1

EPITHERMAL AND PORPHYRY ORE DEPOSITS:

Field aspects for exploration geologists.
SHORT COURSE powerpoint slide commentary
Greg Corbett,
Incomplete draft as 1 January 2014 (requires more source references)
Section 1. Introduction
Title This short course is constructed from analyses of many Pacific rim exploration
projects by an exploration geologists like ourselves. It arises from short courses the late Terry
Leach and I presented in the 1990s and so we draw on Terrys thinking derived from his
work with the Philippine geothermal systems. You will notice some conclusions drawn
herein from field studies need not agree with the published academic literature.
Keep in mind that in mineral exploration all our geological models are based upon the data to
hand at that time and so these interpretations constantly evolve as new data comes to hand.
2. There is a new short course manual in preparation to replace SP6 1998 this time to be
published by the Australian Institute of Geoscientists, but without Terry who passed away in
2007, although including material from a symposium the AIG ran in his honour.
3. At the end there is an exercise to test your skills
4. I will give you the answers at the end
5. Styles of magmatic arc Au-Cu mineralisation - This is the current classification of ore
systems
What I need to do in the introduction is introduce some of the terminology and concepts we
will be using.
I favour a magmatic source 5-10 km depth with migration of metals and volatiles into cupolas
at the tops of magma chambers and then into apophyses (bodies which extend from the main
body) to form porphyry Cu-Au-Mo mineralisation extending, as commonly spine-like bodies,
to as shallow as 1k from the surface, but generally deeper. Epithermal deposits occur within a
1km of the surface with a porphyry-epithermal transition as wallrock porphyry deposits we
will see later. Epithermal deposits are then divided between high sulphidation and low
sulphidation and LS into those best developed in magmatic arcs and those in strongly
extensional (rift) settings with more distal relationships to the magmatic source rocks and
more input of meteoric waters. Although the distinction between HS and LS was originally
defined on the basis of the sulphidation state of the ore minerals, it is better for
explorationists to think of two different ore fluid styles with associated variations in wall rock
alteration and ore and gangue minerals.
6. Subduction related magmatic arcs plan - Epithermal and porphyry ore deposits form within
magmatic arcs extending into back arc environments at subducting plate boundaries, here
about the Pacific rim. Mostly we are dealing with Tertiary to present magmatic arcs but also
older systems such as Ordovician in NSW and Cretaceous in Russia.
7. Cross section of magmatic arc Collision here between subducting oceanic plate and
continental plate might loosely correspond to parts of South America. For a large portion, but
not all of the ore deposits considered, we might have a situation of heavier oceanic crust and
scraped off overlying sediments subducting into the hot asthenosphere below lighter
continental crust. Here, dehydration and metasomatism reactions lead to the formation of
metal-volatile enriched melts which rise to initially develop porphyry deposits, then at higher

crustal levels with the interaction of ground waters in extensional settings lead to the
development epithermal deposits.
8. While porphyry and high sulphidation epithermal deposits dominate within andesitic
magmatic arcs some low sulphidation deposits, particularly the chalcedony-ginguro veins
occur in back arc settings, as well as within extensional potions of magmatic arcs.
9. Styles
10. Porphyry deposits are defined as related to porphyritic rocks and contain Cu-Au within
sulphides commonly with quartz veins, best developed where overprinting vein systems
result from emplacement of polyphasal porphyry intrusions and evolving into wallrock
porphyry mineralisation as part of the transition to epithermal.
11. Fluid flow in volcanic arcs - Terry talked about a change from conductive to convective
fluid flow within volcanic arcs as circulating hydrothermal cells result from the entry of
meteoric waters into the porphyry environment. We will see later banded epithermal Au veins
develop due to the combination magmatic and meteoric fluids within dilatant structures and
evolve during fluid migration to elevated crustal settings
12. Magmatic arc porphyry to epithermal - . and so we see a change in ore types during
that fluid evolution.
lets here introduce the different epithermal ore styles which host varying Au grades
but remember we will deal with all these in detail later
13. High and low sulphidation - Traditionally high and low sulphidation were divided by the
sulphidation state of characteristic ore minerals discussed in the geological literature, but
many explorationists prefer to consider the type of fluid which contributes to different ore
mineralogy and hydrothermal alteration.
Lets deal with low sulphidation Au-Ag first where mineralisation is derived from a dilute,
near neutral chloride fluid with sulphur as H2S and later we will discuss the zoned neutral
chloride hydrothermal wall rock alteration.
A composite ore fluid might contain metals and volatiles derived from the magmatic source
while quartz and adularia might be contributed from meteoric waters
14. Magmatic arc low sulphidation epithermal Au These deposits grade in two flow paths
moving away from the intrusion source as:
Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu dominated by auriferous pyrite with quartz
Carbonate-base metal Au comprising Au-Ag additional sphalerite>galena and minor
chalcopyrite or tennantite-tetrahedrite and quartz and important carbonate gangue
Epithermal quartz Au + Ag with very little gangue and bonanza high fineness free Au
15. Extensional low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag - A separate fluid flow path is recognised
in extensional settings such as back arcs, intra arc extension or temporally and spatially
strongly extensional portions of magmatic arcs as:
Quartz-sulphide
Polymetallic Ag-Au occurs as banded fissure veins similar to carbonate-base metal
Au but with more Ag in association with typically tennantite-tetrahedrite at depth
grading to argentite-acanthite and dominates in Latin America strongly extensional
settings.
Chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins comprise important components of chalcedony
gangue and mineralised ginguro bands. The term ginguro comes from 19 century
Japanese miners who recognised these black bands hosted most ore as electrum and
Au. These ore systems have been called adularia-sericite or quartz-adularia in the
geological literation but the focus here is upon the important vein minerals,
chalcedony and ginguro. Some people have mistakenly regarded adularia as essential
but it may occur only as wall rock alteration and lower temperature illite, not sericite
alteration is expected.

16. Two low sulphidation epithermal end members - So we see two epithermal end members
which contain bonanza Au and are derived from different fluid flow paths. Epithermal quartz
Au + Ag with generally high fineness free Au and very little gangue within magmatic arcs
overprinting carbonate-base metal Au and quartz-sulphide Au + Cu. On the other side in
strongly extensional settings banded chalcedony-ginguro veins contain Ag-rich electrum
deposited from a magmatic source and much of the gangue comprising chalcedony, adularia
and quartz pseudomorphing platy calcite deposited from meteoric-dominant waters. We will
look at this in more detail below.
17. Banded veins - Many epithermal veins are banded and we have long known that repeated
opening of the dilatant structure promotes multiple events of mineral deposition to give
elevated Au grades. However, we see quite different bands of mineralised black ginguro and
barren pale chalcedony bands and so the fluid which deposits these bands much change.
We can investigate one of the main reasons why some portions of epithermal veins, or entire
well banded veins, are mineralised and others barren.
18. Three end member fluids in epithermal vein formation - A magmatic source at depth
provides heat to drive circulating cells of hydrothermal fluids as well as metals and volatiles
while a dilatant structure undergoes repeated opening in order to host the banded vein.
Three vein mineralogy end members derived from three different fluid end members as:
A - Shallow opening of the structure might allow shallow circulating meteoric waters
to enter and deposit veins dominated clean chalcedony. These fluids have not come in
contact with the magmatic source for metals and so are barren.
B - Some circulating meteoric waters might circulate to a deeper level and entrain a
mineralised magmatic component and form meteoric-magmatic waters which deposit
chalcedony with disseminated sulphides and low grade Au mineralisation.
C - Occasional deep openings of the host structure may tap the magmatic source at
depth to provide a sulphide-dominant vein portion which commonly hosts most AuAg mineralisation.
This model answers the frequently posed question as to why some thick very nicely banded
chalcedony veins are barren and narrow more sulphide-rich veins are well mineralised.
19. Mineralised versus barren vein portions - and we should take this into account when
sampling many massive quartz veins might be barren whereas precious metals occur within
ginguro bands or sulphide vein portions while the chalcedony-quartz after platy calciteadularia vein portions commonly host very little Au-Ag. Many of us carried out character
sampling of vein portions to indicate these relationships, although this example could have
been done differently. Some recent discoveries have been made at sites such as Cerro Moro
where barren veins pass downwards into mineralisation.
20. Cracow gold mine Australia At the Cracow mine the banded white epithermal quartz
might only run a couple of grams while best grade occurs with sulphides and kaolin on the
hanging wall.
21. Fluid flow in magmatic arc hydrothermal systems - Returning to Terrys magmatic arc
fluid flow model we see near surficial locally evolved hydrothermal fluids become involved
in the ore forming process to provide high grade Au by mixing with rising ore fluids
Although the geological literature stresses boiling as a mechanism of Au deposition for these
veins, I wish to introduce you to mixing models to account for bonanza Au deposition.
22. Mixing models - We will see later how high grade Au is deposited by mixing with ore
fluids with:
Dilute meteoric waters,
Oxygenated ground waters which oxidise and destabilise the complexes carrying Au
and are evidenced by hypogene haematite,

The carbonate base metal Au deposits form by mixing or ore fluids with bicarbonate
waters. Here, CO2 exsolved from cooling intrusions and boiling depressurised
hydrothermal fluids, rises and condenses to form blankets of bicarbonate waters
which may vent to the surface to form travertine deposits. Mixing of these oxidising
waters with rising ore fluids promotes Au deposition with variations in carbonate style
and Au grade dependent on fluid pH, as we will see later.
H2S exsolved from cooling intrusions and boiling depressurised fluids rises and
oxidises above the water to form low pH acid sulphate waters which may collapse
back down into the hydrothermal system. Mixing of ore fluids with low pH waters is
an extremely efficient mechanism of Au deposition and accounts for considerable
bonanza Au deposition.
Terry and I argue, from our field studies, that while boiling deposits gangue minerals and
some generally lower grade Au, its importance as a mechanism for higher grade Au
mineralisation is way over-rated in the geological literature and prefer mixing as a
mechanism for the deposition of elevated Au grades in low sulphidation epithermal systems.
23. Sediment hosted replacement (or Carlin style) Au forms by the reaction of a quartzsulphide style fluid with reactive impure limestone or marl host rocks, typically in strongly
extensional settings, in order to facilitate flow of an intrusion-related fluid to elevated crustal
settings where As, Sb and Hg are common with Au.
24. High vs low sulphidation - The fluids responsible for the development of high
sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are a hot very low pH two phase fluid with sulphur as
SO2 which react with the wall rocks to provide a characteristic zoned acid alteration.
In this model I suggest there is a considerable separation between the intrusion source at
depth and the high sulphidation epithermal Au deposit at an elevated crustal setting with the
two linked by an intervening structural fluid flow path.
The ore fluid evolves as a plume of volatile-rich pressurised fluid leaves the magmatic source
and travels rapidly up the structure without reacting with the wall rocks or ground waters.
As it rises the plume becomes progressively depressurised and so the volatiles, mainly SO2
progressively come out of solution and oxidise to provide a progressively more acid fluid. So
we started with a hot neutral fluid at depth and by the time it rises to the epithermal level we
have a hot extremely acid fluid of a pH of 1 or 2.
25. High sulphidation epithermal Au - At the epithermal level the acid fluid rips through
permeable wall rocks to produce zoned hydrothermal alteration as it is cooled and neutralised
by reaction with wall rocks or entrainment of ground waters. The most acidic fluid produces
the central alteration zone characterised by removal of most components except silica and
perhaps rutile, along with silica deposition, to produce a characteristic texture termed residual
silica by some and vughy silica by others, and residual vughy silica herein. The hot acid fluid
becomes progressively cooled and neutralised by wall rock reaction resulting zoned
hydrothermal alteration which grades outwards from the fluid plumbing source as mineral
assemblages dominated by residual vughy silica to alunite, pyrophyllite-diapsore, dickite,
kaolin, illite by which time the fluid has been essentially neutralised.
We will see later that this fluid may break up into two phases with a later liquid phase
commonly depositing Au within enargite with associated barite and additional alunite.
It is possible to distinguish the hydrothermal alteration described later as advanced argillic
alteration, while mineralisation is described as high sulphidation epithermal Au.
26. El Indio
27. Styles of magmatic arc Au-Cu mineralisation - It is possible for ore fluids responsible for
high sulphidation ore systems to evolve to lower sulphidation, forming higher Au grades and
vastly improved metallurgy in spatially and temporally zoned hydrothermal systems. That is
the only place where I see intermediate sulphidation existing as tennantite-tetrahedrite

dominated mineral assemblages commonly with Fe-poor yellow sphalerite. Many of us

disagree with the use of the term intermediate sulphidation which should be regarded as a
subset of low sulphidation epithermal Au deposits. It is defined by Enaudi et al 2003 as Fepoor sphalerite but we see deposits with dark Fe-rich sphalerite included in the intermediate
sulphidation class group, more easily classified by the existing carbonate-base metal Au
classification. There are only two dominate ore fluid types low and high sulphidation with no
separate intermediate fluid, which only reflects the composite magmatic-meteoric nature of
the low sulphidation fluid. To use that classification in the field one would be forever going
back and forward between intermediate and low sulphidation. Furthermore, the original and
much older carbonate-base metal Au classification also allows for spatial and temporal
zonation and associated changes in Au grade. It is the practice in science to use the first
defined term, carbonate-base metal Au (Corbett and Leach, 1993 to 1998).
Evolution of ore fluids from high to lower sulphidation provides an explanation for the
formation of bonanza Au such as this at El Indio, which may be important as many high
sulphidation ores display difficult metallurgy.
28. Some tools we use in exploration
29. Porphyry-epithermal depoists
30. Prospecting above porphyry and epithermal deposits

Section 2. Hydrothermal alterat33ion in mineral exploration

1. Hydrothermal alteration in mineral exploration - This is the acid sulphate cap at Arcata,
Peru, localised on a major structure at about 5000m. The system is barren here but
mineralised at depth. What we want to do is use hydrothermal alteration to vector to
mineralisation.
2. Word slide
3. Common alteration mineralogy in hydrothermal systems Here Terry Leach plotted the
styles of alteration discussed in the geological literature with pH vs temperature showing the
minerals which develop under different alteration conditions.
Firstly we notice the styles of hydrothermal alteration as commonly used in the geological
literature are listed and colour coded on the figure. It is better to describe phyllic alteration
according to the minerals present such as silica-sericite-pyrite alteration but we are stuck with
these abbreviations, and so should understand them. However, one of the popular alteration
terms SCC not shown here is sericite-clay-chlorite, which results from two events earlier
high temperature phyllic alteration to produce sericite and later lower temperature argillic
which forms the clay.
As other factors influence the conditions of formation of individual minerals Terry hasnt
included the actual temperature and pH values which we will talk thru as I kept a copy of his
verbal notations of temperature and pH.
4. Common alteration mineralogy in hydrothermal systems with pH and temperature values
included We will work our way thru this figure.
Skarns in this bottom corner include those developed near porphyry intrusions from high
temperature neutral fluids and so we see zoned mineral assemblages which might grade from
garnet-wollastonite-magnetite to clinopyroxenes and more marginal calcite-bearing marble.
Prograde alteration grades outwards from the intrusion source at progressively lower
temperatures as potassic to inner then outer propylitic alteration, but similar pH.
Potassic alteration formed at high temperature closest to an intrusion is characterised by
orthoclase-secondary biotite, and common magnetite.

Inner propylitic alteration characterised by actinolite-epidote with orthoclase present as lower

temperature adularia.
Outer propylitic alteration is characterised by chlorite-carbonate and zeolite. There is a drop
in pH here to slightly more acidic conditions where illite-smectite formation.
The illite group minerals are discernible in phyllic-argillic alteration. Here, alteration
minerals of similar composition change with increasing ordering of the crystal structure with
higher temperature but confined within the 5-6 pH range.
Phyllic alteration characterised within the illite group minerals occurs as highest temperature
white mica passing to sericite at high temperature where carbonate is present in the 5-6 pH
range. In more acid conditions (pH 4.5-5) phyllic alteration contains pyrophyllite passing to
dickite at lower temperatures (<300oC) where no carbonate is present. Andalusite and
corundum are present at very high temperatures.
Argillic alteration occurs in lower temperature conditions than phyllic alteration, at roughly
similar pH range. With decreasing temperature in the 5-6 pH range the illite group passes
from illite to illite-smectite to smectite-illite and smectite with associated carbonate. However
in more acid conditions at a pH lower than 5, which might be termed intermediate argillic
alteration more acid minerals are apparent . The illite-kaolin group minerals in the pH 4.5-5
range pass with decreasing temperature from dickite to kaolin and then its hydrated from
halloysite, accompanied by the most acid carbonate, siderite. However, carbonate is no longer
present in the more acid conditions in the pH 4-4.5 range, where diaspore may occur at higher
temperatures (transitional to advanced argillic alteration).
Advanced argillic alteration is recognised in a wide variety of geological settings ranging
from lowest to highest temperatures and the acid conditions of pH 1-2 to <4.5. Note the lack
of dissociation at high temperatures limits acid formation. Silica changes from low
temperature opal or cristobalite to higher temperature quartz and includes residual vughy
silica in high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
In the alunite-kaolin group with a temperature increase there is a change from low
temperature halloysite (the hydrated form of kaolin) to kaolin then high temperature dickite
with the development of diaspore and then pyrpophyllite with andalusite and corundum at
very highest temperatures and acid conditions.
It is IMPORTANT that an understanding of this table allows us to analyse zoned
hydrothermal alteration and fluid flow paths which may vector to mineralisation.
We will now go thru these alteration styles.
5. Model for staged porphyry Cu development - Later we will consider the staged
development of porphyry systems in detail which is here used to consider the styles of
alteration delineated above. Many porphyry Cu occurrences occur as spine-like intrusions
forcefully emplaced as hot molten bodies which alter the wall rocks as they cool and degas of
volatiles. Heat transfer occurs as:
conductive heat transfer is heat transfer by conduction into nearby rocks typically in
setting where host rocks are fractured and impermeable.
convective heat flow results from circulating fluids within fractured and permeable
wall rocks, typically meteoric-magmatic fluids as meteoric waters are drawn in and
combine with magmatic components.
Initial conductive heat transfer may pass to convective as the porphyry is emplaced and the
hydrothermal system evolves.
Broadly alteration occurs as:
prograde alteration related to a rise in the tenure of typically kinematic (or new)
alteration minerals, generally early

retrograde alteration typically occurs much later as a downgrade of prograde

alteration, usually to more hydrous mineral assemblages commonly by
pseudomorphous replacement prograde minerals.
We will first look at zoned potassic-propylitic alteration which here develops about the
apophysis to a spine-like intrusion.
6. Prograde alteration - Potassic alteration develops in the hottest setting in near-neutral pH
conditions, here on the pH vs temp figure, typically at the apophysis to an intrusion, but
locally in batholitic settings and extending from the intrusion into the wall rocks along
structures or in permeable host rocks. Potassic alteration is variably dominated by secondary
Kfeldspar as high temperature orthoclase or low temperature adularia, secondary biotite,
magnetite and local anhydrite.
7. Potassic alteration secondary Kfeldspar - Secondary Kfeldspar is recognised here as a pink
replacement in the matrix to an intrusion or exploiting primary permeability in a volcanic
breccia as well as vein and selvage styles.
8. Secondary biotite displays a very fine grained felt-like form as it commonly replaces
existing mafic minerals or may be disseminated as a brown matrix within intrusions,
9. Potassic alteration may also contain magnetite here as a pervasive form and anhydrite here
as a matrix to a breccia with secondary-biotite altered clasts. Most magnetite occurs with
Kfeldspar in potassic alteration.
10. Inner propylitic minerals. Note the zonation from high temperature actinolite to lower
temperature epidote.
11. Inner propylitic alteration develops outside potassic alteration and is characterised mainly
by epidote and locally actinolite, epidote and carbonate in pervasive and vein forms. Adularia
may occur as the lower temperature form or secondary Kfeldspar and albite-actinolite are
recognised in sodic rocks
12. Inner-propylitic alteration albite-actinolite ablite replaces Kfeldspar in sodic rocks
locally with actinolite. In the upper photo it is difficult in the field to distinguish ablate,
Kfeldspar and FeO stain.
13. Actinolite as a vector to porphyry Cu Inner-propylitic alteration is expected to display
an increase in actinolite moving to higher temperatures close to the potassic alteration which
is expected to host most mineralisation. Actinolite within inner propylitic alteration therefore
represents a good vector towards porphyry Cu mineralisation. At the Ridgeway porphyry
Australia early the discovery drill hole identified actinolit just before an increase in quartz
veins and then mineralisation. Cooler vertically attenuated porphyry intrusions such as
Ridgeway might be actinolite-rich, although some might attribute that to the shoshonitic
composition.
Some workers us a classification Outer potassic to describe abundant actinolit at the margin
of potassic alteration.
14. Outer propylitic alteration forms outside inner propylitic alteration at lower temperatures
and the same pH conditions, and is characterised by chlorite, calcite and zeolites commonly
with illite-smectite. Smectite is a swelling clay we will see later.
15.Outer propylitic alteration minerals chlorite, calcite and zeolites and smectite which is a
swelling clay we will see later.
16. Zoned propylitic alteration
17. Skarns develop in the highest pH conditions by replacement of limey precursors and vary
from very high to moderate temperatures as replacement deposits. Prograde skarn are zoned
away from the contact intrusion as components such as Fe, Mg, Mn move into the wall rock
from the intrusion and Ca and CO2 move towards the intrusion from the wall rock. Typical
skarn minerals include, magnetite, Ca-Fe garnets and wollastonite here with bornite.

18. Retrograde phyllic alteration and drawdown - Cooling intrusions exsolve volatiles such as
SO2 which condense and oxidise to form hot acid waters which then promote the retrograde
alteration of rocks which may have already been subject to prograde hydrothermal alteration.
Volatiles commonly rise above the source intrusion to form a blanket of low pH waters.
During prograde alteration convective hydrothermal cells are moving outwards, but as the
intrusion cools these reverse and under the influence of drawdown ground waters and the low
pH waters residing above the intrusion may collapse to deeper levels to promote overprinting
alteration. Here, phyllic is the main overprinting hydrothermal alteration grading under cooler
conditions to argillic alteration. The overprinting of potassic-propylitic by phyllic alteration is
typically most pronounced at the fractured intrusion margin or in permeable host rocks where
is may extend some distance laterally from the source intrusion.
19. Phyllic alteration - Phyllic alteration forms at high temperature acid conditions (pH 4.5-7
and hotter than 250oC) and is characterised by mainly sericite with also silica, pyrite, chlorite,
local carbonate typically siderite. Much of the sericite and chlorite typically display a
pseudomorphous replacive character.
Rocks are typically bleached by replacement of original feldspar and some mafic minerals by
sericite which in the illite group minerals varies from coarse grained white mica in at highest
temperatures though typical sericite and illite at lowest temperatures. Alteration may be
pervasive in many east pacific porphyry systems but less pronounced in west pacific systems
where selvage sericite is more commonly recognised.
20. Phyllic alteration Silica-sericite-pyrite-carbonate Pyrite is an important component
which provides IP chargeability anomalies and oxidises to form acid groundwaters which
participate in leaching and supergene enrichment. Notice as we have moved from calcite
propylitic alteration earlier to siderite in more acidic conditions as pervasive, selvage and
fracture control. While sericite is the most common mica group minerals there are variations
at very high temperature conditions to coarse white mica (Highland Valley) or at low
temperature conditions to illite (Chatree Thanliand).
21. Retrograde skarn Drawdown may result in the entry of ground waters late in the skarn
development causing retrograde hydrous skarn minerals to overprint the anhydrous prograde
minerals, commonly with a new generation of magnetite and mineralised sulphide deposition.
22-23. Argillic alteration - Argillic alteration is recognised in several settings as:
Neutral argillic forms in lower temperature (<250o) weakly acidic conditions (pH 5-6)
typically as wall rock alteration in low sulphidation vein systems where illite group
minerals grade from illite at highest temperature through illite-smectite to smectiteillite and then smectite. Chlorite-carbonate may be present.
Argillic alteration formed as the lower temperature equivalent of phyllic alteration is
derived from the cooling and neutralisation of fluids responsible for phyllic alteration
characterise by kaolin, siderite and illite.
Neutralisation of collapsing waters responsible for acid sulphate alteration.
Intermediate argillic alteration as a transition to advanced argillic alteration, mostly
derived from the progressive cooling and neutralisation of fluids to pH of 4-5
responsible for advanced argillic alteration and characterised by dickite-kaolin.
24 & 25. Argillic overprint on phyllic common overprint on phyllic alteration porphyry
systems as the fluids responsible for that alteration are progressively cooled and neutralised
and the combined alteration is termed SCC sericite-clay-chlorite in the geological literature.
Earlier phyllic alteration characterised by silica-sericite-pyrite has undergone incipient
brecciation and been in filled by later clay alteration within a clay matrix breccia or clay
veinlets overprint earlier silica-sericite-pyrite alteration.

