm = absolute atmospheric pressure in atmospheres
mol = gram mole

91.2 Correcting concentrations for

altitude
Atmospheric pollutant concentrations expressed as mass
per unit volume of atmospheric air (e.g., mg/m, g/m,
etc.) at sea level will decrease with increasing altitude because the atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing
altitude.
The change of atmospheric pressure with altitude can be
obtained from this equation:* [2]

Pa = 0.9877a
The conversion equations depend on the temperature
at which the conversion is wanted (usually about 20 to Given an atmospheric pollutant concentration at an atmo25 degrees Celsius). At an ambient air pressure of 1 spheric pressure of 1 atmosphere (i.e., at sea level altitude), the concentration at other altitudes can be obtained
atmosphere (101.325 kPa), the general equation is:
from this equation:
ppmv = mg/m3

(0.08205 T )
M

and for the reverse conversion:

mg/m3 = ppmv

M
(0.08205 T )

Ca = C 0.9877a
As an example, given a concentration of 260 mg/m at sea
level, calculate the equivalent concentration at an altitude
of 1,800 meters:
C a = 260 0.9877* 18 = 208 mg/m at 1,800 meters
altitude

Notes:

91.3 Standard conditions for gas

Pollution regulations in the United States typically

volumes
reference their pollutant limits to an ambient temperature of 20 to 25 C as noted above. In most
other nations, the reference ambient temperature for A normal cubic meter (Nm ) is the metric expression of
gas volume at standard conditions and it is usually (but
pollutant limits may be 0 C or other values.
302

91.5. CORRECTING FOR REFERENCE CONDITIONS

303

not always) dened as being measured at 0 C and 1 Likewise, a standard cubic meter of dry gas is often deatmosphere of pressure.
noted as dscmor scmd(again, by environmental
A standard cubic foot (scf) is the USA expression of gas agencies in the USA).
volume at standard conditions and it is often (but not always) dened as being measured at 60 F and 1 atmo- 91.5.1 Correcting to a dry basis
sphere of pressure. There are other denitions of standard gas conditions used in the USA besides 60 F and 1 If a gaseous emission sample is analyzed and found to
atmosphere.
contain water vapor and a pollutant concentration of say
40 ppmv, then 40 ppmv should be designated as thewet
That being understood:
basispollutant concentration. The following equation
1 Nm of any gas (measured at 0 C and 1 atmocan be used to correct the measured wet basisconsphere of absolute pressure) equals 37.326 scf of that
centration to a "dry basis" concentration:* [3]
gas (measured at 60 F and 1 atmosphere of absolute
pressure).
1 kmol of any ideal gas equals 22.414 Nm of that gas dry basis concentration = (wet basis concentration)/(1w)
at 0C and 1 atmosphere of absolute pressure ... and
1 lbmol of any ideal gas equals 379.482 scf of that gas Thus, a wet basis concentration of 40 ppmv in a gas having 10 volume percent water vapor would have a dry basis
at 60 F and 1 atmosphere of absolute pressure.
concentration = 40 ( 1 - 0.10 ) = 44.44 ppmv.
Notes:
kmol = kilomole or kilogram mole
lbmol = pound mole

91.4 Windspeed conversion factors

91.5.2 Correcting to a reference oxygen

content
The following equation can be used to correct a measured
pollutant concentration in an emitted gas (containing a
measured O2 content) to an equivalent pollutant concentration in an emitted gas containing a specied reference
amount of O2 :* [4]

Meteorological data includes windspeeds which may be

expressed as statute miles per hour, knots, or meters per
second. Here are the conversion factors for those various
(20.9 r)
Cr = Cm
expressions of windspeed:
(20.9 m)
1 m/s = 2.237 statute mile/h = 1.944 knots
Thus, a measured NOx concentration of 45 ppmv (dry
1 knot = 1.151 statute mile/h = 0.514 m/s
basis) in a gas having 5 volume % O2 is
1 statute mile/h = 0.869 knots = 0.447 m/s
45 ( 20.9 - 3 ) ( 20.9 - 5 ) = 50.7 ppmv (dry basis) of
NOx when corrected to a gas having a specied reference
Note:
O2 content of 3 volume %.
1 statute mile = 5,280 feet = 1,609 meters

91.5 Correcting for reference conditions

91.5.3 Correcting to a reference carbon

dioxide content

The following equation can be used to correct a measured

pollutant concentration in an emitted gas (containing a
measured CO2 content) to an equivalent pollutant conMany environmental protection agencies have issued reg- centration in an emitted gas containing a specied referulations that limit the concentration of pollutants in ence amount of CO2 :* [5]
gaseous emissions and dene the reference conditions applicable to those concentration limits. For example, such
a regulation might limit the concentration of NOx to 55 Cr = Cm r
m
ppmv in a dry combustion exhaust gas corrected to 3 volume percent O2 . As another example, a regulation might Thus, a measured particulates concentration of 0.1 grain
limit the concentration of particulate matter to 0.1 grain per dscf in a gas that has 8 volume % CO2 is
per standard cubic foot (i.e., scf) of dry exhaust gas cor- 0.1 ( 12 8 ) = 0.15 grain per dscf when corrected
rected to 12 volume percent CO2 .
to a gas having a specied reference CO2 content of 12
Environmental agencies in the USA often denote a stan- volume %.
dard cubic foot of dry gas as dscfor as scfd. Notes:

304

CHAPTER 91. USEFUL CONVERSIONS AND FORMULAS FOR AIR DISPERSION MODELING

Although ppmv and grains per dscf have been used

in the above examples, concentrations such as ppbv
(i.e., parts per billion by volume), volume percent,
grams per dscm and many others may also be used.
1 percent by volume = 10,000 ppmv (i.e., parts per
million by volume).
Care must be taken with the concentrations expressed as ppbv to dierentiate between the British
billion which is 1012 and the USA billion which is
109 .

91.6 See also

Standard conditions of temperature and pressure
Units conversion by factor-label
Atmospheric dispersion modeling
Roadway air dispersion modeling
Bibliography of atmospheric dispersion modeling
Accidental release source terms
Choked ow

91.7 References
[1] Air Dispersion Modeling Conversions and Formulas
[2] Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas
Dispersion (4th Edition ed.). author-published. ISBN 09644588-0-2.
[3] 40 U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter I, Part 60,
Appendix A-3, Test Method 4.
[4] 40 U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter I, Part 60,
Appendix B, Performance Specication 2.
[5] 40 U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter I, Part 60.

91.8 External links

More conversions and formulas useful in air dispersion modeling are available in the feature articles at
www.air-dispersion.com.
U.S. EPA tutorial course has very useful information.

Chapter 92

Daniel A. Vallero
Daniel A. Vallero is an American environmental author* [1]* [2] and scientist. He was born in East St. Louis,
Illinois and grew up in Collinsville, Illinois. He received a bachelor's degree and a master's degree in city
and regional planning from Southern Illinois UniversityEdwardsville. He also earned a masters in civil and environmental engineering (environmental health sciences)
from the University of Kansas and a PhD in civil and
environmental engineering from Duke University with a
thesis on "Dicarboximide Fungicide Flux to the Lower
Troposphere from an Aquic Hapludult Soil* [3]* [4]

92.1 Career
Vallero is recognized internationally for advancing the
state of environmental science and engineering, as an author, educator, engineer and scientic researcher. He has
appeared on news and other shows, recently discussing
plastic recycling on NBC's Today Show (http://www.
today.com/video/today/51620316) and on MSNBC, and
current state of ethics in research at universities.* [5] He
began his professional career in the Kansas City regional
oce of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
1976 and has worked in numerous other scientic venues
since then.* [6] He directed the Science, Technology and
Human Values Program at Duke University from 1997 to
2005. Beginning in 2005, he has been adjunct Professor
of Engineering Ethics at Duke University, with a joint appointment in the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, and the Trinity School of Arts and Sciences.
He held appointments also at the University of MissouriKansas City, North Carolina Central University, and as
science sta member on Energy and Power Subcommittee of the United States House of Representatives.
In his twelve books, Vallero has taken the systems view
of living systems, and discussed the social aspects of
engineering. As such he has bridged biomedical engineering with environmental engineering. As a leader in
engineering ethics, he has served the National Academy
of Engineering as a member of the Online Ethics Committee and the Executive Board of the National Institute
of Engineering Ethics. Vallero has also advised Sigma Xi,
universities and other institutions on science and research

ethics and the responsible conduct of research (RCR).

92.2 Works
Vallero is a pioneer of green engineering and the application of life cycle analysis to engineering design. He was
among the rst to question the sustainability and ethics
of using corn as a source of ethanol fuel. His reasoning
was that current farming practice's dependence on fossil
fuels needed to grow (including fertilizer and pesticides),
harvest and ferment the corn is highly inecient thermodynamically. The use of corn for fuel is especially problematic, since only the seed are used, not to mention the
misuse of an important part of the global food supply.* [7]
Vallero argued that other crops are much more sustainable, especially those that make use of the whole plant,
including cellulosic material, like switchgrass (Panicum
virgatum).
In the book, DUST: The inside Story of its Role in the
September 11th Aftermath,* [8] the late American scientist Paul Lioy credited Vallero with leading the way
to sampling of hazardous air pollutants in and around
Ground Zero following the 9/11 attacks on the World
Trade Center. Lioy collaborated with Vallero in establishing a protocol for characterizing exposure in risk assessments following such emergencies. Lioy and Vallero
coined the term 5 Rsto delineate how exposure assessment varies during the ve stages following a disaster:
1. Rescue; 2. Recovery; 3. Reentry; 4. Restoration; and
5. Rehabitation.* [9]
With architect, Chris Brasier, Vallero coined the term
synthovation,as a new design process for green engineering and green architecture.* [10] A combination of
synthesis and innovation, sustainable design does not consider innovation to be an interruption (feedback loop) to
the design process as in traditional concept to completiondesign. Rather, innovations are to be expected
and integrated. Diering from the traditional step-wise
process, synthovation is a spiral, dynamic, and continuously moving process toward completion of the design
and throughout the life of the project, including end-of
life recycling and design for disassembly, a component
of design for environment (DfE), with innovations added

305

306

CHAPTER 92. DANIEL A. VALLERO

along the way that will increase the sustainability of the

project over its entire life cycle.
In her book,Hormone Deception,* [11] Lindsey Berkson credits Vallero as among the rst to apply exposure
science to endocrine disruptors.

92.2.1

Books

Vallero, D.A. (2015). Environmental Biotechnology:

A Biosystems Approach. 2nd Edition. Academic
Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA,
Print Book ISBN 9780124077768; eBook ISBN
9780124078970. 746 pages.
Vallero, D.A. (2014). Fundamentals of Air Pollution, 5th Edition. Academic Press, Amsterdam,
Netherlands and Boston MA, I978-0124017337.
950 pages.
Vallero, D.A. and Letcher, T.M. (2012). Unraveling Environmental Disasters. Academic Press,
Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN
9780123970268. 492 pages.
Letcher, T.M. and Vallero, D.A. Editors (2011).
Waste: A Handbook for Management. Academic
Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA,
ISBN 9780123814753. 448 pages.
Vallero, D.A. (2010). Environmental Biotechnology: A Biosystems Approach. Academic Press,
Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN
012375089X.750 pages.
Ratner, B.D., Homan, A.S., Schoen, F.J., Lemons,
J.E., Dyro, J. Martinsen, O.G., Kyle, R., Preim, B.,
Batz, D., Grimnes, S., Vallero, D., Semmlow, J.,
Murry, W.B., Perez, R. and Bankman, I. (2009).
Biomedical Engineering Desk Reference. Academic
Press, Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA,
ISBN 0123746469. 948 pages.
Vallero, D.A. and Brasier, C. (2008), Sustainable
Design: The Science of Sustainability and Green Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken,
NJ, ISBN 0470130628. 350 pages. According to
WorldCat, the book is held in 578 libraries * [12]
Reviewed by R.W. Peters in Environmental Progress Nov 8, 2008, v27 issue4,
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/
ep.10323/full
Reviewed by D.A. Vaccari in Choice Oct 2008
v46 i2 p334(1)
Reviewd by Amy Trendler in Library Journal
Sept 1, 2008 v133 i14 p126(1)
Reviewd by Alanna Malone in GreenSource:
The Magazine of Sustainable Design Aug
8, 2007, http://greensource.construction.com/
bookreviews/0807_SustainableDesign.asp

Vallero, D.A. (2007). Fundamentals of Air Pollution, 4th Edition. Academic Press, Amsterdam,
Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN 0750682272.
400 pages.
Reviewd by Don MacKay. Environmental Reviews 2008 v16 p181(1)
Vallero, D.A., (2007). Biomedical Ethics for Engineers: Ethics and Decision Making in Biomedical and Biosystem Engineering. Academic Press,
Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN
0750682272. 400 pages. In 777 libraries according to WorldCat * [13]
Vallero, D.A. and Vesilind, P.A.(2006). Socially Responsible Engineering. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
Hoboken, NJ, ISBN 0471787078. 384 pages.
Reviewed by Ray Bert. Civil Engineering Nov
2006 v76 i11 p71
Reviewed by Alex A. Karner, Science and Engineering Ethics 2010 16(2): 415-417
Vallero, D.A. (2005). Paradigms Lost: Learning from Environmental Mistakes, Mishaps and
Misdeeds. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN
0750678887. 688 pages. According to WorldCat,
the book is held in 333 libraries.* [14]
Reviewed by Ray Bert.
March 2006 v76 i3 p68

Civil Engineering

Vallero, D.A. (2004). Environmental Contaminants:

Assessment and Control. Academic Press, New
York, NY, ISBN 0127100571. 832 pages.
Vallero, D.A. (2003).
Engineering the Risks
of Hazardous Wastes. Butterworth-Heinemann,
Amsterdam, Netherlands and Boston MA, ISBN
0750677422. 306 pages (with contribution by J.J.
Peirce). According to WorldCat, the book is held in
416 libraries * [15]

92.3 References
[1] Author page at Elsevier
[2] Author page at John Wiley & Sons
[3] Faculty page at Duke
[4] Curriculum vitae at Duke
[5] U.S. News & World Report
[6] Researcher page at EPA
[7] D. Vallero and C. Brasier (2008). Teaching green engineering: The case of ethanol life cycle analysis. Bulletin
of Science, Technology & Society. 28 (3): 236-243.

