2008 International Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, Beijing, China, April 21-24, 2008

Frequency Response Analysis Status of the

worldwide standardization activities
A. Kraetge1, M. Krger1, P. Fong
1

OMICRON electronics GmbH, A-6833 Klaus, Austria

OMICRON electronics ASIA Limited, Harbour City Kowloon
alexander.kraetge@omicron.at

Abstract--Frequency response analysis (FRA) is a powerful

and sensitive tool to assess the mechanical and geometrical
integrity of core, windings and clamping structures within power
transformers, by measuring their transfer functions over a wide
frequency range. Despite a rapidly increasing number of users
throughout the world and a significantly growth of knowledge
about the application of the method, the only current, valid and
obligatory national standard is in the People's Republic of China.
Intensive work is being carried out in organizations such as Cigr
and IEEE to create international guidelines for the use of FRA.
The paper gives an overview about the status of this work.

transformer's active part. Therefore, it is consistent that

standardization organizations worldwide are working to
produce guidance documents to help ensure the technique is
used efficiently. An overview about the status of this work is
given in this article.

Index terms--power transformers, short circuit,

windings, deformation, core, damage, SFRA, frequency
response analysis, standardization.
I. INTRODUCTION

he deregulation of the electric power market involves

increasing of economic pressure which requires a
reduction in servicing and decreasing maintenance costs. On
the other hand, we face aged and aging transformer fleets
operating with increasing loads [1] all over the globe.
Therefore, the diagnosis of this apparatus becomes more
relevant in general but especially for strategically important or
particularly risky transformers. In the last few years a fastpaced technical development regarding various aspects of
measurements, data acquisition and analysis has taken place
across the world. Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) has
turned out to be a powerful and sensitive method to evaluate
the mechanical integrity of core, windings and clamping
structures within power transformers by measuring their
electrical transfer functions over a wide frequency range.
The core-and-winding-assembly of power transformers can
be seen as a complex electrical network of capacitances,
inductances and resistors (see fig. 1). The frequency response
of such a network is unique and, therefore, it can be
considered as a fingerprint.
Geometrical changes within and between the elements of
the network cause deviations in its frequency response.
Differences between an FRA fingerprint and the result of an
actual measurement are an indication of positional or electrical
variations of the internal components. Different failure modes
affect different parts of the frequency range and can usually be
discerned from each other. Practical experiences as well as
scientific investigations, show that currently no other
diagnostic test method can deliver such a wide range of
reliable information about the mechanical status of a
978-1-4244-1622-6/08/$25.00 2008 IEEE

Figure 1:Network behavior of a transformer's active part

II. STATE OF THE ART IN FRA

Commonly, two ways of performing an FRA measurement
are used. The method can be divided into Impulse-FRA (IFRA)
and Sweep-FRA (SFRA). The IFRA has been further
developed from the historical low voltage impulse method
(LVI) and is performed in the time domain. In the case of
IFRA measurement, the transformer under test will be excited
with a broadband pulse signal injected into one end of a
winding. The response signal is measured at the other end of
the winding. After signal processing in the form of antialiasing-filtering, windowing and FFT; the complex transfer
function results from the quotient between the Fourier
transformed output and input signals. In contrast to this, the
SFRA proceeds by injecting a sinusoidal signal of constant
amplitude and variable frequency into one end of a winding
and measuring the response, which is also a sine wave but
with different amplitude and phase, at the other end. Also in
this case, the transfer function results from a comparison of
the input and output signal. Since this method measures
directly in the frequency domain, no further signal processing
is needed. However, common for both types of FRA
measurements, is the principle of testing each winding of a
transformer separately. Based on a resulting set of FRA traces
(mainly the amplitude in dB shown over the frequency) an
evaluation of the transformer's mechanical condition can be

made. Three methods are commonly used to assess the

measured traces:
1.
2.
3.

Time-based (current FRA results will be compared to

previous results of the same unit)
Type-based (FRA of one transformer will be compared
to another of the same design)
Phase comparison (FRA results of one phase will be
compared to the results of the other phases of the same
transformer)

In all cases the changes of the measured transfer functions

can be very small. Therefore, a high reproducibility of the
measurement is of immense importance for a reliable
assessment of the tested transformer. To achieve this, the
measuring equipment should not have a measurable influence
on the FRA and the set-up should have little potential for error.
To guarantee that the measurements have good reproducibility,
it is necessary to follow some important guidelines for the
reference and subsequent measurements. The test circuit
should be made exactly the same for both measurements,
using the same equipment or at least equipment with the same
measuring behavior (IFRA or SFRA). Important parameters
are the measuring principle, the input impedance, the type of
cable and, particularly, the grounding concept. The grounding
of the measuring system and the coaxial measuring cables can
greatly affect the measurement. To minimize the influence of
the connection leads, it is very important to connect the
screens of the coaxial cables with the lowest possible level of
inductance and always in the same manner. While the
connections were made with wires in the first years of FRA
field use, modern measurement systems now use braids to
achieve a better repeatability and a smaller influence of
external noise [2]. With the rapidly increasing number of users
worldwide, the knowledge about the application of FRA is
growing fast and the quality of the test results is becoming
better, as trace interpretation skills are enhanced. All of this
has led to the development of the FRA method as a well
established and widely used diagnostic technique, resulting in
an urgent need for international standards.