26. Argillic as wall rock alteration in low sulphidation epithermal systems Argillic
alteration formed as selvages to low sulphidation veins and fault hosted breccias is typically
recognised by the illite bleaching as wall rock.
27. Zoned Illite-smectite - Illite group minerals typically display a characteristic zoned
patterns of wall rock alteration in low sulphidation epithermal systems. As mentioned earlier,
zonation occurs because of the decline in illite crystallinity with decreasing temperature, at
the same pH. As mineralisation typically occurs in the higher temperature illite portion of the
alteration zonation, it can be used to vector towards ore systems as a prospecting tool.
Illite may display a green colour pyrite within the alteration provides a grey colour varying to
mottled red where oxidised.
28. Smectite (related to montmorillonite) is a swelling clay and so core is destroyed in the
core boxes. Oxidation of pyrite produces Fe sulphates and gypsum. Illite grades to smectite,
termed montmorillonite in the US literature, which is most easily discernible by the swelling
character. Smectite takes in water and swells up when left in the box in even moderately
moist climates as seen here in Far Eastern Russia. Chlorite, carbonate and kaolin may be
present.
29. Pervasive illite-pyrite alteration Pervasive alteration provides large areas of bleaching
with local FeO stain after pyrite in pervasive alteration such as this example in Patagonia.
30. Argillic alteration Mastra Turkey Note the illite-pyrite alteration locally oxidised as
white bleaching with scattered FeO.
31-32. Golden Cross New Zealand - Clay studies at Golden Cross done after the discovery
illustrate the zonation and the usefulness of clay alteration studies seen here in cross section
and long section to positions of which are shown here. We will see in the next slide the
stockwork vein system displays a mushroom shape with an up-flow and outflow.
Golden Cross New Zealand cross section - The mushroom shaped stockwork vein array
displays high Au grade in the feeder stem with lower Au grades in the marginal outflow stock
work veins. Notice the low temperature smectite alteration above and marginal to the vein
system in cooler regimes.
Golden Cross New Zealand long section - In the long section which is just off section to the
vein we see the zoned alteration vectoring back towards the hottest portion of the system
closet to the vein. If we were exploring and faced with this pattern we would continue more
intense exploration near here where the vein had already been found.
33. Zoned hydrothermal alteration, Sleeper deposit in Nevada - Again smectite alteration
(termed montmorillonite in the US literature) rims illite which hosts mineralisation. Illite
crystallinity can be used as a vector towards veins in the higher temperature portion of the
system, especially in poorly eroded systems where buried veins might be hidden at depth.
34. Low sulphidation epithermal zoned alteration
35. Smectite alteration may extend some distances in permeable tuffaceous host rocks
destroying host rock competency and inhibiting vein formation.
36. Argillic margins to an acid sulphate cap Mining at Lihir Is has exposed below the acid
sulphate cap where the argillic alteration is characterised by illite, smectite, kaolin, pyrite
occurs as a sticky mass.
37. Argillic margins to high sulphidation epithermal - Argillic alteration also occurs at the
margins of advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal vein
systems.
38. Acid alteration - There are many styles of acid alteration each with a different relationship
to mineralization, or use in mineral exploration.
For me, the presence of alunite categorises most of this is advanced argillic alteration but in
lower grade conditions where only kaolin/dickite is present acid alteration may be defined as
argillic or intermediate argillic.

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39. Styles of acid alteration and the lithocap model Different styles of acid alteration
formed in quite different conditions are included together in the original Sillitoe 1995
lithocap model. As zones of advanced argillic argillic alteration have different relationships
to mineralisation, I was asked to comment on these different alteration styles in a paper for
the Symposium we ran to honour the late Terry Leach. These include:
What Terry and I called barren shoulders which occur as structurally controlled root
zones to lithologically controlled lithocaps. These are derived from magmatic fluids
exsolved early in a porphyry cooling history.
Advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
Steam heated alteration which cap high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation.
Acid sulphate alteration which caps low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation.
Magmatic solfataras.
40. Barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration The term barren shoulder was proposed
by Terry Leach and myself to account for particular styles of advanced argillic alteration
formed marginal to some SW Pacific rim porphyry deposits, in the early 1990s prior to the
documentation of lithocaps by Sillitoe in 1995. These early barren shoulders represent
structurally controlled advanced argillic alteration formed as deeper level portions underlying
laterally extensive alteration zones within permeable wall rocks and similar to lithocaps.
However, as lithocaps are categorised as containing many elements, that term should be
defined when used. These alteration zones vary with depth of erosion with structural
(typically deeper) or lithological control (typically higher level). Most importantly, although
the zoned advanced argillic alteration which forms barren shoulders is not mineralised, it may
aid exploration in combination with other vectors towards buried porphyry intrusions. The
term ledges is used to describe typically resistive bodies of siliceous alteration which may dip
steeply where structurally controlled or flatly, replacing permeable wall rocks.
The two silica ledges here (Lookout Rocks, Thames, New Zealand and Ekwai Debom, Frieda
River Papua New Guinea) each lie adjacent to porphyry Cu-Au intrusions which are no doubt
related to the intrusion source for the fluids responsible for formation of the barren ledges by
reaction with wall rocks. Remember these alteration zones themselves are barren, although
we hope to understand the use of bodies such as these to vector towards porphyry intrusions.
41. Barren shoulders Zoned advanced argillic alteration forms by reaction with wall rocks
of hot acidic volatile-rich fluids which have vented from an intrusion source at depth.
Alteration zonation passes outwards from the centre of the ledge as:
Massive pervasive silica which may be brecciated and locally displays a weak vughy
texture
Silica-alunite
Pyrophyllite + diaspore
Dickite-kaolin
The alteration minerals and nature of the zonation varies according to:
Fluid control as (commonly steep dipping ) structural control is associated with
narrower alteration zones whereas (commonly flat dipping) lithological control may
provide laterally quite extensive alteration within permeable lithologies.
Depth of formation as dickite-diaspore dominate at deep levels.
Level of exposure by erosion.
Barren shoulders contain some common minerals which are indicative of from formation
form high temperature (corundum and andalusite), volatile-rich (topaz and zunyite;
[Al2OH,F,Cl)2)6Al2Si3)12) fluids. Andalusite occurs at Lookout Rocks, above. Coarse
crystalline alunite and diaspore are common.

11

42. Lookout Rocks zoned alteration This zoned alteration study was carried out in 1989
using several hundred XRD clay samples. Although the Lookout Rocks ledges shown here
appear siliceous the field the alteration zonation is cored by alunite + pyrophyllite-diaspore
grading out to pyrophyllite-diaspore-sericite and then into sericite associates with the Ohio
Creek porphyry and on to argillic overprinting propylitic alteration more marginal to the
same porphyry. Andalusite was recognised by Ray Merchant at the top of the ledge shown
here as an indication of the high temperature conditions. A structural interpretation (Corbett
and Leach, 1998) suggests several parallel moderate-steep dipping ledges exploit dilatant
fractures. On this figure it appears the fluid flow for silica ledge formation could have been
from the margin of the Ohio Creek porphyry Cu-Au intrusion.
43. Southern Negros Drilling of the Southern Negros geothermal system has exposed a
structurally controlled barren shoulder of advanced argillic alteration over 2.5km deep
adjacent to an active porphyry with alteration categorised as skarn, potassic and phyllic (in
the two phase zone) as well as an acid sulphate blanket at higher levels.
Note the exploration implications here that the porphyry could be up to 2.5km below the
advanced argillic alteration.
44. Structural feeders to lithologically controlled lithocaps As mentioned earlier barren
shoulders are the structurally controlled feeders to lithologically controlled lithocaps which is
apparent at Caballo Blanco Mexico.
45. Northern Chile Expansive lithologically controlled alteration exploits a pumice tuff
with central steep dipping structurally controlled feeder.
46. Northern Chile - Flat dipping lithocap with pervasive silicification of a permeable rock
unit is exposed only in the upper level of the hydrothermal system.
47. Origin of barren shoulders A study by Agnes Reys and others (1993) at Alto Peak in the
Philippines provides an explanation for the origin of barren shoulders. Geothermal drilling
penetrated a chimney-like plume of hot >400oC very saline magmatic vapour-dominated fluid
of the type interpreted to have vented early in the cooling history of a porphyry. Typical
potassic-propylitic alteration at the base of the plume passed to advanced argillic alteration
with apatite, zunyite and topaz at a higher crustal level. The volatile-rich fluids acidified upon
cooling and then produced advanced argillic alteration by reaction with wall rocks. These
fluids which vent early in the cooling history of the intrusion are not evolved and barren,
whereas the fluids responsible for the development of high sulphidation systems vein are
interpreted to vent much later as volatiles and metals have concentrated towards the top of the
magma chamber.
48. Barren shoulders vs lithocaps Thus the zoned hydrothermal alteration at Lookout rocks
is consistent with structurally controlled advanced argillic alteration within a barren shoulder,
formed adjacent to the Ohio Creek porphyry Cu-Au. The barren shoulders form ledges of
dipping resistant silica which may be structurally controlled steep dipping or lithologically
controlled flat dipping. Note the gap between the porphyry and alteration in which the rising
volatile-rich fluids have evolved to become acid.
Barren shoulders occur closer to the source and intrusion and therefore act as easier vectors
than the permeability controlled lithocaps which may form extensive alteration zones
extending greater distances from the source intrusion.
49. Barren shoulders alteration mineralogy It is very important to be able to pick barren
shoulders-lithocaps from advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidaiton
epithermal Au deposits. Although the zoned alteration is similar in the two systems there are
some differences.
Topaz (AlF)2SiO4 and Zunyite (Al(OH,F,Cl)2)6 are common volatile rich minerals which
show up in spectural studies of barren shoulders-lithocaps

12

50. Pervasive silica Returning to Caballo Blanco there is barren pervasive silica in the
barren shoulder which grades up to barren pervasive silica within within tuffaceous host
rocks.
51. Boulder fields Massive silica is preserved during erosion and so form boulder fields as
the enclosing clay alteration is eroded. Barren shoulders contain core massive silica which is
locally brecciated and only very rarely displays a weakly vughy texture typical of high
sulphidation epithermal systems.
52. Coarse grained minerals Alteration minerals which formed slowly at near porphyry
levels provide coarse grained mineral assemblages.
53. Pyrite-rich advanced argillic alteration in barren shoulder Barren shoulder alteration is
typically pyrite-rich resulting in sulphate growths and liesergang rings in oxide deposition.
54. Barren AAA in the vicinity of mineralisation - Although not mineralised in themselves,
barren shoulders are common in the vicinity of ore systems. The Thames 1 M oz bonanza Au
field lies behind the Lookout Rocks system and the Ohio Creek porphyry Cu-Au crops out
here near Thames, New Zealand. The Ekwai Debom system at Frieda Papua New Guinea lies
between the Horse Ivaal porphyry Cu in the distance and Nena high sulphidation system
along strike to the right. Similarly, at Bilimoia Papua new Guinea, advanced argillic
alteration occurs at the top of the hill, low sulphidation crop out at intermediate elevations
and some porphyry Cu is recognised in the valley. At Vuda Fiji, Au easily panned from
surrounding the advanced argillic alteration occurs as low sulphidation fracture fill possibly
derived from the same fluid source at depth.
55. Timing of advanced argillic alteration - Fluids responsible for the formation for barren
shoulders vent early in the cooling history of the intrusion are not evolved and hence barren,
whereas the fluids responsible for the development of high sulphidation systems
mineralisation are interpreted to vent much later in the porphyry cooling history. Volatiles
and metals associated with a liquid phase have concentrated towards the top of the magma
chamber.
56. Vuda, Fiji The original 1985 geological mapping shows the zoned alteration in
association with silica-alunite ledges which are rimmed and overprinted by Au mineralisation
seen here as carbonate-base metal Au with MnO.
57. Wild Dog, Papua New Guinea At Wild Dog in East New Britain Papua New Guinea
several silica ledges with topaz are interpreted as barren shoulders and only contain
chalcedony-ginguro style low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation where they are cut
by later cross fractures. Curiously, the cross fractures are exploited by drainages which
provided initial access and exposures and so early explorers interpreted the mineralisation to
be more extensive than is actually the case.
58. High sulphidation epithermal overprint on barren silica, Caballo Blanco Some lithocap
modles feature vughy silica whereas in my experience most barren shoulders are
characterised by massive silica. Here is a case where high sulphidaiton epithermal Au
mineralisation characterised by vughy silica overprints massive silica of a barren shoulder.
59. Acid sulphate caps typically overlie low sulphdiation epithermal vein systems and should
be separated form the other styles of advanced argillic/argillic alteration. Kaolin commonly
with illite is characteristic.
60. Acid sulphate caps - Rising boiling and cooling hydrothermal fluids and cooling
sulphide-rich intrusions exsolve volatiles, in particular SO2, which then rise and oxidise
above the water table in the reaction SO2 + H2O +1/2O2 -> H2SO4 to form warm acidic
ground waters. These warm moderately acidic waters then react with the wall rocks to
produce acid sulphate alteration characterised by fine grained cristobalite, alunite with mostly
kaolin with local sulphur grading to marginal illite, chlorite, smectite. I tend to regard theses
acid caps as argillic-advanced argillic alteration as in the field one cannot always be sure

13

alunite is present. They overlie low sulphidation epithermal vein systems forming near
surface and so are termed caps. By various means this alteration may collapse back into the
hydrothermal system and mix with rising ore fluids as a mechanism of bonanza Au
deposition.
61. Acid sulphate caps The mineralogy of kaolin, cristobalite, alunite is typical of an acidic
low temperature environment and we see the minerals formed as the acid fluid is
progressively neutralised and partly heated during collapse into deeper levels of the
hydrothermal system.
The currently active Champagne Pool Waitapu New Zealand acid sulphate alteration
comprising fine grained cristobalite, alunite and mostly kaolin with local sulphur.
The acid sulphate cap at the top of the Veta Baja vein at Arcata, Peru. We will see how the
fluids responsible for the formation of this cap also account for the development of high Au
grade mineralisation at depth within this structure.
62. Lihir Is 1984 At Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea harder silica-alunite surrounded by softer
illite-kaolin argillic alteration. This is a young system <100,000 years old with active hot
springs.
63. Argillic alteration lies below the advanced argillic
64. Lihir 2006-10. The geothermal activity is apparent in the current mine. It might have been
better to have concreted these old drill holes especially where the casing was stuck in the
ground and left behind.
65. San Cristobal, Bolivia. Here we see the acid sulphate alteration collapsing on the pit wall
and again he best Ag grades occur in the vicinity of this alteration.
66. Acid sulphate caps At Guadalupe, Palmarejo, Mexico, there were very poor low grade
veins at surficial, although some colonial era mining nearby. Drilling on a model to test
below the acid sulphate cap identified high grade Au and I am told Guadalupe is now larger
than the main Palmarejo system. Later we will see the important role of collapsing acid
sulphate water in bonanza Au deposition. At Arcata the Veta Baja vein is capped by an acid
sulphate cap while Patagonia example remains an exploration target. The clays in this outcrop
were kaolin.
67. Sleeper Nevada
68. Advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation Advanced argillic alteration develops is an integral feature of high
sulphidation epithermal Au deposits. As discussed earlier the model in use here features an
important spatial separation between a deeply buried intrusion source and a higher crustal
level setting for advanced argillic alteration and associated of high sulphidation epithermal
Au formation. In this model the cooling intrusion exsolves a two stage fluid. The volatile
portion which is rich in SO2 initially rises rapidly to a higher crustal level, typically within a
major structure essentially as a bubble without reacting with wall rocks or entraining any
ground waters. We see a regular association between high sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits and major structures. As the pressurised fluids rise they progressively become
depressurised and SO2 and amongst other volatiles comes out of solution and oxidises to form
sulphuric acid. Consequently, we see a fluid which was hot and neutral at porphyry levels
becomes progressively more acidic as it rises to epithermal levels where it may react with
permeable wall rocks. The reaction with permeable wall rocks causes a decline in fluid pH
and temperature and so the minerals produced by wall rock reaction will be zoned as
hydrothermal alteration, which varies according to:
pH and temperature of the original fluid
crustal level of formation or
host rock permeability.

14

Where there is not a physical separation between the source and alteration zone and less fluid
evolution has taken place, such as within eroded stratovolcanos and at brecciated dome
margins, alteration may be transitional to the barren shoulder style discussed above.
The terminology in use here is advanced argillic for alteration and high sulphidation
epithermal Au for the mineralisation which is commonly deposited after alteration from a
more liquid rich portion of the same hydrothermal fluid.
69. Zoned advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation Characteristic zoned advanced argillic alteration associated with high
sulphidation epithermal Au deposits grades outwards from the fluid feeder structure in
response to progressive change in pH and temperature (neutralisation and cooling) of the
source fluids as:
Core zone of residual vughy silica developed in response to wall rock alteration by the
most acidic hydrothermal fluid (pH of 1 or 2 and say 200-350oC which leaches just
about everything out of the host rock except silica and some rutile, and may deposit
silica. The vughy character here results from leaching out of feldspar, although we
will see textural destruction later.
Silica-alunite as the hydrothermal fluid is progressively cooled and neutralised
Pyrophyllite-diaspore
Dickite-kaolin
Illite-chlorite-smectite by which stage the responsible hydrothermal fluid has taken on
a near neutral character
However, the factors suggested above which control the nature of alteration zonation provide
significant variations in alteration mineralogy.
70. Zoned advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation At deep levels and within permeable lithologies advanced argillic alteration
may form broad zones with well-developed alunite and pyrophyllite and minerals typical of
higher temperature conditions such as diaspore and dickite. At elevated crustal settings and
within structurally controlled systems narrow alteration zones pass rapidly from silica to
alunite to kaolin with little or no pyrophyllite. Dickite is the higher temperature polymorph
kaolin.
71. Zoned advanced argillic alteration in high sulphidation epithermal Au Here at Nena,
Frieda River, Papua New Guinea we see the alteration zonation in cross section through the
system as well as long section. The locus of fluid flow is the intersection of a feeder structure
with a permeable unit in the wall rocks producing a pencil like alteration shape. The narrow
outer portions of the result from the setting of this cross section some distance from the fluid
source where the fluid is rapidly quenched.
72. At Wafi ,Papua New Guinea and La Coipa Chile we see broad alteration zones which a
strong influence of lithological control to the silica zone in relatively deep formed systems.
73. La Coipa, Chile zone alteration
74. Zoned advanced argillic alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au
mineralisation Summary of mineralogical zonation vertically with crustal level and laterally
from the core to margins of the alteration zonation.
75. Steam heated alteration which caps high sulphidation epithrmal Au deposits is
characterised by silica as cristobalite, kaolin, powdery alunite and local sulphur as a total
textural destruction on the wall rocks. The powdery alunite in a characteristic powdery and a
hazard as it oxidises upon contact with eyes to form acid.
76. Steam heated alteration Oxidation of sulphur-rich volatiles above the water table,
results in the development of warm acidic ground waters which react the wall rocks to form
laterally extensive blankets of what is termed steam heated alteration which may obscure

15

smaller ore systems. Silica zones may occur at the base of the steam heated zone. These
strongly oxidising waters may collapse to deeper levels in the hydrothermal system.
NOTE The terminology used herein continues to use the original term acid sulphate for
alteration caps to low sulphidation veins and steam heated for only alteration caps to high
sulphidation systems.
77-78. Steam heated blankets At Pascua-Lama steam heated blanket extends at 5500m
across the border between Chile and Argentina, overlying the buried ore zone. Several steam
heated alteration zones are preserved in the La Coipa region of the Maricunga Belt Chile,
although at El Indio the blanket is more dissected. Steam heated blankets may therefore
obscure ore systems.
79. Basal silica ledges ledges of silica flooding are common at the base of steam heated
alteration zones.
80. Magmatic solfatara Small regions of advanced argillic alteration may develop where
magmatic volatiles vent to the surface and typically deposit sulphur, in regions of geothermal
activity such as stratovolcanos.
81. Sulphur mining Kawah Ijen, Indonesia
82. White Island, New Zealand andesitic stratovolcano. Sulphur deposits developed at vents
was mined to 1908 when an eruption whipped everything out.
83. White island eruption waiting to happen - When I visited in the late 1990s and there was
only a thin wall separating a large water filled crater at a higher elevation on the right from
this one with an active a vent on the left. A couple of days later this wall failed and there was
quite and eruption.
84. Supergene effects This is the top of La Granja porphyry showing the leached zone
dominated by kaolin and FeO developed by reaction with wall rocks of acid ground waters
produced by the weathering of sulphides, in particular the pyrite within phyllic alteration. Cu
has been remobilised and deposited immediately below the base of oxidation to form a
chalcocite blanket.
85. To distinguish between types of advanced argillic alteration
86. Separation between porphyry and acid alteration
87. Lepanto
88-89. Wafi
90. Caspiche
91. Exploration implications Alteration
92.Steam heated alteration in exploration High sulphidation epithermal mineralisation
occurs below barren steam heated alteration which acts as an exploration vector. At
Quimsacocha drill hole 134 found the main ore zone below the steam heated alteration. Use
of these models should have led to more rapid discovery.
93. Acid sulphate caps in exploration Although there were no significant outcropping veins
or surface geochemistry at the Guadalupe acid sulphate cap at Palmarejo Mexico I persuaded
to client to drill deep below that zone to discover Au-Ag mineralisation which I am told now
exceeds the original Palmarejo ore system.
94. Importantly we have reviewed the different alteration styles associated with epithermalporphyry ore deposits in the light of the Terry Leach pH vs temperature figure.

