How do I convert lens mm to optical zoom times?

What is the rule to convert the 'mm' notation to the 'optical zoom' notation? I
searched a bit and found this one:
up vote 18 down
optical zoom = maximum focal length / minimum focal length
vote favorite
3

For example a 18-55mm lens would have a 3x optical zoom, and a 18200mm lens would have a 11x optical zoom. Is that right?
lens zoom focal-length

UNDERSTANDING CAMERA LENSES

Understanding camera lenses can help add more creative control to digital photography.
Choosing the right lens for the task can become a complex trade-off between cost, size, weight,
lens speed and image quality. This tutorial aims to improve understanding by providing an
introductory overview of concepts relating to image quality, focal length, perspective, prime vs.
zoom lenses and aperture or f-number.

LENS ELEMENTS & IMAGE QUALITY

All but the simplest cameras contain lenses which are actually comprised of several "lens
elements." Each of these elements directs the path of light rays to recreate the image as
accurately as possible on the digital sensor. The goal is to minimize aberrations, while still
utilizing the fewest and least expensive elements.

Optical aberrations occur when points in the image do not translate back onto single points after
passing through the lens causing image blurring, reduced contrast or misalignment of colors
(chromatic aberration). Lenses may also suffer from uneven, radially decreasing image
brightness (vignetting) or distortion. Move your mouse over each of the options below to see
how these can impact image quality in extreme cases:

Original Image

Loss of Contrast
Chromatic Aberration
Vignetting

Blurring
Distortion
Original

Any of the above problems is present to some degree with any lens. In the rest of this tutorial,
when a lens is referred to as having lower optical quality than another lens, this is
manifested as some combination of the above artifacts. Some of these lens artifacts may not
be as objectionable as others, depending on the subject matter.

Note: For a more quantitative and technical discussion of the above topic, please see the
tutorial on camera lens quality: MTF, resolution & contrast.

INFLUENCE OF LENS FOCAL LENGTH

The focal length of a lens determines its angle of view, and thus also how much the subject will
be magnified for a given photographic position. Wide angle lenses have short focal lengths,
while telephoto lenses have longer corresponding focal lengths.

Note: The location where light rays cross is not necessarily equal to the focal length,
as shown above, but is instead roughly proportional to this distance.

Required Focal Length Calculator

Subject Distance
36

meters
Subject Size
2

meters
Camera Type
Digital SLR with CF of 1.6X
Required Focal Length:
400.5 mm

Note: Calculator assumes that camera is oriented such that the maximum
subject dimension given by "subject size" is in the camera's longest dimension.
Calculator not intended for use in extreme macro photography.

Many will say that focal length also determines the perspective of an image, but strictly
speaking, perspective only changes with one's location relative to their subject. If one tries to fill
the frame with the same subjects using both a wide angle and telephoto lens, then perspective
does indeed change, because one is forced to move closer or further from their subject. For these
scenarios only, the wide angle lens exaggerates or stretches perspective, whereas the telephoto
lens compresses or flattens perspective.

Perspective control can be a powerful compositional tool in photography, and often

determines one's choice in focal length (when one can photograph from any position). Move
your mouse over the above image to view an exaggerated perspective due to a wider angle lens.
Note how the subjects within the frame remain nearly identical therefore requiring a closer
position for the wider angle lens. The relative sizes of objects change such that the distant
doorway becomes smaller relative to the nearby lamps.
The following table provides an overview of what focal lengths are required to be considered a
wide angle or telephoto lens, in addition to their typical uses. Please note that focal lengths listed
are just rough ranges, and actual uses may vary considerably; many use telephoto lenses in
distant landscapes to compress perspective, for example.
Lens Focal Length*
Less than 21 mm
21-35 mm
35-70 mm
70-135 mm
135-300+ mm

Terminology
Extreme Wide Angle
Wide Angle
Normal
Medium Telephoto
Telephoto

Typical Photography
Architecture
Landscape
Street & Documentary
Portraiture
Sports, Bird & Wildlife

*Note: Lens focal lengths are for 35 mm equivalent cameras. If you have a compact or digital
SLR camera, then you likely have a different sensor size. To adjust the above numbers for your
camera, please use the focal length converter in the tutorial on digital camera sensor sizes.
Other factors may also be influenced by lens focal length. Telephoto lenses are more susceptible
to camera shake since small hand movements become magnified, similar to the shakiness
experience while trying to look through binoculars. Wide angle lenses are generally more
resistant to flare, in part because the designers assume that the sun is more likely to be within the

frame. A final consideration is that medium and telephoto lenses generally yield better optical
quality for similar price ranges.

FOCAL LENGTH & HANDHELD PHOTOS

The focal length of a lens may also have a significant impact on how easy it is to achieve a sharp
handheld photograph. Longer focal lengths require shorter exposure times to minimize
blurring caused by shaky hands. Think of this as if one were trying to hold a laser pointer
steady; when shining this pointer at a nearby object its bright spot ordinarily jumps around less
than for objects further away.

This is primarily because slight rotational vibrations are magnified greatly with distance,
whereas if only up and down or side to side vibrations were present, the laser's bright spot would
not change with distance.

A common rule of thumb for estimating how fast the exposure needs to be for a given focal
length is the one over focal length rule. This states that for a 35 mm camera, the exposure time
needs to be at least as fast as one over the focal length in seconds. In other words, when using a
200 mm focal length on a 35 mm camera, the exposure time needs to be at least 1/200 seconds
otherwise blurring may be hard to avoid. See the tutorial on reducing camera shake with
hand-held photos for more on this topic.
Keep in mind that this rule is just for rough guidance; some may be able to hand hold a shot for
much longer or shorter times. For users of digital cameras with cropped sensors, one needs to
convert into a 35 mm equivalent focal length.

ZOOM LENSES vs. PRIME LENSES

A zoom lens is one where the photographer can vary the focal length within a pre-defined range,
whereas this cannot be changed with a "prime" or fixed focal length lens. The primary advantage
of a zoom lens is that it is easier to achieve a variety of compositions or perspectives (since lens
changes are not necessary). This advantage is often critical for dynamic subject matter, such as in
photojournalism and children's photography.

Keep in mind that using a zoom lens does not necessarily mean that one no longer has to
change their position; zooms just increase flexibility. In the example below, the original
position is shown along with two alternatives using a zoom lens. If a prime lens were used, then
a change of composition would not have been possible without cropping the image (if a tighter
composition were desirable). Similar to the example in the previous section, the change of
perspective was achieved by zooming out and getting closer to the subject. Alternatively, to
achieve the opposite perspective effect, one could have zoomed in and moved further from the
subject.

Two Options Available with a Zoom Lens:

Change of Composition

Change of Perspective

Why would one intentionally restrict their options by using a prime lens?Prime lenses existed
long before zoom lenses were available, and still offer many advantages over their more modern
counterparts. When zoom lenses first arrived on the market, one often had to be willing to
sacrifice a significant amount of optical quality. However, more recent high-end zoom lenses
generally do not produce noticeably lower image quality, unless scrutinized by the trained eye
(or in a very large print).
The primary advantages of prime lenses are in cost, weight and speed. An inexpensive prime
lens can generally provide as good (or better) image quality as a high-end zoom lens.
Additionally, if only a small fraction of the focal length range is necessary for a zoom lens, then
a prime lens with a similar focal length will be significantly smaller and lighter. Finally, the best
prime lenses almost always offer better light-gathering ability (larger maximum aperture) than
the fastest zoom lenses often critical for low-light sports/theater photography, and when a
shallow depth of field is necessary.
For compact digital cameras, lenses listed with a 3X, 4X, etc. zoom designation refer to the ratio
between the longest and shortest focal lengths. Therefore, a larger zoom designation does not
necessarily mean that the image can be magnified any more (since that zoom may just have a
wider angle of view when fully zoomed out). Additionally, digital zoom is not the same as
optical zoom, as the former only enlarges the image through interpolation. Read the fine-print to
ensure you are not misled.

INFLUENCE OF LENS APERTURE OR F-NUMBER

The aperture range of a lens refers to the amount that the lens can open up or close down to let in
more or less light, respectively. Apertures are listed in terms of f-numbers, which quantitatively
describe relative light-gathering area (depicted below).

Note: Aperture opening (iris) is rarely a perfect circle,

due to the presence of 5-8 blade-like lens diaphragms.
Note that larger aperture openings are defined to have lower f-numbers (often very confusing).
These two terms are often mistakenly interchanged; the rest of this tutorial refers to lenses in
terms of their aperture size. Lenses with larger apertures are also described as being
"faster," because for a given ISO speed, the shutter speed can be made faster for the same
exposure. Additionally, a smaller aperture means that objects can be in focus over a wider range
of distance, a concept also termed the depth of field.
f-#
Higher
Lower

Corresponding Impact on Other Properties:

Light-Gathering Area
Required Shutter Speed
(Aperture Size)
Smaller
Slower
Larger
Faster

Depth of Field
Wider
Narrower

When one is considering purchasing a lens, specifications ordinarily list the maximum (and
maybe minimum) available apertures. Lenses with a greater range of aperture settings provide
greater artistic flexibility, in terms of both exposure options and depth of field. The maximum
aperture is perhaps the most important lens aperture specification, which is often listed on the
box along with focal length(s).

An f-number of X may also be displayed as 1:X (instead of f/X), as shown below for the Canon
70-200 f/2.8 lens (whose box is also shown above and lists f/2.8).

Portrait and indoor sports/theater photography often requires lenses with very large maximum
apertures, in order to be capable of a narrower depth of field or a faster shutter speed,
respectively. The narrow depth of field in a portrait helps isolate the subject from their
background. For digital SLR cameras, lenses with larger maximum apertures provide
significantly brighter viewfinder images possibly critical for night and low-light
photography. These also often give faster and more accurate auto-focusing in low-light.
Manual focusing is also easier because the image in the viewfinder has a narrower depth of
field (thus making it more visible when objects come into or out of focus).
Typical Maximum
Apertures

Relative LightGathering Ability

Typical Lens Types

f/1.0

32X

Fastest Available Prime Lenses

(for Consumer Use)

f/1.4
f/2.0

16X
8X

Fast Prime Lenses

f/2.8

4X

f/4.0
f/5.6

2X
1X

Fastest Zoom Lenses

(for Constant Aperture)
Light Weight Zoom Lenses or
Extreme Telephoto Primes

Minimum apertures for lenses are generally nowhere near as important as maximum apertures.
This is primarily because the minimum apertures are rarely used due to photo blurring from lens
diffraction, and because these may require prohibitively long exposure times. For cases where
extreme depth of field is desired, then smaller minimum aperture (larger maximum f-number)
lenses allow for a wider depth of field.

Finally, some zoom lenses on digital SLR and compact digital cameras often list a range of
maximum aperture, because this may depend on how far one has zoomed in or out. These
aperture ranges therefore refer only to the range of maximum aperture, not overall range. A range
of f/2.0-3.0 would mean that the maximum available aperture gradually changes from f/2.0 (fully

zoomed out) to f/3.0 (at full zoom). The primary benefit of having a zoom lens with a constant
maximum aperture is that exposure settings are more predictable, regardless of focal length.
Also note that just because the maximum aperture of a lens may not be used, this does not
necessarily mean that this lens is not necessary. Lenses typically have fewer aberrations when
they perform the exposure stopped down one or two f-stops from their maximum aperture
(such as using a setting of f/4.0 on a lens with a maximum aperture of f/2.0). This *may*
therefore mean that if one wanted the best quality f/2.8 photograph, a f/2.0 or f/1.4 lens may
yield higher quality than a lens with a maximum aperture of f/2.8.
Other considerations include cost, size and weight. Lenses with larger maximum apertures are
typically much heavier, larger and more expensive. Size/weight may be critical for wildlife,
hiking and travel photography because all of these often utilize heavier lenses, or require
carrying equipment for extended periods of time.

IMAGE TYPES: JPEG & TIFF FILES

Knowing which image type to use ensures you can make the most of your digital photographs.
Some image types are best for getting an optimal balance of quality and file size when storing
your photos, while other image types enable you to more easily recover from a bad photograph.
Countless image formats exist and new ones are always being added; in this section we will
focus on options related to the two of the three formats most relevant to digital photography:
JPEG and TIFF. The RAW file format is covered in a separate tutorial.
INTRO: IMAGE COMPRESSION

An important concept which distinguishes many image types is whether they are compressed.
Compressed files are significantly smaller than their uncompressed counterparts, and fall into
two general categories: "lossy" and "lossless." Lossless compression ensures that all image
information is preserved, even if the file size is a bit larger as a result. Lossy compression, by
contrast, can create file sizes that are significantly smaller, but achieves this by selectively
discarding image data. The resulting compressed file is therefore no longer identical to the
original. Visible differences between these compressed files and their original are termed
"compression artifacts."
JPEG FILE FORMAT

JPEG stands for "Joint Photographic Expert Group" and, as its name suggests, was specifically
developed for storing photographic images. It has also become a standard format for storing
images in digital cameras and displaying photographic images on internet web pages. JPEG files
are significantly smaller than those saved as TIFF, however this comes at a cost since JPEG
employs lossy compression. A great thing about JPEG files is their flexibility. The JPEG file
fomat is really a toolkit of options whose settings can be altered to fit the needs of each image.
JPEG files achieve a smaller file size by compressing the image in a way that retains detail
which matters most, while discarding details deemed to be less visually impactful. JPEG does
this by taking advantage of the fact that the human eye notices slight differences in brightness
more than slight differences in color. The amount of compression achieved is therefore highly
dependent on the image content; images with high noise levels or lots of detail will not be as
easily compressed, whereas images with smooth skies and little texture will compress very well.

