NTNU

Norwegian University of
Science and Technology

Faculty of Information Technology,

Mathematics and Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical Power Engineering

PRELIMINARY PROJECT DESCRIPTION

For

Doctoral-student Eilert Bjerkan

JUNE 2002

TITLE:

High Frequency Modelling of Power Transformers,

- Condition Monitoring and Fault Detection

THIS PROJECT IS FUNDED BY:

The Research Council

Of Norway
Rev.1.0b

CONTENTS
Background............................................................................................................................................3
Project outline.....................................................................................................................................3
Modelling ............................................................................................................................................4
Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) ..................................................................................................5
Modelling Power Transformers...........................................................................................................7
Measurements .....................................................................................................................................7
Inductances .........................................................................................................................................7
Capacitances .......................................................................................................................................8
Conductor Losses ................................................................................................................................9
Iron Core.............................................................................................................................................9
Equivalent circuit ................................................................................................................................9
Methods ...............................................................................................................................................9
Financial support and plan of progress ............................................................................................11
Courses..............................................................................................................................................11
Industrial co-operation .....................................................................................................................11
Academic Relations...........................................................................................................................12
Publications ......................................................................................................................................12
Writing...............................................................................................................................................12
References ............................................................................................................................................13
Appendix ..............................................................................................................................................13

Page 2 of 14

BACKGROUND
PROJECT OUTLINE
This project is a part of a principal project at SEfAS (Sintef Energy Research AS) named:
Transformer winding ageing, condition control and condition assessment. My project will be
focusing on high frequency modelling of power transformers aiming at a model based on geometrical
and constructional information from the manufacturer. This model will be used within simulations of
transients regarding both the retroaction from the transformer to the network (terminal model) and the
internal voltage distribution within the windings (requires a higher degree of accuracy than the
terminal model).
The model shall also be applicable in relation to condition monitoring (techniques like FRA, which is
described in the following). It is desirable to be able to investigate the sensitivity of FRA to different
faults in transformer windings. This investigation should be based on both modelling, experiments on
reduced scale models and real scale transformers. It will also be important to reveal the relation
between the type of fault changes and portions of the frequency response (deformations: radial/axial),
local short-circuits (inter-turn or turn-ground), winding slackness, changes due to aging of the
insulation (changes in capacitance etc.), influence of new compared to aged bushings, tap-changer
faults etc.)
Detailed modelling of windings and coils has been a fundamental problem for almost a century [1]. A
lot of effort is put into identifying correct models for different phenomenas. Abbetis electromagnetic
model [2] was a significant achievement, substituting at the time, complicated theoretical
calculations. Another major step in transformer modelling was the introduction of the computer,
which enabled engineers to solve large detailed network models.

In my doctoral study I will focus on high frequency modelling through analytical- and FEM-calculations. Such models have a wide area of appliance:
- Determining impulse-overvoltages in windings, during both design-stage and when coordinating
isolation-levels. The impulse strength is checked during factory acceptance tests.
- Understanding measurements and propagation of signals in windings due to partial discharges
(locating partial discharges).
- Analysing resonances in power networks and transformers (related to the first point).
- Understanding frequency response measurements when applied in diagnosis and condition
assessment.
The last application will be emphasized in my work.

Page 3 of 14

MODELLING
Several methods have been proposed during the years. One of the most complicated parts has been
the modelling of frequency-dependent properties of the inductances and losses. Fergestad and
Henriksen [3] made a major contribution regarding inductance calculations. In the last years several
publications [4], [7], [8], [9] have improved the accuracy of the models by correcting earlier
empirical calculations of losses and inductances.
When modelling a complex structure such as a transformer, one has to make certain simplifications to
keep the computing time on acceptable level. Typical power transformers have approximately a
thousand turns in the HV-winding. For network investigations the winding assembly is represented
by equivalent elements, also called lumped elements. An accurate calculation requires about 200 to
400 elements according to [5]. Depending on the required precision, a lump element can represent
one to twenty turns. A typical model [5] has about 10 terminals, 30 tappings and 300 internal winding
nodes.

Figure 1: A double disk model (3 x 2 turns. Mutual inductances not shown).