Section 3. Structure
1. Introduction
2. word slide
3. Porphyry settings

16

4. Structural control to porphyry Cu-Au This is a typical subduction scenario with the
heavier oceanic place subducting below the lighter continental plate with orthogonal
convergence and a component of transient oblique convergence. Major structures which
localise the emplacement of porphyry Cu-Au systems include:
Arc-parallel structures which may represent terrain boundaries formed as part of the
compressional magmatic arcs or basin and range structures in the extensional settings
of SW USA northern Mexico.
Transfer structures divide the arc into segments and account for changes in the nature
of subduction along the arc such as dip of the down going plate and rate of
subduction. These may also tap deep mantle derived magmas.
Conjugate fractures are recognised in many orthogonal magmatic arcs (Central Andes
and northern Sulawesi).
Lets look at the major structures and how ore systems are localised along them
5. The most famous arc parallel structure is the West Fissure or Domeyko Fault system in
northern Chile which is a terrain boundary which hosts many porphyry Cu mines and
numerous other prospects and remains at active exploration terrain. L Escondida was found in
the early 1970s by David Lowell prospecting along this structure apparent on early landsat
imagery, having noticed that the Chuquicamata, El Abra and El Salvador mines were located
on that trend. It is a corridor of structures with potential for cross overs to exist.
Chuquicamata and oblique convergence Chuquicamata is localised as a splay fault
(Lindsay) or flexure during a component of sinistral sense of displacement apparent as vein
orientations in of veins. Note increased erosion in the west block up, and post-mineral
sinistral offsets.
6. La Escondida - Similarly, La Escondida is localised in a step over in the West Fault system
also in response to dextral offset as do many high and low sulphidation epithermal systems.
7. Gilmore suture Australia - In the Macquarie arc of eastern Australia many Ordovician
magmatic arc high and low sulphidation epithermal and porphyry ore systems lie along the
Gilmore Suture a terrain boundary. Like other deposits in this district all display formation
under influence of sinistral strike slip-movement. I dont know where this is like the
Philippines and the Macquarie arc was oblique in the Ordovician-Devonian or this is a matter
of transient changes to sinistral oblique in a system which normally displays orthogonal
convergence. While one day I might devote some time to this one, in a manner similar to Nth
Chile, this pattern of oblique convergence as a localiser of ore systems and continues through
geological time.
8. Kalimantan Suture - Similarly deposits are aligned in Borneo along what appears to be the
underlying suture between basement and volcanic rocks
9. Frieda-Nena Papua New Guinea - In a manner similar to FSE-Lepanto the Frieda porphyry
Cu-Au is localised by a splay in the Fiak-Leonard Schultz arc-parallel fault and a component
of sinistral strike slip movement has created a dilatant fracture system which hosts barren
advanced argillic alteration and the Nena high sulphidation system.
10. Lepanto Philippines structural control - The Philippine fault and its splay faults transect
the country with a sinistral sense of movement seen as a control to mineralisation throughout
the arc. Here, the FSE porphyry is localised by a splay and the Lepanto high sulphidation
epithermal system occurs within a link structure between two splay faults also with sinistral
senses of movement.
11. Tongonan Philippines
12. Transfer structures Transfer structures commonly form normal to the magmatic arc and
facilitate changes in the nature that is dip angle and rate of subduction, and may tap mantle
derived melts.

17

13. Transfer structures Papua New Guinea - Papua New Guinea is transacted by a series of
arc normal transfer structures which may continue into West Papua
14. The Porgera transfer structure - The Porgera transfer structure continues across Papua
New Guinea and projects from the Mesozoic basement up through the folded and thrust
Miocene cover sequence which changes in orientation across the structure. This circular
feature mirrors the magnetic anomaly derived from the intrusion source rocks at depth,
whereas these hills represent a higher level domes, stocks and sills.
15. Papua New Guinea conceptual section
16. Wafi transfer structure - The Wafi Transfer structure occupies the structural suture
between the eastern and western origins of PNG localising polyphasal intrusion activity at
Wafi.
17. Wafi transfer structure - Several overprinting events within the one structure include early
porphyry intrusions, the diatreme breccia, high sulphidation and late porphyry.
18. Golpu porphyry localised by spaly in pull-apart basin array
19. Lachlan transverse zone - The Cadia ore system defined by the magnetic anomaly is
aligned along the Lachlan transverse zone.
20. Cadia-Ridgeway - The Ridgeway and Cadia East ore systems clearly occur as apophyses
to a magmatic source and when we see Cadia Hill later, the sheeted veins there may be
derived from a deeper source than the host. The NS arc-parallel fractures play a role in ore
localisation.
21. Cadia Valley pull-apart basin model - The Ridgeway and Cadia East ore systems have
been localised within pull-apart basin scenarios, in which we see pre-mineral thickening of
some volcanic units, and are localised by the intersection of NS arc-parallel structures. These
scenarios are consistent with the model of the change to sinistral strike-slip on NS structures
in the Lachlan Fold Belt.
22. Yanacocha Peru - The giant Yanacocha high sulphidation epithermal Au system occurs in
association with intrusions localised by arc-normal transfer structures. Notice how there is an
EW aspect in the magnetic signature for the mine area suggesting mineralisation developed in
response to a component of dextral movement on the NE transfer structure during EW
compression.
23. Conjugate fractures - Conjugate fractures are recognised in some orthogonal magmatic
arcs. Here seen in northern Chile-Argentina where the NW set may be dominant.
24. Pascua-Lama-Veladero - The Veladero structure which trends well across Argentina to
the SE hosts several intrusion-related diatreme-related high sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits.
25. Extension within a magmatic arc - The feeder structures are aligned NS within the
structural grain and so mineralisation is interpreted to have developed under extensional
conditions.
26. Northern Chile-Argentina El Guanaco & Quevar
27. El Guanaco While EW mineralised feeder structures for the high sulphidation
epithermal system parallel orthogonal compression, the best mineralisation (wider and higher
Au grades) occurs in WNW trending systems with a slight sigmoidal form derived from small
components of movement on the conjugate fractrues.
28. Quevar The NW corridor hosts EW trending listric faults activated during sector
collapse.
29. Changes in the nature of convergence act as triggers to intrusion emplacement In plan
view we have arc parallel structures segmented by transfer structures and conjugate fractures.
There is an issue creating space for intrusions as well as dilatancy for veins. I envisage
intrusions which might be stewing here during orthogonal convergence are forcefully and
rapidly emplaced during transient changes in convergence contributing to the formation of a

18

porphyritic texture. In responses to the transient changes from orthogonal to oblique

convergence the arc parallel structures, which were mostly active as reverse faults, might take
on a component of strike-slip movement. Dilatant sites developed where movement crosses
over from one strike-slip structure to another as act as hosts for intrusion or vein
emplacement. Because these events are only brief they may not be discernible in the overall
geological record, but it is very common for the kinematics of individual ore systems to not
agree with the structural patterns expected from the regional geology.
We will see later how splays develop at depth and pas upwards to fissure veins and surficial
pull-apart basins.
30. Cross structures localise ore systems - Cross structures localise ore systems in response to
changes in the nature of convergence.
31-32 Trigger- Turkey
33. Trigger Lihir
34. Structure in the location of prophry systems.
35. Stockwork versus sheeted porphyry veins - Much of the Cu-Au-Mo mineralisation in
porphyry deposits occurs within quartz veins which may comprise stock works either as a
random arrays of one vein event or overprinting vein events as in the lower photo. Sheeted
veins form as parallel sets, including overprinting events within dilatant structural settings
and may transport as well as host ore fluids and so are important in many deposits. Sheeted
veins represent the dilatant structures which aid in the transport of ore fluids from the
magmatic source at depth to the intrusion apophysis where mineral deposition takes place.
Here, Cadia Hill and not Namosi was drilled at an ideal direction.
36. Structure in porphyry systems Two end members as orthogonal and oblique
convergence.
Vein styles and orientation vary with depth as well as tectonic setting. In settings of
orthogonal convergence where the upward stress of intrusion emplacement dominant, above a
porphyry fracture/veins are dominated by a cone of concentric fractures as well as radial
fractures and pass to dominantly radial fractures at depth. Without the vertical stress
component, in a compressive environment arc-normal structures might dominate and under
extensional conditions arc-parallel structures host veins.
In conditions of oblique convergence the cone and radial veins might be biased towards the
dilatant vein direction which vary to sheeted veins. Sheeted veins transport mineralisation
from the magmatic source at depth to higher crustal levels, as well as host mineralisation, and
may extend will into the wall rocks.
37. Structure in porphyry systems concentric factures above a buried porphyry intrusion.
38. Marginal lodes Cargo 39-40. Sheeted veins Didipio Philippines sheeted veins formed in a dilatant structural setting
facilitate fluid flow to the upper portion of a porphyry system within the wall rocks outside
the source intrusion, typically formed in dilatant settings. As these are related to low
sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au + Cu mineralisation they are generally Au rich and some
such as in the Maricunga Belt may be termed Au porphyry. Note the different spelling of
wallrock porphyry is different to wall rock.
41. Cadia East Down drop on sheeted veins within a pull-apart basin fracture array which
host low grade mineralisation
42. Wall rock porphyry Au rather than Cu dominant porphyry deep epithermal style
mineralisation within the wall rocks.
43. Environments of Ore Formation in Epithermal veins
What is important here is that dilatant (open) structures transport ore fluids from magmatic
source rocks at depth to higher crustal settings where mineral deposition occurs.
Four main settings as:

19
Orthogonal extension
Oblique (extension and compression)
Compression
Changes in the nature of convergence
There are differences and similarities in structural control between low and high sulphidation.
Whereas low sulphidation veins occur in strongly dilatant settings which facilitate the
combination of magmatic and meteoric fluids, high sulphidation veins generally display an
association with a major structure which has facilitated evolution of the magmatic fluids
during the rise to a higher crustal setting.
44. Orthogonal extension In settings of Orthogonal extension faults are commonly manifest
as normal (listric) fault arrays. End members include:
Arc-parallel faults in regional extension (basin and range, Sierra Madre and back arc
settings)
Arc normal faults within compressional arcs
Intra-arc rifts
Ore shoots occur:
in the steep dipping portions of normal (listric) faults with flat plunges
at intersections of hanging wall splays represent mixing sites
locally blind at the surface.
Dip-slip motion on normal faults with steep pitching slickensides
45. Normal Faults showing steep pitching slickensides (pitch being the angle between the
linear slickensides and the horizontal in that plane).
46. Corani Peru - At Corani, another polymetallic Ag>Au deposit in Peru best grades occur
within the steeply dipping portions of listric faults, while the flatter portions display
considerable aerial extent but are poorly mineralised.
47. At Palmarejo Mexico mineralisation occurs within listric fault which is also a growth
fault active during volcanism and mineralisation. In a long section we see the ore shoot
defined as 50 gram x metres (5m @ 10 g/t Au equiv or 10m @ 5 etc) is confined to where the
fault dips steeper than 55 degrees, while flatter dips are poorly mineralised.
48. Arcata Peru - Arcata Peru provides a good example of a listric fault array which are
curvilinear in plan view and comprise the SW dipping major Marion vein and NE dipping
lesser faults such as Veta Baja. Veta Baja occurs as a major slickensided fault which contains
<1g/t Ag with quartz-pyrite at this level of 4900m, but hosts a banded mineralised vein at
depth within competent host rocks. An acid sulphate cap occurs along strike and higher Au
grades are recognised within the mine where hypogene kaolin overprints sulphides as
evidence of fluid mixing.
49. Listric fault Pinos Altos Mexico Mineralisation occurs in the steeper dipping fault
portion and several pits are aligned along a several km long structure.
50. Basin and Range faults Nevada Sleeper In the setting of mega extension in the Great
Basin of western US extending into northern Mexico the parallel range front faults commonly
occur as listric faults, and may display considerable displacement. The Sleeper mine is
located on one of these.
51. Lihir Papua New Guinea About 100,000 years ago the volcanic edifice at Lihir Island
failed seaward (sector collapse) shown here on the composite map of onshore side looking
radar and off shore seismic. This instantaneously removed 1km from above an active
porphyry Cu-Au and promoting the emplacement of quenched fine grained quartz-sulphide
style Au mineralisation discussed later. Here, is the caldera in 1984. Flat dipping portions of
listric faults identified in early exploration in the Lienetz and coastal zones led to the
erroneous boiling zone model.
52. Hanging wall splays -

20

53. Tolukuma hanging wall splay - Tolukuma Au mine also in Papua New Guinea represents
a more typical hanging wall splay best Au grades in the banded quartz vein occur at the
intersection of a steep dipping vein formed as a hanging wall splay with the host moderate
dipping graben (normal) fault.
54. Romane Fault Porgera Papua New Guinea - The Porgera Au mine hosts greater than 8 M
oz of bonanza Au (head grade of 80g/t Au when originally mined) localised by the
intersection of the Romane fault and a hanging wall splay forming a blind ore shoot. There
really wasnt much above this when I mapped the ridge top surface in 1980.
55. Hanging wall splays The models in use here suggest hanging wall splays act as sites of
enhanced Au deposition by the mixing of rising ore fluids with collapsing oxidising ground
waters. Mixing might therefore replace boiling on the old Buchanan 1981 model. This
specimen represents the site of mixing acid sulphate waters evidenced by kaolin (as for
Arcata above) and rising ore fluids evidenced by Au and electrum.
56. Ore shoot as mixing at a structural intersection At COSE Patagonia bonanza Au-Ag
occurs as sulphide with kaolin deposited by the mixing of ore fluids rising up the NW
structure with interpreted acid sulphate waters collapsing down the WNW fracture.
Consequently, mineral deposition by fluid mixing defines high grade ore shoots with as
pencil-like intersections on the NW plane.
57. Refraction
58. Structural control to epithermal veins Oblique convergence
Mineralisation is hosted within dilatant settings in strike-slip structures eg flexures, sheeted
veins, links, fault jogs and pull-apart basins.
Ore shoots therefor display steep plunge
Horizontal slickensides
Commonly faults active during earthquakes
Reactivation provides elevated Au grades
59. Flat pitching slickensides as an indicator of strike-slip fault movement.
60. Dasht-E-Bayaz earthquake Iran 1968 redrawn clearer below, these are the fault traces
prepared by Tckalenko and Ambrasys using air photos developed in association with an
earthquake in Iran in 1968. Offsets on roads and irrigation facilities gives a sinistral (north
block west) sense of strike-slip movement which is overall <1m. Of interest to us is where the
locus of strike-slip movement changes from one major structure to another forming a set of
link structures.
61. Fractures associated with Dasht-E-Bayaz earthquake Iran 1968 - Redrawn from the
original we see development of a dilational feature at the cross-over in the position of
earthquake related strike-slip movement from one major structure to another. Individual link
structures are apparent which by repeated reopening might host banded veins in an ore
system.
62. Structures in setting of oblique convergence - In the classification used here structures
which develop in either extensional or compressional settings include:
For dilation:
Flexure for a dilatant bend in a strike-slip structure
Splays or horsetails are dilatant segments at greatest depth as localising features for
porphyry systems and may develop at the termination of a structure
Dilatant jogs develop at the cross over of strike-slip movement from one structure to
another. Individual dilatant structures might be termed, link structures, tension veins
or fissure veins and include sheeted veins, all developed at intermediate crustal levels.
Pull-apart basins form at surficial levels by normal fault movement on the dilatant
fractures which are commonly growth faults and well mineralised, whereas the strikeslip structures are generally not mineralised. As growth faults here apparent form the

21

thickening of the stratigraphy commonly host good quality mineralisation, and so an

understanding of the stratigraphy can be useful.
The different dilatant settings might be stacked from surficial pull-apart basins, down through
epithermal mineralisation within fissure veins and porphyry mineralisation localised by
splays. Pull-apart basins are therefore prospective for buried mineralisation.
For compression:
Petroleum geologists prospect domes within positive flower structures as suitable trap sites.
Minor mineralisation in thrust environments will be discussed.
63. Negative flower structure - Whereas petroleum geologists prospect positive flower
structures, several of the dilatant structural sites described above are stacked within negative
flower structures. Pull-apart basins are therefore prospective for buried mineralisation.
64. Flower structure Mercur
65 Flower structure Cowal NSW
66. Splay faults or horsetails Three splay faults in in outcrop in mineralised systems
Gosowong, Indonesia, El Indio, Chile and on my bathroom wall.
67. Splays localise porphyry systems - Some interpretations (Lindsay) show the
Chuquicamata porphyry Cu mineralisation localised on a splay fault. The Far South East
porphyry at Lepanto Philippines and Frieda River porphyry, Papua New Guinea are localised
on splay faults and so splays and horsetails have long been of interest to exploration
geologists.
68. Flexures - Dilatant flexures occur as thicker portions at bends in throughgoing strike-slip
structures, in in marble tiles on sidewalk coffee shops in Spain.
69. Flexures Vera Nancy - The Vera Nancy vein system which is covered by post-mineral
sandstone is discernible on resistivity data. A set of sub-vertical ore shoots approaching 1 M
oz Au was outlined by drill pattern. Outside the ore shoots drill holes identified the structure
and no Au, or over a very short distance up to 50 gram metres Au (e.g. 5m @ 10g/t Au)
occurs within the ore shoots. When I visited and saw these vertical ore shoots I suggested to
Dale Simms the mine geologist he construct structural contours or a Connelly diagram to
determine the spatial distribution of the shoots. And sure enough each of these ore shoots is
localised in a flexure in the throughgoing structure. But notice there is a base to these and
subsequent work has demonstrated the ore shoots only occur in the steeper dipping portion as
the structure is actually a listric fault.
70. Fault jogs Fault jogs form a cross overs in the strike-slip movement from one structure
to another and the linking fractures may develop as dilatant mineralised veins, banded by
repeated opening and mineral deposition. Here with the earthquake scenario we saw before
marble tiles. Many mines occur in these settings. We will see below changes in the nature,
thickness and orientation of the link structures.
71. Link structure - The Umuna Lode at Misima gold mine Papua New Guinea is developed
in a link structure which contains deeply oxidised and no doubt supergene enriched
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation, here apparent as banded quartz MnO (after
Mncarbonate) vein. An almost 2 km long lode is constrained between WNW-NW faults
which would have taken on a component of dextral strike-slip movement as a result of the
northward collision of Australia into Papua New Guinea and produced 3.7M oz Au. One
would prospect for repetitions and not along strike of the Umuna Lode.
72. Cracow Golden Plateau At Cracow in Queensland Australia the NNW trending
structural grain constrains the over 1 km long EW Golden Plateau mine as a dilatant segment,
although partly covered by post-mineral sandstone. However in the link structure at Golden
Plateau Au early mining identified ore shoots probably localised on NS structural
intersections consistent with the model presented earlier of two fluid sources one for quartzadularia from meteoric waters and one for mineralisation from magmatic fluids seen here as

22

the high grade 67.69g/t Au and 232g/t Ag a low relatively Ag:Au ratio for this deposit
type.
73. Waihi and Thames New Zealand - In New Zealand oblique plate collision provides a
dextral sense of strike slip movement on the Alpine Fault and also NS structures in the
Miocene-Pliocene Coromandel Peninsular. Consequently, most of the quality ore systems
formed under these conditions are constrained between NS structures and trend NW, varying
to WNW in the better mineralised portions.
74. Waihi - From 1980s data at Waihi the Martha and other lodes occur as up to 1km long
tension veins constrained between these NS structures both mapped with a dextral sense of
movement and interpreted from air photo interpretation. We even see a sigmoidal shape. The
Martha is actually a listric fault and the Empire and Royal veins are subsidiary structures and
furthermore the thickening of this andesite demonstrates this structure was active during
volcanism prior to mineralisation as a growth fault. Prospecting in the Gladstone Hill area
during the late 1990s led to the discovery of the Favona vein which is now the focus of
mining activity and the Correnso polymetallic vein exploits a NS structure.
75. Waihi - The early miners extracted the lodes and the from the early late 19th century
(1878) to the 1950s and then the mine was reopened in the early 1990s as an open pit to
process the intervening stock work veins. The open pit is surrounded by the town.
76. Changes in convergence - In Chile where one would expect the magmatic arc to display
orthogonal convergence many ore systems of different ages and style formed under transient
conditions of dextral oblique convergence recognised at La Coipa and El Indio.
77. La Coipa - At the La Coipa high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation within NE
tension veins constrained between NS fractures with an interpreted dextral sense of
movement within competent slate act as feeder structures for disseminated mineralisation
within overlying permeable volcanic rocks.
78. El Indio - El Indio is interpreted to occur within a large scale NE trending cross over
between NS structures with a transient dextral sense of movement. Stan Caddy mapped the
individual banded high sulphidation veins as EW trending portions of a sigmoidal loop. I
later mapped the Viento vein system here.
79. Viento vein El Indio - I was told to explain the shape of these ore shots. Each when
mapped out occurred in a flexure in the throughgoing structure and moderate pitching
slickensides supported a combination of dip-slip and oblique movement.
80. Tension veins - Tension veins are initiated at 45 degrees between strike-slip structures
and during continued movement the central portions thicken as they rotate to higher angles to
the controlling structures to form a sigmoidal pattern. The more rotated thicker tension veins
have been a locus of greater fluid flow and so are more mineralised. There is an issue with
this.
81. Tension vein mineralisation and drilling direction - In many districts where mineralisation
forms during oblique convergence elongate arrays of tension veins, especially within a fault
jog or cross over, produce soil anomalies parallel to the structural grain of the district, but
containing best mineralised veins normal to that orientation. It might be expected to drill
across the elongation of the soil anomaly and structural grain. However, those drill holes
might be parallel to the mineralised tension veins and a grid drilling program would provide
confusing results by drilling down some well mineralised tension veins to give a directors
drill hole (long high grade intersect) and just clip or miss others. This is evidenced by veins
parallel to the core axis as a sign that a rethink of the drilling direction might be necessary.
82. Mt Kasi Fiji - At Mt Kasi Fiji earlier explorers drilled across the structural grain without
sufficient geological mapping and got irregular results from a scenario like that above and
walked away. Geoff Taylor here later mapped a set of en echelon tension veins apparent in

23

these old workings which were best mineralised normal to the structural grain, and then
drilled then at appropriate angles. Mt Kasi later went into production.
sigmoids might be intersected parallel to the core axis as shown here. There is nothing that
can be done about this as the normal fault is likely to be the main target.
83. Pull-apart basin settings - Pull-apart basins develop as the surficial representations of fault
jogs in negative flow structure settings. The dilatant fractures formed at high angles to the
controlling structures act as normal faults while there is strike-slip movement on the
controlling faults to produce a parallelogram shaped basin. Note normal fault movement
during volcanism or sedimentation provides a thickening of the stratigraphy as the normal
faults are growth faults. Mineralised veins only form in the normal faults or locally in the
more competent footwall rocks.
84. Pull-apart basins Way Linggo & Kelian - Looking at two examples in Indonesia: Kelian
in Borneo and South Sumatra where sinistral strike-slip oblique movement prevails as a result
of the orientation of the plate boundary to plate collision.
85. Way Linggo - At Way Lingo in South Sumatra several pull-apart basins formed due to
the transfer of strike-slip movement from one arc-parallel portion of the structural grain to
another. Banded veins are hosted by parallel faults within competent host rocks
86. Kelian - The Kelian carbonate-base metal Au deposit lies in a corner of a pull-apart basin
developed on conjugate fractures in response to relaxation of the compressional magmatic
arc. Rapid normal fault movement on the normal faults has resulted in deposition of epiclastic
deposits within the basin with obvious disconformities as normal fault movement has
progressed. The shales outside the pull-apart basin are incompetent and do not fracture,
whereas the epiclastic rocks have been silicified and along with andesite laccoliths host
mineralised sheeted veins and breccias shown.
87. Dilatant structural settings host banded and sheeted veins - Lastly remember one of the
important aspects of strike-slip and dip-slip settings is the formation of sheeted veins dilatant
settings, which are interpreted to transport ore fluids some distance, and banded veins which
have undergone repeated activation and mineralisation deposition to provide higher Au-Ag
grades.
88. Structural control to epithermal vein systems Compression - Two end members include:
While conjugate fractures may host mineralisation within themselves, steep plunging
ore shoots host best ore within flexures and tension veins between conjugate fractures
with a strike-slip sense of movement and parallel to the orientation of compression.
Flat plunging ore shoots may locally form within flatter dipping portions of reverse or
thrust faults.
89. Northern Chile-Argentina By contrast the smaller El Guanaco and Quevar high
sulphidation epithermal systems localised by conjugate fractures developed during
compressional tectonism.
90. Tension veins in compression El Guanaco Chile - In the Andes we see mineralisation
within two high sulphidation vein systems localised by conjugate fractures. Here at El Indio,
Chile EW feeder structures for high sulphidation mineralisation form parallel the orientation
of compression, with best grades with developed as steep plunging ore shoots within
sigmoidal veins rotated by a component of dextral strike-slip movement on the NE conjugate
fractures as a result of Andean compression.
91. Argentine Patagonia - The Jurassic Deseado Massif Argentine Patagonia is dominated by
NW and NE conjugate fractures which localise low sulphidation epithermal Ag-Au
mineralisation.
92. Patagonia ore shoots and conjugate fractures - At Cerro Moro one of many examples ore
shoots tend to occur within flexures in the NW fractures or EW link structures between them
formed in an Andes compressional environment. Consequently, it has been easy to define