test results based on a calculation of covariances as follows:

Assuming there are two transfer function amplitude sequences,
each with a length of N: X (k), Y (k), k = 0, 1, , N-1 and X
(k), Y (k)are real, then the relative factor R can be calculated
and an assessment of the transformer condition can be made as
follows [3,4]:
1. Calculate the standard variance of the two sequences:
N 1

N 1

Dx =

1
N

K =0

Dy =

1
N

1 N 1

Y (k ) - N Y (k )
K =0
K =0

X (k ) - N X (k )

(1)

K =0

N 1

(2)

2. Calculate the covariance of the two sequences:

C xY =

1
N

N 1

N 1

X(k) - N K0 X(k)
K 0
=

Y (k ) - N Y (k )
K =0

N 1

(3)

3. Calculate the normalization covariance factor of the two

sequences:
LRxy=Cxy /

Dx Dy

(4)

4. Calculate the relative factor Rxy meeting the project

requirements as per the following formula:
Rxy = 10

1 LR xy < 10 10

1g (1 LR XY ) others

5. Judge the degree of deformation of a transformer winding

as per Table 1:
TABLE I
RELATION BETWEEN RELATIVE FACTORS AND DEGREE OF
TRANSFORMER WINDING DEFORMATION

III. THE CHINESE STANDARD DL 911/2004

Winding Deformation degree

The first valid standard in the world was established in

China. It is centrally managed by the Technology Commission
for Electric Power Industry & High Voltage Test Technology
Standardization and was developed through the cooperation of
six national power engineering institutes. This standard only
refers to SFRA measurements, suggesting that IFRA
measurements is uncommon in China. It covers subjects
including the test principle, requirements for testing
instruments, testing methods and the analysis of the results.
An example is the measurement for Y-windings, for which the
standard requires the injection of the signal into the neutral
terminal and a measurement of the response at the phase
terminal. In two appendices, various test examples are given.
The standard evaluates a frequency range between 1 kHz and
1 MHz and is unique in that it gives a rule about how to judge

Severe Deformation

RLF < 0.6

Obvious Deformation

1.0> RLF 0.6 or RMF < 0.6

Slight Deformation
Normal Winding
Note:

Relative Factors R

2.0> RLF 1.0 or 0.6 RMF < 1.0

RLF 2.0, RMF 1.0 and RHF 0.6

RLF represents the relative factor when the curve is in low

frequency band (1kHz100kHz);
RMF represents the relative factor when the curve is in medium
frequency band (100kHz600kHz);
RHF represents the relative factor when the curve is in high
frequency band (600kHz1000kHz).

In the following, some examples are given to show the

application of this assessment. First, the outer HV phases of a

36-year-old transformer (40 MVA) after a refurbishment are
compared. Both traces show good congruity which is in
alignment with the known condition of the windings. The
assessment according to the Chinese standard confirms this
evaluation (green).

Figure 2: Assessment tool confirms healthy winding status

The second example shows HV winding test results

(middle phase) of two 63-MVA sister transformers. One
transformer has failed a dielectric test. The reason for this
turned out to be shorted turns, which are clearly visible on an
SFRA measurement and confirmed by the Chinese assessment
(red - indicating a severe problem).

detail.
As with the Chinese Standard, the IEEE will recommend a
three lead test system for source, reference and
measurement. This is in accordance with common scientific
knowledge and is supported by nearly all FRA test instrument
manufacturers. A difference to the Chinese standard is that the
IEEE draft recommends a signal injection into the phase and a
measurement at the neutral on Y-connected windings but this
issue may be a matter of further discussions at the next WG
meetings. In general both directions of measurements are valid
but deviations may occur between traces measured in different
directions.
The IEEE draft guide proposes additional tests to those
recommended by DL 911/2004,. Further information about the
mechanical status of the core-and-winding assembly can be
gained with inter-winding tests measuring the capacitive
coupling between, for example, HV and LV windings.
Another recommended test is the transfer admittance
measurement to assess the inductive coupling of different
windings on the same core leg.
The IEEE draft guide also gives assistance by providing a
mathematically-based trace assessment with cross-correlation
coefficients, although it should be noted that it is not planned
to recommend limiting values as are found in DL 911/2004.
The IEEE guide to FRA testing of power transformers
should be published at the end of 2008 and will be a step
forward for existing and prospective users of this technique.
More information about this work can be found on the
transformer committee homepage:
http://www.transformerscommittee.org/