Image with Fine Detail

(Less Effective JPEG Compression)

Image without Fine Detail

(More Effective JPEG Compression)

It is also helpful to get a visual intuition for how varying degrees of compression impact the
quality of your image. At 100%, you will barely notice any difference between the compressed
and uncompressed image below, if at all. Notice how the JPEG algorithm prioritizes prominent
high-contrast edges at the expense of more subtle textures. As the compression quality decreases,
the JPEG algorithm is forced to sacrifice the quality of more and more visually prominant
textures in order to continue decreasing the file size.

Choose Compression Quality: 100% 80% 60% 30% 10%

200%

Zoom

Original Image

Compressed Image

TIFF FILE FORMAT

TIFF stands for "Tagged Image File Format" and is a standard in the printing and publishing
industry. TIFF files are significantly larger than their JPEG counterparts, and can be either
uncompressed or compressed using lossless compression. Unlike JPEG, TIFF files can have a bit
depth of either 16-bits per channel or 8-bits per channel, and multiple layered images can be
stored in a single TIFF file.
TIFF files are an excellent option for archiving intermediate files which you may edit later, since
it introduces no compression artifacts. Many cameras have an option to create images as TIFF
files, but these can consume excessive space compared to the same JPEG file. If your camera
supports the RAW file format this is a superior alternative, since these are significantly smaller
and can retain even more information about your image.
USEFUL TIPS

Only save an image using a lossy compression once all other image editing
has been completed, since many image manipulations can amplify
compression artifacts.

Avoid compressing a file multiple times, since compression artifacts may

accumulate and progressively degrade the image. For such cases, the JPEG
algorithm will also produce larger and larger files at the same compression
level.

Ensure that image noise levels are as low as possible, since this will produce
dramatically smaller JPEG files.

CAMERA SHUTTER SPEED

A camera's shutter speed can control exposure, but it's also one of the most powerful creative
tools in photography. It can convey motion, freeze action, isolate subjects and smooth water,
amongst other abilities. This tutorial describes how to achieve these various effects, in addition
to hopefully stimulating other creative ideas for using shutter speed in everyday shots. For a
background on how it factors into exposure, also see camera exposure: aperture, ISO and shutter
speed.

Slow Shutter Speed

Fast Shutter Speed

Photos on left and right by creativity103 (spinning top) and kyle may (light bulb), respectively.

BACKGROUND
A camera's shutter is like a curtain* that opens and lets in light to start the exposure, then closes
to end it. A photo therefore doesn't just capture a moment in time, but instead represents an
average of light over a timeframe. The term "shutter speed" is used to describe this duration.
Whenever a scene contains moving subjects, the choice of shutter speed therefore determines
which of these will appear frozen and which will be recorded with a blur. However, one cannot

change the shutter speed in isolation at least not without also affecting the exposure or image
quality:

Faster Shutter Speeds:

Slower Shutter Speeds:

Camera Settings
ISO Speed
f-number
ISO Speed
f-number

Adverse Side Effects

image noise
depth of field
hand-holdability
sharpness**

**only if the f-number increases so much that it causes visible diffraction

The above combinations of ISO speed and f-number (aperture) enable an amazingly broad range
of selectable shutter speeds. Regardless of the combination, more light enables faster maximum
shutter speeds, whereas less light permits slower minimum shutter speeds.
For a given exposure, SLR cameras also typically have a much greater range of selectable shutter
speeds than compact cameras. For example, this range is roughly 13-14 stops (or 10,000X) with
most SLR cameras, but often just 8-9 stops (or 500X) with compact cameras. See the tutorial on
compact vs digital SLR cameras for more on this topic.
*Technical Note: At very short exposure times (typically 1/500 a second or faster) the shutter
mechanism works more like a moving slit than a curtain. In that case, the shutter speed instead
represents the amount of time that each region of the sensor is exposed to light, not the duration
over which light reaches the entire sensor.

CONVEYING MOTION
While some might see still photography as restricting, many instead see this as liberating,
because still capture enables nearly full control over how motion is conveyed. For instance,
should the subject be rendered as an unrecognizable streak, or as a more defined blur? Or should
the subject remain sharp, with everything else blurred? These and other choices are all under
your control.

Photos on left and right by alan cleaver and tyler durden, respectively.
However, achieving the intended amount of blur can be difficult. For a given shutter speed,
three* subject traits determine how blurred they will appear:

Speed. Subjects which are moving faster will appear more blurred. This one is perhaps
the most obvious of the three, but just as important.

Direction of Motion. Subjects which are moving towards or away from the camera
usually won't become as blurred as those moving side to side even if both subjects are
moving at the same speed.

Magnification. A given subject will appear more blurred if they occupy a greater fraction
of your image frame. This is perhaps the least obvious, but is also the one which is most
under your control, since subject magnification is the combined effect of focal length and
subject distance. Longer focal lengths (more zoom) result in more magnification for a
given subject distance, but this also increases the likelihood of blur due to camera shake.

*Although not a subject trait, the display size may also be important. Blur which appears optimal
in a small size on-screen may appear too pronounced in a large print, for example.

Shutter
Speed:

1/2

1/10

1/30

1/400

Regardless, developing an intuition for shutter speed under different scenarios can be difficult,
but with plenty of experimentation you'll be well on your way.
A specific but common application of using shutter speed to convey motion is with moving
water. Shutter speeds of around 1/2 a second or longer can make waterfalls appear silky, or
waves look like a surreal, low-lying mist.
Move your mouse over the various shutter speeds to the right to see this effect. Note how
freezing the motion of splashing water required a shutter speed of 1/400 of a second. Since this is
a wide angle photo, a shorter shutter speed could have achieved a similar look if one were
instead zoomed into just a portion of the waterfall.
One can also use a slow shutter speed to emphasize a stationary subject amongst movement, such
as a person standing still amongst a bustling crowd. Similarly, unique portraits can be achieved
using moving trains as a background when the shutter speed is as slow as about 1/10 to 1/2 a
second:

1.3 seconds

1/3 second
Photos on left and right by nathanhayag and moriza, respectively.

CAMERA EXPOSURE

A photograph's exposure determines how light or dark an image will appear when it's been
captured by your camera. Believe it or not, this is determined by just three camera settings:
aperture, ISO and shutter speed (the "exposure triangle"). Mastering their use is an essential part
of developing an intuition for photography.
UNDERSTANDING EXPOSURE

Achieving the correct exposure is a lot like collecting rain in a bucket. While the rate of rainfall
is uncontrollable, three factors remain under your control: the bucket's width, the duration you
leave it in the rain, and the quantity of rain you want to collect. You just need to ensure you don't
collect too little ("underexposed"), but that you also don't collect too much ("overexposed"). The
key is that there are many different combinations of width, time and quantity that will achieve
this. For example, for the same quantity of water, you can get away with less time in the rain if
you pick a bucket that's really wide. Alternatively, for the same duration left in the rain, a really
narrow bucket can be used as long as you plan on getting by with less water.
In photography, the exposure settings of aperture, shutter speed and ISO speed are analogous to
the width, time and quantity discussed above. Furthermore, just as the rate of rainfall was beyond
your control above, so too is natural light for a photographer.
EXPOSURE TRIANGLE: APERTURE, ISO & SHUTTER SPEED

Each setting controls exposure differently:

Aperture: controls the area over which light can enter your camera
Shutter speed: controls the duration of the exposure
ISO speed: controls the sensitivity of your camera's sensor to a given amount of light
One can therefore use many combinations of the above three settings to achieve the same
exposure. The key, however, is knowing which trade-offs to make, since each setting also
influences other image properties. For example, aperture affects depth of field, shutter speed
affects motion blur and ISO speed affects image noise.
The next few sections will describe how each setting is specified, what it looks like, and how a
given camera exposure mode affects their combination.
SHUTTER SPEED

A camera's shutter determines when the camera sensor will be open or closed to incoming light
from the camera lens. The shutter speed specifically refers to how long this light is permitted to
enter the camera. "Shutter speed" and "exposure time" refer to the same concept, where a faster
shutter speed means a shorter exposure time.
By the Numbers. Shutter speed's influence on exposure is perhaps the simplest of the three
camera settings: it correlates exactly 1:1 with the amount of light entering the camera. For
example, when the exposure time doubles the amount of light entering the camera doubles. It's
also the setting that has the widest range of possibilities:
Shutter Speed

Typical Examples

1 - 30+ seconds

Specialty night and low-light photos on a tripod

2 - 1/2 second

To add a silky look to flowing water

Landscape photos on a tripod for enhanced depth of field

1/2 to 1/30 second

To add motion blur to the background of a moving subject

Carefully taken hand-held photos with stabilization

1/50 - 1/100 second

Typical hand-held photos without substantial zoom

1/250 - 1/500 second

To freeze everyday sports/action subject movement

Hand-held photos with substantial zoom (telephoto lens)

1/1000 - 1/4000 second To freeze extremely fast, up-close subject motion

How it Appears. Shutter speed is a powerful tool for freezing or exaggerating the appearance of
motion:

Slow Shutter Speed

Fast Shutter Speed

With waterfalls and other creative shots, motion blur is sometimes desirable, but for most other
shots this is avoided. Therefore all one usually cares about with shutter speed is whether it results
in a sharp photo either by freezing movement or because the shot can be taken hand-held
without camera shake.
How do you know which shutter speed will provide a sharp hand-held shot? With digital
cameras, the best way to find out is to just experiment and look at the results on your camera's
rear LCD screen (at full zoom). If a properly focused photo comes out blurred, then you'll
usually need to either increase the shutter speed, keep your hands steadier or use a camera tripod.
For more on this topic, see the tutorial on Using Camera Shutter Speed Creatively.
APERTURE SETTING

A camera's aperture setting controls the area over which light can pass through your camera lens.
It is specified in terms an f-stop value, which can at times be counterintuitive, because the area of
the opening increases as the f-stop decreases. In photographer slang, when someone says they
are "stopping down" or "opening up" their lens, they are referring to increasing and decreasing
the f-stop value, respectively.

By the Numbers. Every time the f-stop value halves, the light-collecting area quadruples.
There's a formula for this, but most photographers just memorize the f-stop numbers that
correspond to each doubling/halving of light:
Aperture Setting Relative Light

Example Shutter Speed

f/22

1X

16 seconds

f/16

2X

8 seconds

f/11

4X

4 seconds

f/8.0

8X

2 seconds

f/5.6

16X

1 second

f/4.0

32X

1/2 second

f/2.8

64X

1/4 second

f/2.0

128X

1/8 second

f/1.4

256X

1/15 second

The above aperture and shutter speed combinations all result in the same exposure.
Note: Shutter speed values are not always possible in increments of exactly double or half
another shutter speed, but they're always close enough that the difference is negligible.
The above f-stop numbers are all standard options in any camera, although most also allow finer
adjustments, such as f/3.2 and f/6.3. The range of values may also vary from camera to camera
(or lens to lens). For example, a compact camera might have an available range of f/2.8 to f/8.0,
whereas a digital SLR camera might have a range of f/1.4 to f/32 with a portrait lens. A narrow
aperture range usually isn't a big problem, but a greater range does provide for more creative
flexibility.
Technical Note: With many lenses, their light-gathering ability is also affected by their
transmission efficiency, although this is almost always much less of a factor than aperture. It's
also beyond the photographer's control. Differences in transmision efficiency are typically more
pronounced with extreme zoom ranges. For example, Canon's 24-105 mm f/4L IS lens gathers
perhaps ~10-40% less light at f/4 than Canon's similar 24-70 mm f/2.8L lens at f/4 (depending on
the focal length).
How it Appears. A camera's aperture setting is what determines a photo's depth of field (the
range of distance over which objects appear in sharp focus). Lower f-stop values correlate with a
shallower depth of field:

Wide Aperture
f/2.0 - low f-stop number
shallow depth of field

Narrow Aperture
f/16 - high f-stop number
large depth of field
ISO SPEED

The ISO speed determines how sensitive the camera is to incoming light. Similar to shutter
speed, it also correlates 1:1 with how much the exposure increases or decreases. However, unlike
aperture and shutter speed, a lower ISO speed is almost always desirable, since higher ISO
speeds dramatically increase image noise. As a result, ISO speed is usually only increased from
its minimum value if the desired aperture and shutter speed aren't otherwise obtainable.