24

targets zones of magnetite destruction as at Cerro Moro here or resistive vein zones used at
Huevos Verde.
93. Structural control to epithermal vein systems Compression - Flat plunging ore shoots
form within flatter dipping portions of reverse or thrust faults.
94. Jaing Cha Ling China - At Jaing Cha Ling China a flat plunging ore shoot is localised
within a flexure in a revers fault.
95. Kencana, Gosowong, Indonesia - At Kencana, Gosowong, Indonesia I contoured the dip
of the mineralised veins and the ore shoot in gram x metres (as the vein width vs Au
grade).The flattest dipping vein portions host the highest gram metre value ore shoots
indicative of reverse faults as shown. Of interest is that Kencana occurs at 90 degree
orientation of the Gosowong listric fault and so both systems no doubt formed at the same
time under transient conditions of NE-SW compression, possibly as a divergence from EW
compression.
96. Flat structures Emperor gold mine, Fiji Collapse in association with the Tavua caldera at
the intersection with a dilatant splay in a throughgoing EW structure has resulted in
reactivation bedding planes in a basalt sequence which now host diversely flat dipping ore
zones termed flatmakes. Faults and dykes reflect the form of the splay. Ore occurs as
auriferous pyrite of the quartz-sulphide Au style but is overprinted by bonanza Au at the
intersections with cross structures, we will see later.
97. Bedding plane shears, Drake, Australia Mapping by Grace Cumming has identified a
collapse caldera in the Drake Volcanics. A period of large scale, sustained and explosive
volcanism is evidenced in the upper part of the Drake succession. This volcanic episode has
been linked to caldera collapse, where significant magma withdrawal may have caused
deflation of the volcanic succession (G Cumming., pers commun) and provided collapse as a
mechanism to account for the common appearance of mineralisation within bedding plane
shears. Sigmoidal veins are also apparent between the shear planes. Hypogene haematite
suggests mixing of rising ore fluids with oxygenated ground waters promoted Au deposition.
Movement on the bedding plane shears has promoted the development of intervening coreparallel tension veins.
98. Plunging ore shoots combination of strike-slip and compression or extension - Many ore
shoots are formed by the combination of a strike-slip component within overall extensional
settings, rather than the entire length of a listric fault being mineralised.
99. Viento El Indio Chile - At the Viento veins, El Indio, Chile we saw earlier that inclined
ore shoots result from a combination of strike-slip and dip slip movement.
100. Palmarejo Mexico - At Palmarejo Mexico steep plunging ore shoots are localised within
competent silicified sandstone or andesite at cross overs between moderate dipping listric
faults. Although listric faults should host flat plunging ore shoots here they are steep due to
the strike slip movement and host rock competency.
101. Structure conclusions We have dealt with many examples of structural control to ore
with some common themes between tectonic setting and ore environment. Major structures
occur as arc-parallel compressional and extensional as well as arc normal (transfer) and
conjugate fractures and along with changes in the nature of convergence provide for different
environments of ore formation, which is best developed in ore shoots at varying orientations.
Understanding these principles may lead to the discovery of blind ore shoots or delineation of
the extent of known ones. Notice the contrast between flat ore shoots in extensional listric
faults and steep ore shoots in settings of oblique convergence.
Consequently, ore shoots in low sulphidation vein systems are all about the coincidence of
several controls.

25

Section 4 - Breccias
1. Breccias in Exploration
2. Breccia settings
3. Breccia names, descriptive breccia terminology As attempts to describe the features of a
breccia system such as the different rock types I used when mapping the Kidston breccia pipe
in 1981 from outcrop and drill core, but with new breccias recognised following mining.
4. In reality
5. Steps in breccia analysis
6. Hints for working with breccias
7. Descriptive terminology Geometry
8. Breccia geometry My 1981 map of the Kidston breccia pipe shows the pipe cutting the
contact between Precambrian granite and metamorphic rocks. A core of emplacement activity
is dominated by quartz-feldspar porphyry intrusion clasts was originally described as
volcanic breccia, and is rimmed by granite and metamorphic breccias and a central mixed
breccia. In reality the volcanic breccia is of an injection origin and the metamorphic and
granite breccias of collapse origin. Mineralisation as sheeted quartz-sulphide veins postdates
breccia pipe formation and is kinked about the boundary, reflected in the shape of the open
pit.
A pebble dyke characterised by transported milled rounded clasts which overlie porphyry
intrusions whereas fluidised breccia dyke comprises transported matrix of rock flour and
hydrothermal minerals and wall rock clasts which have undergone only little transport.
9. Descriptive breccia terminology Components
10. Descriptive breccia terminology - components clasts
11 Descriptive breccia terminology components matrix
12. Descriptive breccia terminology - organisation
13. Colloquial terms include terms which have been used for many years to describe
individual breccia types. Some such as shingle, crackle, mosaic and floating clast breccias
relate to a narrow range of rock descriptions and so are quite useful. However, the terms
hydrothermal breccia and diatreme breccia encompass many different breccias and so should
be avoided. I prefer to use the descriptive term milled matrix breccia for many of the rock
types formed within diatreme breccia pipes, but these are not the only breccias recognised
there. Some terms have stood the test of time over many years and so if they didnt work they
would not have been expected to survive.
14. Colloquial breccia terms
15. Colloquial breccia terms
16. Genetic terminology is based upon the INTERPRETED mode of formation and so can
really only be used after a breccia system has been mapped out and is understood. The
breccia pipe at Kidston is interpreted as a magmatic hydrothermal breccia with a close
relationship to the driving intrusion source. Phreatomagmatic breccias display an association
of subvolcanic intrusions and water turned to steam whereas phreatic breccias are generally
associated with only depressurised water and only rarely an intrusion component. Other
breccias might from in open space structures or at the tops of porphyry intrusions
17. Process - Fluidisation
18. Process a common theme in breccia formation - Overpressurised fluids which gather at an
intrusion apophysis or cupola take up more space than the molten intrusion and may
eventually explode, especially if movement of a localising structure cracks the carapace. The
magma chamber is then evacuated of fluids and the breccia collapses prior to escape of the
breccia liquid phase from the deeper magma source into the overlying breccia.

26

19. Magmatic hydrothermal breccias Magmatic hydrothermal breccia display a strong

association with intrusion source rocks and need not have vented to the surface. Typically
overpressurised volatile-rich magmatic fluids might form at the carapace to an intrusion and
eventually explode, possibly as movement on a structure cracks the carapace. Mineralisation
commonly follows brecciation derived from a more liquid magmatic fluid. A process
commonly involves:
Initial eruption driven from the intrusion source which creates an injection breccia
comprising transported milled intrusion and wall rock clasts
Later collapse of the breccia, commonly on sheeted fractures
Mineralised fluid introduction.
Also we must consider:
typically barren intrusion breccias at the contact between the intrusion and wall rocks
pebble dykes as volatiles escape from the magmatic source along a structure and
transport an mill clasts
20. Intrusion breccia at the intrusion margin are clast supported and sub-angular although
volatile flow along the contact may create local milling
21. Intrusion breccia Mt Kasi, Fiji. Here high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation
occurs within a brecciated dome margin where we see some clast transport and milling.
22. Magmatic hydrothermal breccias pebble dykes characterised by rounded milled clasts
transported within a structure above a porphyry and driven by volatiles escaping from the
porphyry. In each case we interpret porphyry intrusion to occur at depth. At Bilimoia shale
clasts have been rucked up from a deeper level and this structure is overprinted by deep
epithermal quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation.
23. Kidston NE Australia view. The original Kidston open pit displays a curved shape
along the margin of breccia pipe. Other hills eg. Macks Knobs are intrusion centres.
24. Kidston NE Australia map. My original 1981 geological map shows the Permocarboniferous Kidston breccia pipe as a 2.5km x 800m body cutting an intrusive contact
between Precambrian granodiorite-metamorphic rocks with associated sub-volcanic
intrusions which contain low grade Au associated with disseminated pyrite, and hence are
related to a source of mineralisation. A quartz-feldspar porphyry clast breccia (originally
termed volcanic breccia) is regarded as a central injection breccia and is rimmed by collapse
breccias, which include some large blocks. This block caps mineralisation constrained below
it. There was an interesting adjacent high grade leakage.
Kidston is a sub-volcanic breccia pipe related to quartz-feldspar porphyry and flow banded
rhyolite and although driven by exploding volatiles and later collapse. It is not interpreted to
have vented to the surface and so the entry of meteoric waters may have been limited.
25. Kidston injection breccia followed by collapse This is a common theme we will see in
other breccia pipes.
26. Kidston injection breccia The central injection contains intrusion clasts and, being
linked to the source, more mineralisation in the matrix than other breccias. The quartz-Mo
veins are consistent with Kidston and other similar breccia pipes being related by some
workers to Mo-rich source rocks. Spherulite-rich flow banded dykes are volatile-rich and part
of that pre-, syn-, and post-mineral intrusion activity.
27. Kidston marginal collapse breccias Breccias about the margin of the breccia pips are
dominated by granodiorite or metamorphic wall rocks in which the regional metamorphic
foliation becomes more reoriented in blocks further towards the centre of the pipe. The
intrusion contact between granodiorite and metamorphics is preserved within the pipe.
28. Kidston mixed and collapse mega breccia A polymictic breccia in outcrop from the
centre of the pipe contains intrusion and wall rock clasts which display some milling and
injected intrusion clasts which the entire breccia no doubt underwent some collapse. A mega

27

breccia is apparent looking into the breccia pipe from the outer margin there are large
collapse blocks of previously brecciated material as a reflection of continued collapse.
Additional ore was discovered below this block. During early exploration there were high
grade mine workings adjacent to this block as a reflection of leakage.
29. Kidston mineralisation - Sheeted fractures developed about the breccia pipe margin
during collapse host carbonate-base metal style Au mineralisation emplaced from a liquidrich fluid phase following brecciation.
30. Kidston setting The Kidston breccia pipe lies in a region where a gravity low that links
two Permo-carboniferous volcanic centres within more dense (higher gravity) outcropping
Precambrian basement rocks and so is indicative of buried magmatic activity, also evidenced
by outcropping felsic dykes. Critical in the development of the Kidston pipe has been the
migration of overpressurised fluids to the top of a deeply buried magma chamber and
possibly cracking of the carapace by intersecting major structures to initiate breccia pipe
emplacement. Clasts of: porphyry with quartz growth textures, quartz-Mo veins and
tourmaline matrix, all support the close intrusion association. A higher crustal level diatreme
flow complex occurs at Mt Borium.
31. Tourmaline breccia pipes word slide
32. The process of tourmaline breccia formation is interpreted as:
eruption with sheeted fractures at the pipe margin forming burst breccias and
exfoliation or decompression breccias characterised by onion skin rings to round
central clasts and tourmaline fill,
collapse forming flat fractures extending outside the pipe but most pronounced within
it where slide on the sheeted fractures has facilitated more collapse. Sillitoe and
Sawkins have recorded the bending of fractures from sub vertical to horizontal.
Entry of tourmaline matrix then facilitates shingle breccia formation, although
breccias in deeper and central portions of the pipe are less elongate.
33. Tourmaline breccia pipes model Tourmaline breccia pipes are vertically attenuated
bodies characterised by flat fractures extending into the nearby wall rock and characteristic
tourmaline matrix shingle and exfoliation breccias. Marginal sheeted fractures are common
which facilitate collapse and no doubt fluid entry. Bending of the fractures and shingle
breccias recognised by Sillitoe and Sawkins demonstrate continued collapse as an important
aspect of breccia formation.
34. Exfoliation or decompression breccias form by the rapid depressurisation when the
overpressurised carapace to an intrusion bursts. They are characterised by arcuate rather than
tabular shingle-like breccia clasts rimming a central rounded clast much like onion skin
weathering seen in granite terrains and a tourmaline matrix.
35. Shingle breccia formation, high level flat tourmaline-filled fractures outside the breccia
pipe display more collapse within the pipe to aid in shingle breccia formation
36. Shingle breccia formation, moderate to deep level some typical shingle breccias with
elongate clasts which become more equigranular in the central portions of pipes where they
are likely to contain more late stage mineralisation quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite fill
37. Milled and collapse breccia pipes There is a theme in intrusion-related breccias of initial
eruption, locally with clast milling, and then local collapse and later mineralisation which we
will see more of. Here at the Kidston open pit earlier we saw a flat dipping mega breccia. It is
worth quickly looking at one more example of this process.
38. Magmatic hydrothermal breccias exploration implications
39. Phreatomagmatic breccias graphic. Phreatomagmatic breccias are derived from
depressurised hot water turning to stream (phreato) in association with high crustal level
sub-volcanic felsic intrusions (magmatic) and are recognised with many intrusion-related low
sulphidation carbonate-base metal Au or high sulphidation epithermal deposits. Either a

28

rising overpressurised intrusion erupts when vapour pressure exceeds lithostatic pressure and
tensile strength of the enclosing rock or such an intrusion which may be rising up a structure
may come in contact with a water reservoir such as an aquifer. Polyphasal explosive eruption
pipes vent to the surface as a funnel shaped body with marginal tuff rings of ejected material
formed adjacent to the pipe but commonly collapse into the regularly destabilised pipe. Tuff
rings contain base surge deposits characterised by low angle cross bedding and bedded
accretionary lapilli. The steam which condenses above the pipe and then collapses as rain
gathering comminuted dust (mud) as accretionary lapilli which commonly occur as layers.
The breccias we will see comprise milled or comminuted material which develops as the
matrix with remnant rounded clasts and are therefore termed milled matrix breccia.
Mineralisation which comes later displays a strong rock type control. The intrusion driving
brecciation is evident as endogenous domes which may vent to the surface, or occur as
dismembered dykes and characteristic juvenile intrusion clasts which commonly display
ragged forms resulting from having been molten during breccia formation.
40. Milled matrix breccias The typical breccias developed within diatreme breccia pipes
comprise rounded matrix supported clasts in a matrix of comminuted clast material to from a
rock flour. In low sulphidation deposits these breccias generally display a characteristic illitepyrite alteration with a characteristic fine cubic pyrite, varying to high level illite-smectite
and sericite at depth. The illite alteration is incompetent and will not host fractures or open
space. In high sulphidation systems such as Veladero silica or silica-alunite and locally
pyrophyllite alteration predominate.
41. Bedded breccias and tuff ring deposits bedded deposits range from tuff ring deposits
which lie outside the breccia pipe and include bedded deposits within the upper portion of the
pipe varying to lacustrine deposits. Bedded blocks may collapse to deeper portion of the pipe.
42. Surficial features Phreatomagmatic breccia pipes vent to the surface and then collapse
and so features such as tree clasts are recorded as having collapsed 600m into diatreme
breccia pipes in the US. Here, a tree clast is collapsed into a breccia pipe at Lihir and we see
accretionary lapilli formed in sub-aerial conditions including bedded deposits outside the
diatremes at Kelian.
43. Juvenile intrusion clasts - Diatreme breccia pipes formed as phreatomagmatic eruptions
are characterised by elements of the driving sub-volcanic intrusions such as dykes,
endogenous domes and juvenile intrusion clasts which display ragged fabrics indicative
having been molten when erupted. It is generally necessary to identify juvenile intrusion
clasts in order to verify the presence of a diatreme breccia pipe.
44. Endogenous domes - The Pliocene little eroded diatreme at Wau, Papua New Guinea, is
localised on the Escarpment fault and is rimmed by endogenous domes with marginal
crumple breccias and contains central lacustrine sediments. Here, the Namie breccia
comprises clasts of juvenile Edie Porphyry dome material and Kiandi slate in a matrix of
mainly milled softer slate.
45. Mineralisation - Au mineralisation most commonly of the low sulphidation carbonatebase metal Au style is typically introduced following breccia formation driven by a liquid
event which follows the volatile event responsible for breccia eruption. As the illite-pyrite
alteration in mid to high crustal level diatreme pipes is incompetent at these levels best
mineralisation occurs at the contact with brecciated competent wall rocks or within the
fractured wall rocks. Only at deeper levels does low sulphidation epithermal mineralisation
exploit open space between breccia clasts. High sulphidation epithermal may more readily
utilise the permeable breccias for fluid flow.
46. Mineralisation at pipe margin Acupan - At Acupan in the Philippines the GW breccia
pipes host low sulphidation carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation within brecciated wall

29

rocks at the margin of the Balatoc plug diatreme breccia pipe margin, which is discernible
here as an incompetent milled matrix breccia.
47. Mineralisation at pipe margin Lepanto - At Lepanto in the Philippines a fluidised breccia
of high crustal level high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation exploits the brecciated
contact between the clay altered diatreme and basement wall rocks. Curiously, clast of
porphyry style magnetite alteration occur in one of the surface diatreme breccia.
48. Mineralisation outside pipes Kelian - The phreatomagmatic breccias at Kelian were
originally termed muddy breccias as they are dominated by a matrix of milled and altered
shale material and are very incompetent and so mineralisation is localised within dilatant
sheeted fractures and breccias in the adjacent silicified epiclastic sediments.
49. Mineralisation within breccia pipes - Low sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation may
occur within breccia matrix in deeper level breccia pipes where the host rocks are more
competent such as at Mt Leyshon. Here sericite alteration replaces the less competent illite at
higher crustal level lower temperature settings. At the Yanacocha high sulphidation system
mineralisation is associated with sulphides in the matrix of a competent silicified breccias.
50. Cripple Creek
51. Veladero Argentina - Veladero Argentina is a high sulphidation epithermal system related
to dome-diatreme breccia complex which cuts a volcanic sequence. The dome is visible here
and contains brecciated margins while the hydrothermal breccias occur as pipes containing
polymictic milled breccias with common rebrecciated or previously mineralised clasts.
52-53. Pascua-Lama Chile-Argentina Pascua occurs on the Chile side of border where
many diatreme breccia pipes extend to Lama and Veladero. Here breccias contain clasts from
the underlying granite and volcanic rocks as polymictic milled breccias with local
mineralised clasts and also bedded breccias in the uppermost portions.
54.La Virgin
55. Bulolo Graben in Papua New Guinea The Bulolo Graben in Papua New Guinea is an
intra-arc graben formed by extension to the NE facilitated by several normal faults such as
the Watut, Escarpment and Wondumi faults. Low sulphidation quartz-sulphide and
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation is related to these structures, Edie porphyry
intrusions and diatreme breccia pipes. Au mineralisation occurs over extended topographic
levels in relation to diatreme breccias at Edie Creek-Nauti, Kerimenge and Wau. We will
only look at the former.
56. Nauti diatreme Edie Creek - The historic Edie Creek veins including carbonate-base
metal and bonanza grade quartz-Au occur within competent Kandy metamorphic and only
poorly penetrate into the breccias of the Nauti diatreme which partly overlaps it the shale as a
funnel shaped breccia pipe.
57. Nauti diatreme Webiak Creek - I mapped bedded breccias dominate at Webiak Creek in
1984-5 at the top of the breccia pipe which overlies basement metamorphic rocks
58. Nauti road milled matrix breccias Bedded and massive milled matrix breccias with
accretionary lapilli, juvenile intrusion clasts and mille Kaindi phyllite matrix are exposed in
road cuttings.
59. Nauti road collapse features Contorted bedding and blocks indicative of collapse in the
upper portion of a diatreme.
60. Nauti road Granodiorite boulders in milled matrix breccia looks like conglomerate
Deeper within the diatreme below the tuff ring and upper bedded deposits massive bolder
beds taken on the appearance of conglomerates but contain matrix breccias with intense illite
alteration.
61. Lihir Papua new Guinea Sector collapse rapidly unroofed an intrusion (by 1 km)
facilitating eruption of phreatomagmatic breccia pipes.

30

62. Lihir PNG - Milled breccias contain juvenile intrusion clasts within the throat of a
diatreme breccia pipe, while wood clasts, accretionary lapilli are indicative of collapsed, and
a tuff ring overlaps basement.
63. Phreatomagmatic breccias Exploration implications
64. Phreatic or eruption breccias Explosions result from depressurising of hot water to form vapor
Near surficial breccia pipes
Rare magmatic component
Common where circulating cells of geothermal fluids
Cap (sheeted) quartz veins & source of sinter
Characterised by silicified breccias
65. Champagne Pool New Zealand - Champagne Pool represents a recent breccia pipe within
an acid sulphate cap with sinter and metalliferous deposits we will see later as containing
high grade Au.
66. Silicified breccias - Characteristic silicified breccias without a great deal of milling but
which are commonly polyphasal and may contain sinter and wood clasts.
67. McLaughlin Setting McLaughlin occurs in a region of dextral strike-slip such as the
currently active San Andreas fault.
68. McLaughlin The sheeted vein system hosted by basement rocks displays an angular
relationship to the controlling structure where there may be a flexure in the controlling fault.
Sheeted veins often host mineralisation below eruption breccias. The sheeted veins which
host most Au at McLaughlin are overlain by a stockwork breccia within sinter-silicification.
69 & 70. McLaughlin The sheeted veins pass upwards to eruption breccia and brecciated
sinter. Crack seal interlayering of breccia followed by sinter develops by repeated fracturing
of the overpressurised fluid conduit so that each new breccia event is followed by renewed
fluid outflow and sinter deposition until silicification blocks the conduit which is eventually
broken again by a breccia even after pressure build up.
71. McLaughlin - sinter
72. Eruption breccia model the early 1980s eruption breccia model based upon the
McLaughlin example featured mineralisation underlying sinter deposits. However, venting
hydrothermal fluids might flow some distance from the up flow.
73-75. Phreatic breccias exotic clasts Broken Hills NZ
76-78. Phreatic breccias Osorezan Japan
79. Phreatic or eruption breccias exploration implications
80. Fluid injection breccias
Account for transport and emplacement of mineralised sulphides in broken rocks
Characterised by:
o significant transport of matrix and lesser transport of host rocks fragments
o matrix of sulphides and rock flour
o dyke-like forms grading to more marginal crackle breccias
Common in high sulphidation and some quartz-sulphide low sulphidation epithermal
as well as some low sulphidation and porphyry deposits
81. Fluidised breccia Fluid feeder structures grade from rotational breccia to fluidised
breccia dykes to crackle breccias. Here we see rotational breccias and fluidised breccia dyke
feeders. Au grades are directly proportional to the amount of sulphide.
82. Crackle and fluidised crackle breccias - Fluidised breccias feed sulphides into crackle
breccias.
83. Tectonic-hydrothermal breccias:
Form in open space faults
Common infill of hydrothermal minerals
Sub surface sedimentary structures

31
Local milled, floating clast breccias, many with bonanza ores
84. Mosaic, jigsaw, dilational, open space or expansion breccias - The terms all apply to
breccias where the rock has been broken and clasts moved apart with little rotation or milling
and the intervening space filled with cement or matrix of hydrothermal in-fill minerals. These
may contain relict open space and the clasts should theoretically fit back together if the
matrix were removed.
85. Floating clast breccias Floating clast breccias emphasise the matrix supported nature of
breccia clasts which must therefore have been held in place by fluid pressure in the fault
during infill by matrix. There is a common banded accretionary aspect as hydrothermal
material has is accreted to the clasts which are held aloft by fluid pressure. Notice most clasts
are milled. These are simply termed floating clast breccias.
86. Subsurface sedimentary structures in open space faults it is not unusual for dilatant open
fractures to become filled with sediment and so host graded beds or other sedimentary
structures formed below surface. The term bedded subsurface sedimentary structures might
be used for these.
87. Mineralised fault-breccia - Mineralisation formed within faults is likely to be brecciated
with many episodes of matrix emplacement. Here we see mineralized clasts and variable
mineralisation and gangue in the matrix. This one might be termed quartz-sulphide fault fill
breccia.
88. Fault breccia deformed clay altered clasts here possibly termed a sheared clay-pyrite
fault breccia.
89. Hydrothermal collapse breccias, or clay matrix breccias - These locally termed pseudo
breccias feature no clast transport or movement but develop as a result of overprinting by a
retrograde event such as clay alteration derived from an acid sulphate cap here downgrading
potassic alteration.
90. Clay matrix breccias formed as argillic overprint Phyllic silica-sericite alteration is
overprinted by lower temperature clay alteration.
91. The overprint of the Ohio Creek porphyry by the Lookout Rocks advanced argillic
alteration at Thames New Zealand is a good example of this we will see later
92. Hydrothermal collapse breccias, or clay matrix breccias - Retrograde alteration typically
grades from fractures into the adjacent rock so the remnant clasts may display higher tenure
prograde alteration (here at Lihir Is potassic) and matrix retrograde clay (here illite-kaolin)
alteration.
93. Breccias Exploration signifance
94. Stand outs
95. Breccias as vectors to mineralisation - Quartz vein clasts at Vera Nancy are reported to
have aided in the discovery of a mineralised banded vein in the structure. A magnetite altered
clast in a diatreme near Lepanto is considered by some to have vectored towards the FSE
porphyry while others say they found it anyway. However, I am told this clast is different to
that porphyry so the source may be yet to be discovered.
96. Sampling breccias - Lastly a word on sampling. The results of sampling this breccia were
lower than I expected. The geologist had allowed the field assistants to do the sampling and
they just knocked off the tops of the more resistant barren clasts whereas the softer
mineralisation occurs in the matrix but has been eroded near surface do the sampling
yourselves with care.