V. STATUS OF THE WORK WITHIN CIGR

Figure 3: Failure clearly identified by the assessment tool

IV. STATUS OF THE WORK OF THE IEEE

In 2002 the IEEE established a Task Force (TF) concerned
with FRA and followed it up with a Working Group (WG)
founded in 2004. The scope of this WG, termed PC 57.149, is
the creation of a guide for the application and interpretation of
FRA for oil immersed transformers. The WG members meet
twice a year during the regular IEEE transformer committee
meetings and are working on draft specifications. As usual for
IEEE WGs, the members represent a balance between
transformer manufacturers, utilities and third parties including
consultants and test instrument manufacturers. The current
draft contains a detailed definition section, an FRA overview
with applications and a recommendation about the test
parameters. A second part describes test procedures and gives
tables of test connections for the most common transformer
types. The content of test records is given and in a final
section the analysis and interpretation of the test results is
dealt with. In an appendix, FRA theory is shown in more

The Cigr Study Committee (SC) A2 Transformers decided in 2003 to establish a Working Group on the
application of FRA to power transformers. This WG A2/26
with the title Mechanical Condition Assessment of
Transformer Windings using Frequency Response Analysis
(FRA) started its work in 2004. Members represent
universities, test instrument and transformer manufacturers,
testing companies and utilities. Since the kick-off, the WG has
met eight times. Two of these meetings were organized as
FRA test workshops; one in a German transformer factory and
the other in a 400kV substation in England. During these
workshops a large number of practical investigations were
performed. The objectives were to characterize differences in
currently- used measurement techniques (e.g. impulse vs.
sweep, measuring impedance, test leads set-up, etc.), to
compare different test types, to identify good FRA practices
and also to define practical limitations of FRA measurements.
A summary of the workshop results has been published in
Electra N228 in October 2006. The main results and
conclusions from the comparative testing were as follows: All
test equipment produced essentially the same measured
responses for the test objects over a mid-range of frequencies
from about 10 kHz to 500 kHz. The impulse methods were

unable to reproduce the low frequency response because of

digitizers set to acquire only the higher frequencies. Some
swept frequency methods also did not have sufficient dynamic
range to reproduce the typical 90 dB minimum obtained with a
50 Ohm measuring impedance. This is directly related to the
interpretation, since it is critical to be able to identify FRA
curve deviations induced by the measurement itself, to avoid
wrongly attributing them to a fault inside the transformer.
Figure 4 shows nine measurements, carried out at the same
bushing with different instruments using their own cabling
using various cabling practices. Above 500 kHz intensive
deviations are visible.

practical application of FRA. More information about this

work is available at the Cigr A2 homepage:
http://www.cigre-a2.org/
VI. CONCLUSIONS
All of the activities mentioned in this paper will support the
further development and acceptance of FRA as a reliable
diagnostic method for transformers.
VII. REFERENCES
[1]

[2]
-10

Amplitude (dB)

-20

[3]

-30
-40

[4]

-50
-60

[5]
-70
0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

Frequency (Hz)
T1

T2

T3

T4

T5

T10

T11

T52

T53

Figure 4: Test results obtained with various cabling practices at the

same 400-kV-bushing during a Cigr workshop

After the standardization of good cabling practice was

agreed by the WG-members, it was possible to get
reproducible results at the same bushing up to approximately
1.5MHz with different instruments (Fig. 5), which seems to be
sufficient for a reliable condition assessment [5].
0
-10

Amplitude (dB)

-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

Frequency (Hz)
T15

T32

T16

T33

T34

T35

T36

T38

T37

Figure 5: FRA results measured with the same instruments at the

same bushing as in fig. 4 but with standardized cabling

Finally, the WG worked out the best practice to take full

advantage of the proven sensitivity of FRA for condition
assessment of power transformers. The final WG report will
be published in early 2008 and the resulting brochure will be a
valuable source of information and a helpful guide for the

W.H. Bartley, Analysis of transformer failures, 36. Annual

Conference of engineering insurers, Stockholm, 2003
M. Krger, A. Kraetge, R. Wimmer, S. Tenbohlen, Influence of
Connection Technique on the Reproducibility of FRA measurements on
Power Transformers, Australasian Power Transmission & Distribution
(PT&D), Issue 1 2007, Brisbane, Australia, 2007
The Electric Power Industry Standard of Peoples Republic of China,
Frequency Response Analysis on Winding Deformation of Power
Transformers, China, 2005
R. Wimmer, S. Tenbohlen, K. Feser, A. Kraetge, M. Krger, J. Christian,
Development of Algorithms to assess the FRA, International
Symposium on High Voltage on High Voltage Engineering (ISH),
Ljubljana, 2007
Cigr WG A2/26, Mechanical condition assessment of transformer
windings using Frequency Response Analysis (FRA), Electra N228,
Paris, 2006