In figure 1 an equivalent model of a double disk is shown. This model is normally reduced in the final
model (dependent on needed accuracy), but elementary parameters are usually computed by means of
this model. The node- (and branch-) elements, are as mentioned above, a result of a reduction of
several disc (or other low-level) models.
Software-packages for modelling transformers are also developed [5], [6]. These claim to calculate an
accurate high frequency-model from constructional data. Hopefully I will, during my work, be able to
evaluate some of these programs (or even make my own software) through comparing with my own
models. In addition to those mentioned above, all transformer manufacturers/designers have some
sort of software to verify their designs regarding transients and oscillations inside the windings. But
these are naturally commercial secrets, and not available to the public. At present, a stay at EdFs
R&D-dept.[6] are being arranged.
Page 4 of 14

FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS (FRA)

FRA is, during the last decade, introduced as a new technique for power transformer diagnosis. The
frequency response is measured and compared with:
A reference-measurement
On a new transformer
As a part of a factory test
Finger-print (later)
Measurement on identical transformer
Measurement on neighbour phases
Calculations based on transformer model

Figure 2: A typical FRA-measurement set up

The reason for performing such measurements is to get an early warning of winding deformations
caused by short circuit forces. A short-circuit-fault creates huge mechanical forces within the
windings. Mechanical deformations can occur when the short-circuit strength is reduced due to
ageing (e.g. winding slackness). Typical deformations are buckling (radial deformation) and
compression (axially deformation). Such deformations do not always degrade the normal operational
characteristics of the transformer, but the insulation level may be degraded severely. And if not
detected, the next fault can be fatal.
In my work I will try to identify the characteristics of the most common faults in the frequency response measurements through modelling (applying faults to the model). I will also try to analyse the
sensitivity of FRA by taking measurements on full-scale transformers and comparing these with
models of the same transformers. Identifying the optimal FRA-measurement technique, could also be
a part of my work.
The first transformer I will study is a 20MVA transformer (Ynyn0) manufactured in 1965. This was
scrapped due to its age, when the utility upgraded their voltage-levels. The iron core is removed
(mostly due to practical transportation aspects and available space in the laboratories). I will try to
refine the measurements by using single windings within an earthed arrangement inside our
laboratory to simplify comparisons between measurements and model.
Several different measurements are recently taken on two identical 290 MVA generator step-up
transformers. One without bushings and oil (open delta) and one completely assembled (closed
delta).
Page 5 of 14

The useful frequency-range for FRA-measurements is not fully understood.

100 kHz 1MHz could be a good starting point [15], but higher frequencies could be necessary when
detecting small deformations. This has to be investigated more thoroughly.
There are two main measurement set-ups usually applied:
Admittance measurements:
The admittance is measured either into a
bushing or through a winding or even between
two windings
as shown below.

Voltage ratio measurements:

The voltage ratio transfer functions are
measured between windings or through a
winding (from bushing to neutral). This
method is found to be the most promising
method since it seems to give the best
sensitivity[15]. Neutrals grounded/ungrounded