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Section 5. Porphyry
1. Porphyry Cu + Au + Mo deposits bulk tonnage low grade The term porphyry Cu arose in
the 1960s as big machinery led to the development bulk low grade resources which display
a number of characteristics including.
2. Intrusion rocks with porphyritic texture - The forceful emplacement of spine-like
intrusions contributes towards the development of porphyritic textures.
3. Quartz-sulphide stock work (sheeted) veins While disseminated and breccia
mineralisation are recognised, porphyry Cu deposits are noted for the presence of various
types of quartz stock work veins which host Cu-Au mineralisation within sulphides. Here,
later supergene chalcocite adds to the Cu grade of the porphyry. Parallel veins are termed
sheeted and interpreted to act as dilational fracture system to transport as well as host
mineralisation.
4. Comparisons with volcanic compositions Porphyry Cu systems within andesitic
magmatic arcs mostly display diorite compositions varying to monzonite in alkaline
conditions.
5. Characteristic alteration & mineralisation zoned in time and space Much of this
presentation centres around this staged model for the derivation of porphyry deposits and we
will discuss in detail.
6. Porphyry metal types
7. Porphyry Au Maricunga Belt
8. Wallrock porphyry - Cadia
9. Controls to porphyry Cu-Au-Mo mineralisation This presentation will focus upon
important controls to porphyry mineralisation which include a fertile magmatic source and
mechanisms to bleed ore fluids from the magmatic soruce at depth into a cooler apophysis
where mineral deposition occurs. A change in the nature of convergence acts as a trigger and
dilatant sheeted veins which transport ore fluids are important controls, along with fertile
polyphasal intrusion activity. Sheeted and laminated veins represent an important elemement
in fluid transport to the apophysis.
10. Porphyry deposits Porphyry deposits occur in magmatic arcs developed in the hanging
walls to subduction zones vary in age from the Ordovician of eastern Australia, to younger
Palaeozoic Tethyan and north Pacific rim systems, and SW and SE Pacific rim Tertiary
deposits. We will draw on Terry Leachs work on Philippine active porphyry geothermal
systems. While the original early 1970s model of Titley here or also Sillitoe that porphyry
Cu deposits form in the root zones of stratovolcanos remains correct, these porphyry deposits
are not emplaced into related volcanic piles and so structural control is now considered to be
more important. While Bingham Canyon, Grasberg and Wafi porphyry systems are emplaced
into basement rocks, the Cadia group of deposits like within a shelf sequence of
volcaniclastic rocks
11. Structural control to porphyry Cu-Au - This model which we discussed earlier displays
a typical Pacific rim subduction scenarios with the heavier oceanic plate subducting below
the lighter continental plate in a setting of dominantly orthogonal convergence and also a
component of transient oblique convergence. 3 main structures localise porphyry intrusions:
Arc parallel structures including terrain boundaries which are most commonly active
as reverse faults
Transfer structures divide the arc into segments and account for changes in the nature
of subduction along the arc such as dip of the down going plate and rate of
subduction. These fractures focus repeated intrusion emplacement and may tap deep
mantle-derived melts

33

Conjugate fractures develop in some orthogonal magmatic arcs in the Central Andes
and northern Sulawesi and host porphyry intrusions, especially at the intersections
with arc parallel structures.
12. Cadia-Ridgeway and Lachlan transverse zone - In the Macquarie arc of eastern Australia
the Lachlan Transverse Zone has been recognised since the early 1980s as localising ore
systems. Most recently we see how the Cadia Valley ore systems (Ridgeway, Cadia Hill and
Cadia East) are aligned along this structure, as partly evidenced by the magnetic signature
associated with prograde hydrothermal alteration.
Analyses of Ridgeway and Cadia Far East suggest a mineralisation developed in response to
sinistral strike-slip movement on the NS structural grain of the district, either during overall
oblique convergence of a transient change from orthogonal to oblique convergence.
Practically all the ore systems in the Lachlan fold belt were developed under conditions of
sinistral oblique convergence.
Note also the Gilmore Suture, a terrain boundary which localises ore systems.
Mineralised growth faults - Variations in the stratigraphy demonstrate some of the Lachlan
transverse structures have acted as growth faults active pre-, syn- and post-mineralisation, in
a pull-apart basin scenario. Only in such a strongly dilatant structural setting have fluids been
bled from the magmatic source at depth into the overlying wall rocks as sheeted veins to form
what we call wallrock porphyry mineralisation.
13. The Wafi transfer, structure - The Wafi Transfer structure occupies the structural suture
between the eastern and western origins of PNG and has therefore focused overprinting
porphyry emplacement. A transient component of struke-slip movement on the Wafi Transfer
Structure provides a dilatant setting for the emplacement of porphyry intrusions.
14. Arc parallel structures - Many arc-parallel structures localise intrusion-related ore systems
and represent terrain boundaries or other faulted geological contacts. It is therefore important
to consider to localising features along these structures.
15. Structure in porphyry systems, localisation We saw earlier that pull-apart basins such as
those defined at Cadia occur as the surface expression of negative flower structures which are
vertically zoned to occur as splays at the deepest levels where porphyry intrusions occur. In
the 1960s geologists regarded horsetail structures as favourable sites for porphyry
exploration and these are essentially splay faults.
16. Arc parallel structures, Domeyko Fault/Falla Oeste, Northern Chile The Domeyko
Fault/Falla Oeste system represents one such system formed as a terrain boundary which has
normally been active as a reverse fault in northern Chile. My understanding is that in the
early 1970s when landsat imagery first hit the newsstands David Lowell recognised that
Chuquicamata, El Abra and El Salvador lie in the same structural trend and explored along
that trend to identify La Escondida under a substantial barren leached cap.
We will see several examples of intrusion localised at splays in response to components of
transient change from orthogonal reverse movement to oblique dextral strike-slip movement.
Chuquicamata is localised on a splay in the Falla Oeste interpreted as a dilatant setting during
a transient component of dextral movement on that structure. Curiously, there is post mineral
sinistral movement may possibly have offset the porphyry to localise these small ore systems
to the south.
17. La Escondida My landsat-based fracture analysis suggests La Escondida-Zaldivar are
localised within a dilatant step over between segments of the Falla Oeste.
18. Splays localise porphyry systems in arc parallel faults - The Philippine Fault is a major
country-scale arc parallel structure which displays a sinistral sense of strike-slip movement
localises South East-Lepanto in a splay. In Luzon the Philippine Fault breaks up into several
segments which localise the Didipio and Far South East porphyry systems. The FSE porphyry
is localised by the intersection of the splay and main structure and the Lepanto high

34

sulphidation Au deposit is aligned along the contact of the dilatant structure and a diatreme
breccia.
The Frieda river porphyry Cu deposit is localised by a splay in the Fiak-Leonard Schultz fault
and a barren advanced argillic alteration and high sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation
occur within an associated dilatant structure.
19. Changes in the nature of convergence as a trigger for intrusion emplacement Porphyryrelated melts might be stewing at depth under conditions of orthogonal convergence and are
then forcefully emplace in response to transient changes in the nature of convergence
contributing towards the porphyritic texture and the spine like shape of porphyry intrusions.
Structures which may formerly have been active as arc-parallel reverse faults take on a strikeslip component of movement and so dilatant sites form at cross overs between these
structures. Because these changes may occupy a very brief period of time they may only be
apparent in the geological record by the emplacement of mineralisation with different
kinematics to the region.
20. Spine-like intrusions Grasberg Indonesia Many porphyry intrusions display a vertically
attenuated spine-like shape with polyphasal intrusion emplacement overlying larger
magmatic source. Grasberg as vertically attenuated with polyphasal intrusions, here
interpreted to be emplaced into the base of a diatreme breccia pipe which would have
quenched the intrusions and ore fluids.
21. Golpu, Wafi, Papua New Guinea Golpu is a strongly vertically attenuated porphyry
system which remains open at depth.
22. Ridgeway, Cadia Valley, Australia As we saw earlier a vertically attenuated a
polyphasal intrusion is emplaced into structures with protracted histories of activity and so
we see several episodes of quartz vein development and mineralisation. His vertical body is
mined by block cave.
23. Mineralisation in porphyry systems
24. Stockwork versus sheeted and laminated quartz veins - Stockwork quartz veins are by
definition random here either as one event without the influence of a preferred stress field say
where sigma 1 is vertical and veins are about the top of an intrusion such as at La Granja,
Peru, or due to several overprinting intrusion events such as at Ridgeway, Australia. Sheeted
quartz veins are defined as parallel veins typically formed under the influence of a preferred
stress field, commonly as dilatant fractures. Laminated quartz veins display reactivation and
multiple events of mineral deposition. Consequently, sheeted and laminated veins are
important as they may transport as well as host vein mineralisation. The sample from Namosi
features overprinting M and B style quartz veins which we will consider later. It is important
for the drilling direction to intersect veins at a high angle such as we see at Cadia Hill but not
Namosi.
25. Structure in porphyry systems Many porphyry systems are emplaced as vertically
attenuated spine-like intrusions linked to deeper magmatic sources. Contact metamorphism
produces as hornfelsed zone of wall rock at the intrusion carapace which helps to constrain
overpressurised fluids. During cooling of the spine-like intrusion and magma source fluids
gather at the intrusion apophysis. However, the fluid (liquid and volatiles) plus cooled
intrusion take up more space than the molten intrusion and the system becomes
overpressurised.
Different vein orientations develop in two end member structural settings as orthogonal or
oblique convergence and in settings of orthogonal convergence a porphyry intrusion might be
emplaced in conditions of compression or extension. Stockwork quartz veins develop as
quartz is deposited in response to the sudden drop in fluid pressure when the overpressured
carapace is fractured. Traditional models suggest the carapace fractures as fluid pressure

35

exceeds lithostatic pressure plus tensile strength but movement of the structures which
localise the porphyry could be important.
26. Concentric fractures above a porphyry intrusion Kidston
27. Radial lodes and dykes above a porphyry
28. Structure in porphyry systems Vein styles and orientation vary with depth as well as
tectonic setting. In settings of orthogonal convergence where there is an upward stress of
intrusion emplacement, above a porphyry fracture/veins are dominated by a cone of
concentric fractures as well as radial fractures and pass to dominantly radial fractures at
depth. Orthogonal veins with two prominent directions might develop at the top of a magma
chamber exploiting pre-existing fractures during extension.In conditions of oblique
convergence the cone and radial veins might be biased towards the dilatant vein direction
which vary to sheeted veins. Sheeted veins transport mineralisation from the magmatic
source at depth to higher crustal levels, as well as host mineralisation, and may extend will
into the wall rocks.
29. Conceptual porphyry structure The Dinkidi porphyry stock at Didipio in the Philippines
is interpreted to have been localised in a cross over between two NS splays from the
Philippine Fault with sinistral senses of movement. In this setting dilatant sheeted veins trend
NW and are interpreted to have transported as well as host mineralisation.
30. Porphyry geology, end of a long process At first glance porphyry geology appears
difficult as it results from the overprinting of several events of alteration and mineralisation in
which early prograde hydrothermal alteration may be destroyed by retrograde alteration. A
sequence of events typical of porphyry systems has been established from observation of
active geothermal systems by Terry Leach as well as ore systems and can be used to better
understand porphyry deposits in order to vector towards mineralisation during exploration.
31. Vectors to buried porphyry deposits
32. Lowell and Guilbert Model 1970 The Lowell and Guilbert was a great piece of work in
1970 and is most illustrative of the end product of a multistage process which we expect to
better understand. Current thinking has it that potassic alteration grades outwards to
propylitic and the phyllic overprints later, best developed about the fractured intrusion
margin. Mineralisation occurs at the intrusion margin while veins are recognised outside the
intrusion and the pyrite shell is phyllic alteration.
33. Conceptual model of Philippine porphyry systems (by Sillitoe and Gappe) This later
empirical has been built up from the study of at least 46 porphyry systems in the one terrain.
It emphasises the vertically zoned spine-like shape of porphyry systems, linked to a magmatic
source at depth. The diatreme is derived from an unseen deeper porphyry and emphasises the
polyphasal nature of these systems along with the importance of progressive uplift and
erosion during magmatic. The advanced argillic alteration if a harbinger of the later lithocap
model. I am not a fan of SCC alteration which is the cumulative effect of phyllic (silicasericite-pyrite-chlorite) alteration and later overprinting argillic (clay-chlorite) alteration and
so contains alteration formed under different temperature regimes.
34. Dizon, Philippines The Dizon Porphyry in the Philippines may have heavily influenced
this model as a post-mineral diatreme cuts ore and advanced argillic alteration is recognised
in the upper portion.
35. Gustafson and Hunt 1975 model for the El Salvador porphyry, Chile This model is
important as it introduces time. We see early porphyry emplacement with a typical scenario
of intrusions settling just above the unconformable contact between basement metamorphic
rocks and volcanic cover. Mineralisation occurs within potassic alteration and there is a
progression from inner potassic alteration outwards to propylitic alteration and from bornite
outwards to chalcopyrite-based Cu mineralisation. While retrograde sericite-pyrite (phyllic)
alteration overprints the prograde potassic-propylitic alteration, the andalusite present with

36

advanced argillic alteration is interpreted by them to be derived from a much later intrusion at
depth. Late stage pebble dykes are part of the progression to deep epithermal vein
mineralisation formed outside many porphyry systems.
36. Philippine porphyry related geothermal systems During the 1980s Terry Leach worked
on the Philippine geothermal systems which are dramatically different to the New Zealand
geothermal systems from whence hed come. Here, geothermal activity is driven by nearby
porphyry systems so Terry got to include time in his thinking by the study of porphyry
intrusions: at their emplacement, release of volatiles, mineralisation, cooling and collapse.
Here we see not only different types of acid alteration but an active porphyry with potassic
alteration and marginal skarn mineralisation.
37. Staged model for porphyry Cu-Au evolution This is the current model derived from
Terrys geothermal work and modified by application to many porphyry deposits. We will go
through this as initial intrusion emplacement and prograde vein formation, continued cooling
and vapour resolution and continued vein formation, collapsing retrograde alteration and
marginal vein formation. We will also see overprinting vein mineralisation and experience a
terminology built up over many years by every man and his dog making a contribution, and
so the terminology is rather horrible. Importantly the vein types are end members and while
the sequence of formation is common it is easy to identify veins which do not fit the overall
classification or represent transitional elements.
38. Potassic alteration (termed Ksilica by some workers) is evidenced some or all of:
secondary Kfeldspar and biotite, magnetite and local anhydrite and prograde A and M style
quartz veins commonly from at this stage. Potassic alteration assemblages result from high
temperature near neutral conditions and passes to propylitic alteration under lower
temperature conditions.
39. Potassic alterationPink secondary within the matrix to an intrusion or a permeable
volcanic breccia wall rock, as selvages to veins and small scale veins.
40. Potassic alteration secondary biotite, anhydrite and magnetite Secondary biotite is a
common constituent of potassic alteration which may occur as fine felted masses replacing
primary mafic minerals (amphiboles, pyroxenes and biotite) which are difficult to identify in
hand specimen. Here also we see a characteristic biotite brown colour in the matrix of an
intrusion. Magnetite and anhydrite are also common constituents of porphyry systems to
former contributing towards characteristic bulls eye magnetic highs targeted in mineral
exploration.
41. Early porphyry style A veins - The earliest formed porphyry veins categorised by
Gustafson and Hunt 1975 as A veins developed during the cooling of the intrusion and so
occur as high temperature, often anhydrite bearing, dismembered to ptygmatic quartz veins
without significant sulphide mineralisation or alteration selvages. .
42-3. Porphyry style linear A veins - Another set of early veins are also termed A veins by
some workers, disply clear linear forms, with saccharoidal to granular or massive quartz,
common (potassic) alteration selvages and variable disseminated and later fracture sulphide
(pyrite-bornite-chalcopyrite) contents. They may be sheeted and sheeted froms are more
likely to extend in the wall rock.
44. Porphyry style M veins - Early veins formed in association with potassic alteration
classed as M veins in the geological literature are characteristically contain laminated quartz
and magnetite commonly with much or the bornite and chalcopyrite mineralisation localised
on laminations and therefore taken to have been introduced after the quartz.
45. Laminated quartz-magnetite barren core As part of the model of later emplacement of
sulphides it is possible for a set of veins to miss out and provide a barren stock work vein
system, commonly developed as barren cores.

37

46. Ridgeway, Cadia Valley, Australia laminated quartz-magnetite veins with later bornite
dominated sulphides on the laminations. Notice the high grade Au (48 g/t Au) in this
specimen, typically associated with bornite.
47. Laminated and sheeted A veins At Namosi, Fiji we see a laminated M vein with
mineralised sulphides as well as an M vein cut by a later B vein. At Golpu porphyry, Wafi,
Papua New Guinea again laminated quartz-magnetite veins and with two orthogonal sets.
48. Propylitic alteration The prograde cooling intrusion passes outwards from potassic
alteration propylitic alteration as mineral assemblages dominated by actinolite then epidote
then chlorite-carbonate locally with magnetite. Propylitic alteration, referred to as green rocks
by some workers represents an important vector to porphyry mineralisation. While outer
propylitic alteration characterised by chlorite-carbonate is a bit far, epidote displays a large
footprint and is nearer to the porphyry. However, actinolite is closest to the porphyry
intrusion and most encouraging.
49. Actinolite Ridgeway discovery DDH NC498 The recognition of actinolite within more
common epidote is reported to have been influencial in encouraging Ian Tedder to drill on in
the Ridgeway discovery drill hole. - Propylitic alteration as a vector Propylitic alteration is
an important vector to porphyry mineralisation.
50. Barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration Hot volatiles which exsolve early in the
cooling of porphyry systems acidify upon cooling and create characteristic zoned advanced
argillic hydrothermal alteration by reaction with the wall rocks, as we discussed earlier. I am
not entirely sure of the timing with regard to the A and M veins but it is possibly for deep
epidermal Au mineralisation to overprint these.
51. Barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration associated with porphyry Cu-Au
Lookout rocks adjacent to the Ohio Creek porphyry Cu-Au and Ekwai Debom adjacent to the
Horse Ivaal intrusion.
52. Southern Negros geothermal field Here on Terrys work at the Southern Negros
geothermal field we see the classic setting of a barren shoulder adjacent to a porphyry
intrusion with potassic alteration and extending for some 2.5 km to where it is cut off by
erosion.
53. Alto Peak geothermal field The origin of these barren shoulders as we discussed is
discernible as a volatile-rich plume on the work of Agnes Reys, as we discussed earlier.
54. Barren shoulders lithological control Barren shoulders as originally described by Terry
and myself display structural control and act as feeder structures for broad flat dipping
alteration zones termed as lithocaps.
55. Porphyry B veins A style of porphyry veins categorised as B veins by Gustafson and
Hunt, 1975 form later stage than the A and M veins we have already seen.
56. Porphyry B veins B veins are characterised by Gustafson and Hunt as occassionally
approaching a cockscomb quartz texture with centrally terminated quartz veins infilled with
later central sulphides (pyrite-chalcopyrite). Terry Leach therefore emphasised that the
sulphdies are later and lower temperature than the quartz.
57. Sulphide fill B vein centres several other B veins with characteristic central sulphides
but many appear to be formed by farcture of linear A veins.
58. Porphyry C veins, Grasberg Indonesia The term C veins is used by some workers to
account for sulphide-rich veins, which in this interpretation form relatively late in the cooling
history of the intrusion and so represent a source for the sulphides recognised in the centre of
B veins. When terry and I visited Grasberg they were mining 4 g/t Au and 4% Cu in material,
which when cut proved to be sulphide veins cutting solidification. Disseminated and breccia
fill sulphide mineralisation recognised in some porphyry intrusions may be related to C veins.
59. C veins Cadia-Ridgeway Here are a set of sulphide veins cutting earlier Al/M style
quartz veins.