Low ISO Speed

(low image noise)

High ISO Speed

(high image noise)

note: image noise is also known as "film grain" in traditional film photography
Common ISO speeds include 100, 200, 400 and 800, although many cameras also permit lower
or higher values. With compact cameras, an ISO speed in the range of 50-200 generally produces
acceptably low image noise, whereas with digital SLR cameras, a range of 50-800 (or higher) is
often acceptable.
CAMERA EXPOSURE MODES

Most digital cameras have one of the following standardized exposure modes: Auto ( ),
Program (P), Aperture Priority (Av), Shutter Priority (Tv), Manual (M) and Bulb (B) mode. Av,
Tv, and M are often called "creative modes" or "auto exposure (AE) modes."
Each of these modes influences how aperture, ISO and shutter speed are chosen for a given
exposure. Some modes attempt to pick all three values for you, whereas others let you specify
one setting and the camera picks the other two (if possible). The following charts describe how
each mode pertains to exposure:
Exposure Mode
Auto (

Program (P)

How It Works
Camera automatically selects all exposure settings.
Camera automatically selects aperture & shutter speed; you
can choose a corresponding ISO speed & exposure
compensation. With some cameras, P can also act as a hybrid
of the Av & Tv modes.

Aperture Priority You specify the aperture & ISO; the camera's metering

(Av or A)

determines the corresponding shutter speed.

Shutter Priority (Tv You specify the shutter speed & ISO; the camera's metering
or S)
determines the corresponding aperture.
Manual (M)

You specify the aperture, ISO and shutter speed regardless

of whether these values lead to a correct exposure.

Bulb (B)

Useful for exposures longer than 30 seconds. You specify the

aperture and ISO; the shutter speed is determined by a
remote release switch, or by the duration until you press the
shutter button a second time.

In addition, the camera may also have several pre-set modes; the most common include
landscape, portrait, sports and night mode. The symbols used for each mode vary slightly from
camera to camera, but will likely appear similar to those below:
Exposure
Mode
Portrait

Landscape

How It Works
Camera tries to pick the lowest f-stop value possible for a given
exposure. This ensures the shallowest possible depth of field.
Camera tries to pick a high f-stop to ensure a large depth of field.
Compact cameras also often set their focus distance to distant
objects or infinity.

Camera tries to achieve as fast a shutter speed as possible for a

given exposure ideally 1/250 seconds or faster. In addition to
Sports/Action
using a low f-stop, the fast shutter speed is usually achieved by
increasing the ISO speed more than would otherwise be acceptable
in portrait mode.

Night/Lowlight

Camera permits shutter speeds which are longer than ordinarily

allowed for hand-held shots, and increases the ISO speed to near its
maximum available value. However, for some cameras this setting
means that a flash is used for the foreground, and a long shutter
speed and high ISO are used expose the background. Check your
camera's instruction manual for any unique characteristics.

However, keep in mind that most of the above settings rely on the camera's metering system in
order to know what's a proper exposure. For tricky subject matter, metering can often be fooled,
so it's a good idea to also be aware of when it might go awry, and what you can do to compensate
for such exposure errors (see section on exposure compensation within the camera metering
tutorial).

Finally, some of the above modes may also control camera settings which are unrelated to
exposure, although this varies from camera to camera. Such additional settings might include the
autofocus points, metering mode and autofocus modes, amongst others.
Want to learn more? Discuss this and other articles in our digital photography forums.

MOVING WITH THE SUBJECT & PANNING

Instead of blurring the subject, one could instead render everything else blurred. This requires the
camera to either be located on the moving subject itself, or aimed in such a way that the image
frame moves with the subject (called "panning").

shutter speed: 15 seconds; photo by dande chiaro

Try taking a photo from a moving car, an amusement park ride (be safe!), or another moving
object to create an interesting effect. As before, the required shutter speed will depend on the
speed of motion, potentially in addition to the stability of the moving object. Regardless,
somewhere around 1/30 of a second is often a good starting point, then adjust accordingly after
viewing the results on your camera's rear screen.

panning photo at 1/45 sec and 110 mm

Alternatively, the panning technique doesn't necessarily mean that the camera itself has to travel
at the same speed as the subject just that the image frame has to move this fast. Fortunately,
even fast subjects can be captured by slowly pivoting the camera, especially if this subject is far
away and you're using a telephoto lens.
Make sure to aim so that your image frame smoothly follows your subject, while also pressing
the shutter button all in one continuous motion.

A successful panning shot requires a shutter speed which is just slow enough to cause the
background to streak, but just fast enough that the subject still appears sharp. This can be
tricky to achieve, so the key with panning is to experiment and take many more shots than you
would otherwise. Regardless, longer streaks produce a much more dramatic effect; using an
image-stabilized lens that has one-axis* stabilization, or a tripod with a pan-tilt head can help
you achieve this.
In addition, panning requires a textured background that isn't completely out of focus. Subject
backgrounds which are closer will also appear to streak more for a given shutter speed and
panning rate.
*Lens Panning Mode. This is called "mode 2" IS on canon lenses; nikon lenses with vibration
reduction (VR) automatically switch to panning mode when the lens motion is in one direction.
An added benefit is that panning permits slower shutter speeds than would otherwise be needed
to capture a sharp subject. For example, available light might only permit a shutter speed of 1/50

second which might be insufficient to render a particular moving subject as sharp with a
standard shot but with panning, this shutter speed might be fast enough to make the subject
appear sharp.

FREEZING FAST ACTION & HIGH-SPEED MOTION

High speed photography is capable of new and exciting representations of subjects in motion, in
part because we are incapable of seeing and processing movements which are much faster than a
running person. Examples include water droplets, birds in flight and moments in sports, amongst
many others.

photo by lazlo
However, capturing fast-moving subjects can also be challenging. The key is to learn to
anticipate when your subject will be in the desired position, since shutter speeds shorter than
1/5th of a second are faster than our own reaction time. Simply reacting and pressing the shutter
button will likely miss the moment.
To make matters worse, many cameras also impart a delay between when the shutter button is
pressed and the exposure begins (called "shutter lag"). With SLR cameras this is often just 1/10
to 1/20 of a second, but with compact cameras this can be as high as 1/2 a second. However,
these times exclude the additional 1/2 to 1 second (or more) that it can take your camera to
autofocus. Pre-focusing on or near your expected subject location can therefore greatly
reduce shutter lag.
Sharp high speed photos also require one to be attentive to variations in subject motion, and to
potentially time the shot to coincide with a relative pause in the action. For example, with
jumping or racing subjects, try to time your shot for when they're at their highest point or are
changing directions (and are thus moving the slowest). Even with proper timing, one might also
need to set their camera to continuous shot mode (or similarly named setting). The camera can
then take a burst of shots while you hold down the shutter button and hopefully capture just
the right moment with one of these.

In any case, knowing the necessary shutter speed also takes practice. The following calculator
estimates the minimum shutter speed needed to make a moving subject appear sharp in an
8x10 inch print:

Shutter Speed Calculator

show advanced
Camera Settings
Digital SLR with CF of 1.6X
Lens Focal Length

mm
85

Subject Distance
100

ft
Subject Speed
8

mph
in side to side direction
Minimum Shutter Speed:
1/500 sec

Notes: CF = "crop factor" (commonly referred to as the focal length multiplier)

Calculator assumes the same sharpness criteria as used to determine depth of field;
to instead calculate based on sharpness when viewed at 100% on-screen, use "show advanced"
above.
The above results are only intended as a rough guide. In general, 1/250 to 1/500 of a second is
sufficient to freeze everyday motion of people, but one may require 1/1000 to 1/4000 of a second
if subjects are up-close or extraordinarily fast.
Notes on Subject Speed. Just because a subject is moving at a given speed doesn't preclude
portions of this subject from moving even faster. For example, the arms and legs of a runner
might be moving much faster than their body. Furthermore, the above subject speed refers to the
speed in the direction across your frame (side to side); you can typically get away with a 4X
longer shutter speed for subjects moving directly towards or away from you, and a 2X longer
shutter speed for subjects which are moving towards/away from you at an angle.

Keep in mind that most cameras are only capable of shutter speeds up to 1/2000 to 1/8000 of a
second. If the above calculator indicates that you'll need a shutter exceeding the capabilities of
your camera, your only other options are to try panning with the subject to offset some of their
motion, or to resort to using flash photography.

ZOOMING BLUR

Photo on right by jeremy vandel.

Another interesting technique is to change the zoom during the exposure itself (often called a
"zoom burst"). You can achieve this look by (i) setting your camera on a tripod, (ii) using a
shutter speed of 1/15 to 1/2 a second, and (iii) twisting the lens's zoom ring while also trying to
avoid moving the camera itself. One can also try only zooming during part of the exposure to
lessen the effect.
This causes subjects to have increasing radial blur near the edges of the frame, with the center
appearing more or less unblurred. The effect can be used to draw attention to a central subject, or
to make the viewer feel as though they're moving rapidly.
The zoom burst technique is usually only possible with SLR cameras, but may also be possible
with compact cameras that have manual zoom capabilities. Alternatively, zooming blur can often
be perfectly replicated using normal photos and post-processing, such as with Photoshop's radial
blur filter.

ABSTRACT & ARTISTIC EFFECTS

Sometimes photographers will intentionally add camera-shake-induced blur to give their image a
unique and artistic effect:

Abstract Blurred Light Effect

Artistic Painted Effect

Photos on left and right by kevindooley and unukorno, respectively.
One typically needs to use shutter speeds of 1/30 - 1/2 a second (or more) since this is just
beyond the limit of hand-holdability, but not too long that the subject will become smoothed out
entirely. Predicting the end result can also be difficult, so these types of shots will likely require
many attempts (at potentially different shutter speeds) before you are able to achieve the desired
look. Also keep in mind that the painted look is often easier to achieve with filters in Photoshop
or other editing software.

CONCLUSIONS & FURTHER READING

We've seen several creative ways of using shutter speed, but what if the amount of light required
for a correct exposure prevents you from selecting the desired shutter speed even after all
combinations of ISO speed and aperture have been attempted?
For faster shutter speeds, one can try switching to a lens with a larger maximum aperture, or one
can add more light to the scene itself by either changing the shooting location or using a flash.
Alternatively, for even slower shutter speeds, one can block some of the light by using a neutral
density filter or a polarizing filter, or can use the image averaging technique to create a longer
effective exposure. In either case, also make sure that you're not accidentally over or underexposing the photo and thus potentially shifting your range of available shutter speeds.
Other important points and clarifications are listed below.

Shutter Priority Mode. This camera setting can be a useful tool when the appearance of
motion is more important than depth of field, or just for letting you know whether your

desired shutter speed is even possible using available light. It allows you to pick a desired
shutter speed, then the camera's metering tries to combine this with an aperture setting
(and potentially ISO speed) that will achieve a correct exposure.

Camera Shake. The above analysis assumes that subject motion is the primary source of
blur, but in many photos camera shake can instead be more influential particularly
when using telephoto lenses or with unsteady hands.

For similar topics, also visit the following tutorials:

Camera Exposure: Aperture, ISO & Shutter Speed

Discusses how shutter speed factors into the overall exposure.

Reducing Camera Shake with Hand-Held Photos

Tips for minimizing camera shake due to slow shutter speeds.

CAMERA SHAKE WITH HAND-HELD

PHOTOS
We've all likely encountered this problem many times: blurry photos due to camera shake with
hand-held shots. It's especially prevalent for those of us who are unfortunate enough to have
unsteady hands. While it cannot be eliminated entirely, fortunately there's a number of steps you
can take to greatly reduce its impact and hopefully prevent it from becoming visible in the
first place.

Blurry Photo from Camera Shake

Photo Without Camera Shake

Photo from the base of the Eiffel Tower at night - Paris, France.

OVERVIEW
Camera shake is visible whenever your shutter speed is slow compared to the speed of
unintended camera motion. Reducing its impact may therefore include:
1. Methods for increasing the shutter speed (shorter exposure time)
2. Methods for reducing camera motion
On the one hand, many who are new to photography often don't appreciate the importance of
using fast shutter speeds or a tripod, but on the other hand, many experienced photographers
often overestimate their impact. More often than not, it is one's shooting technique not highend lenses or high megapixel cameras that ultimately limits the resolution of a photograph.
While either method alone can be of great help, the most effective solution is to take both into
consideration. Even the calmest hands cannot hold a camera sufficiently steady during a several
second exposure, for example, and fast shutter speeds are unlikely to freeze motion from a
telephoto lens held by shaky hands. Also, increasing the shutter speed helps freeze a moving
subject, whereas reducing camera motion does not.

METHODS FOR INCREASING THE SHUTTER SPEED

There are unfortunately only three ways to increase your shutter speed: (i) optimize your
exposure settings, (ii) avoid over-exposure and (iii) improve how your subject is lit.