92.4. EXTERNAL LINKS

[8] P.J. Lioy (2010). DUST: The Inside Story of Its Role in
the September 11th Aftermath (Forward By Tom Kean).
Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littleeld. ISBN 1-44220148-7.
[9] D. Vallero and P. Lioy (2012). The 5-Rs: Reliable PostDisaster Exposure Assessment. Leadership and Management and Engineering. 12 (4): 247-253. (October 2012).
doi:10.1061/(ASCE)LM.1943-5630.0000200.
[10] D. Vallero and C. Brasier (2008), Sustainable Design: The
Science of Sustainability and Green Engineering. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, ISBN 0470130628.
[11] L. Berkson (2010), Hormone Deception. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform; 1 edition, ISBN
1453741275
[12] WorldCat
[13] worldCat book record
[14] WorldCat
[15] WorldCat

92.4 External links

Civil Engineering Faculty Website at Duke University
Online Ethics of the National Academy of Engineering
National Institute of Engineering Ethics
International Society of Exposure Science

307

Chapter 93

Vapor intrusion
Vapor intrusion (VI) is a process by which chemicals
in soil or groundwater - especially Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs) - migrate to indoor air above a
contaminated site.

In 2002 the US EPA had issued its rst draft guidance

on the subject .* [4] The George W. Bush Administration
dropped the project in 2003, and only in 2013 Obamas
appointee as EPA Assistant Administrator in the Oce
of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, made it a priority to complete the document. On June 11, 2015, the
EPA released its nal Vapor Intrusion Technical Guide,
93.1 Denition
along with a Technical Guide for Addressing Petroleum
Vapor Intrusion At Leaking Underground Storage Tank
The United States Environmental Protection Agency de- Sites. A guide is neither a statute nor a regulation, but
nes vapor intrusion as a migration of volatile chem- a guidance.* [5]
icals from groundwater contamination or contaminated
soil into an overlying building. The chemicals can be
of dierent classes including volatile organic compounds
93.4 See also
(VOCs) , certain semi-volatile organic compound and inorganic chemicals, such as elemental mercury, naturally
Superfund for a list of Environmental Protection
occurring radon, and hydrogen sulde.* [1]
Agency Superfund sites
Trichloroethylene (TCE) for a discussion of the
chemical compound

93.2 Concerns
At worst, vapor intrusion can be a safety hazard, e.g.,
when ammables are involved in form of an explosion.
Noxious vapors can cause health eects, either acutely
such as CNS disturbances like headaches or mental status changes, and they can have chronic health eects, e.g.
in the case of radon, which can cause lung cancer. Lastly,
vapors can be severe aesthetic problems, e.g., odors
from hydrogen sulde.* [1]

93.5 References
[1] What is Vapor Intrusion?". US EPA. 30 September
2015. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
[2] Guidance for Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion in the State
of New York Final Soil Vapor Intrusion Guidance, 92pp,
October 2006.
[3] ASTM E2600-10 Standard Guide for Vapor Encroachment Screening on Property Involved in Real Estate
Transactions. ASTM International. 1 June 2010.

93.3 Guidance
In the United States, vapor intrusion is handled in individual states in dierent ways.
One of the most scrupulous guidance documents on vapor intrusion in the nation has been from the New York
Department of Health in 2006.* [2]
In June 2010, the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM International) released a commercial
Standard Guide for Vapor Encroachment Screening on
Property Involved in Real Estate Transactions(ASTM
E 2600-10).* [3]
308

[4] OSWER Draft Guidance for Evaluating the Vapor Intrusion to Indoor Air Pathway from Groundwater and Soils
(Subsurface Vapor Intrusion Guidance)". Environmental
Protection Agency. 2002-11-29.
[5] OSWER Technical Guide for Assessing and Mitigating the Vapor Intrusion Pathway from Subsurface Vapor
Sources to Indoor Air.. US EPA. 11 June 2015. p. 267.
Retrieved 29 August 2015.

Chapter 94

Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizer

94.2 Operation
Thermal oxidation is the most widely accepted air pollution control technologies used in industrial applications.
Ventilation Air Methane Thermal Oxidizers are commonly referred to as a VAMTOX. They are very specic
and extremely ecient energy recovery eciency can
reach 95%. This is achieved through the storage of heat in
dense ceramic stoneware. Ventilation Air Methane Thermal Oxidizers are used for the very low methane concentrations operate continuously. These systems can destroy 95-98+% methane (CH4) that would otherwise be
emitted. Ventilation Air Methane Thermal Oxidizers can
be designed with hot gas bypass systems, re-circulation
heat exchangers that convert heat into energy, and oxygen monitoring to reduce any possible carbon monoxide
and/or nitrous oxide production. Methane streams allow
the VAMTOX to operate at reduced or zero fuel usage,
which makes these systems ideal for mine shaft ventilation operations.
Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizers (or VAMTOX) are a type of processing equipment used for
greenhouse gas abatement related to underground mining operations that destroys gaseous methane at a high
temperature.

94.1 Principle
Ventilation Air Methane Thermal Oxidizers are used to
destroy methane in the exhaust air of underground coal
mine shafts. Methane is a greenhouse gas that burns to
form carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapor. (CO2 ) is
25 times less potent than methane when emitted into the
atmosphere with regards to global warming. Concentrations of methane in ventilation exhaust air of coal and
trona mines are very dilute; typically below 1% and often below 0.5%.* [1] Flow rates are so high that ventilation air methane constitutes the largest source of methane
emissions at most mines. This methane emission wastes
energy and contributes signicantly to global greenhouse
gas (GHG) emissions.

VAMTOX systems have a system of valves and dampers

that direct the methane ow across the ceramic bed. On
system start up, the system preheats and raises the temperature of the heat exchange material in the oxidizer bed
to or above the auto-oxidation temperature of methane
(1,000C or 1,832F). Then the preheating system is
turned o and mine exhaust air is introduced. When the
methane-lled air reaches the preheated bed, it oxidizes
and releases heat. This heat is transferred to the bed,
thereby maintaining its temperature to support continued
operation. The oxidation process is ameless. Once the
bed is preheated, the process needs no auxiliary energy
so long as adequate inow methane concentrations are
maintained. The VAMTOX system exhaust gases can be
used to raise steam, which can provide electrical power
through a turbine generator.

94.3 External links

309

Ventilation Air Methane Thermal Oxidizer SystemAmerican Environmental Fabrication & Supply, Sept. 2010
Assessment of the Worldwide Market Potential for

310

CHAPTER 94. VENTILATION AIR METHANE THERMAL OXIDIZER

Oxidizing Coal Mine Ventilation Air MethaneU.S
EPA, Sept. 2009

Thermal oxidation of coal mine ventilation

methane2008 Mine Ventilation Symposium, Jul.
2008
Capture and use of coal mine ventilation-air
methaneU.S. Department of Energy National Energy Technology Laboratory, April 2008
References
[1] Ventilation air methane thermal oxidizer.

USEPA, 2003 Assessment of the Worldwide Market Potential for Oxidizing Coal Mine Ventilation
Air MethaneJuly 2003
Mattus, R, 2007. In Full Operation The Worlds
First VAM Power Plant, presented at the Methane to
Markets Partnership Expo, Beijing, China, October
30 November 1, 2007
Hamilton et al., 2007. State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2007: Picking Up Steam, Hamilton,
K, Bayon, R, Turner, G, and Higgins, D, New Carbon Finance and The Ecosystem Marketplace, July
2007
12th U.S./North American Mine Ventilation Symposium 2008 Wallace (ed) ISBN 978-0-61520009-5"
Watson R.T. et al., IPCC Third Assessment Report Climate Change 2001, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva, Switzerland,
2001

Chapter 95

Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol

The Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range
Transboundary Air Pollution Concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or
Their Transboundary Fluxes (known as the Volatile
Organic Compounds Protocol or the VOC Protocol)
is a protocol to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution which aims to provide for the control and reduction of emissions of volatile organic compounds in order to reduce their transboundary uxes so
as to protect human health and the environment from adverse eects. The protocol was concluded at Geneva,
Switzerland.
Opened for signature - November 18, 1991
Entered into force - September 29, 1997
Parties - (24) Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany,
Hungary, Italy, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Republic of Macedonia, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway,
Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom
Countries that have signed, but not yet ratied - (6)
Canada, European Union, Greece, Portugal, Ukraine,
United States

95.1 See also

environmental agreements

95.2 References
This article incorporates public domain material
from the CIA World Factbook document2003 edition.

95.3 External links

Ratication status

311

Chapter 96

Wildland re emission
Wildland re and wildland re atmospheric emissions
have been a part of the global biosphere for millennia.* [1]
The major wildland re emissions include greenhouse
gasses and several criteria pollutants that impact human
health and welfare.:* [2]
Compared to the preindustrial era, wildland land re
in the conterminous U.S. has been reduced 90 percent with proportional reductions in wildland re emissions. Land use changes (agriculture and urbanization)
are responsible for roughly 50 percent of this decrease,
and land management decisions (land fragmentation,
suppression actions, etc.) are responsible for the remainder. Anthropogenic activities (e.g., industrial production,
transportation, agriculture, etc.) today have more than
replaced the lost preindustrial wildland re atmospheric
emissions.* [3]
The following charts compare preindustrial wildland re
emissions * [4] with contemporary emissions.* [5]* [6]
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Monoxide
Nitric Oxide
Volatile Organic Compounds
Particulate Matter <10
Particulate Matter <2.5

96.1 References
[1] Pyne, S.J. 1995. World re: The culture of re on earth.
University of Washington Press. 384 pp. [ISBN 0-29597593-8]
[2] National Research Council: Committee on Air Quality
Management in the United States, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate, Division on Earth and Life Studies
(2004). Air Quality Management in the United States.
National Academies Press. [ISBN 0-309-08932-8]
[3] Leenhouts, B. 1998.Assessment of biomass burning in the
conterminous United States. Conservation Ecology [online] 2(1): 1.

312

[4] Leenhouts, B. 1998. Assessment of biomass burning in

the conterminous United States. Conservation Ecology
[online] 2(1): 1.
[5] EPA. 1998. The National Air Pollutant Emission Trends:
1900-1997
[6] Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks:
1990 - 1999

Chapter 97

Working Environment (Air Pollution,

Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977
Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977 is an International Labour
Organization Convention.
It was established in 1977, with the preamble stating:
Having decided upon the adoption of certain proposals with regard to working environment: atmospheric pollution, noise and vibration,...

97.1 Ratications
As of 2013, the convention had been ratied by 45 states.

97.2 External links

Text.
Ratications.