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60. ABC veins

61. Phyllic overprint Phyllic alteration is part of a retrograde overprint which downgrades
Kfeldspar to sericite and mafic minerals to chlorite etc. In this model cooling intrusions
exsolve volatiles such as SO2 much of which rise under the influence of upwards moving
circulating hydrothermal fluids and condense in the upper portions of the hydrothermal
system to form hot acid fluids. As the porphyry cools or rather the apophysis to the spinelike porphyry intrusion cools . these circulating hydrothermal fluids reverse and the hot
acid fluids collapse upon the porphyry system in a process known as drawdown. The hot acid
fluids result in retrograde alteration.
62. Silica-sericite-pyrite grades from fracture-vein feeders to provide pervasive replacement
of intrusions as seen here. There is a common association with B veins. Carbonate may also
be present, typically as siderite as the more acid carbonate end member. As suggested earlier,
in response to cooling at the top of the spine apophysis hydrothermal fluids reverse and cause
the acid fluids responsible for phyllic alteration collapse upon earlier potassic-propylitic
alteration. However, the magmatic source at depth may still be degassing and so B veins form
and host some mineralisation at this stage.
63. Silica-ericite-pyrite + carbonate alteration
64. Phyllic alteration and Au deposition - Locally elevated Au occurs where ore fludis rising
form the magmatic source at depth come in contact with low Ph waters responsible for
phyllic alteration and so oxidise and destabilise the complexes carrying Au to promote localy
good Au grade Au depositson with pyrite-chalcpyrite.
65. Argillic overprint As the acid condensate waters overlying the porphyry intrusion cool,
partly in response to rock reaction with associated decrease in acidity, alteration may pass
from advanced argillic to an argillic overprint.
66. Argillic overprint on phyllic Clay matrix breccias form as lower temperature clay
alteration in-fills earlier higher tenure alteration, here clay-pyrite infilling silica-sericitepyrite. This mix of sericite and lower temperature clay alteration conforms to the SCC
(sericite-clay-chlorite) alteration described above.
67. D veins So far we have considered prograde potassic-propylitic alteration and prograde
A and M veins, barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration, and B veins which form
coincident with retrograde phyllic alteration and are locally overprinted by argillic alteration.
As the porphyry continues to cool and degas the magmatic source at depth is continuing to
degas and so deep epithermal veins form marginal to the porphyry intrusion. Some
correspond to D veins described by Gustafson and Hunt form El Salvador in 1975.
68. D veins D veins in the terminology of Gustafson and Hunt form marginal to porphyry
intrusions and in the SW Pacific rim these veins may be Au-bearing, where they are termed
(deep) low sulphidation epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Cu (Corbett and Leach, 1998).
Mineralogies are dominated by commonly coarse crystalline quartz-pyrite with chalcopyrite
close to the source varying further from the porphyry to galena, sphalerite, carbonate and
local Ag sulphosalts. They may be banded such as at Rawbelle where they vector towards
buried porphyry intrusions, are locally mined as Cu-Au ores here at Mineral Hill with
additional Bi, and easily discernible in many Pacific rim magmatic arcs by the presence of
box works after pyrite.
69. D veins quartz-pyrite-carbonate. D veins may be locally laminated derived from multiple
movement on host faults they exploit or evidence of open space fill. D veins at Copper Hill,
Australia occur as shear hosted quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite-carbonate veins.
70. D veins quartz sulphides anhydrite - Banded veins with sulphide and locally abundant
anhydrite from Constantina, Peru and Taguibo Philippines.
71. D veins field

39

72. Acid D veins D veins with mineral assembalges including silica, alunite, barite,
enargite, covellite overlie some Andean porphyry intruions.
73. Classification of porphyry vein types We have discussed different types of porphyry
veins which vary with time form early prograde to later retrograde.
74. Porphyry quartz vein types and magmatic souce 75. Levels in a porphyry system Porphyry systems vary significantly according to the level
in the hydrothermal system. At deepest levels large batholitic bodies host low grade
disseminated Cu-Au bearing sulphides, here in miralithic cavities. These sulphides
concentrate in the spine-like apophyses where they are best developed about the upper
contacts in polyphasal intrusion systems characterised by multiple events of mineralisation.
Dilational structural settings may allow ore fluids to extend beyond the porphyry source,
typically as sheeted vein systems which may host low grade Cu-Au mineralisation as
wallrock porphyry deposits.
76. Evolution of a porphyry system Here is one example in Indonesia with mineralisation is
interpreted to have clustered about the apophyses of a polyphasal porphyry system. The
laminated M style quartz-magnetite veins lack to later sulphides and so form a barren core
but rather better Cu-Au grade occur in the sheeted vein feeder structures near the top of the
intrusions, rising in the sulphide-rich breccias at the upper margins.
77. Ore shells and barren cores
78. Time in porphyry Cu-Au evolution Polyphasal intrusion
79. Repeated intrusions Polyphasal intrusion activity may take the form of repeated
mineralised intrusions contributing towards additional Cu-Au (ie higher metal grades) or post
mineral intrusion activity which may down-grade or stope out ore if it is cut by barren
intrusions. In settings of pronounced uplift and erosion during mineralisation deeper level
intrusions may give rise to post mineral diatreme breccia pipes which stope out ore.
emplacement
80. Multiple intrusion events might be evidenced by:
Abundant xenoliths
Contacts of different alteration
Intrusion contacts
Residual early Al veins mark the contact between similar diorite intrusions
81. Disruption to the normal sequence B veins typically cut magnetite or A vein BUT here
we see magnetite cutting sericite which is not normal. This resulted from renewed porphyry
intrusion.
82. Ridgeway several events Like many other similar systems, the Ridgeway porphyry is
only economic because several intrusion events give rise to several overprinting events of
vein mineralisation. The last post-mineral event stopes out ore.
83. Overprinting intrusions Grasberg, Indonesia Grasberg illustrates a common feature of
repeated porphyry emplacement with early mineralised events and a last post-mineral
intrusion which stopes out ore. The emplacement into a wet incompetent diatreme breccia
may have quenched early fluids and promoted the deposition of higher grade ores.
84. Late stage post-mineral intrusions
85. Polyphasal intrusions - Oyu Togai
86. Post-mineral intrusions and diatreme breccias It is important to recognise that at many
porphyry deposits ore might be stoped out and so the resource seriously damaged by later
barren post-mineral intrusions and later diatreme breccias. These might be evidenced by
contacts with later post-mineral intrusions or mineralised clasts within later barren intrusions.
At Dizon porphyry in the Philippines the porphyry is cut by a diatreme breccia pipe derived
from a deeper intrusion.

40

87. Post-mineral diatreme El Teniente, Chile - One of the worlds largest porphyry systems is
cut by a post-mineral diatreme which stopes out ore.
88. Golpu Wafi Papua New Guinea
89. Golpu Wafi Papua New Guinea At Golpu we see Cu occurs with:
covellite in this enriched part resulting from the acid overprint
bornite in the central portion of the stock with highest Au and
chalcopyrite at the margins
90. Copper species in porphyry systems There are some trends in the zonation of Cu
species in porphyry systems and associated Au.
91. Copper species in porphyry systems Not which minerals contain more Cu.
92. Metal zonation
93. Metal zonation
94. Role of phyllic alteration in supergene Cu enrichment and exploration
95. Magnetite destruction fluids responsible for phyllic alteration destroy magnetite and so
alter the magnetic signature, characterised by bleaching (by sericite) and locally grading
away from this B vein.
96. Aeromagnetic signatures in porphyry systems It is important to understand the geology
in order interpret aeromagnetic data and that geology comprises prograde or retrograde
alteration and level in the system. Porphyry deposits characterised by only magnetite-bearing
prograde alteration might provide bulls eye magnetic highs above the porphyry varying to a
donut to where the porphyry is eroded, but possibly covered by soil such as at Goonumbla
Australia. Systems characterised by retrograde alteration feature substantial magnetite
destruction and so subdued and irregular magnetic anomalies.
97. At the Oyu Tolgoi project in Mongolia three quite different vertically attenuated porphyry
bodies have been identified.
98. Oyu Togoi comparing IP and magnetic data the southern intrusion is characterised by
prograde alteration and so is a magnetic high and moderate chargeability anomaly. The
central intrusion displays a strong phyllic overprint and so magnetite is destroyed and the
strong pyrite provides a chargeability anomaly. Only in the presence of abundant pyrite has a
supergene Cu blanket developed and which we will soon examine.
99. Supergene Cu processes In the 1960s in the Western US and south America, explorers
studied vertically stacked profiles developed during the weathering of outcropping porphyry
Cu systems characterised by overprints of intensely pyritic retrograde phyllic alteration.
Weathering of pyrite produced acidic groundwaters which react with wall rocks to provide
intense leached weathering and remobilise Cu from the leached rocks, termed a leached cap.
Cu leached from the upper weathered zone is then deposited immediately below the base of
oxidation overprinting primary sulphides as chalcocite blankets, below the base of oxidation.
Chalcocite (Cu2S) oxidises to CuO and Cu carbonate upon exposure to the surface. Continued
uplift and erosion promotes downward migrating Cu and the formation of substantial
supergene blankets, while lateral migration of CuO-bearing fluids may result in the
development of exotic Cu deposits where deposition is promoted.
Au concentrates at the surface and above the base of oxidation as will be discussed in deep
low sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
100. Leached caps Here at la Granja, Peru, we see a substantial leached zone and in drill
core redeposit ion of CuO as chalcocite.
101. Chalcocite and Cu carbonate Mining in a chalcocite blanket exposes mineralisation as
chalcocite replacing and overgrowing primary sulphides in turn replaced by Cu carbonate
upon exposure to surface conditions.
102. Supergene porphyry Cu-Au, Ok Tedi Papua New Guinea Ok Tedi provides a good
example of supergene enrichment. The Au cap within the leached zone grades from >5g/t Au

41

at the surface to <0.5 g/t at depth as it impinges upon the supergene Cu enriched zone and the
reserve of 2.7Mt @2.08g/t Au at the beginning of mining provided a quick pay back. The
supergene Cu zone lies at the base of the leached cap at the top of the sulphide ore. Cu grades
of 1-4% as chalcocite Cu2S digenite Cu9S5 decline with depth within the supergene zone
which is 300-400m thick at the centre grading to 150-300m ant the margins. Protore at below
400m may be as low as 0.2%Cu and 0.2g/t Au with o.11% Mo. While the main reduction in
Cu-Au at depth no doubt result from the decline of supergene enrichment, one would expect
higher Cu-Au at the top of the original porphyry.
103. Exploration signifance
104. Controls to porphyry Cu-Au-Mo mineralisation
105. Time in porphyry Cu-Au

Section 6. Skarn alteration and mineralisation

1. Skarn Au-Cu
2. Skarn definitions
3. Skarn protors Skarns can form in a variety of rock types besides limestone and are best
developed where there is some original permeability such as this skarn unit exposed on a
limestone cliff.
4. Processes in the evolution of skarn deposits Skarns display zonation in space and time
much like porphyry systems. Terry Leach proposed 3 stages in the development of skarns
related to the evolution of a porphyry system as:
5. Stage 1 Isochemical skarn Contact between the heat source and wall rocks results in
contact metamorphism.
6 Stage 2 Metasomatic skarn Circulating hydrothermal cells develop causing fluids carrying
metals and non-metals to interchange between intrusion and wall rock resulting in
metasomatic skarn formation. In a manner similar to potassic-propylitic alteration this
alteration is zoned and contains some early mineralisation we will see soon.
7. Metal movement and zonation Skarns form by migration of Ca, Mg (if a dolomite
source) and CO2 into the intrusion to provide endoskarns as well as migration of Fe, Al, Si
and H2O into the wall rock to form skarn minerals. There is zonation in garnet and pyroxene
type depending upon the degree of Fe which has migrated from the intrusion in the wall
rocks.
8. Skarn fronts Skarn fronts provide a greater emphasis upon the spatial as well as temporal
zonation of skarn alteration grading from highest grade close to the intrusion:
Biotite, Kfeldspar, pyroxene, magnetite equivalent to potassic alteration, to garnet>pyroxene
then pyroxene>garnet equivalent to inner propylitic, to wollastonite and marble with
sulphides potentially developed throughout, but concentrated at points of cooling.
Chalcopyrite may occur with magnetite and bornite is commonly more distal and Au
substitutes better in bornite.
9 & 10. Retrograde skarn The continued development of circulating hydrothermal cells
driven by the magmatic heat source promotes the entry of ground (meteoric) waters into the
skarn environment and prograde minerals are altered to form a retrograde skarn and
additional mineralisation, much like phyllic alteration in a porphyry system. Also much like a
porphyry system metals are commonly deposited in more an epithermal setting, following the
skarn development and locally some distance from the skarn.
Lets look at some examples:
11. Mungana Australia There is a clear zonation in prograde skarn moving away from the
heat source.

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12. Mungana Australia

13. Skarn front Notice there is a mineralised skarn front as auriferous bornite is deposited at
the transition from pyroxene to wollastonite.
14. Mungana Australia Much of the Au mineralisation with tennantite in banded veins or
breccias is likened to epithermal mineralisation developed in a dilatant structural setting
locally outside the skarn.
15. Constancia Peru is a porphyry district in which intrusions have been emplaced into
limestone to produce skarns, both discernible as magnetic highs.
16. Constancia prograde skarn Magnetite-chalcopyrite occurs adjacent to feeder faults
grading to garnet then garnet-pyroxene.
17. Constancia retrograde skarn Retrograde mineral which overprint prograde include
amphibole, chlorite, calcite, epidote and magnetite.
18. Constancia epithermal mineralisation Local miners are exploiting structures with
epithermal mineralisation seen here as free Au in a structure.
19. Constancia - Alteration zonation
20. Tres Chipas Chile A small vein mine above an intrusion we investigated for potential
for more mineralisation.
21. Tres Chipas Chile Alteration zonation grades from prograde red (Fe-rich) garnet to
yellow (Ca-rich) garnet and then bornite wollastonite as the main mineralisation.
22. Mission porphyry US Wollastonite-bornite as we saw at Mungana is a common ore
assemblage in Cu-Au skarns.
23. Browns Creek Australia Skarn occurs along the structural contact between a batholith
and limestone and so ore fluids have been derived from the larger magma source at depth.
Alteration grades from garnet-pyroxene to the common wollastonite-bornite mineral
assemblage.
24. Browns Creek skarn sheeted quartz veins best Au grades with a head grade of 15 g/t Au
occur within sheeted quartz veins, commonly extending outside the skarn and so more of a
wallrock porphyry-epithermal overprint.
25.Skarn conclusion There is a zonation in time and space with both prograde and
retrograde mineralisation as well as a more common epithermal aspect for Au than might
have previously been recognised.
26. Skarnoids Skarnoid is an incomplete development of skarn minerals commonly within
propylitic alteration and tends to be unmineralised.
27. Exploration implications
28. Ertsberg-Grasberg Mining began at the Ertsberg skarn long before Grasberg was
discovered
29. Cadia district BHP/Newcrest geologists say exploration continued at Cadia without
great success because the well-developed skarns provided indications of a strong porphyry
district. Mining has progressed from the Cadia Hill bulk low grade to underground block
cave at Ridgeway and Cadia Far East.
30. Ok Tedi and Frieda PNG The Ok Tedi and Frieda porphyry systems in Papua New
Guinea were found by following skarn float upstream.

Setion 7. Controls to low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag

1. Controls to low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag low sulphuration epithermal veins are
important Au-Ag and minor Cu producers about the Pacific rim and vary as different style
according to tectonic setting and crustal level. From examination of many Pacific rim
examples we see some common themes in their controls.

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2. Low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag + Cu Epithermal Au-Ag mineralisation is herein

taken to extend from the surface down to the top of the porphyry regime, say within the top 1
km of the surface and including the regime of subvolcanic intrusions and many breccia types.
This extends deeper than Lindgrens original 300m depth. Epithermal Au mineralisation has
for many years been divided between low and high sulphidation and in the 1980s low
sulphidation mineralisation was recorded in most geological literature as the banded vein
styles, typical of New Zealand or Japan. However, in the early 1990s Terry Leach and I
distinguished other sulphide rich low sulphidation styles within the magmatic arcs of the
Philippines, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea, some of which (carbonate-base metal Au)
have since be rebadged as intermediate sulphidation. The original carbonate-base metal Au
terminology is used here because there is no different intermediate sulphidation fluid and that
term only applies to the low temperature end member characterised by Fe-poor sphalerite.
We will return to discuss these deposit styles in detail diverging from the deepest quartzsulphide Au + Cu style as two groups, those within magmatic arcs grading from carbonatebase metal Au to epithermal quartz Au + Ag, and those in strongly extensional settings as
polymetallic Ag-Au veins (as Andean equivalents of carbonate-base metal Au) and
epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag.
3. Distinction between high and low sulphidation fluids There are two styles of epithermal
fluid, high and low sulphidation. There is no entirely distinct intermediate ore fluids but
intermediate sulphidation is a subset of low sulphidation. Low sulphidation fluids might be
categorised as of a near neutral pH and with sulphur as H2S but what is important to us
magmatic fluids exsolved from magmatic source rocks are entrained by circulating meteoric
dominant waters. Consequently, deeper level quartz-sulphide fluids are dominated by a
magmatic components, commonly derived from a proximal magmatic source, whereas the
banded chalcedony-ginguro veins formed at high crustal levels in strongly extensional
settings display a dominantly magmatic component. Later, we will discuss the completely
different fluid which gives rise to high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits.
4. Banded veins Low sulphidation epithermal veins are generally banded and we have long
known that these bands are derived from repeated opening of the vein-hosting structure, ore
fluid influx and repeated mineral deposition. However, many of these bands display different
compositions and so there must be a change in the nature of the ore fluid. Many of us have
dealt with wonderfully banded veins which are completely barren, whereas some of these
veins contain high grade Au-Ag. There is a model to account for variations in vein
composition and Au-Ag grade.
5. Multiple fluid sources This simplified model seeks to explain why veins host bands of
different composition and in part why some veins well mineralised and other nicely banded
veins barren. An intrusion complex at depth provides a source of heat to drive circulating
cells of hydrothermal fluids as well as metals and volatiles which is connected to the vein
hosting structure. Banded veins develop by repeated deposition of minerals from hot
circulating hydrothermal fluids which episodically rise rapidly up the structure in response to
repeated opening up the dilatant portion of the structure, possibly in response to earthquake
activity. In geological time sufficient earthquakes occur to provide finely banded veins. At a
high crustal level there might be very regular repeated shallow level opening of the structure
which taps meteoric waters which have not come in contact with the magmatic source for
mineralisation and so are barren. In response nicely banded chalcedony veins are deposited,
but are barren. Some meteoric-dominated waters might circulate deeper and entrain a
magmatic component and then rise up the host structure for mineralisation and so deposit
quartz (from the meteoric fluid component) with disseminated sulphides (from the magmatic
fluid component) and so contain low grade Au-Ag. Occasionally there is a deep opening of
the structure, possibly in response to a major earthquake, which taps the magmatic source at

44

depth and so promotes deposition in the vein of a sulphide rich band of magmatic material
which hosts Au-Ag. In my experience in many epithermal veins most of the Au-Ag occurs in
the sulphide bands and not the chalcedony, adularia or other gangue minerals.
So the Au-Ag content of a vein is NOT dependent upon the nature of the chalcedony-adularia
bands and in my experience mostly mineralisation occurs within the sulphide or sulphosaltrich bands host mineralisation such as in the bottom photo and so well banded chalcedony
veins like the top photo might be barren.
Character sampling to see which portion of the vein hosts mineralisation remains a useful
exploration tool.
6. Mineralised vs barren veins
7 Cracow gold mine Australia The best Au is on the hanging wall with kaolin while the
banded chalcedony hosts only low grade Au.
8. Controls to low sulphidation Au, mostly in ore shoots.
9. Host rock control Quality low sulphidation epithermal fissure veins only form in
competent host rocks which will fracture well in order to form throughgoing fractures. When
I am working in layered volcanic sequences such as in the Andes, Mexico or Patagonia, it is
important that I prospect for veins in the competent host rocks. There are some common
trends throughout the Pacific rim. Layered andesites provide the best host rocks for
throughgoing fracture and hence vein formation. Silicified non-reactive sandstone (Chatree),
locally crystal tuffs (Cerro Vanguadia) or felsic sills (El Penon) are good too. However, many
felsic domes form only short fractures and stock work veins and not throughgoing veins for
fissure veins, as recognised in the Coromandel Peninsular of New Zealand.
Importantly, not only are non-silicified lapilli tuffs are incompetent and do not fracture well,
but these permeable readily undergo clay alteration and become more incompetent to further
restrict vein formation.
The restriction of mineralisation at the intersection of throughgoing structures and brittle host
rocks provides sub-horizontal ore shoots.
10. Rock competency in layered sequences in this example form the Mariana vein at Arcata
Peru, outcropping lapilli tuffs contain solidification with weakly anomalous Au and Zn but at
depth in competent andesite host rocks we see a multi Au gram and Ag oz. quartz-sulphide
carbonate vein.
Many exploration discoveries have been made where poorly mineralised incompetent rocks
cap a mineralised competent unit (below).
Thus, it is important to understand the stratigraphy to identify competent and incompetent
host rocks and growth-fault breaks in stratigraphic sequences may host veins. I commonly
have a volcanologist Grace Cumming define the volcanic stratigraphy for me.
11. Interlayered sequences, El Penon At El Penon Chile steep dipping structures host veins
only within the felsic sill. At the surface the lapilli tuff might host cm scale ppb grade Au
anomalies which at depth might host several metre wide multi Au ounce veins. After 20 years
of exploration the site geologists understand the geological model and so are confident in
deep drilling.
12. Competency contrast, Hishikari, Japan The veins at Hishikari lie under rice fields in the
centre of now eroded soft clay alteration forming a valley. In cross section we see competent
phyllite at depth overlain by highly permeable volcanic breccias which have undergone
intense clay alteration and so become quite incompetent. Consequently the volcanic breccias
do not fracture and vein development is restricted to the underlying phyllite. Here we see the
top of a vein as it terminated at the contact with the overlying volcanic breccias and later we
will understand why this specimen assayed 50,000 g/t Au. It is also interesting that the age of
this outcropping felsic rock is close to that of the veins.

45

13. Competent host rocks, Deseado Massif, Patagonia Throughout the Deseado Massif of
Argentine Patagonia the preferred host rock is andesite flows of the Bajo Pobre formation
although locally at Cerro Vanguadia, veins are hosted within a competent welded member of
the Chon Aike termed the granoso because of the common quartz eyes. Some explorers with
a good knowledge of the stratigraphy have pegged outcropping regions of the immediately
overlying portions of the stratigraphy to target non-outcropping veins.
14. Silicified sediments, Chatree Thailand Here a non-reactive sandstone unit is
preferentially silicified to become a competent vein-hosting host rock whereas the overlying
chlorite-clay altered pumice does not host veins. There is a contact at the colour change in the
pit wall. This flat farm land has been ideal for prospecting with resistivity during the dry
season.
15. Silicified sediments, Palmarejo Mexico Andesite and silicified sediments host veins at
Palmarejo Mexico.
16. Competent dome, Asacha Eastern Russia Although there is a throughgoing structure
veins only occur within the competent andesite dome and not in the overlying volcanics.
17. Alteration adjacent to domes Porgera PNG At the Porgera Marwari ore body carbonatebase metal stock work Au veins are restricted to competent generally mafic domes a the
adjacent altered bleached sediments (yellow in map) whereas the host Chime Formation
sediments are really incompetent and host only syngenetic pyrite.
18. Ore fluids exploit host rock permeability in low sulphidation epithermal Au deposits
While we have seen pre-mineral alteration in permeable host rocks may considerable
influence the ability to host veins as downgrade of reactive rocks by clay alteration or
improvement by solidification of non-reactive sandstone, only rarely are low sulphidation
epithermal ore fluids influenced by host rock permeability. By contrast host rock
permeability is an important factor in high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits. Here in two
quartz-sulphide style low sulphidation epithermal Au deposits the flow of ore fluids is
controlled by permeable host rocks, although there is a less permeable cap rock at Round
Mountain.
19. Host rock control conclusion
20. Structure Dilatant portions of structures provide the channel ways for ore fluid flow and
by repeated opening result in the development of banded veins with multiple episodes of
mineralisation and hence higher Au grades.
I see several structural environments for low sulphidation epithermal Au deposits:
Orthogonal extension
Oblique convergence be it compressive or extensional
Compression which may be orthogonal or oblique
Normal faults, commonly as listric faults represent the main structural hosts to epithermal
veins developed in settings of orthogonal extension. Listric faults are commonly stacked and
typically host best widest and highest Au grade veins as flat plunging ore shoots within
the steeper dipping portions. Steeper dipping hanging wall splays are commonly more
prospective and bonanzas may form at the intersection of them and the host structure by fluid
mixing to be discussed below. We will see refraction as the vein passes through the a
competent layer and
21. Listric fault Veta Baja Arcata Peru Veta Baja provides a good example of a listric fault
which has formed as part of a number of structures in the hanging wall to the much larger
Marion vein which dips in the other direction. The vertical slickensides support the vertical
sense of displacement and veins are mined at depth in a competent andesite. Note the steep
dip slight acuate trend in plan view.