Choose optimal exposure settings. Make sure you're making the best trade-offs with the camera
exposure triangle; are you really using the highest ISO speed and/or the lowest f-stop possible
with your subject matter? Make sure to consider whether you need an extended depth of field
when choosing the aperture.
However, if you're using your camera in automatic mode, then it's likely already doing whatever
it can to increase the shutter speed.
Avoid accidental over-exposure. A common cause of blurred shots is due to the camera's
metering system mistakenly choosing a longer exposure time than was necessary. Dark shaded
subject matter and uneven indoor light can easily trick your camera into over-exposure.
Use a flash or improve ambient lighting. If you're using a compact camera with a built-in flash,
also try getting closer to your subject so that they'll be more brightly illuminated. If you're
shooting people without a flash, try relocating closer to the light source(s), or waiting until the
subject passes through a more brightly lit area.
If none of these are sufficient, then you'll also need to employ one or more of the techniques
discussed in the subsequent sections below (but ideally one should use both).

IMPROVE YOUR HAND-HELD TECHNIQUE

Although increasing the shutter speed is often the easiest technique to implement, how you take
hand-held photographs can often times make even more of a difference. Try one or more of the
following tips:

Example of a photographer leaning

against a wall to brace the camera.
Brace yourself and your camera. This might include leaning up against a wall, kneeling or
sitting, or using the viewfinder instead of the rear LCD (since the camera gets braced against
your face). Just try to have at least three points of contact between your body and the ground,
walls or other stable objects. Always avoid situations where your position or equipment causes
you to strain while taking the photograph. Holding your camera directly against a wall or other
object also improves stability even further. Make sure to stand in a position that leaves you calm
and comfortable.
Optimize how you grip the camera. It's important to hold your camera firmly but not tensely,
and to use both hands. With large telephoto lenses, make sure to place one hand under the lens
and the other on your camera. Make sure that your arms remain close to your body and in a
comfortable position. Using your camera more often can also make your grip feel more natural
and get your hand muscles more acclimated to the task. Also make sure that you keep yourself
nice and warm.
Practice better shutter button technique. Always try to press the shutter button half-way first,
then gently press the button with no more pressure/speed than necessary. It might also help to
pay attention to breathing. Try taking a deep breath, exhaling about halfway, then pressing the
shutter button.
Take three shots in rapid succession. Often the very act of knowing you'll have to hold your
hands steady can make it more difficult to do so.

First Photo
(most blurred)

Second Photo
(sharpest - keeper)

Third Photo
(medium blur)

You'll likely find that there's a big difference in sharpness between each successive image, in part
because you're less concerned about individual shots. Just make sure to review these at full
resolution; differences often won't be as pronounced as the above example.

OTHER TECHNIQUES & EQUIPMENT ADVICE

Clearly, the best way to minimize hand-held camera shake is not to hold your camera in the first
place. While this article focuses on situations where a tripod isn't available, you can also see the
tutorial on camera tripods for specifics on improving your tripod technique. However, there's
fortunately several alternatives:

Example of a photograph taken by

setting the camera on the ground
and aiming using a lens cap.
Set your camera on a hard surface. While this can often produce even sharper photos than
using a tripod, it can also greatly restrict available compositions. On the other hand, it can
provide a unique and interesting perspective on your subject. Shots at eye-level often appear
ordinary since that's what we're used to seeing.
You can always aim your camera by choosing an appropriate position on uneven ground, or by
placing your lens cap or a pebble underneath the camera body. Just make sure to either use a
remote release switch, or to set your camera to self-timer mode. With SLR cameras, using your
camera's mirror lock-up (MLU) setting will also improve results (if available).
Use lenses with image stabilization (IS) or vibration reduction (VR), or cameras with shake
reduction (SR). These features can greatly reduce camera movement especially with
telephoto lenses. This often enables hand-held shots at shutter speeds which are 5-10X+ slower

than otherwise possible. However, such features cannot work miracles, and they usually work
best only in conjunction with proper hand-held technique.
Avoid telephoto lenses whenever possible. A fancy image stabilized lens isn't the only way to
reduce the appearance of shake. Getting a little closer to your subject (and using a shorter focal
length / wider angle lens) will reduce the impact of shaky hands, and often has the added benefit
of creating a more interesting perspective. More on this topic can be found within the tutorial on
camera lenses & focal length.

DIGITAL EXPOSURE TECHNIQUES

A lot of debate has surrounded what a "correct" digital exposure technique actually entails.
Common strategies include (1) exposing "to the right," (2) slight under-exposure or (3) correct
(standard) exposure. Each is motivated by a different aspect of how a digital image gets
recorded, and they can have a big impact on the quality of your photos.

Digital exposure is
a lot like shuffleboard.
The disc needs to slide close to the edge, but it mustn't fall off.
image courtesy of livingonimpulse (but in a modified form)

CHARACTERISTICS OF DIGITAL PHOTOS

Three properties are the primary motivation behind the various exposure techniques:
I. Progressively darker tones have correspondingly higher image noise:

More Noise

Less Noise

II. Progressively brighter tones are unrecordable beyond a certain intensity, causing textures to
turn solid white ("clipped highlights"), or individual color channels to saturate:

color channel becomes saturated

III. Incomplete use of a camera's dynamic range reduces the number of recorded tones, and this
problem is compounded by the fact that cameras capture disproportionately fewer dark tones
compared to how we see with our eyes:
(A) Scene captured using the full tonal range:

(B) Scene captured using only darker tones:

. . . same scene after being brightened to match (A) above:

Note: the number of tones has been reduced for visibility, but the same trend applies.
The actual number and distribution of tones depends on the bit depth and gamma.
See the tutorial on gamma correction and digital tones for more on this topic.
The key is knowing how to control one's exposure to take advantage of these unique
characteristics. Ideally, one would capture using a standard exposure that records the brightest
tones possible, but without clipping. However, this isn't always practical, since (i) one often
doesn't know the precise distribution of tones before pressing the shutter button, (ii) taking a
second photo isn't always an option and (iii) fitting a standard exposure within the camera's
dynamic range might not even be possible in the first place.
The decision is therefore one of strategy. Which of the above characteristics does one aim for,
even if potentially at the expense of others? In the next three sections we discuss the relative
merits of three such exposure strategies . . .

1. EXPOSE TO THE RIGHT (ETTR)

Strategy: Aim to expose the image so that its histogram shifts as far to the right as possible
without clipping the highlights, even if this results in over-exposure. A negative exposure
compensation is later applied (during RAW development) to get the image back to a standard
exposure.

move your mouse over the image to compare it to a standard exposure

Standard Exposure

Using the "Expose to the Right" Strategy

Advantages:

Maximizes the number of tones recorded.

Note: many recent digital SLR cameras have RAW files which record tones with 14-bit precision, so this is less of a factor
than it used to be. It is highly unlikely that a RAW image will have insufficient tones (and become posterized) as long as it
isn't grossly underexposed.
See the tutorial on image posterization for more on this topic.

Minimizes image noise because lighter (and therefore less noisy) tones get darkened after
exposure compensation is applied. The total reduction in noise will depend on how much
the photo is able to be over-exposed without clipping.

Disadvantages:

Has a high risk of clipping the highlights, especially in the individual color channels
(which can lead to unrealistic color shifts).

Requires more light than normal, and potentially a higher ISO speed
(which could mitigate any reduction in image noise from ETTR).

Makes judging/pruning photos more difficult since subjects will likely appear overexposed (until exposure compensation is applied in post-processing).

May require several shots (followed by histogram inspection) in order to position the
histogram as intended. One also needs to look at the color histogram in order to avoid
clipping in any of the individual color channels.

2. SLIGHTLY UNDER-EXPOSE
Strategy: Aim to slightly under-expose the image by using a negative exposure compensation
(perhaps about -1/3 to -1/2 stops) in the camera itself. A positive exposure compensation is later
applied (during RAW development) to get the image back to a standard exposure.

move your mouse over the image to compare it to a standard exposure

Standard Exposure

Slight Under-Exposure

Advantages:

Safeguards against blown highlights and clipped color channels.

Requires less light than normal, potentially enabling a lower ISO speed
(which would offset any increase in image noise).

Disadvantages:

Increases image noise because darker (and therefore noisier) tones get brightened after
exposure compensation is applied.

Images will likely appear darker than intended when viewing them in the camera.

Fewer discrete tones are captured by the camera.

3. USE CORRECT EXPOSURE IN-CAMERA

Strategy: Aim to achieve a final exposure in the camera without any need for exposure
compensation during post-processing.

A correct exposure is typically obtained whenever a middle gray tone within your scene gets
recorded as a middle gray tone on the image histogram. Refer to the tutorials on image
histograms: tones & contrast and camera metering for a background. However, there isn't always
a "correct" exposure for every scene, since this also depends on your artistic intent (particularly
for night and low-light photos).
Advantages:

Images will likely have the intended brightness straight from the camera. This makes
post-processing much simpler and also allows one to more easily judge "keepers" when
viewing them on the camera.

Doesn't require that you capture your images using the RAW file format.

Disadvantages:

Still risks clipping the highlights or individual color channels when capturing very high
contrast (or colorful) scenes, especially if the camera's metering mistakenly over-exposes
a little.

HIGHLIGHT CLIPPING
Sometimes a little highlight clipping is OK and even looks natural. Specular highlights (such as
reflections on metal or water), regions around the sun (such as in sunsets) and other direct light
sources (such as street lamps) all appear perfectly fine when clipped. This is often the necessary
cost of ensuring that everything else is sufficiently bright.

example of when it's acceptable to have blown highlights

In other situations, clipping might not be ideal, but it will likely be unavoidable otherwise
excessive noise or detail loss may occur in the darkest regions. In these cases, the difficult part is
deciding on how much clipping is acceptable.

Highlight Clipping

Highlight Clipping Appears Abrupt

Even After Negative Exposure Compensation
Also be careful to avoid clipping in the individual color channels (see the tutorial on histograms:
luminosity & color), which can lead to unnatural color shifts if those regions require darkening
during RAW development. This can happen very easily when trying to push the histogram as far
right as possible. In the example below, even the slightest under-exposure was undesirable since
this scene contained both bright clouds and extremely dark regions:

Accidental Color Channel Clipping

Unnatural Color Shift

When Trying To Recover Clipped Regions
The image on the left appeared fine using the camera's histogram because the cloud never
became solid white. Even so, a single color channel was clipped, causing that region to be
recorded using colors that weren't present in the actual scene. Fortunately for this photo, the
color channel clipping wasn't a problem at the intended exposure.

CONCLUSIONS: OPTIMAL EXPOSURE STRATEGY

The optimal exposure strategy will likely be one that adapts based on the subject matter and
shooting circumstances. The key is to have a good grasp of all the competing factors image
noise, tonal levels, clipped highlights and convenience and to choose a strategy which gives
you the highest number of usable photos, while also retaining the necessary image quality.
When weighing the consequences of blown highlights with those of slightly higher image noise,
the former might make a photo unusable whereas the latter will reduce detail. Erring on the side
of slight under-exposure would therefore be a good approach if it's important that a
particular photo remain usable. That is, as long as (i) you're shooting in RAW and can apply
exposure compensation later, (ii) it isn't practical to check the histogram (and potentially reexpose) afterwards and (iii) the scene isn't high-key (mostly light shaded objects, such as white
snow). However, if the lighting is low contrast (such as on an overcast day), and if nothing is
highly reflective, then there's little risk in using a standard exposure.

On the other hand, in special situations accidental under-exposure can be nearly as harmful as
blown highlights, since this can destroy detail in the extreme shadows. In general, the greater
the dynamic range, the more important it becomes to use as much of the right-hand side of
the histogram as possible. For those types of scenes, one often needs to check the camera's
histogram after each shot. This is particularly true if you intend to brighten the shadows in postprocessing (such as simulating a graduated neutral density filter, or using shadow recovery
tools), or with compact cameras, since these usually have both a lower dynamic range and more
noise.
Alternative exposure techniques include:

Auto Exposure Bracketing (AEB). Most cameras have an option to automatically

capture both an under and over-exposed alternative, just after the first "standard"
exposure. These can provide useful backups, but occupy more storage space.

Image Stacking. Another way to both decrease image noise and improve the number of
tones recorded but without also risking clipped highlights is to use image
averaging. However, this requires tripod use and is really only for specialty shots.

High Dynamic Range. This is a powerful new technique which has the potential to
provide virtually limitless dynamic range without ever clipping the highlights. See the
tutorial on high dynamic range photography for more. This also requires a tripod.

TAKING PHOTOS IN FOG, MIST OR HAZE

Photography in fog, mist or haze can give a wonderfully moody and atmospheric feel to your
subjects. However, it's also very easy to end up with photos that look washed-out and flat. This
techniques article uses examples to illustrate how to make the most out of photos in these unique
shooting environments.