313

314CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

97.3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

97.3.1

Text

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Wasbeer, Ben Eyer, Nikkirulez112, Hz.tiang, Kaltenmeyer, Northamerica1000, Smellyme, Andol, MusikAnimal, ApostleVonColorado,
AvocatoBot, Atomician, Pekingduck888, Kolkatainformation, Gorthian, Chase.alton3, Maria,joseph.kvk, Meatsgains, Snow Blizzard, Nilaxann65, Maazmunir, Jackal1997, Achowat, Loebd, Ebaeful, Anbu121, 9k8a5r0a2n35559, BattyBot, Millennium bug, David.moreno72,
Divyakashal, Fettlemap, Pratyya Ghosh, ChrisGualtieri, Layzeeboi, Mediran, Khazar2, Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, Bilingual2000, Mogism,
TwoTwoHello, Lugia2453, Frosty, Jamesx12345, King jakob c, Sfgiants1995, Wywin, Docvallero, Reatlas, Faizan, Randykitty, Epicgenius, Greengreengreenred, Excalibarsonic, Skeledzija, Mohan manikanta, Samianda13, NikhilKatariya, I am One of Many, HumberView,
Towercreater, Electric Celery, Chinacap, Tentinator, Everymorning, Sunny0208, IUCN-ELC, Wuerzele, Doghog, Lh625, ILovePie27,
Kierracalhoun, CensoredScribe, Chris565781, Babitaarora, Alastair B. Campbell, Openmarkers, Madhu07apr98, Ugog Nizdast, NottNott, Ginsuloft, D Eaketts, Bryanrutherford0, Jianhui67, Kim Asheld, Manul, PierreFG5, Noyster, Stroumel, Stamptrader, BrigadierMorris, Esmail7, Skr15081997, Aostachuk, Puneet251752, Ryan115, Mmi7593, Moiz789, Ashley Columbus, Thesixthsta, Monkbot,
Berkair, Parambiyani, Firelord10166, Amortias, Vaselineeeeeeee, Micky.boy73, 3primetime3, HMSLavender, Saptarshi Bhattacharya,
Qyteza01, James martin 32, QuartzReload, Safa Abdul Shukoor, Bodhisattwa, Jainam Shah N, JonCarender, Poorvikaknegi, Kubashuba,
Lingveno, Quinn4803, Poor vika negi, Scarle77, Tran007, Wiki.mkm, Aryan2107, Collaborator2014, Xrejectsx, Mediavalia, Pyrotle,
Amanmalik063, Saran tamilselvan, Ryan boooooooooo, Imapuchaurbuns, Sonic2278, KasparBot, JRodrigues13, EnvironmentEngineer,
Heavenlytouchcarpets, Kushagra0628, JJMC89, LobsterCan, Toxxicpixel, Gunpie, CAPTAIN RAJU, CyberWarfare, Preethaa Shiny,
Ashketchum2001, Gokulvibush, Kai stackhouse, Wikipedia helper101, Little e5776, Fracnov, Yash Racha75, ANIRUDH ASAWA, Entranced98, Ethanlu121, Atharvaaitwade, BWEFASS BROCCOLI, KgosarMyth, MrFirate and Anonymous: 1996
Accidental release source terms Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accidental_release_source_terms?oldid=691042550 Contributors: Michael Hardy, SGBailey, Alan Liefting, Pearle, Alansohn, Gene Nygaard, RHaworth, Pol098, Rjwilmsi, Encephalon, Closedmouth,
Euchiasmus, Mbeychok, Patau, Cydebot, MadScientist80, Daniele Pugliesi, CrimsonZ, Snotbot and Anonymous: 6
Aerotoxic Association Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerotoxic_Association?oldid=721135822 Contributors: Tim!, SmackBot,
Gjs238, EditorASC, MilborneOne, Robosh, NativeForeigner, Silver seren, Magioladitis, JBIdF, Shreditor, Cirt, Socrates2008, Mhockey,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Alvin Seville, Tra, Tom.Reding, TCP146, DexDor, Dcirovic, This lousy T-shirt, 220 of Borg, Volker Siegel, FrerwerwertwTrwt, TrevorAANorwich and Anonymous: 9
Aerotoxic syndrome Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerotoxic_syndrome?oldid=721353967 Contributors: Finlay McWalter, Anthony Appleyard, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Wavelength, Mikalra, Bhny, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Archibald Tuttle, Acdx,
JzG, EditorASC, Robosh, Ex nihil, Anthonyhcole, DumbBOT, Pragmaticist, Dawnseeker2000, Nicholas0, Silver seren, WhatamIdoing,
JaGa, Anaxial, CommonsDelinker, Shawn in Montreal, Skrelk, Nigel Ish, Sciencewatcher, Kmhkmh, Lamro, Doc James, JL-Bot, RobinHood70, Jersey emt, Socrates2008, Jytdog, Addbot, TutterMouse, Debresser, Favonian, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, AnomieBOT,
Xqbot, .45Colt, MuedThud, Shadowjams, Grammarspellchecker, Jonesey95, Screwjack1981, TCP146, TRBP, Trappist the monk, Diannaa, VernoWhitney, EmausBot, DiiCinta, Winner 42, Dcirovic, Josve05a, Bollyje, H3llBot, Hazard-Bot, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie
Bot, BG19bot, Jontyla, 14October1947, Lhotse2011, 220 of Borg, BattyBot, Ankababel, AviationExpertUK, Guywholikesca2+, Mogism,
Jamesx12345, Wuerzele, Uli Elch, Monkbot, BubbaJoe123456, Sirjosephwilliamson, Kethrus, SharpEndBluntTool, Health+Stealth, Bytesock, Ferroeld and Anonymous: 47
Air pollutant concentrations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutant_concentrations?oldid=695394603 Contributors:
BD2412, Drbogdan, Salix alba, Old Moonraker, Slashme, Bejnar, Mbeychok, JForget, Christian75, Postcard Cathy, Xenus, Shoemaker's
Holiday, MrOllie, Yobot, Daniele Pugliesi, Trappist the monk, BattyBot and Anonymous: 3
Outline of air pollution dispersion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_air_pollution_dispersion?oldid=711433045 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Spiy sperry, Blaxthos, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, NHSavage, Addshore, Cybercobra, Zahid Abdassabur,
Kuru, Mbeychok, Beetstra, Iridescent, Jaksmata, CmdrObot, Cydebot, The Transhumanist, Sudhanshu Kumar, HiLo48, KudzuVine, Inwind, Anna Lincoln, Lamro, Anchor Link Bot, JL-Bot, ClueBot, Excirial, Addbot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Citation bot,
Tix, GoingBatty, Drcambridge, EdoBot, Snotbot, Forgiatura, BG19bot, BMacZero, BattyBot and Anonymous: 18
Air pollution sensor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution_sensor?oldid=706964271 Contributors: Rpyle731, Simsh,
Wavelength, R'n'B, Niceguyedc, BG19bot, Lakun.patra, Wanderingwater, CryOCed and Jimmykumar10
Air quality guideline Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality_guideline?oldid=695160246 Contributors: Rpyle731 and
Ganeshk
Air Quality Health Index (Canada) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Quality_Health_Index_(Canada)?oldid=721605005 Contributors: Denelson83, Bearcat, Bender235, Giraedata, Vegaswikian, Wavelength, NHSavage, Bejnar, Magioladitis, R'n'B, Commons-

316CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

Delinker, Katharineamy, DASonnenfeld, Razamatraz, Addbot, Yobot, EmausBot, Frietjes, Wbm1058, Aqhiguy, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri,
Joshua Kraan, Radix838, HeisenbergO2, Bfurrow and Anonymous: 9
Air quality index Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality_index?oldid=720224345 Contributors: SimonP, Heron, Willsmith,
Julesd, Mulad, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Radiojon, Tpbradbury, Dragons ight, David.Monniaux, Alan Liefting, Dinomite, Jpp, Fys, Beland, Spiy sperry, CALR, Discospinster, Wrp103, Bender235, RoyBoy, Smalljim, Velella, RJFJR, Shoey, Lebite, BDD, Gene Nygaard,
Gordeonbleu, Rtdrury, Rjwilmsi, Samlowry, RobertG, Reetep, Samuel Wiki, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, CrazyC83, NHSavage, Flowersofnight, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hu Gadarn, Alex mayorga, ACupOfCoee, E946, JonHarder, TedE, PointyOintment, Jellysho,
Derek R Bullamore, Drphilharmonic, The Toad, Shadowlynk, Mbeychok, BLUE, Thegreatdr, Shaoquan, Ckatz, Hvn0413, Markjdb, John
Riemann Soong, JohnCD, Neelix, No1lakersfan, Acs4b, Tawkerbot4, Simeon H, Catsmoke, Dugwiki, Phy1729, Openlander, AntiVandalBot, MER-C, Magioladitis, Dekimasu, Gabriel Kielland, IwantCleanAir, Jikbusai, Dlary, Rettetast, RockMFR, Ciotog, Stambouliote, SJP,
Vanished user 39948282, DASonnenfeld, Lop.dong, Templationist, KyleRGiggs, Freeghter~enwiki, Andywata, Pjoef, Coee, Flyer22
Reborn, ClueBot, Fyyer, JTSchreiber, Conchobhair II, DragonBot, Stzsi, Razorame, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, RyanCross, Addbot, Element16, Montgomery '39, Shirtwaist, Download, Be224886, Principiacoh, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Ptbotgourou, Alchimista,
AnomieBOT, Mahmudmasri, Citation bot, Xqbot, Drilnoth, Mononomic, Danielstoner, Caichris, Khalidshou, Pinethicket, Tom.Reding,
Elekhh, Trappist the monk, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Jojndon, Dcirovic, Jenks24, Niki1984, Michaela den, ClueBot NG, Larch922,
Catlemur, Wbm1058, DBigXray, BG19bot, Aqhiguy, Cskim761, PhnomPencil, Nicolaas19, Hamish59, Amelie.fritz.airparif, Drdowiki,
Mogism, , Buchexperte, Silly Santa Claus, Eyesnore, S9971706h, TheOrangeUnicorn, VulpesVulpes42, Dirac, CAPTAIN
RAJU, Barabace and Anonymous: 135
Air quality law Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality_law?oldid=687352062 Contributors: Fred Bauder, Icairns, Ricky81682,
Old Moonraker, Bgwhite, CambridgeBayWeather, Thane, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, Hu Gadarn, Mbeychok, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, QuiteUnusual, Wrokic, Gabriel Kielland, Rettetast, DadaNeem, DASonnenfeld, Ggenellina, JL-Bot, Yobot, Ipatrol, Materialscientist, Ado2102,
FrescoBot, Sopher99, SeoMac, Venustas 12, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Helpful Pixie Bot, SeabluWind, Wuerzele, ElHef, LP358,
Interactive science, JRodrigues13 and Anonymous: 23
Air stagnation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_stagnation?oldid=644821984 Contributors: Bearcat, Rich Farmbrough, Alai,
PoccilScript, SmackBot, Sadads, Thegreatdr, Pierre cb, Saxbryn, Runningonbrains, MarshBot, Digijen, Inks.LWC, Bissinger, ClueBot NG
and Anonymous: 2
Airlog Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlog?oldid=656657452 Contributors: Andrewman327, Myrtlegroggins, DVdm, Malcolma,
Ohconfucius, KConWiki, Addbot, Jncraton, Yobot, FreeRangeFrog, EmausBot, Fraulein451, HumberView, Isiaq, Jetson123, RuthLivingstone, Laevateinn0402, Nikki268, Robert4565, Thebrownemdash, Perdugradboom, Oliverwelsby and Anonymous: 1
Ambient air quality criteria Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambient_air_quality_criteria?oldid=712323089 Contributors:
Bearcat, Anthony Appleyard, Whoisjohngalt, I dream of horses, EoRdE6, MicroPaLeo, CarlHawkings and Anonymous: 4
Arctic haze Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_haze?oldid=719989824 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Paul A, Wetman, Mboverload, MacGyverMagic, KillerChihuahua, Dave souza, Bender235, Sherurcij, Avenue, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Carcharoth, Eirikr, Ahpook, Wavelength, Meersan, Arthur Rubin, JoanneB, SmackBot, Colonies Chris, Dl2000, Wikid77, Zzthex, MarshBot, Inks.LWC, Mapcat,
Gabriel Kielland, Mike Payne, Empanda, AstroHurricane001, Inomyabcs, Funandtrvl, A.Ou, Bpz1234, Anonymous Dissident, Warhead66,
SieBot, 1013-josh, 1013-shae, 1013-Lisa, 1013-rey, 1013-Brendan, LittleClogs, Oiws, Lightmouse, Rosiestep, Wristshot, Nymf, Addbot,
Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Philip72, LucienBOT, DrilBot, Lotje, RjwilmsiBot, Thargor Orlando, Northamerica1000, Stewi101015
and Anonymous: 22
Atmospheric dispersion modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling?oldid=716126516 Contributors: Edward, Michael Hardy, Ahoerstemeier, Alan Liefting, Mboverload, Trevor MacInnis, Anthony Appleyard, Gene Nygaard,
Woohookitty, RHaworth, Cbdorsett, Al E., Ketiltrout, GangofOne, Bgwhite, Wavelength, RussBot, Welsh, Daniel Mietchen, Sscomp2004,
Jade Knight, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Benjaminevans82, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Cybercobra, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Will
Beback, Anlace, Alexdevisscher, Mbeychok, Fig wright, Patau, Covalent, CmdrObot, Myasuda, Cydebot, Marokwitz, OhanaUnited,
Gabriel Kielland, Sudhanshu Kumar, Dlary, Inwind, Gouveia2, AlleborgoBot, Mcroson, Stzsi, Mlas, Qwfp, XLinkBot, Nathan Johnson,
Dthomsen8, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Vincnet, Alchimista, Daniele Pugliesi, Sumivec, Citation bot, Rivmlvmil, Some standardized rigour, HRoestBot, Tom.Reding, Opherct, Tix, Drcambridge, Harvey2, Askedonty, Cobaltcigs, Snotbot, BMacZero, HROlesen,
CitationCleanerBot, Riinuots, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri, Chinacap, Prokaryotes, Dendionne, Monkbot, Gup00 and Anonymous: 29
Best available technology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Best_available_technology?oldid=710638671 Contributors: Katana0182,
Je3000, Rjwilmsi, Mahlum~enwiki, CarolGray, Celestianpower, Dj Capricorn, Wavelength, robot, Mauls, Grumpyyoungman01, Mr3641, Thijs!bot, Gabriel Kielland, Blood Oath Bot, TXiKiBoT, AlleborgoBot, SieBot, Busy Stubber, DragonBot, Moreau1, Addbot, SpBot, Middayexpress, Yobot, Xqbot, FrescoBot, RjwilmsiBot, Oldfox2003, H3llBot, SporkBot, Ctebert, BattyBot, ChrisGualtieri,
ChemTom and Anonymous: 8
Beta attenuation monitoring Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_attenuation_monitoring?oldid=638123475 Contributors: DragonySixtyseven, Esmu Igors, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 1
Boulder Climate Action Plan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_Climate_Action_Plan?oldid=711761371 Contributors:
Rich Farmbrough, Lockley, GnniX, Wavelength, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, SMasters, Neelix, E. Ripley, Magioladitis, Auntof6, GB
fan, AlexRexR, AvicAWB, Truexper, Mr. Magoo and McBarker and Anonymous: 5
Burn pit Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn_pit?oldid=711022716 Contributors: Fred Bauder, BDD, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Gilliam,
Bejnar, Nono64, Davy p, DASonnenfeld, Dthomsen8, Jncraton, AnomieBOT, Aaron dub, RightCowLeftCoast, Jakec, Bldg5158,
Deavkat15, Denise Meehan, Hagopian and Anonymous: 7
CALPUFF Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CALPUFF?oldid=705926652 Contributors: Chris-gore, Alan Liefting, Al E., Rjwilmsi,
Ground Zero, SmackBot, Benjaminevans82, Mbeychok, H lina k, Cydebot, Travelbird, MarshBot, Leiranbiton, MrBell, Inwind, Mirtillo2,
Yobot, Citation bot, FrescoBot, Citation bot 1, Look2See1, Donner60, ClueBot NG and Anonymous: 5
CMAQ Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMAQ?oldid=694653588 Contributors: Derek R Bullamore, Stzsi, Yobot, Lakun.patra,
Moonboy54, Compassionate727 and Anonymous: 1
Condensation particle counter Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation_particle_counter?oldid=715979590 Contributors:
Andrewa, Kkmurray, NHSavage, Dawynn, Esmu Igors, Jonathanarpith and Anonymous: 2