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22. Listric fault Corani Peru Corani provides another good example of how mineralisation
is hosted only in the steeper dipping portion of the listric faults. There are some geologists on
the left hand photo for scale and the bottom photo shows the extensive flat dipping portion.
23. Ore shoots in steeper vein portions At Palmarejo Mexico Jason Becton and I plotted the
vein dip on the ore shoots determined as gram x metres (ie 50 gm is 10 metres of 5 g/t Au
equiv or 5 of 10 etc). Note how here we identified an inflection point of 55o such that ore
shoots lie within the steeper dipping fault portion and the flatter fault portions are not
mineralised.
24. Ore shoot at fault intersection At the Romaine Fault, Porgera, Papua New Guinea, at
least 8 M oz of Au were mined at an early head grade of 80g/t Au from a flat plunging blind
ore shoot at the intersection of the Roamane normal fault and a hanging wall splay,
interpreted as a source of meteoric water to promote Au deposition.
25. Ore shoot at structural intersection We will see in more detail later how the mixing of
acid sulphate waters collapsing down a hanging wall structure with ore fluids rising up the
main structure resulted in the formation of a bonanza ore shoot at the intersection. The red is
>300gram metre.
26. Structure Oblique fault movement Faults with strike-slip components of movement
form dilatant portions (characterised by wider veins with higher precious metal grades)
within perturbations and so host generally steep plunging ore shoots. Combinations of strikeslip with normal and listric fault movement provides variably inclined plunging ore shoots.
27. Dilatant sites in strike-slip faults Steep plunging ore shoots develop in within
perturbations in the controlling structure which I term:
Splays developed at deepest levels represent a divergence of a subsidiary structure
from the main fault, while horsetails commonly represent fault terminations
Flexures represent a dilatant bend in a throughgoing structure
Fault jogs develop where strike-slip movement crosses from one structure to another
where mineralised link or cross over structures might be termed tension, fissure veins
and locally include sheeted veins defined as relatively thin parallel veins.
Pull-apart basins represent surficial portions of fault jogs
28. Negative flower structure The different styles of dilatant settings occur as different
crustal levels and are linked within a negative flower structure as:
Pull-apart basins form by movement on the controlling structures which results in
normal fault movement on the dilatant subsidiary normal faults which display an
angular relationship and host veins at depth. These structures are growth faults and
commonly control thinking of the stratigraphy within the pull-apart basin which might
be evidenced at the surface by the presence of epiclastic sediments and the
rhomboidal shape.
Fissure veins in which epithermal deposits occur at intermediate levels exploiting the
downward continuation of the dilatant normal faults which initiate pull-apart basin
formation
Splays represent the deepest projection of these structures and localise porphyry
systems and so horse tails have long been used as prospecting guides.
29. Tension vein style, Waihi New Zealand The NS structural grain with a component of
sinistral movement has been recorded by early underground miners, and more recently I
interpreted these structures form air photo and magnetic interpretation. The veins mined
occur as tension veins formed by the component of sinistral movement on the NS structures
and extend for over 1 km. Recent work has demonstrated the veins are actually a listric fault
scenario which flattens at depth. The Royal and Empire veins therefor represents hanging
wall splays to the main Martha vein. Each reopening has prompted renewed mineral
deposition to provide the banded veins. Note this specimen which is dominated by clean

47

barren chalcedony was collected in the old open pit in the 1980s from material left as not
mineralised by the early miners. We will see more later.
The more recent discovery at Favona has been in a repetition of that tension vein scenario.
30. Flexures in a throughgoing structure, Vera Nancy Australia Here on the long section for
the Vera Nancy mine we see a set of steep plunging ore zones of up to 1 M oz. A younger
sandstone obscures any surface expression. I suggested to Dale Simms the chief mine
geologist he construct some structure contours or the like and it emerged that each ore shoot
is a dilatant flexure in the throughgoing structure. This is a well-known scenario in many vein
systems documented by workers such as McKinstry (1937) and so on. However, the shoots
all seem to terminate in one place. Subsequent work has demonstrated the ore hosting
structure is a listric fault and mineralisation only occurs in the steeper portion. We see the
importance of many overprinting controls to mineralisation in localising ore shoots.
31. Ore shoots, Palmarejo Mexico Throughout the Palmarejo district of Mexico ore shoots
form within competent host rocks at cross overs between the main structures which, although
listric-like normal fault, display components of sinistral strike slip movement.
32. Structure Ore shoots formed in compressional settings Curiously although magmatic
arcs are dominantly compressional not all that many low sulphidation ore systems display
development in conditions of compressional tectonism. Rather extension and oblique
movement as transpression or transtension are more important. We will see examples of
movement on conjugate fractures which provide steep ore shoots and recognised in many
high sulphidation epithermal veins and locally as flatter dipping portions of shallowmoderately inclined thrust faults which provide flat plunging and commonly blind ore shoots.
33. Argentine Patagonia, low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag The Deseado Massif in
Patagonia is dominated by conjugate fractures although compressional and extensional
tectonism are recognised. There is a common association of ore systems formed during
compression.
34. Argentine Patagonia Ore shoots several projects display WNW veins localised NW
structural corridors becoming best mineralised in EW segments which are more dilational. At
Huevos Verde (San Jose) these were localised below younger basalt cover by IP and here at
Cerro Moro targets are apparent as zones of magnetite destruction. Ore shoots are expected to
be steep plunging.
35. Reverse fault Kencana Gosowong Indonesia At Kencana I have overlain the ore shout
in gram x metres upon the contoured vein dip to demonstrate that he best Au content occurs
in the flat plunging portions as typical of the interpreted thrust ore environment. Curiously as
one might expect, Kencana lies at 90o to the Gosowong listric vein system and so we see
extension and compression in the same environment.
36. Structural control to low sulphidation veins exploration implications Major contributor
to the form of ore shoots developed as dilatant sites of enhanced fluid flow seen as:
Flat-lying in the steep dipping potions of listric faults
Commonly blind flat dipping portions of thrust faults or collapse structures
Steep-dipping dilatant features (flexures, link structures etc) associated with strikeslip structures. There is a vertical zonation from splay faults at depth, thru jogs, to
pull-apart basin at surface.
Moderate plunging ore shoots formed by a combination of dip-slip and strike-slip
structures
Structural intersections may represent sites of fluid mixing.
37. Styles of magmatic arc Cu-Au-Ag As we discussed before low sulphidation Au deposits
from in the top km or so of the crust deposited from a mix of meteoric and magmatic fluids
with adjacent near-neutral wall rock alteration. Terry Leach and I envisaged two distinct
trends as:

48

Those deposits mostly within magmatic arcs with closer relationships to intermediate
to felsic intrusion source rocks and
Those in extensional settings with more distal relationships to mostly felsic intrusions
source rocks and a greater input of meteoric waters.
There is no separate fluid to justify the intermediate sulphidation class which is flawed in that
it does not account for the change in temperature of ore formation or the paragenetic
sequence, and so we continue to use the original Leach and Corbett 1993-2008 Corbett, 2009
Carbonate-base metal Au classification. We will look at these deposit types in the progression
from quartz-sulphide which tends to form first through carbonate-base metal and the bonanza
grade epithermal quartz Au + Ag.
38. Low sulphidation epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Cu Quartz-sulphide Au typically
occurs as high fineness Au located on fractures and grain boundaries within Fe sulphides,
typically coarse cubic pyrite which generally post-dates crystalline quartz with relatively
saline fluid inclusions and therefore or a magmatic origin. Examples characterised by coarse
cubic pyrite display good metallurgy and are ideal heap leach operations at low Au grades.
This mineralisation generally exploits pre-existing structures and forms first in the
paragenetic sequence and may develop close to the intrusion source, although there are some
very high crustal level low temperature examples. Au deposition occurs by fluid cooling
which accounts for only modest Au grades.
39. High crustal level low temperature quartz-sulphide Au Quartz-sulphide Au
mineralisation developed at low temperatures in elevated crustal settings may be
characterised by opal seen here as blue amorphous silica and marcasite the low temperature
form or pyrite seen here as bladed crystals. In some conditions rapidly cooled quartz-sulphide
fluids deposit grey silica characterised by Au encapsulated in the sulphide lattice which may
be arsenian pyrite (pyrite with As in the lattice). This material commonly displays difficult
metallurgy.
40. Quenched quartz-sulphide Au, Lihir Is. Papua New Guinea Sector collapse at Lihir
Island rapidly unroofed an active porphyry instantaneously removing 1 km or overburden and
changing conditions from porphyry to epithermal. The rapidly cooled quartz sulphide
material provides ore of microfine high fineness Au encapsulated within fine grained arsenian
pyrite and marcasite which displays problematic metallurgy and must be roasted. The
shoshonite host rocks provide quartz-sulphide which is enriched in low temperature
secondary Kfeldspar (adularia) at the expense of silica, but there is NO suggestion here of
boiling as a mechanism of Au deposition, which is mainly rapid cooling.
41. Deep level high temperature quartz-sulphide Au + Cu Here we see the + Cu refers to
the increased presence of Cu, typically within chalcopyrite in the deep level ores where these
deep epithermal systems may be transitional to porphyry Cu deposits and so are locally
termed wallrock porphyry systems. Chalcopyrite occurs here at Mineral Hill which produced
an Au-Cu-Bi concentrate and many, particularly deep level quartz-sulphide systems are Birich. Pyrrhotite substitutes for pyrite in high temperature (or reducing) conditions such as at
Kelian where dark sphalerite supports a high temperature regime. Many other quartz-sulphide
systems proximal to the intrusion source rocks contain specular haematite formed in
oxidising conditions. Quartz-sulphide veins are recognised marginal to some IOCG deposits.
42. Transition to porphyry Cu-Au Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu as deep epithermal
mineralisation provides the continuous transition from porphyry to epithermal mineralisation,
commonly as sheeted quartz-pyrite + chalcopyrite + magnetite veins developed within the
wall rock to the source intrusion. D veins in the old porphyry literature (Gustafson and Hunt,
1975) which may provide vectors to hidden porphyry mineralisation also conform to quartzsulphide deep epithermal veins.
43. Quartz-sulphide vs D veins

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44. Quartz-sulphide Au, Round Mountain, Nevada At Round Mountain a permeable lapilli
tuff capped by a less permeable volcanic unit hosts mostly disseminated cubic pyrite with
contained Au and lesser quartz-pyrite veins. The overall grade of 0.8 g/t Au remains
economic as a heap leach alteration as Au is so easily liberated from the pyrite.
45. Quartz-sulphide Au, Sleeper, Nevada Although Sleeper is noted for the bonanza grade
free gold, considerable production come from early pyrite breccias of a 1-2 g/t Au grade
which were readily heap leached.
46. Emperor gold mine Fiji Auriferous pyrite within flatmake structures
47. Intrusion-related Quartz-sulphide Au, Mt Wright Australia disseminated and stockwork
vein auriferous pyrite.
48. Quartz-sulphide Au, Australia - several examples of auriferous pyrite with Au grades
1-30 g/t Au as quartz vein/breccias (Adalong, Paulsens), fault/breccia (Mineral Hill) and
felsic dome (Twin Hills).
49. Quartz-sulphide Au, Papua New Guinea Quartz sulphide occurs as the earliest portion
of the carbonate base metal paragenetic sequence (Porgera), particularly at deep levels
(Hamata) close to porphyry intrusions (Crater Mt, Bilimoia).
50. Peru Early pyrite within low sulphidation veins.
51. Quartz-sulphide heap leach Coarse grained quartz-sulphide ores characterised by Au on
pyrite fractures and grain boundaries easily liberate Au as heap leach operations, especially if
oxidised and so can be worked at very low Au grades.
52. Quartz-sulphide Au, supergene enrichment However, the other side of the easy
liberation of Au is that these systems are highly susceptible to near surface supergene Au
enrichment which is commonly worked by artisan miners.
53. Supergene enrichment - These coarse box works after pyrite are a clear indication to be
careful that any high Au assays in oxide material may be the result of near surface supergene
Au enrichment and the original sulphide Au grades might be lower. Au is especially
concentrated by chemical and mechanical means in steep dipping structures during oxidation.
Supergene Au enrichment is commonly associated with removal of Au and rise in Au
fineness or lower Ag:Au ratios. Supergene Au concentrates:
in oxide material in the top few cm of an outcropping vein
at the base of oxidation
collapsing down faults
54. Supergene enrichment These two examples of FeO stained exposures yielded up to 300
g/t Au in outcrop but less than 2 g/t in an underlying drill hole. Very small high fineness
supergene free Au was recognised in these box works after pyrite in the slabbed rock.
55. Supergene Au enrichment, Cirianiu, Fiji In many other instances supergene Au
enrichment contributes towards the development of resources from otherwise very low Au
grade quartz-sulphide mineralisation. On this section at Cirianiu, Fiji best mineralisation
occurs immediately above the base of oxidation where it is cut by feeder structures.
56. Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu exploration implications
57. Carbonate-base metal Au and polymetallic Ag-Au Terry Leach and I originally in 1993
defined carbonate-base metal Au to account for sulphide rich low sulphidation Au stockwork
vein, breccia and disseminated Au-Ag ores in SW Pacific rim magmatic arcs (particularly
Indonesia, Philippines and Papua New Guinea). After then I began working in Latin America
where similar Ag-rich fissure veins were already termed polymetallic Ag veins (herein
polymetallic Ag-Au) which are therefore a subset of carbonate-base metal Au deposits.
Similarly, the recently termed intermediate sulphidation mineralisation conforms to the low
temperature end member of carbonate-base metal Au characterised by Fe-poor honey
coloured sphalerite (below). Importantly the carbonate-base metal terminology encompasses

50

the early quartz-sulphide Au and later bonanza epithermal Au + Ag elements of the

paragenetic sequence.
58. Carbonate-base metal Au CBM mineralisation as defined in the SW Pacific comprise in
rough order of deposition; quartz, pyrite, sphalerite>galena and carbonate with local late
quartz. Some deeper examples may contain chalcopyrite and Ag sulphosalts are common.
Most deposits occur as stockwork and local sheeted veins as well as breccia fill and
disseminations or fissure veins. Important examples include in Papua New Guinea; Porgera
Waruwari, Misima, Woodlark, Morobe goldfield (Hidden valley, Edie Creek), Mt Kare;
Indonesia, Kelian, Mt Muro and may in Java and Sumatra; Philippines, Acupan (4 M oz Au),
Antamok (10Moz) and Victoria; in Australia, Cowal, Kidston, Mt Leyshon and Mt Rawdon.
59. Carbonate-base metal Au paragenetic sequence This specimen displays the typical
paragenetic sequence of carbonate-base metal Au deposits as: pre-mineral phreatomagmatic
eruption of mainly milled wall rock and lesser felsic clasts, quartz-pyrite, sphalerite>galena,
rhodochrosite, late quartz.
60. Formation of carbonate-base metal Au deposits The important aspect of carbonate-base
metal Au deposits is the change from Au deposition by cooling in quartz-sulphide systems to
the more efficient mixing mechanism which therefor gives rise to higher Au grades. There is
a strong spatial association between carbonate-base metal Au deposits and felsic domes,
dykes and related phreatomagmatic breccias which are interpreted to exsolve CO2 during
cooling. These volatiles rise and condense and result in the development of blankets of
bicarbonate waters recognised in many geothermal systems. Travertine deposits develop if
the bicarbonate waters vent to the surface. Rising sulphide-rich ore fluids mix with the
oxidising bicarbonate waters which destabilise the complexes carrying Au and so provide an
efficient mechanism of Au deposition. Consequently carbonate-base metal systems exhibit
higher Au grades than quartz-sulphide Au systems.
61. Au deposition by fluid mixing At Kerimenge the carbonate lodes are barren, deep level
quartz-sulphide mineralisation displays low Au grades, while higher Au grades only occur in
the central carbonate base metal breccia where the rising sulphide-bearing magmatic fluids
have mixed with bicarbonate waters.
62. Au deposition by fluid mixing Similarly in the El Indio district, Chile, carbonate lodes
are barren by good Au mineralisation occurs in the carbonate-base metal vein breccias.
63. Mixing with bicarbonate waters The nature of the bicarbonate waters influences Au
grade. The pH of the weakly acidic bicarbonate waters influences which metal ions complex
such that Fe carbonates are deposited from the most acidic (and oxidising) bicarbonate waters
and acidity declines (rising pH) moving through mixed Mn to Mg to Ca carbonate. As the
more oxidising waters provide the most efficient mechanism of Au deposition, highest Au
grades are associated with Fe or Mn carbonates. Siderite s not common but where recognised
is associated with elevated Au. Rather, Mn carbonates are present in all the better carbonatebase metal Au deposits. In these two adjacent trays of drill core from Chatree Thailand fine
grained sulphides cluster about the margin of breccia clasts and the open space is filled with
carbonate. There is a dramatic reduction in Au grade moving from pink rhodochrosite
(Mncarbonate) to dolomite (MgCa carbonate) and Mg calcite.
64. Manganese wad Pink rhodochrosite (Mncarbonate) weathers to black sooty Mn wad
which is a useful prospecting tool and here is being mined for its Au content.
65. Zonation in carbonate-base metal Au systems In addition to temporal paragenetic
sequence carbonate-base metal systems display mineralogical zonation based mainly upon
crustal level or temperature. Greater sulphides at depth relate to more magmatic fluid
influence varying to the carbonate at intermediate levels which some high level systems
contain abundant quartz deposited from circulating meteoric waters. The carbonate type
resulting changes with the pH of the bicarbonate waters is in part related to depth as the

51

deeper level more neutral bicarbonate waters deposit calcite whereas the more evolved high
crustal level bicarbonate waters will deposit siderite or rhodochrosite. Cu is only well
developed at depth while Zn generally dominated over Pb. Zn is below. FeS which is
generally pyrite varies to pyrrhotite in hotter conditions at depth (locally with magnetite or
specularite) and cool marcasite at high crustal levels.
66. Sphalerite zonation in carbonate base metal Au and polymetallic Ag-Au The colour of
sphalerite varies with Zn:Fe ratio governed by the temperature which is in turn is essentially a
function of crustal level, although some workers attribute sphalerite colour to oxidation state.
Black Fe rich sphalerite forms at high temperature typically at deeper crustal levels varies
with declining temperature and depth of formation to brown, then red, yellow to white (and
locally clear) colour for Fe-poor low temperature sphalerite. While black sphalerite within D
veins might be indicative or a near porphyry environment, white sphalerite forms at very low
temperatures epithermal systems in the region where mixing with near surficial acid sulphate
fluids have contributed towards elevated Au-Ag grades. The presence of white sphalerite is
an important prospecting tool.
67. Black rims to white sphalerite White sphalerite can be difficult to identify as it
generally exhibits black rims and where fine grained little central white sphalerite might not
obvious. Note the change to a pale yellow colour in the top of the photo here.
68. Haematite and white sphalerite in oxidising conditions There is one setting where
sphalerite colout should be treated with caution. If Fe partitions into haematite in oxidising
conditions there is insufficient Fe for Fe>Zn sphalerite and so Fe-poor white sphalerite might
form but not be an indicator of low temperature.
69. Phreatomagmatic breccias and carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation Many
carbonate-base metal Au deposits are associated with felsic domes and diatreme flow dome
complexes in particular, so there is a common relationship with phreatomagmatic breccias.
Here we see some bedded and massive milled matrix phreatomagmatic breccias and typical
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation at Upper Ridges Wau Papua New Guinea.
70. Mineralisation outside breccia pipes, Kelian - The Kelian milled matrix
(phreatomagmatic) breccias were originally termed muddy breccias from the incompetent
nature of the milled wall rock shale material, here with clasts of epiclastic. At Kelian
carbonate-base metal mineralisation occurs adjacent to the incompetent diatreme breccia
pipes within the competent silicified epiclastic deposits as sheeted veins and open space
breccias. Note the black sphalerite so it would be incorrect to call this an intermediate
sulphidation deposit.
71. Mineralisation at breccia pipe margins, Acupan - Clay alteration in the upper portion
phreatomagmatic breccias renders these rocks incompetent restricting fracture formation and
so at elevated crustal settings mineralisation does not occur within the breccia pipes but at the
margins or within adjacent wall rocks. At Acupan the high Au grade breccia pipes contain
carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation within open space brecciated wall rocks.
72. Mineralisation within breccia pipes, Mt Leyshon & Mt Rawdon Australia Only at deep
crustal levels are breccias sufficiently competent to host carbonate-base metal mineralisation
within the breccia matrix.
73. Sheeted veins at pipe margin, Kidston Australia The deep level magmatic hydrothermal
breccia pipe is interpreted to have undergone some collapse following initial eruption to from
kinked sheeted fractures at the margin which host relatively high temperature carbonate-base
metal Au mineralisation, characterised by black sphalerite.
74. Philippines Carbonate base metal Au
75. Carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation Papua New Guinea We will consider several of
the carbonate-base metal Au deposits in Papua New Guinea

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76. Stock work vein mineralisation, Porgera PNG Carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation
at the Waruwari zone at Porgera comprises stock work veins clustered at the dome margins
and extending into the adjacent sediments which have been baked to become more
competent.
77. Carbonate-base metal Au Woodlark Is Papua New Guinea Many carbonate-base metal
vein systems, as seen here at Woodlark, are characterised by irregular and locally very high
grades in narrow veins which are mined as bulk low grade operations, provided the grade is
not diluted by wall rocks. The Federation prospect vein showing early sulphides and later
rhodochrosite is probably cut parallel to the vein. These assays are over 2 m lengths.
An important feature of carbonate-base metal Au deposits is the irregular Au grades.
78. Morobe goldfield Papua New Guinea Several carbonate-base metal Au deposits are
exposed at different levels in the hydrothermal system within the Bulolo intra-arc graben with
a strong relationship to graben faults. The Upper Watut fault localises the Hidden Valley and
Hamata deposits, Escarpment Fault localised the Wau diatreme and related mineralisation as
well as Kerimenge and travertine along strike which the little eroded Wondumi fault hosts
active sinter/travertine deposits.
Deepest erosion exposes quartz-sulphide Au mineralisation at Hamata (discussed earlier) and
bonanza Au (discussed later) is mined at the highest elevation at Edie Creek. Hidden Valley
hosts intermediate level moderate temperature carbonate-base metal Au style while
Kerimenge displays considerable vertical extent.
From the late 1920s to 1965 the district produced some 2 M oz of alluvial Au from 9 dredges
flown in pieces over the mountains using 3 late 1920s Junkers aircraft and assembled on site.
79. Hidden Valley Moderate to low temperature carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation
here characterised by yellow-red sphalerite and rhodochrosite, began production with about 4
M oz Au equivalent (35Mt @3.13g/t Au & 47.1g/t Ag; Corbett, 2005) and currently produces
about 0.25 M oz Au and 3 M oz Ag pa. Mineralisation occurs as stock work veins and
breccias related to the Hidden Valley fault and hanging wall splays. Note the MnO stained
discovery outcrop.
80. Edie Creek In the 1920s Edie Creek was bonanza alluvial field and continued until the
1950s as underground production of carbonate-base metal veins which lie adjacent to a
major diatreme breccia to which they may display a genetic relationship.
81. Kerimenge Mineralisation mostly lies within sheeted tension veins (Corbett, 1985)
formed by sinistral movement on the Kerimenge fault although the adjacent diatreme breccia
pipe may be linked to the ultimate source of Au. While early quartz-sulphide, best developed
at depth, hosts low grade refractory Au, best ore lies within the carbonate-base metal veinbreccias and the outcropping carbonate lodes are barren. Highest Au grade occur within
epithermal ores at the highest elevations about the diatreme margin.
82. Cripple Creek
83. Drake
84. Cowal
85. Ducat A 200km long extensional graben hosts many carbonate-base metal Ag>Au
deposits related to underlying felsic domes.
86. Variable metallurgy and spotty Au distribution
87. Exploration implications carbonate-base metal Au 88. Polymetallic Ag-Au Polymetallic Ag-Au deposits mostly occur mostly as fissure veins
in Latin America as the generally Ag-rich end member of carbonate-base metal Au. The
mineralogy is much the same as carbonate-base metal Au with the addition of Ag sulphosalts
such as argentite-acanthite and tennantite-tetrahedrite to account for the elevated Ag content.
Many lie within listric faults and in strongly dilatant settings pass upwards to banded