Clare Bridge in the fog at night (version 1) - Cambridge, UK

OVERVIEW

Fog usually forms in the mid to late evening, and often lasts until early the next morning. It is
also much more likely to form near the surface of water that is slightly warmer than the
surrounding air. In this techniques article, we'll primarily talk about fog, but the photographic
concepts apply similarly to mist or haze.
Photographing in the fog is very different from the more familiar photography in clear weather.
Scenes are no longer necessarily clear and defined, and they are often deprived of contrast and
color saturation:

Examples of photos which appear washed-out and de-saturated due to the fog.
Both photos are from St John's College, Cambridge, UK.
In essence, fog is a natural soft box: it scatters light sources so that their light originates from a
much broader area. Compared to a street lamp or light from the sun on a clear day, this
dramatically reduces contrast:

A Lamp or the Sun on a Clear Day

(High Contrast)

Light in the Fog, Haze or Mist

(Low Contrast)

Scenes in the fog are also much more dimly lit often requiring longer exposure times than
would otherwise be necessary. In addition, fog makes the air much more reflective to light,
which often tricks your camera's light meter into thinking that it needs to decrease the exposure.
Just as with photographs in the snow, fog therefore usually requires dialing in some positive
exposure compensation.
In exchange for all of these potential disadvantages, fog can be a powerful and valuable tool for
emphasizing the depth, lighting, and shape of your subjects. As you will see later, these traits can
even make scenes feel mysterious and uniquely moody an often elusive, but well sought after
prize for photographers. The trick is knowing how to make use of these unique assets without
also having them detract from your subject.
EMPHASIZING DEPTH

Mathematical Bridge in Queens' College, Cambridge.

As objects become progressively further from your camera, not only do they become smaller, but
they also lose contrast and sometimes quite dramatically. This can be both a blessing and a
curse, because while it exaggerates the difference between near and far objects, it also makes
distant objects difficult to photograph in isolation.
In the example to the left, there are at least four layers of trees which cascade back towards the
distant bridge. Notice how both color saturation and contrast drop dramatically with each

successively distant tree layer. The furthest layer, near the bridge, is reduced to nothing more
than a silhouette, whereas the closest layer has near full color and contrast.

Southwest coast of Sardinia in haze.

Although there are no steadfast rules with photographing in the fog, it's often helpful to have at
least some of your subject close to the camera. This way a portion of your image can contain
high contrast and color, while also hinting at what everything else would look like otherwise.
This also serves to add some tonal diversity to the scene.
EMPHASIZING LIGHT

View of King's College Bridge

from Queens' College, Cambridge, UK.
Water droplets in the fog or mist make light scatter a lot more than it would otherwise. This
greatly softens light, but also makes light streaks visible from concentrated or directional light
sources. The classic example is the photo in a forest with early morning light: when the photo is
taken in the direction of this light, rays of light streak down from the trees and scatter off of this
heavy morning air.
In the example to the right, light streaks are clearly visible from an open window and near the
bridge, where a large tree partially obstructs an orange lamp. However, when the camera was
moved just a few feet backwards, the streaks from the window were no longer visible.

Spires above entrance to King's College, Cambridge

during BBC lighting of King's Chapel for the boy's choir.
The trick to making light rays stand out is to carefully plan your vantage point. Light rays
will be most apparent if you are located close to (but not at) where you can see the light source
directly. This "off-angle" perspective ensures that the scattered light will both be bright and wellseparated from the darker looking air.
On the other hand, if the fog is very dense or the light source is extremely concentrated, then the
light rays will be clearly visible no matter what vantage point you have. The second example
above was taken in air that was otherwise not visibly foggy, but the light sources were extremely
intense and concentrated. Additionally, the scattered light was much brighter relative to the sky
because it was taken after sunset.
SHAPES & SILHOUETTES

Swan at night on the River Cam, Cambridge.

Fog can emphasize the shape of subjects because it downplays their internal texture and contrast.
Often, the subject can even be reduced to nothing more than a simple silhouette.

In the photo to the left, the swan's outline has been greatly exaggerated because the low-laying
fog has washed out nearly all remains of the wall behind the swan. Furthermore, the bright fog
background contrasts prominently with the relatively darker swan.

Rear gate entrance toTrinity

College, Cambridge, UK.

Just make sure to expose based on the fog and not the subject if you want this subject
to appear as a dark silhouette. Alternatively, you could dial in a negative exposure
compensation to make sure that objects do not turn out too bright. You will of course also need to
pay careful attention to the relative position of objects in your scene, otherwise one object's
outline or border may overlap with another object.
In the example to the right, the closest object a cast iron gate stands out much more than it
would otherwise against this tangled backdrop of tree limbs. Behind this gate, each tree
silhouette is visible in layers because the branches become progressively fainter the further they
are in the distance.
PHOTOGRAPHING FROM WITHOUT

You've perhaps heard of the saying: "it's difficult to photograph a forest from within." This is
because it can be hard to get a sense of scale by photographing just a cluster of trees you have
to go outside the forest so you can see its boundaries, and not have individual trees hamper this
perspective. The very same technique can often be very helpful with fog or haze.

left: Mt Rainier breaking through the clouds - Washington, USA

right: sunset above the haze on Mt Wilson - Los Angeles, California, USA
This way you can capture the unique atmospheric effects of fog or haze, but without also
incurring its contrast-reducing disadvantages (at least for objects outside the fog/haze). In the
case of fog, from a distance it's really nothing more than low-laying clouds.
TIMING THE FOG FOR MAXIMAL IMPACT

Just as with weather and clouds, timing when to take a photo in the fog can also make a big
difference with how the light appears. Depending on the type of fog, it can move in clumps and
vary in thickness with time. However, these differences are sometimes difficult to spot if they
happen slowly, since our eyes adjust to the changing contrast. Try moving your mouse over the
labels below to see how the scene changed over just 6 minutes:

First Photograph

+2 minutes

+6 minutes

Another important consideration is the apparent texture of fog. Even if you time the photograph
for when you feel there's the most interesting distribution of fog, this fog may not retain its
texture if the exposure time is not short enough. In general, the shutter speed needs to be a
second or less in order to prevent the fog's texture from smoothing out. However, you might be
able to get away with longer exposures when the fog is moving more slowly, or when your

subject is not magnified by as much. Move your mouse over the image below to see how the
exposure time affects the appearance of mist above the water:

Shorter Exposure
(1 second)

Longer Exposure
(30 seconds)

Clare Bridge in low-laying fog at night (version 2) - Cambridge, UK

Note that the above image is the very same bridge that was shown as the first image in this
article. Fog can dramatically change the appearance of a subject depending on where it is
located, and how dense it is in that location.
Although the shorter exposure does a much better job of freezing the fog's motion , it also has a
substantial impact on the amount of image noise when viewed at 100%. This can be a common
problem with fog photography, since (i) fog is most likely to occur in the late evening through to
the early morning (when light is low) and (ii) fog greatly reduces the amount of light reaching
your camera after reflecting off the subject. Sometimes freezing the motion of fog therefore isn't
an option if you want to avoid noise.
BEWARE OF CONDENSATION

If water droplets are condensing out of the air, then you can be assured that these same droplets
are also likely to condense on the surface of your lens or inside your camera. If your camera is at
a similar temperature to the air, and the fog isn't too dense, then you may not notice any
condensation at all. On the other hand, expect substantial condensation if you previously had
your camera indoors, and it is warmer outside.
Fortunately, there's an easy way to minimize condensation caused by going from indoors to
outdoors. Before taking your camera and lens into a warmer humid environment, place all items
within a plastic bag and ensure it is sealed airtight. You can then take these sealed bags outdoors,
but you have to wait until everything within the bags have have reached the same temperature as

outdoors before you open the bags. For large camera lenses with many elements, this can take 30
minutes or more if the indoor-outdoor temperature difference is big.
Unfortunately, sometimes a little condensation is unavoidable. Just make sure to bring a lens
cloth with you for repeatedly wiping the front of your lens.

COMMON OBSTACLES IN NIGHT

PHOTOGRAPHY
Night photography has the ability to take a scene and cast it in an unusual light much like the
"golden hour" surrounding sunrise and sunset can add an element of mood and uniqueness to a
sunlit scene. Just as how sports and landscape photography push the camera's limits for shutter
speed and aperture, respectively, night photography often demands technical extremes in both
(see below).

Due to lack of familiarity and since night photos are often highly technical, many photographers
simply put their camera away and "call it a day" after sunset. This section aims to familiarize the
photographer with obstacles they might encounter at night, and discusses how to surmount many.

BACKGROUND
Night photography is subject to the same set of constraints as daylight photography namely
aperture, shutter speed and light sensitivity although these are all often pushed to their

extremes. For this reason, the abundance and diversity of night photography has been closely tied
to the advance of photographic technology. Early film photographers shied away from capturing
night scenes because these require prohibitively long exposures to maintain adequate depth of
field, or produced unacceptable amounts of image noise. Furthermore, a problem with film called
"reciprocity failure" means that progressively more light has to reach the film as the exposure
time increases leading to diminishing returns compared to shorter exposures. Finally, even if a
proper exposure had been achieved, the photographer would then have to wait for the film to be
developed to assess whether it had been captured to their liking a degree of uncertainly which
is often prohibitive after one has stayed up late and spent minutes to hours exposing each photo.

TRADE-OFFS IN DIGITAL NIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY

Fortunately, times have changed since the early days of night photography. Modern digital
cameras are no longer limited by reciprocity failure and provide instant feedback greatly
increasing the enjoyment and lowering the risk of investing the time to take photographs at odd
hours.
Even with all these advances, digital night photography is still not without its technical
limitations. Photos are unavoidably limited by the trade-off between depth of field, exposure
time and image noise. The diagram below illustrates all available combinations of these for a
typical night photo under a full moon, with constant exposure:

Note the trade-off incurred by moving in the direction of any of the four scenarios above. Most
static nightscape photos have to choose between scenarios 2, 3 and 4. Each scenario often has a
technique which can minimize the trade-off; these include image averaging, stacking and
multiple focal planes (to be added). Also note how even the minimum possible exposure time
above is one second making a sturdy camera tripod essential for any photos at night.
The diagram does not consider additional constraints: decreased resolution due to diffraction and
increased susceptibility to fixed pattern noise with longer exposures. Fixed pattern noise is the

only disadvantage to progressively longer exposures in digital photography (other than also
possibly being impractical), much like the trade-off of reciprocity failure in film. Furthermore,
moon movement and star trails (see below) can both limit the maximum exposure time.

IMPORTANCE OF MOONLIGHT
Just as how daylight photographers pay attention to the position and angle of the sun, night
photographers should also pay careful attention to the moon. A low-laying moon can create long
shadows on cross-lit objects, whereas an overhead moon creates harsher, downward shadows.

An additional variable is that the moon can have varying degrees of intensity, depending where it
is during its 29.5 day cycle of waxing and waning. A full moon can be a savior for reducing the
required exposure time and allowing for extended depth of field, while a moonless night greatly
increases star visibility. Furthermore, the intensity of the moon can be chosen at a time which
provides the ideal balance between artificial light (streetlamps) and moonlight.
Gauging exposure times during a full moon can be tricky; use f/2.0 and 30 seconds at ISO100
as a starting point (if subject is diffuse and directly lit), then adjust towards scenarios 1-4
accordingly.
Another factor rarely noticed during daylight is movement of the light source (sun or moon). The
long exposure time required for moonlight photography often means that the moon may have
moved significantly over the course of the exposure. Moon movement softens harsh shadows,
however too much movement can create seemingly flat light.

Crop of Tree Shadows on Path:

Photograph Under a Full Moon

Choose Exposure Time:

1 minute
4 minutes

Note how the 1 minute exposure above clearly shows high contrast and shadows from even the
smaller branches, whereas the 4 minute exposure is at lower contrast and only shows the larger
branches. The choice of exposure time can also vary by much more than a factor of four
greatly exaggerating the above effect.
Shots which include the moon in the frame are also susceptible to moon movement. A rule of
thumb is that the moon appears to move its own diameter roughly every 2 minutes. As a
result, it can quickly appear elongated if this exposure time is approached.

VIEWFINDER BRIGHTNESS
Properly composing your photograph in the viewfinder can be problematic when there is little
available light. Even if you intend to expose using a small aperture, a lens with a large
maximum aperture can greatly increase viewfinder brightness during composure. To see the
effect of different apertures, manually choose an aperture by pressing the "depth of field
preview" button (usually located on camera at base of lens).

The way a SLR camera redirects light from the lens to your eye can also affect brightness.
Cameras with a pentaprism (as opposed to pentamirror) ensure that little light is lost before it hits
your eye, however these often increase the cost of the camera significantly. Larger format
sensors also produce a brighter viewfinder image (such as full frame 35 mm, compared to 1.51.6X or smaller crop factors) . Finally, ensure that you give ample time for your eyes to fully
adjust to the decrease in light especially after standing in stronger light or using a flashlight.

INFLUENCE OF MIRROR LOCK-UP

Mirror lock-up (MLU) is a feature available in some SLR cameras which aims to minimize
camera shake induced by mirror-slap (which produces the characteristic snapping sound of SLR
cameras). It works by separating the mirror flip and aperture opening into two steps. This way,
any vibrations induced by the mirror have time to settle down before the exposure begins.

Mirror lock-up can drastically increase sharpness for exposure times comparable to the settling
time of the mirror (~1/30 to 2 seconds). On the other hand, mirror shake is negligible for
exposures much longer than this; therefore MLU is not critical for most night photography.
When forced to use wobbly tripods (never desired) or long focal lengths, the stabilizing time can
increase significantly (~8 seconds).