97.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

317

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convention_on_Long-Range_

Transboundary_Air_Pollution?oldid=713942727 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Paul A, Docu, Wik, Qertis, Alan Liefting, Avala, Sysin,
Rich Farmbrough, Gronky, Jonathunder, Ronline, Wavelength, Hu Gadarn, AndrewRT, Vasil~enwiki, Mbeychok, NJA, Lamiot, Cydebot,
Leyo, DASonnenfeld, Dawn Bard, Pinkadelica, PipepBot, DerBorg, Good Olfactory, Angrense, Lightbot, Legobot, Yobot, Sumivec, Bsea,
Lalalalaaaaaa, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Finn Bjrklid, Meclee, IUCN-ELC, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 14
Criteria air contaminants Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criteria_air_contaminants?oldid=655369818 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Beland, Anirvan, JIP, Tlroche, Rjwilmsi, Wsiegmund, SmackBot, Bejnar, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Alaibot, Billtubbs, Inks.LWC,
Freeghter~enwiki, Mattmnelson, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, RMFan1, Chzz, Gnomeselby, FrescoBot, DrilBot, BG19bot, Rrosa3005,
Chasercm, ElleJean, Kleptopigstar, Joeknowsair and Anonymous: 9
Critical load Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_load?oldid=647452989 Contributors: Jnestorius, PirateMink, Wavelength,
RussBot, Saittam, Benshepherd, Tom Morris, SmackBot, Hmains, Colonies Chris, Ben Moore, Jaksmata, ChemNerd, Lamro and Anonymous: 3
Czech Hydrometeorological Institute Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Hydrometeorological_Institute?oldid=676685954
Contributors: Miaow Miaow, Old Moonraker, Wavelength, Benjaminevans82, Mbeychok, Pierre cb, Cydebot, Cloudz679, Inwind, Squids
and Chips, Mtys, Svick, Sun Creator, Iohannes Animosus, Mlas, Addbot, Lightbot, Horaljan, LilHelpa, Strepon, Full-date unlinking
bot and Anonymous: 2
Decipol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decipol?oldid=545021233 Contributors: D6, GregorB, Stephenb, Cydebot, Beax, Stefano
Schiavon, Addbot, Yobot and WikitanvirBot
Diesel exhaust Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_exhaust?oldid=721674524 Contributors: Fred Bauder, Kku, Bkonrad, Anthony Appleyard, Dan100, Pmj, Rjwilmsi, Bgwhite, Raquel Baranow, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Rrburke, Martijn Hoekstra, Derek R
Bullamore, Doodle77, Glynhughes, Electron9, JustAGal, Widefox, Z22, JamesBWatson, Nyttend, Nono64, KudzuVine, DASonnenfeld,
Funandtrvl, Wiae, Andy Dingley, Biscuittin, MaynardClark, Sfan00 IMG, Shaded0, Excirial, SoxBot, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Jacopo Werther,
Ocdnctx, MartinezMD, Legobot, Yobot, Librsh, AnomieBOT, ThaddeusB, Xqbot, Buttons0603, FrescoBot, Dana60Cummins, Trappist
the monk, Now wiki, RjwilmsiBot, Cf. Hay, Noggo, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Niallbh, Elsnthesea, Helpful Pixie Bot, Amp71, Tutelary, Testem, Cyberbot II, Gpennefather, Lophostrix, Saltwolf, Unique Ubiquitous, Dexbot, Pinx, Wuerzele, Tom Prangnell, JohnSHicks,
Monkbot, Eteethan, Stefano993, Hamidoborna, WilliamStephenson, Callumlud98, Stepgp and Anonymous: 51
Dust abatement Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dust_abatement?oldid=699360411 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Combuchan, Bgwhite, NHSavage, SmackBot, OBDM, Nyttend, MrBell, Shoemate78, Erik9bot, JNoworyta and Anonymous: 1
Eects of the car on societies Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effects_of_the_car_on_societies?oldid=720817574 Contributors:
Hajhouse, Frecklefoot, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Sam Francis, Pcb21, Mac, G-Man, Angela, Kingturtle, Smack, Heidimo, Ed Cormany,
Denni, Fuzheado, Wik, Timc, Populus, Moros~enwiki, Lawsonsj, Morven, Sewing, Moncrief, Mirv, Hadal, Anthony, Cecropia, Alan
Liefting, Akadruid, Inter, Monedula, Andris, Beland, Oneiros, Lawnchair, Ukexpat, Jtmendes, Mike Rosoft, D6, Rhobite, Guanabot,
Bender235, CanisRufus, EurekaLott, Coolcaesar, Ian27, Sortior, Viriditas, Foobaz, Cavrdg, Stephen Bain, Mdd, Andrewpmk, Darrelljon,
Velella, Max rspct, Axeman89, Mahanga, Woohookitty, Ae-a, SCEhardt, SDC, Doco, Graham87, Cuchullain, Zzedar, Miq, BorgHunter,
Vgedris, Vegaswikian, Jax-wp, Cs30109, Sharkface217, Bgwhite, Wavelength, RussBot, Peoplesunionpro, Gaius Cornelius, Howcheng,
Comradeash, Nick, PM Poon, TastyCakes, Igin, Chrishmt0423, Etusalikii, SmackBot, Ashley thomas80, AndyZ, Delldot, Commander
Keane bot, Gilliam, Duke Ganote, Bluebot, pa~enwiki, Thisisbossi, Rrburke, The PIPE, Hmoul, G-Bot~enwiki, Flip619, Loodog, 16@r,
Hyeahmfr, Motorworld~enwiki, DabMachine, Iridescent, Peter M Dodge, Phasmatisnox, Pithecanthropus, Benwildeboer, NaBUru38,
Christhebull, Ward3001, Marek69, Electron9, Ufwuct, DanTD, Dfrg.msc, Michael A. White, Futurebird, Tom servo, Mentisto, AntiVandalBot, Chubbles, QuiteUnusual, Zweifel, MER-C, Boleslaw, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Careless hx, Catgut, Giggy, PaulAndrewAnderson,
STBot, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, Fconaway, Midwestmax, Herbythyme, Foober, WFinch, Nothingofwater, Axolotl Nr.733, The Interloafer, Philip Trueman, Flyte35, Pwnage8, Boter, Mr carburettor, Softlavender, Typ932, Screamingman14, Dodo von den Bergen, SheepNotGoats, Android Mouse Bot, Kerksieck, StaticGull, ClueBot, Mariordo, Cambrasa, TheOldJacobite, Timiddriver, Auntof6, DumZiBoT,
NigeriaFelaKuti, XLinkBot, Addbot, Glane23, SpBot, Lightbot, Fraggle81, Playclever, Sapsan~enwiki, Dmarquard, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, E2eamon, LilHelpa, 3family6, BritishWatcher, Samwb123, Laservisor, Kkj11210, OgreBot, HRoestBot, MJ94,
Cnwilliams, Orenburg1, Q Illespont, Reaper Eternal, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, ThisguyYEAH, DHooke1973, EmausBot,
Gobela13, K6ka, Joao.pimentel.ferreira, Andyman1125, Gankin, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Snotbot, Isisshape, O.Koslowski, Widr,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Calabe1992, Marcocapelle, Brad7777, RGloucester, Jonadin93, BattyBot, Comsat41, Khazar2, Lugia2453, SFK2,
Wywin, Epicgenius, Blunter Mercury 6, ThinkerAndDoer, Greedo8, Mkalbrosky, Rubbish computer, Sleet62, Hmandude, Knife-in-thedrawer, Void burn, DrakeQuinn, Ihnjuhnj and Anonymous: 245
Emission standard Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_standard?oldid=720902631 Contributors: BlckKnght, Walter,
Kemkim, Edward, Skysmith, Mac, Mulad, Dale Arnett, RedWolf, Hadal, Alan Liefting, Bobblewik, Chaerani, Gor, Beland, Sfoskett,
Sonett72, DmitryKo, Martins, Sladen, Vsmith, DcoetzeeBot~enwiki, Jensbn, Vortexrealm, Slambo, Mark Lewis, Alansohn, Danthemankhan, Lebite, Crosbiesmith, RHaworth, Xaliqen, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ellenmc, Mitrebox, Dar-Ape, Senna6094, SteveBaker, 121a0012,
RedGreenInBlue, YurikBot, Wavelength, Arado, Rsrikanth05, Dtrebbien, Qviri, Kkmurray, Scheinwerfermann, Johnmwatson, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, NeilN, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Makemi, Lifetime, DMacks, Daniel.Cardenas,
Mion, Lambiam, Gobonobo, Mbeychok, Wizard191, G-W, CmdrObot, Tunertools, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Omicronpersei8, Rosarinagazo,
JustAGal, Philippe, Bjenks, MER-C, RiseOfTheRev01ution, Desertsky85451, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Sarahj2107, Mikelantis, Highlunder, DGG, Tremello, Eumakant, AntiSpamBot, MKoltnow, The Discoverer, Joshua Issac, Ken g6, KudzuVine, Signalhead, PDFbot,
Cremepu222, Jujubeberry, Altermike, Buhin, Typ932, Mackabean, HybridBoy, Midgetman525, PookeyMaster, Nopetro, Black lupin,
Aycan, M2Ys4U, Regushee, Tomdobb, Charliep8, Mikellew, ClueBot, Mariordo, Excirial, Rawr itsnik, Chnt, Jehandz, DumZiBoT, CathCarey, Wensi w, Addbot, Fieldday-sunday, Farmercarlos, Granitethighs, Tide rolls, Atysn, Yobot, Xanxys, Jimboh2000, Materialscientist,
Ado2102, Mr.choppers, No More Mr Nice Guy, Leaveitdear, Shadowjams, PeterEastern, Denzil Simoes, Dac04, Slmsactiwo, Bobby122,
RjwilmsiBot, Chicco3, John of Reading, Dewritech, Jandrewc, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, O.Koslowski, Widr, Northamerica1000,
Alexauto321, W.D., Cyberbot II, Khazar2, Vanamonde93, Coppertop740, YiFeiBot, Fixuture, Cllrctmhe, UglowT, Linesource, CAPTAIN
RAJU, Ontario Teacher BFA BEd, Majora, Er Adil Farooq, Mary Panko and Anonymous: 157
Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emissions_%26_Generation_Resource_
Integrated_Database?oldid=687593114 Contributors: Mac, Ronz, Alan Liefting, Beland, Bobrayner, MassGalactusUniversum, Rjwilmsi,
Wavelength, Arthur Rubin, SmackBot, Hmains, OrphanBot, Jeremyb, Gobonobo, DumbBOT, Alaibot, Qwyrxian, Cander0000, Emeraude,
Hugo999, ImageRemovalBot, Stonelox, M00seo00o, M.boli, DumZiBoT, Dthomsen8, Yobot, Crisbrujis2008, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot,
RaptureBot, Danim, Dobie80, MarissaHoer, Chekura11 and Anonymous: 46

318CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

Environmental impact of aviation Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation?oldid=718032160 Contributors: IceKarma, Raul654, Phil Boswell, UtherSRG, Alan Liefting, Matthew Stannard, Pgan002, Andycjp, Dan aka jack, Nickptar, Rich
Farmbrough, Bender235, Max Naylor, Uncle G, Rtdrury, Bkwillwm, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ahunt, DVdm, Wavelength, Arado, Splette, Gaius
Cornelius, Alarichall, Epipelagic, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Chriswaterguy, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Marc Lacoste, Verne Equinox,
KVDP, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Shalom Yechiel, Ecozeppelin, BrownHairedGirl, John, Vgy7ujm, J 1982, MilborneOne, Peterlewis,
Dl2000, Quartz1, Mctorres, Neelix, DShantz, Cydebot, Wakeyjamie, Rieman 82, Mercury624, Hebrides, Cimbalom, Headbomb, Mmcknight4, D.Wardle, Hydro, OhanaUnited, MaxPont, Indon, A3nm, Gomm, Hans Dunkelberg, Shawn in Montreal, KylieTastic, DASonnenfeld, Funandtrvl, Malik Shabazz, VolkovBot, Johnfos, Imme5150, Insanity Incarnate, Saneeta, Jrun, Flyer22 Reborn, Factotem,
Kpaynter, Msrasnw, Dolphin51, Mrfebruary, BSABill, ClueBot, Watti Renew, Djk3, Nathan Johnson, Addbot, DOI bot, Ronhjones, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Quebec99, MauritsBot, Xqbot, MerlLinkBot, FrescoBot, Menwith,
Brodmont, OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Plane Person, Reelx09, Irt78, Robvanvee, GregKaye, Wiking, John of
Reading, Lorast, Dewritech, Sp33dyphil, Tommy2010, Dcirovic, H3llBot, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Coastwise, O.Koslowski, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Gob Lofa, Denovoid, BG19bot, NewsAndEventsGuy, CeraBot, ChrisGualtieri, MKR125188, Peterbircak, SambarnardODI, Sosthenes12,
Mr Imicplatetarium, Aqualily6, Monkbot, Ziraios, TerryAlex, Izkala, Jamesimo24, Mike4ebooks and Anonymous: 89
Exhaust gas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas?oldid=721692349 Contributors: Mac, Cimon Avaro, Lumos3, Moriori,
Cyrius, Wolfkeeper, MacGyverMagic, Sonett72, Discospinster, Vsmith, Bender235, Janderk, El C, Jag123, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Guaca, Bfriesen, Woohookitty, Deanshan, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Stian, Rmky87, NHSavage, CWenger, SmackBot,
Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Chris the speller, DeFacto, EvelinaB, Acdx, Daniel.Cardenas, Mbeychok, Tim Q. Wells, IronGargoyle, Vindheim, Iridescent, Alexthe5th, NaBUru38, Chrissy385, Thijs!bot, Hazmat2, John254, Kathovo, EdJogg, David Shankbone, Arsenikk,
AniRaptor2001, Cpl Syx, Rderijcke, Toyota prius 2~enwiki, Leyo, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Cobi, Steel1943, VolkovBot, Lamro, Biscuittin,
BotMultichill, Keilana, MaynardClark, M2Ys4U, Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Ariadacapo, Jusdafax, Chaosdruid, Acabashi, Callinus, DumZiBoT, Banhandam, Leonini, Addbot, Ocdnctx, Fieldday-sunday, Eivindbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Tryptosh, Daniele Pugliesi,
Sumivec, Kasaalan, Xqbot, Thegodofbigthings, Gilo1969, Hayden747, Mattis, LucienBOT, RicHard-59, Mutinus, TobeBot, Connelly90,
, Sinophile21992, Ocdncntx, TyA, Lucysadler, ClueBot NG, Widr, BG19bot, Solistide, Writ Keeper, Rowan Adams,
Testem, Epicgenius, Everymorning, Musclewelsh, Prokaryotes, Noyster, Lakun.patra, Monkbot, Lord Laitinen, Sen Mendoza, KasparBot,
Hamidoborna, Yang 1973, The Quixotic Potato, Yash Racha75, ScarszRawr, Rhdzxjtsr and Anonymous: 117
Flue gas Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue_gas?oldid=699636976 Contributors: Edward, Mac, Icairns, Rich Farmbrough,
Vsmith, Velella, Crosbiesmith, OwenX, RHaworth, V8rik, Nells~enwiki, AnthonyA7, Lmatt, Tysto, Wavelength, Sceptre, Ospalh, NHSavage, Chriswaterguy, Mbeychok, CmdrObot, SkonesMickLoud, Robini 99, KylieTastic, Miwanya, Lamro, Puchiko, Fastily, Addbot,
Farmercarlos, Daniele Pugliesi, Chongkian, FrescoBot, Tinton5, ClueBot NG, Platonicmaria, MerlIwBot, Anbu121, Sue Wainwright,
FoCuSandLeArN, Unknownbot1, Yaqui.val and Anonymous: 25
Flue-gas desulfurization Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization?oldid=721946766 Contributors: Radiojon,
Blainster, Tom harrison, Cap601, H Padleckas, Spiy sperry, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Remuel, Vortexrealm, Maurreen, Hooperbloob,
Alansohn, Benjah-bmm27, Gene Nygaard, LePierrotAnguille, Krash, Antiuser, Chris Capoccia, Gaius Cornelius, Neilbeach, Brushes,
Tony1, NHSavage, Petri Krohn, Garion96, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Cadmium, Primacag, BCAttwood, Mion, Jaganath, Mbeychok,
SQGibbon, Mets501, Harold f, Mbell, Uruiamme, The Vindictive, Leuko, Biondos, LorenzoB, Beagel, Leyo, Uncle Dick, MaugansC,
Pterre, Knulclunk, KudzuVine, Pdcook, Tetris L, TheOtherJesse, Melvynitman, Philip Trueman, Someguy1221, Pl-chmielewski, Andy
Dingley, Lamro, SieBot, TX55, ClueBot, LizardJr8, HokiePE, Gnowor, FellGleaming, DaL33T, Addbot, Anrocach, Some jerk on the
Internet, Mazandarany, Tide rolls, Halaster, Luckas-bot, Yngvadottir, Tim J Wright, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Jim1138, AdjustShift,
LilHelpa, Geopersona, Marianne Holmen, MarcosJose, FrescoBot, Chargerz09, Amse12, Reaper Eternal, Envchemprof, Heikkilahammer,
Sponk, ZroBot, Midas02, ClueBot NG, Widr, JohnSRoberts99, Imgaril, Mr. Cheeshead 2345492, Mddkpp, ASME C&S Engineer, Fgkh,
Fluorogrol, Wellmanneredninja, Victorfeltrin and Anonymous: 89
Flue-gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue-gas_emissions_from_fossil-fuel_
combustion?oldid=721947687 Contributors: Blainster, Alan Liefting, GeoGreg, Vortexrealm, Maurreen, Free Bear, Gene Nygaard, Crosbiesmith, RHaworth, Lmatt, Wavelength, Tony1, Ott2, NHSavage, Hu Gadarn, Mbeychok, Dicklyon, Joseph Solis in Australia, Luna Santin,
Robini 99, Altermike, Wizard7~enwiki, TX55, ClueBot, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Citation bot, Nasnema, Gamewizard71, ClueBot
NG, Widr, BattyBot, Johnnch1966, Jtildenook11, Starkdune, Lawzy987, Luy anuran, Xperiaguy and Anonymous: 11
Flue-gas stack Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue-gas_stack?oldid=698201617 Contributors: GTBacchus, Jmabel, Blainster, McDutchie, Wolfkeeper, Markus Kuhn, Circeus, Ypacara, Vortexrealm, Kaganer, RPH, Gene Nygaard, Lmatt, Wavelength, Hairy Dude,
DanMS, Adamrush, Tony1, NHSavage, SmackBot, Melchoir, Srnec, Lcarscad, Anlace, Kuru, Mbeychok, Neelix, Cydebot, Christian75,
Widefox, Mrs Mei, Nposs, Beagel, Black Stripe, RIPSAW1986, Nomad nomad~enwiki, Xenonice, 28bytes, AlleborgoBot, Joost.vp,
Da Joe, Andrewjlockley, Anchor Link Bot, Raoulduke25, Addbot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Ettrig, High Contrast, Citation bot, Oundhakar,
Gamewizard71, BattyBot, Meyer.cm, Xoegki and Anonymous: 23
Fugitive emissions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fugitive_emissions?oldid=624069195 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Rrburke,
Martijn Hoekstra, Billtubbs, TypoBoy, UnCatBot, Addbot, Glane23, Yobot, Alchimista, SD5, Citation bot 1, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot,
Photovac, Monkbot and Anonymous: 3
Gas are Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_flare?oldid=716100371 Contributors: Ryguasu, Andrewa, Gepwiki, BenFrantzDale,
DJSupreme23, Rich Farmbrough, Vortexrealm, Hooperbloob, Sponge, Axeman89, Woohookitty, Tmassey, SeventyThree, Hideyuki, FreplySpang, Carwil, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Petiatil, Ikar.us, Gaius Cornelius, Lekoman, Hrvoje Simic, Emijrp, Arthur Rubin, Abune, SmackBot, Matmota, Bluebot, Tomtefarbror, Ligulembot, Mion, Mbeychok, Makyen, Judgesurreal777, Eastlaw, Walling, Chrisw404, Ishdarian,
AntiVandalBot, The Vindictive, Beagel, Janx Spirit, Autocratique, Naniwako, Father Christmastime, Olinga, Piperh, Charist, McM.bot,
AdRock, Alexgalt, YSSYguy, Traveler100, Scott1588, Unbuttered Parsnip, Jorge Ianis, Alexbot, Muhandes, Vboo-belarus, Environnement2100, Themassoftoe, Apparition11, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Beamathan, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Tpmark, Citation
bot, FrescoBot, Mintbass, Menwith, Reconsider the static, Mohdhamza1989, Lotje, Pushkar.gaikwad, TGCP, John of Reading, Jdkag,
Dewritech, Mmeijeri, Rickray777, Joshua Doubek, MrCleanOut, ClueBot NG, Cntras, CaroleHenson, Morgan Riley, KLBot2, OverFly5,
Puramyun31, 220 of Borg, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, Mari1234~enwiki, 32RB17, Weliyo wiki, Samaberle, Yogeshkarnik, Eclipsoid, Mela
widiawati, Patleviv and Anonymous: 88
Geospatial Measurements of Air Pollution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geospatial_Measurements_of_Air_Pollution?oldid=
595287367 Contributors: Malcolma, Sarahj2107, Philritz1, Azcolvin429, Xqbot and ChrisGualtieri

97.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

319

Global Emissions InitiAtive Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Emissions_InitiAtive?oldid=563955043 Contributors:

Woohookitty, SmackBot, Ksbrown, Akeane, ThisIsAce, Zedla, Addbot, Yobot, R0pe-196, Abcabc11223344abcabc, Northamerica1000
and Anonymous: 1
Haze Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haze?oldid=708730366 Contributors: Earth, Benjaminong, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Masao,
Yosri, Jeroen, Alan Liefting, Christopher Parham, Beland, Kaldari, Huaiwei, Solitude, Andros 1337, Vsmith, Robert P. O'Shea, Thunderbrand, Fir0002, Pjacklam, Woohookitty, Sengkang, Saperaud~enwiki, Hottentot, Ronebofh, Chobot, Bgwhite, Phantom Thief, Cornellrockey, Kummi, YurikBot, Wavelength, Samuel Wiki, Wisekwai, Debroglie, Shaddack, Jaremfan, Y6y6y6, Poopee, Closedmouth,
NHSavage, Josh3580, Little Savage, JoanneB, SpLoT, Burnwelk, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Felix Dance, Gilliam, Bluebot, Bidgee,
TimBentley, Miguel Andrade, Mostlyharmless, Aussie Alchemist, Mbeychok, Minna Sora no Shita, Patau, JDAllan, Pierre cb, Fuzzy510,
H lina k, Daniel Candido~enwiki, Paukrus, Twas Now, Alant, Someformofhuman, Theworldisround, Charliec, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Pajz,
Harvardgraduate1987, Silver Edge, Scepia, Glacierfairy, VoABot II, Gabriel Kielland, Enboifre, DerHexer, MartinBot, Nebud, CommonsDelinker, SiliconDioxide, Bogey97, Hhhwwe, MrBell, NewEnglandYankee, HamatoKameko, Bbik, Perohanych, Sheed1, Templationist, Someguy1221, Viridiavus~enwiki, KyleRGiggs, Ferengi, BotKung, Lamro, Ceranthor, Crash Underride, UbiRazz, Martarius, ClueBot, Ryou-kun16, Stzsi, Godthedj, Accas1, DumZiBoT, BodhisattvaBot, Addbot, Kyle1278, Tide rolls, Quantumobserver, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Sublirony, Mmxx, Xqbot, Ikaria-Tennison, RibotBOT, Chaheel Riens, Dougofborg, FrescoBot, Originalwana, Jah29, Baileymarshall92, Adlerbot, Reconsider the static, Yunshui, Lotje, Callanecc, Mean as custard, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, AlphaPikachu578, Arizonabluntroller, ClueBot NG, Rezabot, Jamie Tubers, Amiraram, Gomalhunzai, David.moreno72, Darekk2, Earth100, Wenezzar, Ballhead2,
Graphium, The Anonymouse, Tentinator, NYBrook098, Quenhitran, Jarrett Doss Maria, Haris13588, FluyArmy, Santasays, Buggiehuggie, Yomichuu and Anonymous: 110
1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985_Helsinki_Protocol_on_
the_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions?oldid=604077342 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Dori, Paul A, Docu, William M. Connolley, Wik,
Topbanana, Alan Liefting, Jonel, Rich Farmbrough, Triona, Graham87, Choess, YurikBot, Irishguy, Eastlaw, Cydebot, Noobhunter89,
Good Olfactory, Addbot, Coasting and Anonymous: 7
1-Hydroxypyrene Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Hydroxypyrene?oldid=717735728 Contributors: Edgar181, Everymorning,
WildCation and Caftaric
Hypermobility (travel) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypermobility_(travel)?oldid=696435723 Contributors: Bender235,
BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Wragge, Ahunt, Goatchurch, Teratornis, Englishman in Provence, Pharaoh of the Wizards, DadaNeem, Funandtrvl,
TXiKiBoT, Addbot, Keepcalmandcarryon, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, FrescoBot, Full-date unlinking bot, RjwilmsiBot, Jbwhitmore,
Dewritech, GoingBatty, Duboka909, Coastwise, CopperSquare, Helpful Pixie Bot, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Seppi333 and Anonymous:
14
HYSPLIT Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HYSPLIT?oldid=717633206 Contributors: Bearcat, Jayjg, CorenSearchBot, Stzsi, RevelationDirect and BG19bot
Indoor air pollution in developing nations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_pollution_in_developing_nations?oldid=
697622392 Contributors: The Anome, Edward, Alan Liefting, Beland, Tabletop, Rjwilmsi, Old Moonraker, Nihiltres, Wavelength, Nikkimaria, SmackBot, Hmains, RDBrown, Brimba, Fotoguzzi, Dl2000, Gralo, Nono64, Hnc14, Belovedfreak, DASonnenfeld, Johnfos,
Werd814, Fourjustice9, Puchiko, Techfast50, LeeAnn0923, Yobot, Kilom691, Citation bot, J04n, FrescoBot, Preventpneumo, Citation
bot 1, Clemifornia, Deriqu, Zollerriia, Snotbot, BattyBot, ESengineer, Monkbot, Demoniccathandler, Sahil12 sahil and Anonymous: 11
Indoor air quality Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_air_quality?oldid=718705861 Contributors: Timo Honkasalo, The
Anome, Olivier, Edward, JohnOwens, Dante Alighieri, Menchi, CesarB, Kingturtle, Hankwang, Khashmi316, Pengo, Alan Liefting,
Michael Devore, Bobblewik, Golbez, Beland, Dreamtheater, Neutrality, Philip lamb, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Phssthpok, CanisRufus, Femto, Arcadian, Alansohn, Kurieeto, Cromwellt, Shoey, TVBZ28, Gene Nygaard, Dennis Bratland, Njk, Stemonitis, Rjwilmsi,
BBerryhill, Lockley, Vegaswikian, StephanieM, Ground Zero, Old Moonraker, WriterHound, Wavelength, Samuel Wiki, Arjuna909,
Rada, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, TheGreenHerring, Dugosz, NHSavage, Veinor, SmackBot, Edgar181, Gilliam, RDBrown, George
Church, Uthbrian, Nick Levine, VMS Mosaic, Deeb, SundarBot, Pissant, Anlace, Copeland.James.H, Jim Derby, Gobonobo, JorisvS,
Patau, Waggers, TastyPoutine, David Bangs, Hu12, CmdrObot, Requestion, Gogo Dodo, MichaelS82, Calvero JP, Repliedthemockturtle,
Jobber, Gralo, StuartB, Randall00, Catsmoke, Wallsts, Darklilac, UDLL, The Vindictive, Ikanreed, Magioladitis, Pedro, WhatamIdoing, JaGa, MartinBot, Das5018, FactsAndFigures, Mikael Hggstrm, Anonywiki, Plasticup, Halrhp, Burzmali, Jmhunter, JavierMC,
DASonnenfeld, Vranak, Barbaracarder, Jmrowland, Templationist, Someguy1221, Czajko, Cyberwriter, Freeghter~enwiki, Lamro,
Robertreyes, MrChupon, Stevo850, Tomfy, Iamrichard, Toddst1, Neutralhomer, Richjb16, Gsumarji, FlamingSilmaril, Erik Bolin, Devilchaser, Mookie25, Kyledotson, ImperfectlyInformed, Valerielgreen, VQuakr, Tisdalepardi, Stefano Schiavon, MentaikoMayo, Manfred
Kaiser, Carriearchdale, Cantabrigian2, Praays, SoxBot III, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Tuktusong, Closca Tercera, MystBot, Purier123,
Kbdankbot, Addbot, Download, Xenobot, P2env, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Alchimista, Kilom691, Aboalbiss, KamikazeBot, Worksafe, Katietara, AnomieBOT, Mbains, WiscEditor, Materialscientist, R.Oppl, Jtamad, Transity, Danielstoner, Stuartestrand, Rb88guy, Crescent77,
Hehejessy, FrescoBot, Gregniemeyer, Clemifornia, Pinethicket, Billcapricorn, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Felipekovacic, Jesimpki,
WikitanvirBot, Prsjain, Hypocaustic, IndoorAir, Trahana22, Fionna21, Noggo, Forever Dusk, ClueBot NG, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot,
BG19bot, Djmix75, HereticBleach, Pano38, BattyBot, Hlevin6, ~riley, Layzeeboi, EuroCarGT, Peterirga, Bluebirday, Azita Goldman, Polentarion, George8211, CarbonWHO, Monkbot, ChristaJocelyn, Netcomposites.james, Jamesbondjnr, KH-1, Air purifacation technologies
llc, Danmacphee, Inquinamentoindoor, Dr Micko, Ortan111, Awenthomas, Ronine310 and Anonymous: 163
Indoor bioaerosol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_bioaerosol?oldid=636704625 Contributors: Stevertigo, Nihiltres, Wavelength, Malcolma, Dv82matt, SmackBot, Z22, Katharineamy, WereSpielChequers, Yobot, Billcapricorn, John of Reading, Jochen
Burghardt, Medmyco and Vieque
Indoor Environmental Quality Global Alliance Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_Environmental_Quality_Global_
Alliance?oldid=702384911 Contributors: Yobot, AnomieBOT, BG19bot, M.Kapsalaki, WikiWisePowder and NeemNarduni2
International Union of Air Pollution Prevention and Environmental Protection Associations Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
International_Union_of_Air_Pollution_Prevention_and_Environmental_Protection_Associations?oldid=720951600 Contributors: Wavelength, Sct72, Midas02, BG19bot, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Everymorning, Acad1989, JJMC89 and Anonymous: 1
Line source Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_source?oldid=707273905 Contributors: Heron, Sdedeo, Graeme Bartlett, Harriv,
Eleland, Woohookitty, Rnt20, Bensin, Wavelength, Melchoir, Anlace, Mbeychok, Drg85, Cydebot, Quibik, Sagar apte2005, JustAGal,
Pixel ;-), Almadenbu, RetypePassword, Jtir, Inwind, Oahiyeel, ClueBot, Yobot, Amaury, Tim.chatterton, Greg Dahlen and Anonymous:
3

320CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

Liquid-to-gas ratio Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid-to-gas_ratio?oldid=606631045 Contributors: Lmatt, Reyk, Mion, Mbeychok, The Vindictive, KudzuVine, Mild Bill Hiccup, Daniele Pugliesi, DrilBot and Anonymous: 2
List of most polluted cities in the world by particulate matter concentration Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_
most_polluted_cities_in_the_world_by_particulate_matter_concentration?oldid=720006634 Contributors: Ganeshk, BD2412, UkPaolo,
Mareklug, Attilios, Colonies Chris, Biruitorul, MikeLynch, Jufa.junaid, Archon 2488, Nedim Ardoa, Zanhe, Schwede66, Northamerica1000, Xwejnusgozo, DPL bot and Anonymous: 3
Low-carbon emission Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-carbon_emission?oldid=711637271 Contributors: Alan Liefting,
Woohookitty, BD2412, Wavelength, SmackBot, Gobonobo, Cydebot, MER-C, R'n'B, Altermike, Mariordo, Jehandz, DumZiBoT, Nasnema, Menwith, ClueBot NG, BG19bot and Anonymous: 3
Low-emission zone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-emission_zone?oldid=721236296 Contributors: Mac, Kaihsu, Psychonaut,
Alan Liefting, Alexf, MRSC, Reinthal, JIP, KX675, Wavelength, Stephenb, ReddyRose, Black Falcon, SmackBot, Hu Gadarn, Derek R
Bullamore, Regan123, AxG, Cnbrb, Hebrides, Deipnosophista, Thearsenalofmegadeth, JAnDbot, Frankie816, Gabriel Kielland, MartinBot, Tholly, Guruhamboy, DavidB601, Shawn in Montreal, Philaweb, BuzzWoof, Billinghurst, Smsarmad, Nopetro, Lowattboy, Myoungman, Mariordo, PixelBot, QWERTY121974, Trevbennett, Potasche, Addbot, Yobot, Fmrauch, Timothyhouse1, AnomieBOT, Sumivec,
ArthurBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Mean as custard, MrFawwaz, ZH2010, Philemon7, Nudecline, Nakkiputka, Lucysadler, Diamondland,
BaboneCar, Helpful Pixie Bot, Northamerica1000, Cyberbot II, Urbana regula and Anonymous: 28
Mist Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mist?oldid=714209313 Contributors: AstroNomer, Patrick, Ixfd64, Susan Mason, Glenn,
Scott, Warofdreams, Robbot, Pbryan, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Solipsist, Tangerine Cossack, Decoy, Andycjp, Beland, OrangUtanUK, Vsmith,
Fir0002, Elipongo, Kjkolb, Helix84, Alansohn, Anthony Appleyard, Pjacklam, Hohum, Itsmine, Gene Nygaard, HenryLi, Tabletop,
BD2412, Saperaud~enwiki, Rjwilmsi, Margosbot~enwiki, JYOuyang, Celestianpower, Chobot, Kummi, CambridgeBayWeather, Herbertxu, RattleMan, Bloodofox, Zephyrkage22, Dbrs, YolanCh, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Ian Fieggen, ArielGold, Yvwv, SmackBot,
Vontafeijos, Salvor, Dustimagic, TheKMan, Giancarlo Rossi, J 1982, This user has left wikipedia, Peterlewis, Patau, 16@r, Pianoman057,
Runningonbrains, Green caterpillar, MarsRover, WeggeBot, Danrok, A876, Zachary, Moon&Nature, Escarbot, Afaz, VoABot II, Cadsuane
Melaidhrin, Soulbot, Enboifre, Numbo3, Piercetheorganist, Benjamint444, Binliner4, Tbone762, Idioma-bot, Salcey, CanOfWorms,
Museerouge, Madhero88, Operating, Bluedenim, SieBot, Mikaka, Antonio Lopez, Fratrep, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Hafspajen, ChandlerMapBot, DragonBot, XLinkBot, Roxy the dog, Fede.Campana, Ost316, Vianello, Addbot, Tide rolls, Teles, DrFO.Tn.Bot,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Xqbot, 216Kleopatra, Pien021796, Abuk SABUK, HamburgerRadio, AwesomeHersh, TobeBot, Tbhotch, Mean as custard, Alph Bot, Eekerz, Ashton 29, Katherine, Prabinepali, Pranab bhandari,
Delboy118, Smile1999, RockMagnetist, ClueBot NG, The Master of Mayhem, Lead holder, Snaevar-bot, Hampcat, Bolatbek, Clairelyo, MatthewLaw1, Jesus is King of Kings, TheNorlo, Gts-tg, LardydarGunnerGraham, Vincius94, Jonesco87, TheMagikCow, Berenice
Curro, Thatsux, Transvalaa, Gwfe and Anonymous: 79
Mitigation of aviation's environmental impact Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitigation_of_aviation'{}s_environmental_
impact?oldid=715816933 Contributors: Ewen, Alan Liefting, Vadmium, Je3000, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ahunt, Kakurady, Wavelength, Arthur Rubin, NHSavage, Redlegsfan21, Iridescent, Cydebot, Shawn in Montreal, DASonnenfeld, Lamro, Ariadacapo, Yobot,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Quebec99, Nirmos, Plane Person, Trappist the monk, Trilliumz, Sp33dyphil, Coastwise, 220 of Borg, Zackmann08, BattyBot, Cyberbot II, SomeFreakOnTheInternet, Monkbot and Anonymous: 6
Mobile source air pollution Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_source_air_pollution?oldid=720794885 Contributors: Edward,
Andrewman327, Bearcat, Woohookitty, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, Wavelength, Melchoir, Gilliam, Bejnar, RomanSpa, Cydebot,
Z22, R'n'B, Kotabatubara, Lightbot, FrescoBot, Phearson, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Sross (Public Policy), Swgarg, Enveconmatt,
EnvEcon11, BG19bot, Arcandam, TwoMartiniTuesday, Monkbot, Canonc and Anonymous: 8
Multi-eect Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-effect_Protocol?oldid=712929070 Contributors: Tpbradbury, Alan
Liefting, BD2412, George Burgess, CambridgeBayWeather, Anomalocaris, NHSavage, Hu Gadarn, Cydebot, IndieRect, WereSpielChequers, Good Olfactory, Yobot, E258, BG19bot, Cyberbot II, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 5
National Air Pollution Symposium Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Air_Pollution_Symposium?oldid=644524223 Contributors: Wavelength, GoodDay, Disavian, Funandtrvl and American Money
National Ambient Air Quality Objectives Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Objectives?oldid=
650728078 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Hu Gadarn, Inks.LWC, Gabriel Kielland, Download, Yobot, Brightgalrs, TheCascadian and
Stamptrader
New car smell Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_car_smell?oldid=719961195 Contributors: Lousyd, Julesd, Samw, Owen, Securiger, Cholling, Auric, PBP, MikeCapone, Rpyle731, Intelligentsia, Quarl, Andy Smith, Quietly, Sfahey, El C, BDD, Axeman89, Alvis,
Deltabeignet, Ligulem, Yuletide, Hibana, Bhny, Gaius Cornelius, Shaddack, SEWilcoBot, Emc2, Bernd in Japan, That Guy, From That
Show!, SmackBot, Herostratus, CMD Beaker, Gilliam, Jprg1966, Jgrabbs, Tamfang, Fuhghettaboutit, Smokefoot, Infratec, Microchip08,
UncleDouggie, Winston Spencer, CmdrObot, NaBUru38, Rieman 82, Epbr123, Canadian-Bacon, PacicBoy, Dulciana, STBot, J.delanoy,
Gahunt, MGerety, Baraka2356, Mr. PIM, Stevo850, Flyer22 Reborn, ImageRemovalBot, WikiSkeptic, Timberframe, Trivialist, Themassoftoe, Rayman1030, MelonBot, Schumi4ever, XLinkBot, Addbot, Fieldday-sunday, Yobot, AaRH, Full-date unlinking bot, H3llBot,
Gz33, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Hmainsbot1, Professorclee, Scoob5555, Jaanwy, Cmvillalon, Lachyderm, Ryan layn and Anonymous: 66
NIOSH air ltration rating Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating?oldid=704377396 Contributors: Rathfelder, Doseiai2, PC-XT and Zpeopleheart
Nitrogen Oxide Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_Oxide_Protocol?oldid=692134148 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Menchi, Dori, Paul A, Docu, Big Bob the Finder, Alan Liefting, Jonel, Eastlaw, Cydebot, Monobi, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Mattis,
Full-date unlinking bot, ClueBot NG, ArmbrustBot, Joshkino15 and Anonymous: 5
Norwegian Institute for Air Research Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_Institute_for_Air_Research?oldid=681824623
Contributors: Stone, Netpilot43556, TommyG, Pearle, Geschichte, Allen3, DrTorstenHenning, CalJW, Sherool, YurikBot, SmackBot,
Benjaminevans82, Mbeychok, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Arsenikk, HYPERION, The Anomebot2, D-rew, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Tikiwont, Inwind,
Mtys, Rkarlsba, CohesionBot, Danmichaelo, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Panasiuk, Citation bot, EmausBot, GoingBatty,
Finn Bjrklid, Northamerica1000, Tumkir and Anonymous: 5
Nowcast (Air Quality Index) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowcast_(Air_Quality_Index)?oldid=719831713 Contributors: Spartaz, Stzsi, Sdrevik, GoingBatty, Cyberbot I, Mogism, Jim Carter, Oiyarbepsy and Cult of Green