Figure 3: A simplified test set up for

admittance measurements

Figure 4: A simplified test set up for voltage

ratio measurements

Page 6 of 14

MODELLING POWER TRANSFORMERS

Traditionally some of the assumptions made, include linear and isotropic mediums. However, in the
reality such relations are not quite that simple. Magnetic materials are often anisotropic, non-linear
and hysteretic. In dielectric materials, various relaxation phenomenas are present, which in turn gives
frequency dependent capacitances and losses/conductances.
Constructional details such as the tap-changer, bushings, connections/leads, static plates, etc. must be
considered as well.
A major problem when modelling power transformers is to define an electrical mesh of the windings
fine enough to satisfy the requirements regarding accuracy and frequency range, but still have
reasonably low CPU-consumption (computing-time). The optimal mesh is found through experience
and with trial and error methods.
Ive recently initiated modelling of skin effect and proximity effect on transformer windings. Basic
simulations are made using FEM-calculations (FEMLAB/MATLAB). Ive also calculated estimates
of inductances in the windings using air-core theory [13]. This is mainly to start using the theory
found in literature. I will later on try to implement the influence of the iron core. The most timeconsuming part of this project will be the implementation of the routines that calculate all the
elementary winding parameters especially the mutual inductances, or the leakage inductances. These
routines will reduce the system to a manageable size and then solve it with a view to generate a
modal parameter model. The last routine will finally make an equivalent circuit based on the modal
parameters for use in EMTP.
MEASUREMENTS
Preliminary FRA-measurements from several transformers are used as references when complete
models are developed. I will also try to simulate deformations in the windings and compare these
with measurements on damaged windings.
An alternative method when making a terminal model of the transformer is to use black boxmodelling. Measurements are made between all the bushings to establish the admittance-matrix.
These measurements are used as input to an algorithm developed by Gustavsen and Semlyen [14].
The output is a rational approximation for the measured frequency domain responses. These
approximations gives a transfer function expressed by a number of poles and zeros, which in turn can
be used to calculate modal parameters of an equivalent circuit. This circuit can be used in programs
such as ATP, EMTP, EMTDC, SABER, PSPICE etc. for transient simulations.
The same method can be used on specific parts of the transformer such as the bushings and tap
changers, where traditional/ constructional modelling might be insufficient.
INDUCTANCES
The greatest challenge will be to find/develop and apply the best approach for modelling self- and
mutual inductances. Abetti and Maginnis [10] proposed a method of including the iron core, by
increasing the diameter of the turns. Fergestad and Henriksen [3] found this approach unsatisfactory.
Their proposal was to separate the magnetic flux into two parts: one that flows in the core and links
all the winding sections and one that partly links the winding sections. The last part is modelled by
leakage inductances resulting in an analytical solution of a series of modified Bessel functions and
Struve functions, based on [11], [12].
Page 7 of 14

Both Fergestad et.al.[3] and de Leon [8] neglect the frequency-dependent boundary conditions at the
iron core surface, which could be a rough approximation. Wilcox et. al. [4] derives an expression for
inductances between turns on a ferromagnetic core. The result is an integral of modified Bessel
functions. His method considers skin effect and core losses, but presumes a solid core. The result can
be applied for laminated cores, if the resistivity is replaced by an equivalent resistivity (this implies
measurements on the laminates).
Holmberg [9] proposes to use the high frequency boundary condition instead of the traditionally low
frequency boundary condition. But in his models he use FEM-calculations to find the leakage field,
and also FEM-models coupled to lumped parameters. When doing modelling based on self and
mutual inductances, the result can be ill-conditioned equations since the self and mutual inductances
(due to the iron core) are almost equal. Holmberg has proposed to bundle the mutual inductances in
groups to make the system easier to solve.
Fergestad and Henriksen [3] concluded due to measurements that the permeability was independent
of frequencies above 50 kHz (and up to 200 kHz). Reported FRA-measurements have shown
interesting results up to (and above) 1 MHz thus implying that this simplification may not be
adequate.
CAPACITANCES
Traditionally, high frequency models are based on a frequency independent permittivity.
For very fast transients this approximation should be reconsidered.
For transformer oil there is certain small changes in the permittivity above 1 MHz, but for oilimpregnated paper and pressboard there will most likely occur some sort of polarization below this
frequency, which leads to dielectric losses (frequency dependent) and a decrease of the permittivity.
Fergestad and Henriksen [3] uses the following values in their work (table 1):

Paper
Pressboard
Oil

Relative permittivity - r
Oil-impregnated Non-impregnated
3,3
2,2
4,4
3,5
2,2

Table 1: Relative permittivity

Frequency [MHz]
0
1
10
100

Relative permittivity
2,8
2,7
2,5
2,3

Table 2: Rel. permittivity of transformer oil

The values of table 2 show the frequency-dependence of transformer oil taken from a Cole-Cole-plot
in [16] with maximum dielectric losses at about 30MHz. In a real transformer the capacitances will
consist of several of the dielectrics mentioned in table 1.
When inter-turn and turn-ground capacitances are calculated, and the capacitance matrix obtained,
this matrix is transformed into a node capacitance matrix. The parameters are calculated on a turn-toturn basis, but several turns usually lumped in series to form sections, and thus reducing the model to
a manageable size.
Two main assumptions have been made in almost all high frequency models:
- The magnetic field generated by the displacement-currents in the winding is normally neglected.
- The EMF induced by time varying magnetic fields in the insulation is normally neglected.
However when simulating very fast transients these effects may have to be considered.