APPEARANCE OF STAR TRAILS

Even modestly long exposures can begin to reveal the rotation of stars in the sky. Using a longer
focal length and photographing stars far from the north star increase the distance stars will move
across the image. This effect can create a dizzying look, however sometimes these streaks detract
from the artistic message if stillness and tranquility is the desired look.

Close to North Star

Far From North Star

Normal focal lengths (28-50 mm) usually have minimal star movement if exposures are no
longer than about 15-30 seconds. If star trails are desired, using a large aperture and higher
sensitivity (ISO 200-400) can enhance the brightness of each streak.

FOCUSING AND DEPTH OF FIELD

Proper focusing is critical at night because small apertures are often impractical therefore one
cannot afford to waste mispositioning the depth of field (see hyperfocal distance). To further

complicate focusing, night scenes rarely have enough light or contrast to perform auto focus, nor
enough viewfinder brightness to manually focus.

Fortunately there are several solutions to this focusing dilemma. One can try focusing on point
light sources at a similar distance to the subject of interest. In the photo to the left, autofocus
would be almost guaranteed by using the bright light at the bottom.
The central focus point is more accurate/sensitive in many cameras, and so it is best to use this
(instead of the outer focus points) even if using it requires having to recompose afterwards.
If you wish to autofocus at infinity, just aim your camera at the moon, autofocus, then recompose
accordingly. Alternatively, bring a small flashlight since this can be set on the subject,
focused on, and then removed before the exposure begins. If all these approaches are
impractical, one could always resort to manual focus using distance markings on the lens.

METERING AT NIGHT
Unfortunately, most in-camera light meters become inaccurate or max out at about 30 seconds.
Usually one can first meter using a larger aperture (so that the metered exposure time is under 30
seconds), then stop down as necessary and multiply the exposure time accordingly. Alternatively,
one may need to carry an external light meter to achieve the most accurate metering. For
exposure times longer than ~30 seconds, the camera needs to be set to "bulb mode" and an
external timer/release device should be used (below).

Night scenes which contain artificial light sources should almost always have low-key
histograms, otherwise these will have significant blown highlights. Metering these can be tricky
if the camera's auto-metering fails; a good starting point is to meter off of a diffuse object which
is directly lit by one of the light sources. If all else fails, be sure to bracket each image, or zero in
on the correct exposure by using guess and check with the rear LCD screen.
What is a proper exposure at night? Unlike during daytime where the basis is (roughly) a 18%
gray card, there is not really a consistent, commonly agreed upon way to expose night photos.
One could "under-expose" to maintain the dark look of night, or could alternatively have the
histogram fill the entire tonal range like a daytime shot. I generally recommend always fully
exposing the image as if it were a daytime photo, and shooting in RAW mode. This way the
exposure can always be decreased afterwards while still maintaining minimal image noise
because more light was collected at the digital sensor.

FURTHER READING
For similar topics, also visit the following tutorials:

Making the Most of Natural Light in Photography

Discusses how different times of day influence subject appearance.

Moon & Night Photography Calculator

A useful tool for determining phases of the moon and when the sky becomes dark.

INTRO TO MACRO PHOTOGRAPHY

Macro and close-up photography can take the viewer to new and seldom seen vantage points.
However, macro photography also often demands more careful attention to photographic
technique. This introductory article discusses how to improve the quality of your macro
photographs.

ACHIEVING HIGH MAGNIFICATION

Magnification describes the size an object will appear on your camera's sensor, compared to its
size in real-life. The closer you place your lens relative to the subject, the larger that subject will
appear in the image. For a technical overview of magnification, see the tutorial on macro lenses:
magnification, effective f-stop & depth of field.

Full Size Object

(24 mm diameter)

1:1 or 1X Magnification
1:2 or 0.5X Magnification
1:4 or 0.25X Magnification

All illustrations above are shown to scale; = borders of digital camera sensor.
If you are using a compact digital camera, then setting this to "macro mode" will enable closer
focusing distances and greater magnifications. If you are using a digital SLR camera, then
your options are more numerous. You will need to either (i) use a dedicated macro lens or (ii)
improve the magnification capabilities of one of your existing camera lenses by adding an
extension tube or a close-up lens (amongst other options).

MACRO SHARPNESS, TRIPODS & FINE CONTROL

When you magnify a subject, you also magnify movements caused by camera shake. Standard
shutter speed requirements therefore no longer apply (such as the common one over focal length
rule). Furthermore, small variations in camera position can also make huge differences in subject
composition. It's therefore critical to either experiment with what you're capable of capturing
hand-held, or to just always use a camera tripod.

Using a tripod slows down the composition process, which often causes one to become more
meticulous, and to think more about how the subject is being portrayed both of which are
important traits for producing a successful macro photos. However, not all tripods are capable of
or convenient for taking photos near the ground (as is often required with macro subjects).
Special macro tripod requirements include:

Tripod legs need to be capable of spreading nearly horizontally, so that the camera can
be lowered all the way to the ground. Achieving such a low camera height usually also
requires removing the tripod's center column.

Tripod head needs to be capable of very finely and precisely controlling the camera's
position. Ball heads are typically less capable of this than pan/tilt heads, because they
often droop slightly after positioning, and usually don't allow for independent vertical,
horizontal and rotational movements. On the other hand, ball heads allow for a greater
range of camera positions, and enable more flexible camera movement.

If a tripod isn't convenient, successful control can often also be achieved by setting your camera
on the ground and positioning it by placing small rocks or other objects underneath the camera
(such as your lens cap). Alternatively, photos of living creatures may make tripod use
impractical, but this usually necessitates using a camera flash (as discussed later).

Finally, using a remote switch or shutter release device (such as the one shown above) can also
greatly improve the sharpness and control over macro photos, because the camera no longer
moves as a result of you pressing the shutter button. Alternatively, setting the camera to a 10
second self-timer mode can also minimize camera shake, but this approach doesn't have the
advantage of preserving the composition, because the shutter button still has to be pressed to start
the timer (potentially nudging the camera).

MACRO FOCUSING & DEPTH OF FIELD

Photos at high magnification have a correspondingly shallow depth of field. Precisely controlling
the location of focus is therefore much more important than normal. This requires not only
artistic decisions about what should be in sharpest focus, but also technical decisions about how
to make the most of this sharpness.

Photo courtesy of Piotr Naskrecki, author of "The Smaller Majority."

Fortunately, the location of sharpest focus appears much more pronounced in the viewfinder
when the subject is under high magnification. However, just because it's easy to see doesn't
necessarily mean that it's also easy to position. Even small errors in a camera's autofocus can be
disastrous for an image, so this should only be used as a rough guide; precision adjustments
should almost always be done using manual focus. In addition, special equipment can be very
helpful for improving focus control:

Focusing Rail. This fits in between your tripod head and camera body, and precisely
guides your camera so that the location of focus is determined by camera position instead
of the (less precise) manual focus ring.

Magnifying Eyepiece. This attaches to your viewfinder to enlarge visibility.

Right Angle Viewfinder. This attaches to your viewfinder so that you can more
comfortably see through it when the camera is really low to the ground.

Rear Live View LCD Screen. Cameras capable of showing their subject on the rear
LCD screen in real-time can greatly assist with composition and focus.

For maximal sharpness throughout, adjust the angle of your camera so that the plane of sharpest
focus aligns with the surface of your subject. Alternatively, for a more abstract look, try aligning
the plane of sharpest focus so that it's perpendicular to your subject's surface. With creatures, it's
almost a universal rule that a subject's eyes should be the location of sharpest focus, although
other subjects aren't always this simple.

OPTIMAL MACRO APERTURE

The aperture setting of your camera lens controls two often competing factors: (i) the resolution
and sharpness at the focusing location, and (ii) the range of distance that will appear acceptably

sharp ("depth of field"). A high f-stop improves depth of field, but too high of a value will also
begin to compromise image resolution (due to lens diffraction).
Macro photography often has an extremely shallow depth of field, so sacrificing some
resolution is usually acceptable. With digital SLR cameras, aperture settings of f/11-f/16
provide a good trade-off between depth of field and resolution, but f/22+ is often necessary for
extra (but softer) depth of field. Compact cameras can get away with much lower f-stop values,
such as f/5.6-f/8.0. Ultimately though, the best way to identify the optimal aperture setting is to
just experiment.

BACKGROUND & COMPOSITION

Macro photography often requires pre-visualizing how one plans to capture their subject, in
addition to carefully controlling the environment under which this subject is captured.
Pre-visualization & Composition. Based on everything discussed thus far, you've probably
come to the conclusion that positioning and focusing a camera for a macro photograph can be
very time-consuming. One therefore needs to have a good idea of what they have in mind ahead
of time. Observing objects with a magnifying glass or the rear LCD on a compact camera can
make it much easier to identify and compose a subject.
Background. In macro photography, the background is often so out of focus that it appears as a
solid or smoothly varying patch of color. It's important to choose a background which
complements the color and tone of your foreground subject. Fortunately, one can often pick a
different background by simply shifting the camera's vantage point. One should also take care to
avoid placing distracting out of focus highlights or other objects behind their subject.

Light Background

Dark Background
Above photos courtesy of Piotr Naskrecki.
As a last resort, don't be afraid to reposition objects to improve the background. This might
include positioning an object (or your hand) out of the image so that it shades an otherwise
distracting and strongly-lit background component.
Finally, be careful not to over or under-expose your image when using dark or light backgrounds,
respectively, since these can trick your camera's metering system into thinking that the amount of
incident light has decreased or increased. Adding some negative or positive exposure
compensation can offset this effect.
Location. Avoid even small breezes with flowers and other foliage, either by placing your
camera bag somewhere that reduces wind, or by shooting your object indoors. Fortunately,
nobody is able to tell the difference between an outdoor and an indoor macro shot as long as
the background is carefully chosen and positioned. Also consider bringing a spray bottle so that
you can add dew to the surface of subjects where needed.

MACRO LIGHTING
The type of light can play an important role in either enhancing or concealing the appearance of
detail. Pay careful attention to the contrast, color and direction of natural light. Higher contrast
(more localized) light tends to enhance texture, but its direction also plays a role:

Back lighting can create silhouettes or halos around subjects emphasizing shape.

Front lighting ensures that shadows aren't clearly visible resulting in a flat and two
dimensional appearance, but also illuminating everything which is visible.

Side lighting casts distinctive shadows enhancing surface texture, but often also
concealing other details behind dark shadows.

Bottom and top lighting are often least ideal, primarily because they have the
disadvantage of deep shadows, but often lack the advantage of giving a three-dimensional

look to the subject. On the other hand, if the light source is sufficiently diffuse (low
contrast), then this lighting direction can also achieve good results.
However, as with most things artistic, there's no universal rules for what constitutes the best
light; this will depend on your subject and creative intent. When natural lighting isn't ideal (and
using a flash isn't an option), a light reflector can add a sideways (or other) component to
otherwise harsh overhead sunlight thereby decreasing image contrast. Just make sure to
position the reflector so that it illuminates the unwanted shadows.

Macro Flash. Using a camera flash can greatly improve the appearance of macro subjects, and
can even enable shots to be taken hand-held when this wouldn't otherwise be possible in natural
lighting. However, with close focusing distances the lens can often get in the way of the flash
casting unsightly shadows on the subject and increasing the necessary exposure time. Using a
dedicated macro ring flash or other off-camera flash can help fix these problems, although this is
a whole other topic unto itself.

INTRO TO PORTRAIT LIGHTING

Good lighting is a critical component of portraiture. It's also easily identifiable even by the casual
observer. However, despite this apparent simplicity, knowing how to use light to achieve a
desired look requires a much deeper understanding. This introductory tutorial discusses the most
basic scenario: portraits with one light source. Subsequent tutorials will discuss setups with
multiple lights, but the same principles discussed here still apply.

Unflattering Portrait Lighting

Better Portrait Lighting

Expertly crafted model used throughout is courtesy of Nikola Dechev.

OVERVIEW: ONE LIGHT SOURCE

The primary source of subject illumination is usually called the main or key light. Although
additional lights may be added to enhance a portrait, key lighting is usually performed
independently. This is great news for those trying to learn portrait lighting, because it means one
can ease into the process one light at a time. If and when you decide to include additional lights,
everything learned here will still apply.
Only one trait controls the appearance of light on a subject: its distribution*. Even though some
lighting may seem to have a magical quality, it's ultimately nothing more than this. However, for
a given light source, we can separate this out into two more easily manageable characteristics:

1. Direction, which controls the location of shadows and highlights on the subject, and
2. Apparent Size, which controls the appearance of these shadows and highlights.
While these characteristics might seem simple and controllable, their combinations can create an
amazing array of different subject appearances. Lighting can easily become unpredictable
without first developing an intuition for each.
*Strictly speaking, the white balance of the light source is another trait, but for this portrait intro
we're going to assume that you'll want to keep the source looking like natural light.