97.3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

321

Presidential Climate Action Plan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Climate_Action_Plan?oldid=701492676 Contributors: DragonySixtyseven, Vsmith, D.Holt, Ground Zero, Bgwhite, Pseudomonas, Neelix, Lfstevens, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior,
Wilhelmina Will, Stalwart111, Josve05a, ServiceAT, Barney the barney barney, Mogism, Truexper, Fbryce, Prokaryotes, Acyd101,
Ashok.Mehta.31122, Avelpa, Lokoturkey1, Philnation, Ctrlshiftq and Anonymous: 2
Organic molecular tracers Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_molecular_tracers?oldid=678992599 Contributors: Topbanana, Neutrality, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Wavelength, SmackBot, Yobot, Tea with toast, RjwilmsiBot, DexDor, Venustas 12,
Bouldair, Monkbot and Anonymous: 1
1994 Oslo Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994_Oslo_Protocol_on_
Further_Reduction_of_Sulphur_Emissions?oldid=643835113 Contributors: Cydebot, Good Olfactory and ArmbrustBot
Ozone Action Day Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_Action_Day?oldid=711850708 Contributors: KarlHallowell,
Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Wavelength, Tvtonightokc, Caballero1967, SmackBot, Mpbhide, Chasingsol, JaGa, Kevindh71, W5WMW,
Maralia, Wkharrisjr, Addbot, Yobot, Starryeyedhaze, FrescoBot, Coltsfan443, Ripchip Bot, Meltdown627, BG19bot, Izzy3232, Cyberbot
II, ChrisGualtieri and Anonymous: 10
Particulates Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particulates?oldid=719653437 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, CORNELIUSSEON, Skysmith, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Andrewa, Julesd, Raven in Orbit, Charles Matthews, Dcoetzee, Dino, Maximus Rex,
Dragons ight, Topbanana, Robbot, RedWolf, RossA, Paul Murray, Alan Liefting, Graeme Bartlett, Fudoreaper, Tom harrison, Michael
Devore, Bobblewik, Utcursch, Andycjp, Beland, PDH, Karol Langner, Sonett72, MementoVivere, Spiy sperry, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith,
Hhielscher, Bender235, RoyBoy, Bobo192, Circeus, Cmdrjameson, R. S. Shaw, Vortexrealm, Darwinek, Sam Korn, Ranveig, Alansohn,
Anthony Appleyard, Greba, Dschwen, Lebite, Gene Nygaard, IJzeren Jan, Dan100, Stemonitis, Pol098, Lensovet, BD2412, Plau, Grammarbot, Rjwilmsi, XP1, StephanieM, Ffaarr, Kolbasz, David Haberlah, Chobot, Ahpook, Cactus.man, Gwernol, Algebraist, YurikBot,
Wavelength, Samuel Wiki, RussBot, Gerfriedc, DanMS, Manop, CambridgeBayWeather, Shaddack, Lavenderbunny, 7innity, Jpbowen,
Epipelagic, Kkmurray, Maelgwn, Ameyabapat, NHSavage, QmunkE, Curpsbot-unicodify, Poulpy, Kungfuadam, Dfa881, Mardus, Luk,
SmackBot, Roger Davies, TestPilot, Hu Gadarn, Kintetsubualo, Edgar181, Ralphybaby, Carboxen~enwiki, Kleinzach, SchftyThree,
Baronnet, Xchbla423, Onceler, Tsca.bot, Deeb, Tercom, Akriasas, Saxonyking~enwiki, Claush66, Mwtoews, Daniel.Cardenas, Aussie
Alchemist, Mbeychok, 16@r, Beetstra, SmokeyJoe, ChazYork, Iridescent, BryanFrazar, CapitalR, JForget, Ollie, Rowellcf, Chrissy385,
Cydebot, Citizen P, Oosoom, Frostlion, Paddles, Billtubbs, PamD, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Cimbalom, G. C. Hood, Sanpete Slim, Tapir Terric, Hannesb, Widefox, Postlewaight, Tishers, JAnDbot, Inks.LWC, B.S. Lawrence, Kerotan, Dekimasu, Twsx, Froid, Lionsh0, Tailsfan2, DerHexer, Oderbolz, MartinBot, Pruthvi.Vallabh, CommonsDelinker, Marenco, Nono64, RockMFR, Hans Dunkelberg, Katalaveno,
Birdbrainscan, Sd31415, Alterrabe, Steel1943, C.Boewe, The Phantom of Wikipedia, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Templationist, Mieszko
the rst, Cbass94, Ryanmoet, TheoBAZEN, Foolboy007~enwiki, Frees, Lamro, Falcon8765, SieBot, Andrewjlockley, Flyer22 Reborn,
Cville roger, Iameukarya, Lightmouse, Correogsk, Adamskj, Yaluen, Capitalismojo, Anchor Link Bot, Bogwhistle, ImageRemovalBot,
Ocdcntx, Twinsday, ClueBot, PipepBot, Pakaraki, Der Golem, Doseiai2, HUB, Place Clichy, Jontw, MindstormsKid, Excirial, Alexbot,
Stzsi, Erebus Morgaine, SchreiberBike, Jarheadc, Versus22, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Nathan Johnson, Ziggy Sawdust, Addbot, DOI bot,
Cwdegier, Ocdnctx, MartinezMD, Chamal N, CUSENZA Mario, Farmercarlos, LinkFA-Bot, Culmensis, Tide rolls, OlEnglish, Fryedpeach, Yobot, Legobot II, Kittyhawk2, AnomieBOT, Archon 2488, Jim1138, IRP, Citation bot, W.stanovsky, Bijanorama, Ikaria-Tennison,
Updatewise, Shadowjams, AthiyurArul, Who then was a gentleman?, FrescoBot, Paisiello2, Menwith, Tommyang, Proepro, Kwiki, Citation bot 1, Citation bot 4, Pinethicket, LittleWink, Vesnastojanova, Tinton5, Hamtechperson, Whoistrm, MondalorBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Reconsider the static, AerosolScience, Trappist the monk, Chris Caven, Dinamik-bot, Skmacksler, Nancyhere, Necktweaker,
Dewritech, GoingBatty, RA0808, Hhhippo, Jandrewc, H3llBot, AManWithNoPlan, Wayne Slam, Ocdncntx, Wordsforthewise, DASHBotAV, Berberisb, Lejyby, ClueBot NG, Bignips94, Imtiazdanny, WikiPuppies, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, KD888, Bibcode Bot, Tom1674, BG19bot, Jambalp, ChessBOT, Joydeep, Hamish59, BattyBot, Maschowski, Testem, Cyberbot II, Jackdre, Illia Connell, Dark Silver
Crow, BrightStarSky, Dinkfamily, Dexbot, Boston9, JZNIOSH, Cerabot~enwiki, Niallrobinson, Surya warman, Airtake, Qaubt2g5bgv,
Wuerzele, Rybec, OdentheGray, Szqecs, YiFeiBot, Tritario, Mevagiss, Skr15081997, Ads540, Massyparcer, Monkbot, LollyBear12, BatManFascination, JaunJimenez, Lychen08, YJAX, Lawson123, InfoDataMonger, Maths314, Flonde, Hamidoborna, J.hammy13, Muzithebunny, Mikl198405, Thomasnetrpm, Liechtenstein96 and Anonymous: 249
Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partnership_for_a_New_Generation_of_Vehicles?
oldid=678690975 Contributors: Interiot, Rjwilmsi, Rawja, Skierpage, RussBot, Malcolma, Closedmouth, Volksdaven, Bluebot, SailorfromNH, Lambiam, Endeavor51, Phl3djo, Skyemoor, Faizhaider, Jmajeremy, Altermike, Superiorzurich, Rockndakota, Navwikiadroit,
Yobot, Traveler376, LilHelpa, Atarivideomusic and Anonymous: 7
Passive smoking Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_smoking?oldid=710414083 Contributors: Taw, Ed Poor, R Lowry, Bdesham, Gabbe, Cherkash, Lukobe, Raul654, Wetman, Lumos3, RickBeton, Moriori, Gak, Bobunf, Nach0king, Matt Gies, DocWatson42,
Nmg20, Brian Kendig, Chameleon, Christopherlin, SoWhy, Andycjp, Beland, MacGyverMagic, Mozzerati, Bk0, Goh wz, Neutrality,
Jh51681, Karl Dickman, Mike Rosoft, Spiy sperry, Jkl, Rich Farmbrough, Alistair1978, Bender235, Sten, RoyBoy, SS451, Giraedata, Mareino, Alansohn, Plumbago, John Quiggin, Runtime, Tony Sidaway, RainbowOfLight, Henry W. Schmitt, Tainter, LukeSurl,
OleMaster, Simetrical, OwenX, Woohookitty, Zelse81, Grika, Waldir, Harkenbane, Jdcooper, Rjwilmsi, XP1, MZMcBride, Ligulem,
Brighterorange, Ground Zero, Nihiltres, RexNL, Jrtayloriv, Diza, Bgwhite, Therefore, YurikBot, Wavelength, RussBot, Okedem, Gaius
Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, NawlinWiki, DarkPhoenix, RattleMan, Holycharly, Nephron, Scs, RattBoy, Nate1481, Bota47, Tuckerresearch, FF2010, 2over0, Rathfelder, Jonathan.s.kt, Carlosguitar, Maxamegalon2000, That Guy, From That Show!, SmackBot, Joltman,
Unschool, Moeron, KnowledgeOfSelf, Gigs, Ramdrake, Lifebaka, Antrophica, Farcast, HalfShadow, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Mickeyklein,
Chris the speller, Mnbf9rca, Bluebot, Audacity, RDBrown, Lordkazan, Master of Puppets, Raymond arritt, Miquonranger03, Uthbrian,
Sadads, CSWarren, DHN-bot~enwiki, Colonies Chris, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, SpinyNorman, TheKMan, Calbaer, MartinRobinson,
Downtown dan seattle, EVula, Dreadstar, Ment al, Welshy, Mystaker1, Dnavarro, Ohconfucius, Angela26, Nishkid64, AThing, Anlace,
JzG, Gleng, Surfsupusa, Bwabes, Cxk271, Waggers, Blintz, Thedukeofno, QuilaBird, Nehrams2020, Shoeofdeath, Newone, Scarrig, RekishiEJ, Ewulp, Crash2108, JayHenry, Tawkerbot2, Aristotle1990, Mikeyfaces, CalebNoble, Devourer09, Hittman6, Ban.wma, Pro-Lick,
Makeemlighter, Ninetyone, Sudont, Green caterpillar, Mac4Eva, Mhenneberry, RockyMtnGuy, ONUnicorn, Stevejones, AndrewHowse,
Steel, Roberta F., DumbBOT, Paddles, Zalgo, Pustelnik, Gimmetrow, PamD, Thijs!bot, King Bee, Technogeek44, Headbomb, Marek69,
James086, Vwjr, Big Bird, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, SummerPhD, A.M.962, Kauczuk, Ingolfson, Darrenhusted,
John Jacob Jingleheimer Schmid, JAnDbot, MER-C, Ph.eyes, Vidal.dewit, Repku, Smokincheap, Glediz, VoABot II, MastCell, Nyttend,
202wbiblioteca, Cgingold, MetsBot, Adrian J. Hunter, Vaultdoor, DerHexer, Smokeresearcher, Tuviya, Yobol, MartinBot, Mermaid from
the Baltic Sea, Crickel, Djma12, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Alec - U.K., UBeR, Numbo3, TyrS, Uncle Dick, Gzkn, Awesomesaucesome, McSly,
Athene cunicularia, Mikael Hggstrm, Coppertwig, Pyrospirit, Dessources, Cometstyles, HiEv, Bonadea, Peruilken, Rosenkreuz, RayJohnstone, Jrugordon, Deor, Leopold B. Stotch, Thenthornthing, FriendlyDalek, TXiKiBoT, George14~enwiki, Sean D Martin, Someguy1221,

322CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

BlowingSmoke, Steven J. Anderson, Yilloslime, Moderation, PDFbot, Wp4all, Madhero88, Chris9086, Falcon8765, Falconclaw5000,
Pbergen1, Tjmailzone`, LetTheSunshineIn, Doc James, AcetylcholineAgonist, Oliepedia, AtreemFromVenus, PokeYourHeadO, HankRichards, Mocu, Dickhodgin, Ponyo, Funkamatic, Jauerback, Getthefacts, Rollerjim, Tataryn, LeadSongDog, Catlover77, Grundle2600,
RucasHost, Editore99, Airhogs777, Chido6d, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Mike2vil, NamelessMoron, Escape Orbit, Tripod86, ClueBot,
Cotton10, Mild Bill Hiccup, SuperHamster, Hawaii808t, Dragon of the Rust, Whoscience, Hystrix, Somno, Ktr101, Jusdafax, Scman3,
Mongoose64, Cledus99, Razorame, Wrenem, AnjaManix, AHRtbA==, Anon126, Apparition11, Oore, Rcpdavies1939, Fastily, Cross
porpoises, ChyranandChloe, Dtpeck, Anturiaethwr, Zodon, Kbdankbot, Addbot, C6541, DOI bot, Nestorius, Fluernutter, Devrit, NjardarBot, Jilliankmar, Download, Zak1995pak, Uncia, SamatBot, Pvisi111, Dayewalker, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Librsh,
Ojay123, Kilom691, BeBoldInEdits, Rockdowner, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Killiondude, IRP, Soxwon, Citation bot, GnawnBot, Zad68,
Hello557, Chrsdbrg, Anna Frodesiak, Srich32977, LVAustrian, JanDeFietser, Xasodfuih, Wilsonchas, Kylelovesyou, Baina90, Hsharif324,
Smallman12q, Ajax151, Shadowjams, The myoclonic jerk, SonofFeanor, BlueSingularity, Pcpoliceman, Dead Mary, FrescoBot, Santacruz885, Grbergs Gra Sng, Alpha-beta, YOKOTA Kuniteru, FruityLoop2011, Kyra123, Weetoddid, Citation bot 1, Liberalfox, Arctic Night, Abductive, NappyJohnson, Russandol, LindzenFan, MeUser42, Baltshazzar, Trappist the monk, Suusion of Yellow, Darkthlayli, Tbhotch, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Aikakkaa, Volcomlovver, Corregere, John of Reading, Evgenior, Winterstoke1, Lilt2,
Sengleani, Jstasu01, Neun-x, Hypocaustic, Ezerhusen, Anthonia11, H3llBot, AManWithNoPlan, Jesanj, Brandmeister, ThePowerofX, TyphusBlack, Smace05, Zuky79, ClueBot NG, Mbarbero12, Cal49, Marinna, Dietcherrycola, Reify-tech, SannySingh, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Schnget, BernieW650, Ymblanter, Haddy1, TheMan4000, Je.rrt, Mk2z0h, Pwdob, MeanMotherJr, BattyBot, Biosthmors, Cyberbot II,
Ssscienccce, JZNIOSH, ProfessorTofty, CoeeWithMarkets, Ozzie10aaaa, Everymorning, Monkbot, Master90chief, Ice ax1940ice pick,
Emily Temple-Wood (NIOSH), KasparBot and Anonymous: 424
Photoinitiator Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoinitiator?oldid=693471820 Contributors: Theshadow27, SmackBot, Edgar181,
Squidonius, ChemNerd, Philip Trueman, Addbot, KamikazeBot, Materialscientist, Pkornbl2, John of Reading, GermanJoe, Emma438,
Wenwenwudi, Cyberbot II, Drpareshshel, Ligonauer and Anonymous: 3
Pollen count Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollen_count?oldid=712573816 Contributors: Egil, Bobrayner, Pekinensis, Vegaswikian, Wjfox2005, EncycloPetey, Bluebot, Patau, Doug Weller, Alaibot, Phil.Free, Yewlongbow, VanBuren, SieBot, Pcirrus~enwiki,
Beantwo, Addbot, DrilBot, Fulleraaron, Arr4 and Anonymous: 19
Pollutant Standards Index Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutant_Standards_Index?oldid=709920607 Contributors: EmphasisMine, Tpbradbury, OwenBlacker, Huaiwei, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Adam850, Kurieeto, B3virq3b, Gordeonbleu, Arif-is-wise, Chensiyuan, Srikrishnak, NHSavage, Jellysho, Bejnar, Dl2000, Ouishoebean, Banedon, Optimist on the run, Chacor, BeefRendang, Jikbusai, Angelajean, DASonnenfeld, Fireblaster lyz, Hellclanner, Flyer22 Reborn, Huggi, Maralia, JTSchreiber, Rockfang, Addbot, Boomur,
Chrisnel, Lightbot, Legobot, Fraggle81, Bbb23, Capricorn42, Sellyme, CheekyDreamer, Vernhart, , Daregems, Seo27, EmausBot, John of Reading, Oliverlyc, Yenwei, Gemsdare, Widr, BG19bot, Aqhiguy, MusikAnimal, Pratalife, Combuskenkoh, JYBot, RectorRocks, Graphium, Uuu100145j, Creamyhorror, Tinkpanlost, Thelegoers, Itemsmono, Luc85, Twinklejet, Muhdnorisham, PlatinumSnake7, Hazepm2.5, Letonchanh, Kimwonjun0118, Jpgs33, Silvarmitsty, Xavierang2002, Lyang48 and Anonymous: 65
POP Air Pollution Protocol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POP_Air_Pollution_Protocol?oldid=643835848 Contributors: Bryan
Derksen, Dori, Paul A, Docu, Alan Liefting, Jonel, Rich Farmbrough, Wavelength, AndrewRT, Mbeychok, Eastlaw, Cydebot, PamD, Good
Olfactory, John of Reading, Xcution48, ArmbrustBot and Anonymous: 4
Portable optical air sensor Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_optical_air_sensor?oldid=715729586 Contributors: Kkmurray, Josve05a, BG19bot, Ian (Wiki Ed), Chris.sumner12 and Ocialjjones
Ramboll Environ Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramboll_Environ?oldid=706780234 Contributors: Bearcat, Ukexpat, LukeSurl,
DESiegel, Bgwhite, RadioFan, Claush66, DGG, ImageRemovalBot, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, BG19bot, ArticlesForCreationBot, EricEnfermero, ChrisGualtieri, APerson, Anne Delong, ChurchillTKU, Caswivel, Dellaquinta and Anonymous: 5
RIMPUFF Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIMPUFF?oldid=674770279 Contributors: Benjaminevans82, Mbeychok, Cydebot, Inwind, Torben Krogh Mikkelsen~enwiki, Mirtillo2, Leo, PDC, Lotje, BG19bot, BattyBot and Anonymous: 1
Roadway air dispersion modeling Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadway_air_dispersion_modeling?oldid=674770608 Contributors: Paul A, Mac, Alan Liefting, Neutrality, Vsmith, Ruyn, Circeus, Woohookitty, Natcase, Al E., Rjwilmsi, Ligulem, Ground Zero,
Wavelength, Samuel Wiki, TheGrappler, Closedmouth, NHSavage, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Rschen7754bot, Anlace, Mbeychok,
Rundquist, Patau, Acha11, Covalent, CmdrObot, ShelfSkewed, Safalra, Cydebot, Faithandreason, Uruiamme, Rmsuperstar99, MERC, NE2, Inwind, Squids and Chips, Andrewlim1, Alla tedesca, Addbot, Yobot, Citation bot, Plumpurple, FrescoBot, MarkGT, TjBot,
Braincricket, Candleabracadabra, BattyBot, Cornelleerl, SoledadKabocha and Anonymous: 30
Rolling coal Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_coal?oldid=721574974 Contributors: Kku, Delirium, Beefman, Deathawk,
Hektor, Corporal, Graham87, Wavelength, Rsrikanth05, NeilN, Victorgrigas, GRuban, Aspade, Gobonobo, Sk5893, Richard416282,
Ahecht, Olly150, Mdf3530, Niceguyedc, Mindlurker, Yobot, Pinethicket, Keri, ClueBot NG, Delusion23, BG19bot, Everymorning, Epaulf,
Smhusa2014, 16belll, Rodom1975 and Anonymous: 18
Sick building syndrome Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sick_building_syndrome?oldid=719494312 Contributors: Gabbe, Ronz,
Andres, MichaK, Furrykef, Paul W, Pigsonthewing, BenFrantzDale, Jfdwol, Intelligentsia, Joyous!, Rich Farmbrough, Selphie, Alistair1978, Violetriga, El C, Themarcuscreature, Viriditas, AtomicDragon, Amontero, Slambo, PaulHanson, Gerweck, Plumbago, Velella,
Danhash, Jan Pospil, RJFJR, TVBZ28, Bonus Onus, Apokrif, GregorB, SCEhardt, Patman, Graham87, Kdar, Kbdank71, RadioActive~enwiki, Nightscream, Lockley, Seraphimblade, SchuminWeb, Wisedog, Stoive, Wavelength, DMahalko, Fabartus, Intershark,
Gregzeng, Tevildo, Rathfelder, NiTenIchiRyu, ChemGardener, SmackBot, Fredvanner, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Zaytran, Jim
Derby, Lue3378, W.p.dean, Jxb311, Mr. Vernon, Meco, Waggers, Wizard191, Sadalmelik, Abeg92, Anthonyhcole, JFreeman, Strom,
Doug Weller, Lsell@duke.edu, Repliedthemockturtle, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Gralo, Ecolibria, Leon7, Fairbro123, WinBot, JAnDbot, Albany NY, LittleOldMe, Dulciana, WhatamIdoing, Cecilkorik, Djma12, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Evb-wiki, Halrhp, Inwind, Netsite, Deor,
Stoppay, Technopat, Agyle, Xphill64x, Stevo850, SieBot, SerenaP, Gprince007, Wilson44691, Oxymoron83, Nuttycoconut, Lightmouse,
DragonZero, Choogler, ClueBot, Alexbot, Socrates2008, BBAustralia, Crimsonashes1, Iohannes Animosus, Tnxman307, Escientist, MystBot, Addbot, Earthhealer1, Lightbot, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, Yobot, .seVer!Ty^-, Jabberwockgee, Xqbot, Zad68, Krstmxd, Backspacekey,
Pinethicket, Grammarspellchecker, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, Boleroinferno, Uglyshingles, ErinNik, DASHBotAV, Blackmane, ClueBot NG, ClaretAsh, Frietjes, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Nen, Olibray, Tony Tan, Snow Blizzard, ,
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324CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

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328CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

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330CHAPTER 97. WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE AND VIBRATION) CONVENTION, 1977

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Case
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TastyCakes (talk)
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Contributors: Sony Cyber-shot DCS-P93 Original artist: Geierunited

97.3.3

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