Page 8 of 14

CONDUCTOR LOSSES
Fergestad and Henriksen [3] implemented the conductances and branch resistances using empirical
data and constant parameters in lack of better methods. De Leon [8] used Foster equivalents to model
eddy current effects for full windings, while Holmberg [9] used Cauer-circuits. These cases (and the
following cases) will be discussed in detail later.
IRON CORE
A separate model for the iron core can be made to represent magnetization and damping produced by
the eddy currents in the laminations. Measurements may have to be performed at core material. The
Cauer circuit can be used to model the iron core and its non-linearities [9] (hysteresis and saturation).
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Normally a set of state equations are established from the different model matrices, and then solved to
obtain an equivalent circuit:
At the transformer terminals
interfaced with an electromagnetic transients program or
compared with FRA-measurements
To determine transfer-functions between different nodes in the winding model
(internal oscillations and stresses can be calculated).
METHODS
Methods of inductance calculations:
The overview of different methods when modelling transformer inductances is taken from [8] and
gives a short summary of the main streams in the computer modelling for analysis and design of
transformers:
-

Modelling based on self and mutual inductances. The first analytical attempt following this
approach was presented by Rabins [11] followed by among others Fergestad and Henriksen
[3], and then continued by Wilcox et. al. [4]. There are accurate formulas available for the
calculation of self and mutual inductances for the windings, sections, or turns of transformers.
However, due to the iron core, the numerical values of self and mutual inductances are very
close and this results in ill-conditioned equations.
Modelling based on leakage inductances. These models represent adequately the leakage
inductance of the transformer, but the iron core is not properly included. De Leon used this
method in his thesis work [8] combined with the following method:
Modelling based on the principle of duality. The iron core can be modelled accurately,
however, models based only on this approach do not represent the leakage inductances
correctly.
Modelling based on measurements (Black-box modelling). Tests are made for the
determination of the model parameters in the frequency domain or time domain. Such models
are limited because their performance can only be guaranteed for the tested transformers, and
the transformer has to be offline to make the measurements.
Analysis based on electromagnetic fields. Designers of large transformers use such
approaches to establish design parameters. The FEM-method is most used, but others are
available (BEM, FTD). There is a general agreement that three-dimensional field analyses are
necessary in the design process, but impractical in transient calculations, since it implies very
time and memory consuming simulations.

Page 9 of 14

Methods of capacitance calculations:

In the following some of the methods of capacitance-calculations will be listed:
-

Modelling using the charge simulation approach. A potential difference is applied between
one turn and all the others connected to each other and the core. A certain number of charges
are used to meet boundary conditions on the conductors and core. These assumptions are used
to calculate potential coefficients, which gives the turn capacitance matrixes.
Modelling based on [17]. The capacitances along the windings are calculated using the
geometrical dimensions of the windings. Capacitance between the windings and to the core is
calculated assuming that the windings can be treated as cylindrical capacitors. The formulas
compensate for the fringing at the end of the windings. Capacitance between phases and to the
tank is calculated approximately on a semi-empirical basis. This approach was used by
Fergestad and Henriksen [3].
Analysis based on Electromagnetic Fields. The FE-method and others are a common choice
when computing capacitances in transformer windings. These methods require a substantial
computing resources and a great deal of time spent modelling the geometry.

Methods of calculating eddy currents in conductors and the core.

Eddy currents in conductors arises from both skin effect and proximity effect. The skin effect
dominates the losses at low frequency, and the proximity effect at higher frequencies.
The main methodology for calculating losses in conductors are roughly given below (suggestion):
- The magnetic field in the window has to be estimated.
- The loss matrix is calculated containing the skin effect in the diagonal elements and the
proximity effect in the off-diagonal elements. This matrix is frequency dependent.
- The matrix is then preferably reduced to sections of the winding (discs).
- Time domain approximations of the losses can be done with a state equation model for the
voltage-drop caused by the eddy current in the windings, and then fitted using Foster circuits.
- The developed state equation model can then be implemented in the main model.