SIZE: HARD VS. SOFT LIGHT

We'll start with apparent size, since this is perhaps the most common cause of poor portrait
lighting. When photographers describe light as being "hard" or "soft," or use the term "light
quality," they're actually just referring to the size of the light source:

Light Size
Shadows/Highlights
Types of Sunlight
Types of Flash

Harder Light
Smaller
Abrupt

Softer Light
Larger
Gradual

Direct
Direct

Overcast, Shade
Bounced, Diffuse

Although too much of anything can be harmful, portraits usually benefit from softer lighting. Try
moving your mouse over the "harder" and "softer" options below to see for yourself how each
influences the look of a portrait:

Choose:

Harder

Original

Softer

Note how broader and narrower light sources are termed "soft" and "hard," respectively, because
of how they render the edges of shadows and highlights. This happens because a larger light
source spans a greater angle across the subject. Any given region is therefore more likely to
receive at least some direct lighting, causing the softer shadows. Similarly, with a smaller light
source, a given region usually receives either all or none of the direct light producing much
deeper shadows. Also note how light size is equally transformative to the highlight transitions,
particularly in the model's upper right hair.
However, light size doesn't just control the appearance of large-scale tones; it also determines the
visibility of fine-scale texture. Pores, blemishes, wrinkles and other facial details all become
more pronounced with hard light. Hard light also increases the likelihood of harsh direct
reflections off a subject's skin.

Hard Light

Soft Light
The most important trick for achieving softer light is to understand that direct light is hard, but
that whenever this light bounces off or travels through other diffuse objects, it becomes softer.
Photographers use this to make the most of otherwise harsh light.
Tips for achieving softer light:

Diffuser. Place a larger translucent object between your subject and the light source. This
might include using a lamp shade, or hanging a white sheet or curtain over an open
window that receives direct light.

Bouncing & Reflecting. Place your subject so that they receive only bounced or
reflected light. This might include moving them a little further from an open window
(just outside the direct rays), or aiming your flash at a nearby wall or ceiling.

portrait with very soft light

In either case, be careful because you'll end up with a lot less light potentially requiring a
longer exposure time or a brighter flash.
At the other extreme, a light source may also be too soft (although much less common). Some
might consider photos taken in the shade as appearing too flat, for example, if indirect light
scatters in from everywhere. Such light is effectively enormous in size and erases all shadows.
Other examples include portraits in the fog, or outside on a fully overcast day.
However, just how soft is "too soft" really depends on the look you're trying to achieve. For
example, even though the photo on the right uses softer lighting than any other example in this
tutorial, many might still consider this a desirable look for glamour portraits.

DISTANCE & APPARENT LIGHT SIZE

At this point you've perhaps been slightly misled: it's not really the physical size of the light
source that matters just its apparent size relative to the subject.
Closer light sources become softer, because this light strikes the subject from a broader range
of angles even if the light itself remains unchanged. Similarly, the opposite is also true: direct
sunshine is hard light even though the sun is physically enormous. The sun is just so distant that
its light reaches us from roughly one direction.

Choose:

Further

Closer

On the other hand, moving a light closer also makes it brighter. If this was your primary source
of light, then the look of your portrait likely won't change your exposure time or flash
intensity will just decrease to compensate. However, if much of your subject's light was
previously ambient, then moving a light source closer can decrease the influence of this ambient
light effectively making the overall light harder since more of it will come from one location.
Closer light sources also illuminate the subject more unevenly, since different parts of the
subject will become relatively closer or further from the light. For example, the far side of the
subject might only be 5% further from a distant light source, but could become 50% further
when the light source is moved up close causing it to become much darker relative to the
other parts of the subject.
However, this unevenness can also be used to your advantage. A closer light source may be able
to achieve better subject-background separation, since the subject will become much brighter
relative to their background. On the other hand, this can also make matters worse if these were
already well-separated.

DIRECTION: SENSE OF DEPTH & REMBRANDT

LIGHTING
Finding the right lighting direction requires the photographer to strike a balance between several
potentially competing considerations. Typically, this includes both (i) portraying a sense of depth
and (ii) depicting facial features as attractively as possible.
(i) Sense of Depth. Creating the appearance of depth is a key part of capturing realistic-looking
portraits. However, our sense of depth doesn't work very well unless light is striking our subject
from the right direction. For example, a sphere is a reasonable approximation for the shape of our
heads, and it only appears three-dimensional when light strikes it from a front upper side:

Front Lighting

Side Lighting

Upper Side Lighting

Although sphere lighting is a good rough guide for portraits, a wide range of lighting angles
could have been used to achieve the above sense of depth. Faces, on the other hand, aren't quite
as forgiving.
(ii) Appearance of Facial Features. In addition to the head as a whole, each facial feature also
has its own shadows and highlights all of which deserve special consideration. This might
include avoiding making the nose appear larger by having it cast a long shadow, or making the
subject appear tired by portraying shadows underneath their eyes. Upper side lighting could
cause these and other undesirable effects if not carefully positioned.
One classical* way to achieve both a sense of depth and a flattering appearance is to place the
light so that the far cheek depicts a triangle of illumination. This style is often called "Rembrandt
lighting" and we'll refer to this shape as the "key triangle." This restricts the lighting to a much
narrower range of angles:

Higher

Move
Lighting:

Show

Hide

Key Triangle

Left

Key Triangle

Right

Lower

note: visualizing the triangle is usually easier with hard lighting and a neutral expression.
In the above example it appears more rounded due to the wide smile.
Try moving the light source in any direction away from the key triangle lighting by moving your
mouse over the options above. With the exception of the lower lighting, each of these options
could be considered "front upper side" lighting yet the key triangle positioning is usually
considered the best all-around representation. This is because the triangular shape is an indicator
of several underlying principles of good portrait lighting.
For example, when the key triangle is:

Too Big (Tall or Wide). This means the light is too close to the subject's forward
direction, and likely isn't creating a sufficient appearance of depth since most shadows
are hidden from the camera's perspective.

Too Narrow. This means the light is too far to the side of the subject, and could cause the
nose to appear bigger by having it cast a longer shadow, along with potentially leaving a
substantial portion of the face in shadows. However, this is perhaps the least adhered to
of all the key triangle guidelines.

Too Short. This means that the light is too high or low, and is likely causing shadows
underneath the eyes or a lack of shadow definition along the jaw line, respectively.
Lighting from below is often used for unsightly creatures in movies, or to create a
frightening face when telling a scary story (by holding a flashlight under the face).

Also keep in mind that its exact appearance will vary greatly depending on the particular
subject's facial structure and expression, so one should only use this as a rough guide.
*Note: "loop lighting" is another popular (and more commonly used) portrait style that is similar
to Rembrandt lighting, except the shadow underneath the nose doesn't fully extend to the
shadows on the far side of the face producing a "looped" diagonal shadow under the nose.

Short Lighting

Broad Lighting

However, with any rule there are exceptions, but usually only when this is in keeping with the
spirit of that rule. For example, a side-view portrait might not need a key triangle to convey a
sense of depth, but only if additional shadows have become visible on the side of the face (such
as in the example to the left).

Furthermore, Rembrandt lighting is just one style amongst many, and each subject is a little
different. For example, one might want hard side-lighting to accentuate a man's facial hair, or to
convey symmetry by only illuminating half the face. The key is knowing how to use light to
emphasize depth, shape or texture depending on your artistic intent.
Two other common styles include short lighting and broad lighting. These are used when the
subject's face is oriented at an angle. Short lighting illuminates the full face and leaves the near
side of the head in shadow, whereas broad lighting illuminates the near side of the head and face
but leaves the far side of the face in shadow. These and other portrait lighting styles will be the
subject of a future tutorial.

CONCLUSIONS & FURTHER READING

In general, the goal of portrait lighting is to achieve softer light. This makes a subject's features
appear smooth and gradual, and makes skin texture appear softer. Achieving softer light requires
making the apparent size of the light source bigger. This can be done by either (i) moving the
light closer, (ii) increasing its physical size, or (iii) bouncing this light off of or diffusing it
through other objects.
However, the choice of lighting direction is definitely more subjective than that of hard or soft
light. Even so, two lighting orientations are usually considered undesirable: lighting from
underneath and directly from the front. The former isn't something that appears natural, and the
latter destroys the portrait's sense of depth. In any case, one generally wants to portray their
subject in a flattering light, but each subject is unique and may require a different treatment.
Regardless of the above choices, the key is to envision your artistic intent at the start, and then to
adjust your lighting setup to achieve that goal.
To continue reading on this topic, also see part 2 of this tutorial:
Portraits with Two Light Sources: Adding a Fill Light
For other similar topics, also visit the following tutorials:

Camera Flash: Appearance

Discusses how to control the quality and appearance of light from a flash.

Our Interactive School of Portraiture (in the forums)

In particular, take a look at lesson 2: lighting and lesson 3: positioning.

PORTRAIT FILL LIGHTING

A second light source usually called a fill light or fill flash can greatly improve portrait
lighting. It reduces the depth of shadows and softens the appearance of facial features, amongst
other traits. Best of all, a fill light is easy to create: either a simple on-camera flash or a reflector
is often sufficient. However, a second light source can just as easily harm portraits. This tutorial
therefore focuses on how to control the location and intensity of the fill light in order to produce
a desired portrait appearance.

Harsh Overhead Sunlight

Sunlight with a Fill Flash

If you haven't done so already, also take a look at the first part of this tutorial:
Introduction to Portrait Lighting: One Light Source

OVERVIEW: TWO LIGHT SOURCES

With a single light source, the most important considerations were its direction and apparent size.
While these have the same effect with a second light, they aren't typically varied independent of
the main light. Instead, what's usually adjusted is the relative illumination of the secondary
light compared to the main light. This controls how much the second light will "fill in" the
shadows from the main light, and is why a secondary light is usually referred to as the fill light or
fill flash:

Harsh Overhead Sunlight

Sunlight with a Fill Flash

note: diagrams show the effect of a fill light, not necessarily its ideal position (more on this later)
Perhaps the most common lighting scenario is to use an on-camera flash as the fill light, and
sunlight as the main light. One could also use a secondary flash as a fill light in the studio, or
could even use ambient light as the fill light and instead have the flash be the main light. There
are many possibilities. The key is knowing how to control the qualities of your fill light
regardless of what source is being used to create it.

FILL LIGHT RATIOS

The terms "flash ratio" and "fill light ratio" describe* the relative amount of light from the main
and secondary light sources, and effectively determine the overall contrast. For example, a value
of 1:4 means that the fill light is a quarter the intensity of the main light. More balanced ratios
produce weaker shadows:

0:1

1:8

Choose a Fill Light Ratio:

1:4
1:2
Fill Light Ratios:

1:1

0:1
no fill light

1:8 - 1:2
weaker fill light

1:2 - 1:1
stronger fill light
Portraiture typically appears better with a flash ratio near 1:2. This is strong enough to
produce subtle shadows, but not so strong that it eliminates shadows entirely (causing the subject
to be appear flat).
However, one should always be wary of such seemingly strict rules in photography. Less fill
light is often used for dark, "low key" style portraits with well-defined shadows. Similarly, more
fill light might be necessary to render a brighter "high key" style, or just to provide a softer

appearance (such as with a photograph of a baby). When in doubt though, the 1:2 ratio is a safe
starting point.
*Note: These terms can be a little confusing, because a "fill light ratio" refers to the ratio
between the secondary and primary sources of light, whereas the "flash ratio" refers to the ratio
between the light from the flash and ambient light. To make matters worse, sometimes the ratio
is used to describe the ratio between total light (ambient+flash) and that from flash alone. The
numbers are sometimes also reversed, but the smaller number always refers to the fill light. We'll
stick to the same definition throughout this tutorial, and since we'll only discuss scenarios where
flash is weaker than other light sources, both terms are synonymous.

FILL LIGHT LOCATION

Unlike the main light source, the simplest location for a fill light is near the camera's line of
sight ("on-axis"), but not so close that it appears in your image. That way, any shadows cast
by the fill light won't be visible from the camera's perspective, so it won't matter if these appear
hard (due to a small source). Perhaps the easiest way to achieve this type of fill light is to use a
built-in or on-camera flash.

On-Axis Fill Light

(shadows fall behind the subject)

Off-Axis Fill Light

(shadows fall across the subject)
On the other hand, an on-axis fill light might be too restricting, and has a higher chance of
producing direct reflections off the subject. Many therefore use a fill light which strikes their
subject from a direction which partially opposes the main light ("off-axis"). This targets main
light shadows more efficiently even if the fill light ratio remains unchanged and is
therefore also less likely to affect the overall exposure.

Choose
a Fill Light:

Off-Axis
Hard

Off-Axis
Soft

On-Axis
Hard

The square light represents the main light, and the octagonal disc represents the fill light.
Above example uses a 1:1 fill ratio in order to improve visibility of fill shadows.
However, off-axis fill has its own disadvantages, with perhaps the worst being that one now has
to worry about the appearance of shadows from the fill light. If these aren't made sufficiently
soft, they can cause unrealistic-looking double shadows. To counteract this, the further a fill
light is placed from the camera's line of sight, the larger that light source needs to be. Move
your mouse over the selections above to see this effect.
Note the second shadow to the right of her nose with the "off-axis hard" fill lighting. Also note
how the on-axis fill light avoids producing double shadows even though it is a small (hard)
source, but that it doesn't eliminate the shadows as thoroughly (even though it uses the same 1:1
fill light ratio).
Also keep in mind that off-axis fill lighting requires a more complex lighting arrangement, and is
therefore usually reserved for portraits in a studio. An off-axis fill light also technically isn't a
true fill light, since it cannot lighten all shadows visible to the camera just those from its
direction. For example, in the above portrait, the off-axis light is unable to reduce the shadows
behind the hair on the upper right.