When it comes to methods of the remaining subjects, Ive just started studying the literature.
These are:
-Methods of including nonlinearities.
-Methods of establishing and solving the state-space equation-system.
As outlined earlier, these phenomenas will be discussed further in my thesis and in the next revision
of this project description.

Page 10 of 14

FINANCIAL SUPPORT AND PLAN OF PROGRESS

The plan of progress for my Dr.Ing-project is attached in appendix 1. This plan shows all the main
activities until the defence of the thesis (planned in late 2004).
The supervisor for my work is Associate Professor Dr.Ing Hans Kristian Hidalen.
The Royal Norwegian Research Council funds this project, and it is embedded in the "Industry and
Energy Division". (Homepage:http://www.forskningsradet.no/english/divisions/ie/index.html).
The project is scheduled for 4 years, including one year of duty-work for the University.
Until recently, preliminary FRA-measurements and some literature-study have been my main
activities, in addition to obligatory courses.
COURSES
The regulations of NTNU's Dr.Ing-study determine that a certain amount of courses has to be
attended. The first year, I have mainly been attending some of these courses. 6 of 9 courses are
passed. The reason for the delay of some courses is that some of them are lectured only every 2nd
year, and that others have collided (in my schedule).
INDUSTRIAL CO-OPERATION
So far Ive gained contact with a research-department within EdF (Electricit de France). EdF are
engaged in establishing a database on FRA for several transformers in their network. They have
developed a computer-software used for modelling power transformers [6]. They are doing research
within my field of work, and I will try to arrange a stay at their department for 3 months next year.
SEfAS (responsible for this project) have established contact with ABB (Norway, Sweden,
Switzerland) and IREQ (Canada) in the area of transformer diagnosis (including FRA). For some
time now Ive been co-operating with Svein Ola Lvlien and his colleagues at ABB AS in Drammen.
Mr. Lvlien has been a great resource to my work so far, supplying me with valuable knowledge and
constructional details of their transformers.
Ive also made contact with P. Fergestad [3] and E. Henriksen. These gentlemen have been involved
in industrial high frequency modelling for decades (both were previously employed at ABB Power
Transformers in Drammen, Norway).
T.Henriksen [3] is working at SEfAS and have been involved in many projects regarding modelling
of transformers. The plan is to include him as a co-adviser for discussing different methods of
modelling throughout my work.

Page 11 of 14

ACADEMIC RELATIONS
I also hope to establish contact with some of the universities doing research within my field of
interest. The goal of such relations is to develop a wider and more general approach to transformer
modelling.
Prof. Bruce Mork from Michigan Tech. University is currently visiting NTNU. He is focusing on
low- and mid-frequency-modelling, and has specialized in ferro-resonance and inrush phenomenas.
His stay at NTNU will hopefully give me an initial understanding of how it is possible to close the
gap between low- and high frequency transformer models.
B. Gustavsen (Employee of SEfAS) is presently on a one year stay at the University in Stuttgart
where hes working on black-box modelling of transformers [14]. The department he is working at
has done several experiments regarding the sensitivity of FRA [15], and I therefore hope to establish
contact with this department during my work.
P. Holmberg started working at ABB Corporate Research in Sweden after his dissertation [9], but has
now returned to Uppsala University. Ive established contact with him, and hopefully I may use him
as a critical resource when getting deeper into the world of transformer modelling.
PUBLICATIONS
At the end of my project Im aiming at publishing some of the results at international conferences
such as the IPST, IEEE, Nord-IS and others.
WRITING
Im in a very preliminary stage regarding my thesis, but I hope to start outlining the thesis as soon as
possible.
There will mainly be two parts, besides theoretical introductions:
- One part containing the theory behind transformer high frequency modelling in general,
and my work on transformer modelling.
- One part dealing with FRA, connected to simulations and experiments.
Possible publications will be referenced in the thesis.
Future versions of this project description, and other unrestricted documents (working notes, test
reports, papers etc.) will be available at:
http://www.elkraft.ntnu.no/~eilertb/PhD/