FILL FLASH CAMERA SETTINGS

Many only use flash when their scene has insufficient light for a hand-held photograph, but
doing so misses out on perhaps an even more useful function: fill flash. Although it might seem
counter-intuitive, portrait flash is perhaps most useful when there is plenty of sunlight.
Fortunately, most cameras default to using their flash as a fill flash when the subject is well-lit*
but only if you force the flash to fire.
Cameras usually default to a flash ratio near 1:1, but this can be substantially off because it relies
on your camera's metering system. To fine-tune this ratio, you'll want to apply flash exposure
compensation (FEC). This modifies the amount of flash that your camera would otherwise emit,
while leaving the other exposure settings unchanged.
*Note: Well-lit means that your camera doesn't deem camera shake to be a threat, which usually
translates into having an exposure time that is shorter than about 1/60 of a second.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
Other important fill light techniques and considerations include:
Natural Fill Lighting. Thus far we've focused on scenarios where natural light is the main light
source, and the camera's flash is used as the fill light. However, these roles could easily be
reversed. The source of natural light usually needs to be soft though, such as from an overcast
day or a subject in the shade. One also typically needs an off-camera or bounced flash in order
for this to produce optimal results (see the discussion about lighting direction in the tutorial on
portrait lighting).

Reflectors. These make a single light source illuminate a subject from a second direction. The
reflection is dimmer than the main light, so reflectors are most commonly used as a fill light. An
added benefit is that this light can easily have the same white balance as the main light, if
desired. However, a disadvantage is that reflectors often don't provide enough light (even for a

fill light). This is highly dependent on the reflectivity of the material, in addition to its distance
from the subject. To increase illumination, reflectors are therefore usually placed as close to the
subject as possible often just outside the image frame.
Subject-Background Separation. With natural light portraits, a fill flash can help create
additional subject-background separation, since the flash is likely to provide a lot more
illumination to the (closer) subject than the (further) background. You can control the strength of
this effect by (i) moving closer to your subject and/or (ii) moving your subject further from the
background.

low ambient light

Ambient Light. All scenes have some amount of fill light regardless of whether this has been
added intentionally. Light from the main source bounces off walls and other objects, which
collectively acts as a fill light. Shadows are therefore never fully black, and the actual amount of
fill light is usually a little higher than that provided by your fill flash. However, studio lighting
can still achieve very high contrast.

SUMMARY & FURTHER READING

Overall, the most important fill light choices are:

Location: whether to place the fill near your camera's line of sight (on-axis), or off to the
side (off-axis). On-axis fill is easier since one doesn't have to worry about how shadows
appear, but off-axis fill gives more flexibility with placement and control over the
appearance of reflections.

Fill Ratio: the relative strength of your fill light, as compared to the main light. A good
starting point is typically one part fill light for every two parts main light (denoted as a
1:2 ratio), but this will also depend on where your fill light has been located.
For background reading on this topic, also see part 1 of this tutorial:
Introduction to Portrait Lighting: One Light Source

For other similar topics, also visit the following tutorials:

Camera Flash: Appearance

Discusses how to control the quality and appearance of light from a flash.

Our Interactive School of Portraiture (in the forums)

In particular, take a look at lesson 2: lighting and lesson 6: studio lighting.

NATURAL LIGHT IN PHOTOGRAPHY

Paying more attention to light is perhaps the single most important step you can take to improve
your photography. With many landscapes, having good natural lighting can even be more
important than the choice of subject itself. Different types of natural light can also produce a
wide variety of subject appearances even though these all have the same light source. Learn
how to achieve the right light for your subject by utilizing the unique qualities of your particular
time of day and weather.

Flat Natural Light

Better Natural Light

Three factors influence how natural light renders a subject: time of day, camera direction and
weather. We'll first explore time of day under clear skies, then move onto specific weather
conditions; lighting directions will be saved for a future tutorial.

OVERVIEW

Even though all natural light originates from the sun, a subject's illumination is actually
comprised of several components:
Direct Sunlight
(warmer, high contrast)

Diffuse Skylight
(cooler, low contrast)

Bounced Light
(has qualities of reflecting object)

Move your mouse over each lighting component above to isolate its effect.
Depending on the time of day, the relative amount of each component changes resulting in an
overall illumination with a different white balance or contrast. We'll start with astronomical high
noon (when the sun is at its highest), then see what happens as the day progresses to sunset (or
reverses to sunrise).

Time of Day
1. Midday
2. Evening & Morning
3. Golden Hour & Sunrise/Sunset
4. Twilight, Dawn & Dusk

Contrast
Highest
High
Medium
Low

Colors
Neutral White
Slightly Warm
Warm to Fiery
Cool Pastel

Direction of Sun
Near Vertical
Mid to Low
Near Horizontal
Below Horizon

note: the contrast characteristics are intended only for clear skies
Time of Day. Further from high noon, the sun dips closer to the horizon. This results in lower
contrast, because sunlight has to pass through more atmosphere, and more easily bounces off the
ground toward the subject. In addition, the atmosphere selectively filters more of the sun's blue
light resulting in warmer light overall.
Weather. Along with time of day, the type and extent of cloud cover is the other most influential
cause of lighting variation. It primarily influences lighting because it changes the balance

between direct sunlight and diffuse skylight, which in turn affects the apparent contrast and color
temperature of the light source. We'll discuss this more at the end.

CLEAR MIDDAY SUNSHINE

Midday lighting is primarily comprised of direct, downward sunlight. Such light has little chance
to scatter and diffuse through the atmosphere, or to bounce off the ground and illuminate the
subject indirectly. This results in the hardest and most neutrally-colored lighting of any time of
day, and is typically the least desirable type of natural light.
Due to these drawbacks, too often photographers put their camera away potentially missing
unique opportunities. For example, water may appear more transparent, since light penetrates
deeper and direct reflections off the surface are less likely. Alternatively, other types of
photographs are more about capturing a particular event, as opposed to achieving an image with
optimal lighting.

Overcoming Unique Challenges. Just be aware that color saturation is typically lower, and that
downward shadows generally don't produce flattering portraits, or make other subjects appear as
three-dimensional. Many photographers encourage liberal use of polarizing filters to manage
contrast, since this is often when they're most impactful, but at this time these can also more
easily make the sky appear unnaturally dark and blue. If shadows appear too harsh and colors
aren't sufficiently saturated, try converting to black and white, since these may even benefit from
the high contrast of midday light.

EVENING & MID-MORNING

Evening and mid-morning light becomes slightly warmer, and begins to cast noticeable shadows.
Since direct light now originates from an upper side, subjects often appear much more three
dimensional. Such lighting is usually much more predictable than sunsets and sunrises, primarily
because this time is less dependent on the effect of surrounding mountains, or the location of the
cloud line.

Overcoming Unique Challenges. Mid-evening and morning has perhaps the most compromised
lighting: it's not as neutrally colored as during midday, but also not as warm or intense as a
sunset. It's also less harsh and originates from a better angle than during midday, but also isn't as
soft and diffuse as during twilight or overcast lighting. These qualities make it a good all-around
time of day for photography, but also run the risk of making photos appear too ordinary, since
one cannot use any uniquely exaggerated lighting traits to emphasize particular features in their
subject.

GOLDEN HOUR & SUNRISE/SUNSET

The hour just before sunset and just after sunrise (the "golden hour") is typically regarded as
having the most desirable light for photography. This is characterized by horizontal light that
casts long shadows and gives subjects a warm glow.
Sunsets and sunrises make for exciting and highly varied lighting, primarily because these are
heavily influence by subtleties in the weather. Clouds are rendered using sunlight which reflects
off them from underneath as opposed to sunlight which has diffused through them from above
potentially causing the sky to light up with a soft, warm light.

Overcoming Unique Challenges. Sunsets and sunrises are often spectacularly vibrant in person,
but this isn't always translated well into an image. Make sure that your camera's auto white
balance doesn't counteract an otherwise warm-looking scene, or that the color saturation isn't
overly conservative to minimize the risk of color clipping. Ironically, when the lighting is most
dramatic is also when your camera is most likely to make an error with its exposure; try to take
several photos, or use partial or spot metering just in case.
Sunrise vs. Sunset. Although sunsets and sunrises are in theory identical, weather patterns can
cause these to be consistently different, so many photographers prefer one over the other. Some
find that they're more prepared to photograph during sunset over sunrise, because light quality
builds steadily prior to a sunset whereas with sunrises, the light often starts at its best and
gradually fades. In addition, being awake and on-location for a sunrise is often impractical in the
summer months. On the other hand, sunrise photography is usually void of potentially distracting
crowds, and more often has a low-laying mist and dew on foliage. Sunrises often also have a
calm, quiescent quality particularly with scenes involving water that isn't present during
sunsets.

TWILIGHT, DAWN & DUSK

Twilight, dawn and dusk typically describe the half hour before sunrise or after sunset when
the sky is still bright but there's no longer any direct sunlight. The primary source of light
effectively becomes the entire sky, with one side appearing warm and reddish and the other
becoming a cool blue or purple. This can produce wonderfully soft, multicolored lighting that
gives a calm, peaceful mood to subjects.

Overcoming Unique Challenges. Perhaps the biggest disadvantages are the lack of contrast and
ambient light. Hand-held shots are therefore rarely possible, and achieving a sufficient sense of
depth may require more attention to composition. Cameras also often over-expose twilight
scenes when using automatic exposures potentially washing out the otherwise delicate colors
since twilight almost never contains any fully white objects.

Alpenglow. If you're lucky, a phenomenon called "alpenglow" may appear as a red or pinkish
glow in the sky furthest from the setting sun, but it's never a guarantee. Alpenglow can be a
helpful effect for extending a sky's warmth well beyond sunset.

SHADE & OVERCAST SUNLIGHT

Shade and overcast light typically have a cool, soft appearance, since the source of such light is
spread across the entire sky, and doesn't include any direct sunlight. Textures therefore appear
much subtler, and reflections on smooth surfaces are more diffuse and subdued. The color of
such light is also more heavily influenced by bounced light from nearby objects, so subjects
shaded by foliage can even incur a greenish tint.
Many photographers shy away from this type of lighting, but doing so is often a mistake. For
example, depending on the degree of cloud cover, bright overcast light can actually be ideal for
outdoor portraits and wildlife (as long as the cool white balance is corrected), since it doesn't cast
harsh shadows across the subject's face. Bright overcast light may also enhance close-up
photography, such as with flowers, since the appearance and saturation of colors usually
improve. Alternatively, low contrast light can also be better when the subject itself is high in
contrast, such as subjects containing both dark and light colors.

Overcoming Unique Challenges. A common trick is to keep the gray sky out of the photo
unless the clouds are particularly moody and highly textured. Since shadows play much less of a
role, achieving a sufficient sense of depth may be difficult just as during twilight but this
time one also doesn't have the appealing pastel lighting to compensate. Images straight out of the
camera often appear more bluish than desired, so shooting in RAW and adjusting the white
balance afterwards is also encouraged. Liberal use of the levels tool and curves tool may also be
helpful if one wishes to use the full contrast range in a print.

OTHER SPECIFIC WEATHER CONDITIONS

Weather is effectively just a massive filter that lies between the sun and your subject. At one
extreme, light could be relatively warm and highly localized, such as sunlight from a clear sky.
At the other extreme, light could be cooler and envelop the subject, such as diffuse sunlight
through a densely overcast sky. The thickness and extent of cloud cover is what decides where in
this continuum your particular weather will have its effect.

When the sky is partly cloudy, one can effectively use the sky to paint their scene with light if
one is willing to wait for just the right moment. This is an excellent and often overlooked
opportunity, especially during the middle of the day.
Alternatively, stormy weather can produce extremely high contrast light since rain clears the air
of haze and dust. Sunsets after a storm are also often the most dramatic, in part because the sky
can become much darker than the land providing a nice high contrast backdrop for front-lit
subjects. This is also when rainbows are most likely to appear.

Evening Light During Stormy Skies

Selective Light from Partly Cloudy Skies

Other scenarios include photography in the fog, mist or haze. This not only greatly decreases
light's contrast just as during an overcast day but also does so progressively for more
distant objects.

FURTHER READING
We also have an online tool which will automatically calculate your times and direction:
Sunrise, Sunset & Twilight Calculator for Photography
For similar topics, also visit the following tutorials:

Understanding White Balance

Discusses the types and terminology of light's color temperature.

Introduction to Portrait Lighting: One Light Source

Understand how light influences the appearance of a portrait.

Photography in Fog, Mist or Haze

Learn how these unique weather conditions influence lighting.

Common Obstacles in Night Photography

An introduction to some of the challenging technical hurdles.