Page 12 of 14

REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]

Abetti, P.A., "Bibliography on the surge performance of transformers and rotating machines",
AIEE Trans., vol.77, pt.III Dec. 1958, 1958, pp.1150-68. First suppl., AIEE Trans., vol.81, pt.
III, Aug. 1962, pp. 213-219. Second. Suppl., IEEE Trans., vol. PAS-83, Aug. 1964, pp.855-58.
Abetti, P.A., "Transformer models for the determination of transient voltages", AIEE Trans.,
vol.72, pt.III, June 1953, pp. 468-80.
Fergestad, P.I., Henriksen, T., "Inductances for the calculation of transient oscillations in
transformer windings", IEEE Trans., 1974, PAS-93, (3), pp. 510-517
Wilcox, D.J, Hurley, W.G, Conion, M., "Calculation of self and mutual impedances between
sections of transformer windings", IEE proc. Vol.136, Pt.C, No.5, september 1989
Glaninger, P., Willy, B., "Calculation and visualisation of surge voltages in transformer
windings", Int. conf. on power transformers, may 2001
Guillot, Y., Moreau, O, Vo-Quoc, D., FRA-diagnostic method: Simulation applied to
sensitivity analysis and criteria derivation for mechanical shiftings", ISH 2001
J.Avila-Rosales, Modeling of the power transformer for electromagnetic transient studies,
Doctoral thesis, The University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA, 1980.
F. de Leon, Transformer model for the Study of Electromagnetic Transients, Doctoral thesis,
University of Toronto, 1992
P. Holmberg, Modelling the Transient Response of Windings, Laminated Steel Cores and
Electromagnetic Power Devices by Means of Lumped Circuits.,
Doctoral thesis, Uppsala University, 2000
Abetti, P.A., Maginnis, F.J, Natural frequencies of coils and windings determined by
equivalent circuit, AIEE Trans., Col.72, pt.III ,June 1953, pp. 495-504.
Rabins, L., Transformer reactance calculations with digital computers, AIEE trans., Vol.75,
pt.1, 1956, pp.261-67
Olaussen, E.M., Magnetiske felter og felt-avhengige strrelser i spoler og transformatorer,
lic.avh., NTH, 1971
Grover, F.W., Inductance Calculations. Working Formulas and Tables, D. van Nostrand
company Inc., 1946.
Gustavsen, B., Semlyen, A., Rational approximation of frequency domain responses by vector
fitting, IEEE Trans. on PD, Vol.14, Issue 3, July 1999, pp. 1052-61.
Feser, K., Christian, J., Sundermann, U., Loppacher, M., Practical use and limits of the
transfer function method for diagnoses of power transformers, ISH 2001
Sletbak, J. Kompendium i DIE1911 Elektrisk ledningsevne, dielektriske tap og Gjennomslag i
Fast og Flytende Hyspenningsisolasjon, Utgave 1998, NTNU, Inst. For elkraftteknikk.
Stein, G.M., A Study of the Initial Surge Distribution in Concentric Transformer Windings,
IEEE Trans., vol. PAS-83, Sept.1964, pp. 877-93

APPENDIX
1.

Plan of progress

Page 13 of 14

Appendix 1: Plan of progress

ID
1

ACTIVITIES:
Preliminary planning

Duty-work at university

3
4

Coarses (Total weighting: 19,5)

weighting: 10

weighting: 5

weighting: 4,5

Obligatory coarses finished

Litterature study

10

Preliminary measurements

11
12

Modelling/calculations

13

Calculation of parameters

14

Including conductor losses

15

Including iron losses

16

Refining model through comparison

17

Experiments/measurements

18

Experimental planning

19

Conduction of experiments

20

Investigating the sensitivity of FRA

21

Stay at EdF's R&D-dept. for 3 months

22

Publishing results

23

Work related to the thesis

24

Defence of the thesis

25

2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Kv4 Kv1 Kv2 Kv3 Kv4 Kv1 Kv2 Kv3 Kv4 Kv1 Kv2 Kv3 Kv4 Kv1 Kv2 Kv3 Kv4 Kv1 Kv2 Kv3 Kv4 Kv1 Kv2 Kv3