53

chalcedony-ginguro deposits by the addition of substantial chalcedony deposited from

meteoric waters.
Polymetallic Ag-Au veins were rejected by the major exploration companies for many years
as being too small, but we now see many of these as quality medium sized mines and
company makers for junior explorers.
89. Andean Polymetallic Ag-Au Arcata and Caylloma in Peru are typical of polymetallic
deposits seen here forming within listric faults, best developed as a set of structures
considered earlier for Arcata. A thick band of freibergite the Ag tennantite-tetrahedrite is
discernible as the source for the 30,000 g/t Ag here. While Caylloma has been mined since
Inca times Arcata began production in the 1960s.
90. Polymetallic Ag-Au as Company makers The blind at surface San Carlos vein at
Fresnillo, Mexico with resources for the mine as measured, indicated and inferred 13 M oz
Au 1289 M oz Ag; Reserve 4.2 M oz, has been a Company maker.
Similarly, the evaluation of Palmarejo (proven and indicated reserves 56 M oz Ag 0.7 M oz
Au) was a company maker for Bolnisi which was bought out by Coeur.
91. Zonation of polymetallic Ag-Au Just as we discussed mineralogical zonation in
carbonate-base metal Au systems polymetallic Ag-Au veins are vertically zoned within
individual deposits which may display vertical extents up to 1 km or vary according to the
level of erosion. Here I have represented a typical polymetallic Ag deposit within a listric
fault in a stratigraphy containing a competent vein hosting andesite and incompetent lapilli
tuffs as well as cooling felsic domes related to the magmatism responsible for mineralisation.
A blanket of bicarbonate waters and surficial acid sulphate cap are shown along with entry of
meteoric waters. We discussed the interaction of magmatic and meteoric fluids in vein
formation earlier.
There is a metal zonation from Cu + Au at depth through Zn>Pb and rising Ag>Au to
become Ag rich in the upper portions. Above the main ore zone Sb, As and Hg may occur as
pathfinder metals.
92. Deep level Tahuehueto Mexico Here at Tahuehueto Mexico we see a 1 km of the
hydrothermal system exposed from porphyry manifestations at depth to a cap of post mineral
ignimbrite. Deep level veins may be dominated by chalcopyrite and dark sphalerite and are
commonly carbonate poor and although Au>Ag, low precious metal grade.
93. Typical polymetallic Ag-Au mid range polymetallic fissure veins tend to be dominated
by yellow to red sphalerite with significantly lesser galena and rhodochrosite carbonate.
Precious metals Ag>Au are commonly associated with tennantite-tetrahedrite including
freibergite the Ag-rich member. Quartz content is variable.
94. El Penon Chile At the deeply weathered El Penon quartz vein is stained by FeO from
sulphides and MnO from the weathering of rhodochrosite while brown sphalerite is apparent
at depth.
95. Namiquipa Mexico Namiquipa is rather typical. In an extensional basin and range
setting listric faults are exploited by polymetallic vein-breccias or lodes mostly with high
temperature yellow varying to red sphalerite in the deeply eroded portions of the tilted
hydrothermal system. Highest Ag values occur with white sphalerite and kaolin in the a
poorly eroded portion of the system.
96. Epithermal end member of polymetallic Ag-Au - At highest crustal levels at many Pacific
rim locations a low temperature epithermal end member of polymetallic Ag-Au deposits
hosts elevated Au-Ag in a mineral assemblage dominated by cubic pyrite, white sphalerite
(which is difficult to identify if fine grained) and argentite-acanthite.
97. Fine black sulphide material - This highest level polymetallic mineral assemblage
progressively evolves through fine black sulphide to the ginguro material we will see in

54

banded epithermal veins. In favourable conditions of Au deposition elevated Au grades may

be associated with this material with kaolin which we will see later.
98. Chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag caps polymetallic Ag-Au In the upper portion of
polymetallic deposits, structurally controlled episodic mineral deposition associated with the
increased input of meteoric combined with the evolution of the sulphide portion results in a
common cap of chalcedony ginguro veins we will see now to polymetallic veins.
99. Peru Examples Arcata & Caylloma
100. Peru Examples Santa Ana
101. Peru Examples Corani
102. Peru Examples - Ares
103. Fluid evolution Two epithermal Au-Ag end members Two fluid evolution trends
provide two low sulphidation epithermal Au end members:
The Ag-rich chalcedony-ginguro veins evolve from the polymetallic Ag-Au fissure
veins (which contain an early quartz-sulphide Au component) and contain abundant
gangue of chalcedony and low temperature Kfeldspar (adularia), locally quartz
replacing bladed calcite or less commonly calcite with the Au-Ag in the black
sulphidic ginguro bands we will see. Many SW Pacific rim chalcedony-ginguro
deposits become base metal rich at depth as reflection of the transition also seen in the
Latin American polymetallic-ginguro deposits.
On the other side the epithermal quartz Au + Ag (originally epithermal quartz Au-Ag)
develops as a continuation of the carbonate-base metal Au and quartz-sulphide Au
fluid evolution trend mostly in the SW Pacific rim. These contain high fineness Au
with little Ag and in many instances are gangue poor where magmatic fluids dominate
over meteoric. If substantial meteoric waters are available banded yellow free Au and
quartz veins result.
104. Low sulphidation epithermal quartz Au + Ag mineralisation Porgera Zone VII The
Porgera Waruwari carbonate-base metal mineralisation which formed under deep high
temperature conditions related to augite-hornblende diorite intrusions, as evidenced by local
dark sphalerite and pyrrhotite, is overprinted by the Zone VII bonanza grade epithermal Au
related to the Roamane normal Fault and later felsic intrusion activity. This is the type
specimen as bonanza grade high fineness free Au with only minor quartz gangue and green V
mica roscoelite, the latter related to the shoshonite host rock composition. Here is an earlier
competent pyrite vein fine roscoelite fractures host free Au.
105. Porgera two intrusion events The Waruwari carbonate base metal Au is associated
with mafic augite hornblende diorite stocks is cut by the felsic intrusion event seen here with
a clast of earlier high temperature base metal mineralisation. One would expect the felsite to
have been emplaced at a much higher elevation than the diorite.
106. Emperor gold mine Fiji The Emperor golf mine is localised by the intersection of a
dilatant structure and the margin of a collapse caldera where the collapse has remobilised
bedding planes in the adjacent basalt to host flat dipping vein auriferous pyrite lodes (quartzsulphide style) termed flatmakes. This mineralisation is overprinted by the bonanza Au event
characterised by often crystalline free Au with minor quartz and roscoelite and locally
tellurides. Note however the free Au event is only about 5% of the total resource, although
the sulphide material is more difficult metallurgy.
107. Round Mountain Nevada Earlier we saw the Round Mountain quartz-sulphide
mineralisation as disseminate auriferous pyrite. Faults host later bonanza grade free Au seen
here as a matrix to a breccia with quartz clasts or as a plate of Au. Again this is only a minor
component of the total resource bur nevertheless spectacular and worth considering.
108. Sleeper Nevada Earlier we saw low grade breccia hosted Au at Sleeper is treated in a
heap leach operation similar to Round Mountain. Again there is a high fineness free Au

55

occurs as a structurally controlled overprint within a basin and range related fault system and
so banded veins host yellow high fineness Au and quartz, the latter deposited from circulating
meteoric waters. The high fineness Au is distinct from the chalcedony-ginguro systems
considered below. We will come to the importance of this hypogene kaolin later.
109. Edie Creek
110. Cowal
111. Peru Example - Selene
112. Exploration implications Epithermal quartz Au + Ag
113. Busai
114. Low sulphidation epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins This
mineralisation has in the past been the main style of low sulphidation epithermal
mineralisation discussed in the geological literature and has formerly been termed adulariasericite, quartz-adularia and hot spring style. There is an over-emphasis upon adularia to
support boiling models whereas this low temperature secondary Kfeldspar may be wall rock
alteration rather than a vein mineral and what has been termed sericite is herein regarded as a
higher temperature form of the illite recognised in these deposits.
These deposit may cap polymetallic Ag-Au mineralisation or occur as vertically zoned fissure
vein systems. Banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag mineralisation is distinguished from
epithermal quartz Au style by the little gangue and low fineness (Ag-rich) mineralisation
which typically occurs as dilatant fissure veins.
115. Distribution chalcedony-ginguro veins Banded chalcedony are some of the best
documented ore systems in the Pacific rim being the main style of low sulphidation
epithermal Au mineralisation considered in the geological literature for many years. These
deposits typically occur in extensional portions of magmatic arcs or in back arc basins. There
is a very strong correlation between the development of low sulphidation veins associated
with the change from andesitic island arc magmatism in generally compressional conditions,
to felsic magmatism under extensional conditions. This is recognised in the Drummond Basin
of NE Australia, the Deseado massif of Patagonia and the great Basin of W US., in Japan, the
Coromandel Peninsular and the Okhotsk-Chukotka magmatic arc of E Russia veins are
associated with extension and felsic magmatism. Intra-arc extension including rifts host veins
at Kamchatka Russia, Tolukuma in PNG, Toka Tindung and Gosowong in Indonesia and
Peru.
116. Banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag veins Banded veins are dominated by bands of
chalcedony interpreted as deposited form circulating meteoric dominant waters and the black
sulphidic ginguro bands which comprise fine pyrite, Ag sulphosalts such as argentiteacanthite as well as electrum free Au or variable fineness and locally chalcopyrite. There is a
clear evolution in time and to higher crustal levels from the base metal assemblage of
polymetallic Ag-Au veins to the ginguro material, which in some deeper level examples may
host fine pale sphalerite. Vein gangue minerals may also include platy calcite which has been
replaced by quartz, low temperature secondary Kfeldspar adularia and calcite which generally
post-dates vein formation. Low temperature Kfeldspar (adularia) is common as early
prograde wall rock alteration variably overprinted by retrograde illite-pyrite argillic
alteration. Weathered bladed stibnite may locally be mistaken for bladed calcite replacement
textures.
117. Ginguro bands Ginguro is a Japanese word dating from the recognition by 19th century
Japanese miners of high Au-Ag within this material. Almost all the Au occurs within the
ginguro bands. Free Au is discernible in the example from Kamchatka while selenites are
present in the ginguro material from Midas.
118. Banded chalcedony-ginguro, surficial features Banded chalcedony-ginguro systems
are vertically zoned. Surface manifestations we will discuss in detail later include acid

56

sulphate alteration, bedded silica sinter deposits here with cinnabar and eruption breccias
which cap some vein systems. Note this eruption breccia from Toka Tindung Indonesia
contains sinter and wood fragments and displays several generations of brecciation and
solidification. Many chalcedony-ginguro vein systems are capped by eruption breccias but
this erosional level is above the portion of the zoned system where economic mineralisation
might be expected.
119. Banded chalcedony-ginguro vertical zonation Many eruption breccias are intruded by
mineralised veins here seen as sheeted veins cutting the eruption breccia at McLaughlin
California. Below the eruption breccias say at 200-300m below the palaeo surface most
economic mineralisation occurs as banded fissure veins dominated by chalcedony and
ginguro bands, remembering the vast majority of Au-Ag lies within the ginguro bands. Many
banded chalcedony-ginguro vein systems pass to polymetallic veins at depth most easily
recognised in Latin America but also noted at Waihi and Kupol at depths of say 1000m below
the palaeosurface. Au grades usually decline at base metal sulphides become dominant. As
discussed earlier, many polymetallic vein systems are capped by banded chalcedony-ginguro
veins, especially in the Deseado Massif of Patagonia.
120. Epithermal Au deposits of Japan.
121. Sado
122. Sado
123. Hishikari geology
124. Hishikari veins
125. Hishikari veins - Veins are clearly comprise mostly bands of chalcedony and Au-Ag
bearing ginguro.
126. Hishikari The Hishikari veins system are localised in a dome in the basement
Shimanto phyllite which is overlain by incompetent clay altered volcanic breccias weathered
to from a valley covered by rice fields. The geology office occurs as the building in the
background. Notice the veins terminate at the contact between the phyllite and the overlying
unfavourable volcanic breccias and later we will see which veins at the contact contain
50,000g/t Au.
127. Coromandel Peninsular New Zealand
128. Waihi
129. Golden Cross
130. Okhotsk-Chukotka magmatic arc Two deposits in the belt to look at include Kubaka
and Kupol.
131. Kubaka We will study later the relationship between bonanza Au grades and haematite
and kaolin seen here in a high grade ore system of only about 1 M oz Au.
132. Kupol While the Kupol vein system varies considerably in interpreted level of erosion
over the 4 km strike length, most mineralisation occurs as banded chalcedony with best
grades in the ginguro-rich material with haematite and kaolin which we will discuss later.
133. Peru examples 134. Exploration implications epithermal banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag I have seen
the Au grade significantly downgrades by poor quality drilling in which the Au was washed
away.
135. Good drilling Gold with kaolin
136. Sediment hosted replacement gold Sediment hosted replacement or Carlin style Au
deposits occur as bulk low grade mines hosted in impure limestone or marls with very fine
grained replacement pyrite.
137. Distribution Sediment replacement hosted Au deposits dominate in the Carlin and
Battle Mountain Trends of western US although but is mined elsewhere such as at Bau,

57

Mesel, and Sepon and explored throughout the Pacific rim including China, Latin America
and NW Australia.
138. Sediment hosted replacement gold structure and lithology The requirements for the
formation of these deposits include:
Magmatic source for ore fluids which deposit auriferous pyrite which is strongly
anomalous sin As Sb and Hg, a mineral assemblage typical of quartz-sulphide style
Au mineralisation developed in elevated crustal settings from a rapidly cooled ore
fluid.
Extensional structural settings such as the Basin and Range tectonism of western US
provides dilatant structures which facilitate the long distance transport of ore fluids.
Reactive impure carbonate (marl) host rocks are important for the development of the
distinctive disseminated Au ores in reactions characterised by the removal of
carbonate which provides the necessary open space for ore formation.
Thus, we see two end members as structurally controlled feeders which display higher Au
grades such as theis15 g/t Au material from Meikle whereas the lithologically controlled ores
from Mesel with stylolites and breccias indicative of carbonate removal host lower Au
grades.
The fine grained As pyrite sulphide ores host refractory Au which must often be roasted to
liberate the Au and so these can be expensive and environmentally difficult ores to treat.
Consequently oxide ores have initially mined in many locations.
Barren jasper often acts as a pathfinder.
139. Mesel In a cross section we see Au content as gram metres decline moving away from
the feeder structure, constrained within the reactive impure limestone below an impermeable
andesite.
140. Exploration implications Sediment hosted replacement Au
141. Composite systems Frute del Norte, Ecuador occurs in a strongly extensional
magmatic arc setting characterised by early porphyry-related alteration followed by the
emplacement of high level intrusions and phreatomagmatic and eruption breccias and
mineralisation which grades from quartz-marcasite Au to carbonate-base metal and
epithermal quartz-Au overprinted by banded chalcedony-ginguro ores. Each would be
expected to display quite different metallurgical characterisetics. Although, some workers
have focused upon the banded chalcehony-ginguro ores, more Au probably occurs with the
quartz-marcasite and higher Au grades with the carbonate-base metal Au.
142. Exploration implications Styles of low sulphidation epithermal Au
143. Mechanisms of Au deposition
The early geological literature of the 1970s suggested Au in low sulphidation epithermal
might be deposited by Cooling, mixing or boiling. However over recent years the geological
literature stresses only boiling. While boiling may deposit Au other mechanisms may account
for Au deposition, in particular bonanza Au. The literature which promotes boiling is mostly
related to the New Zealand or Japan style banded epithermal chalcedony-ginguro veins which
are only a small portion of the total low sulphidation epithermal Au production. Rather, from
his work on the Philippine magmatic arc geothermal systems, Terry suggests fluid mixing
better accounts for bonanza Au deposition in low sulphidation epithermal systems.
144. Boiling in banded chalcedony-ginguro epithermal veins Boiling is described in the
geological literature as the mechanism of Au deposition in chalcedony-ginguro deposits and
adularia and quartz replacing platy calcite as the minerals associated with boiling. However,
Au-Ag occurs in the ginguro bands and not with the adularia or quartz after platy calcite.
145. Ginguro bands If boiling is supposed to be a violent event I dont see evidence of that
in these typical banded ores, but prefer polyphasal introduction of either magmatic or
meteoric dominated fluids and rapid deposition by cooling. Perhaps rapid cooling might

58

better account for deposition of fine grained chalcedony as well as the mineralised ginguro
bands is more important which is contributed to by boiling.
146. Boiling textures Many of us have sampled lots of boiling textures and found them to
be barren.
147. Sulphidation reactions I cant comment but when he died Terry Leach was working on
sulphidation reactions to deposit of auriferous Fe sulphides by removal of Fe from the wall
rocks to account for Au at Lihir and in the Carlin trend. Possible.
148. Slow cooling Quartz-sulphide Au ores deposited by slow cooling display coarse
euhedral grain shapes with typically modest Au grades.
149. Rapid cooling, arsenian pyrite Lihir Is PNG Sector collapse at Lihir took about 1 km
from the hydrothermal system promoting rapid cooling to deposit good Au grade but fine
grained refractory ores.
150. Rapid cooling opal in contact with sulphides Several instances elevated Au-Ag grades
as sulphides including dark high temperature sphalerite in contact with low temperature opal,
in banded veins or opal matrix to breccias. Why do we have high and low temperature
mineral assemblages in contact?
151. Au deposition by fluid mixing For the above opal-sulphide ores, it appears from the
rock textures, rising hot pregnant magmatic fluids have come in contact with deep circulating
meteoric-dominant waters and promoted Au deposition. A combination of cooling and
dilution may have deposited Au.
Terry Leach (in Corbett and Leach, 1998; Leach and Corbett, 2008) defined three surficial
fluids which (including in the phase diagram if we chose to use it) when mixed with ore
fluids represent far more efficient mechanisms of Au deposition then boiling by
destabilisation of the thio complexes carrying Au, and so account for more elevated Au
grades. These fluids include:
Near surficial ground waters which tend to be oxygenated,
Bicarbonate waters which may be weakly acidic and oxidising,
Near surficial acid sulphate waters which are extremely oxidising and so very
efficient at destabilising the thio complexes carrying Au and so account for some of
the highest Au grades.
152-153 Mixing with oxygenated groundwaters evidenced by hypogene haematite In
oxidising conditions hypogene haematite is deposited rather than sulphides. Commonly,
hypogene haematite is deposited first until the oxygen is used then sulphides deposited later.
Haematite in contact with sulphides and the lack of box work textures help to distinguish
hypogene from supergene haematite. At Palmarejo free Au and electrum lie within haematite,
while the high grade 300g/t quartz-sulphide ores at Kencana contain haematite and a band of
haematite overlies the high grade ore at Fresnillo.
154. Bicarbonate waters As discussed earlier bicarbonate waters, which are common in
magmatic arc geothermal systems, develop by condensation of CO2 commonly regarded as
derived from cooling and boiling hydrothermal fluids. However, there is a strong correlation
between carbonate-base metal deposits and felsic (dacite) domes and flow-dome complexes
suggesting these intrusions may represent a source for CO2. Venting bicarbonate waters form
bedded travertine deposits. As the pH of the bicarbonate waters influences the style of
carbonate and also the efficiency of Au deposition, there is a correlation between the type of
carbonate and Au grade.
As suggested before, the carbonate species is controlled by acidity of the bicarbonate waters
which in turn influences the efficiency of Au deposition and so there is a correlation between
carbonate type and Au grade. Vein-breccias with carbonate species deposited from more acid
waters such as siderite are expected to host higher Au grades, which I see but not commonly.
Rhodochrosite is the most common carbonate with good Au grade. Here in two adjacent trays

59

of drill core from the Chatree gold mine Thailand Au-Ag are associated with fine sulphides
deposited prior to the sulphides. Highest Au is associates with the pink rhodochrosite
declining in carbonates interpreted as dolomite and Mg calcite.
Similar fluid mixing occurs in Polymetallic Ag-Au deposits in Latin America, here with
white low temperature sphalerite.
155. Manganese wad This association of Au with Mn carbonate is well known and so the
recognition of surficial MnO derived from the weathering of Mncarbonate is represents an
important prospecting tool.
156. Carbonate-base metal Au deposits Mixing of ore fluids with bicarbonate waters
accounts for Au deposition in carbonate-base metal Au deposits where the paragenetic
sequence from early pyrite to base metal sulphides and them later stage carbonate. Au is
associated with base metal sulphides in contact with carbonate. Carbonate-base metal are the
most prolific Au producers in the SW Pacific.
157. Polymetallic Ag-Au Caylloma Peru Rhodochrosite and MnO
158. Mixing with low pH waters derived from acid sulphate caps H2S volatiles oxidise at
the water table (to from H2SO4) resulting in the development of warm acidic ground waters
which react with the wall rocks to produce acid sulphate alteration characterised by
cristobalite, kaolin some alunite, pyrite and local sulphur. While the geological literature
suggests the H2S is derived from boiling hydrothermal fluids, pyritic intrusions such as dacite
domes and flow-dome complexes might also represent sources of H2S volatiles. There are a
number of mechanisms to account for the collapse of acid sulphate waters into the
hydrothermal system discussed earlier as:
Drawdown associated with reversal of hydrothermal cells resulting from cooling of
the magmatic heat source at depth.
Localised drawdown between each dilatant fault opening event which account for
banded vein formation.
Circulation of hydrothermal cells, which have entrained a magmatic component,
down cross structures.
Rising ore fluids may be derived from a higher temperature cooling intrusion heat and
metals source at depth whereas the uppermost portion of the hydrothermal system is
already much cooler and so hosts collapsing near surficial waters.
159. Champagne Pool, Waitapu, New Zealand The name Champagne comes from bubbles
of CO2 venting within a geothermally active eruption breccia pipe, also cited as a setting of
boiling fluids but another explanation is possible. Form about the 1950s a red precipitate
developed at the margin of the breccia pipe and was assayed and found to be strongly
anomalous in Au and toxic elements. This precipitate therefor lies at the contact between the
pregnant neutral chloride waters and marginal acid sulphate alteration apparent as the white
silica-kaolin-alunite alteration. Mineral deposition has taken place at the site of mixing of the
two fluids.
160. Arcata (Peru) acid cap and mineralisation This is one of several acid sulphate caps at
the uppermost portion of the Arcata mine Peru located at about 5200m altitude on the Veta
Baja structure we saw earlier. The acid cap comprises cristobalite, kaolin some fine alunite
and sulphur. At depth better Au-Ag occur where hypogene kaolin overprints the carbonatebase metal (polymetallic) vein-breccias. The contact of kaolin with pristine sulphides
supports the interpretation of this as hypogene kaolin and that enhanced Au deposition results
from the mixing of collapsing acid sulphate waters and rising ore fluids.
161. Hishikari Japan The chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag Hishikari mine in Japan is often
quoted as an example of Au deposition by boiling but Corbett and Leach, 1998 proposed an
alternative explanation. This Japanese study identified a now mostly eroded acid sulphate cap
in the upper portion of Hishikari with mineral assemblages alunite-kaolin. I drove around

60

these roads and examined the clay alteration now mostly covered by shotcrete. The banded
chalcedony-ginguro veins terminate at the contact between the competent Shimanto Group
phyllite and the overlying incompetent clay altered volcanic breccias. Now it is apparent the
permeable volcanic breccias probably hosted acidic waters during mineralisation. Thus, the
vein most exposed to the low pH waters at the contact between the volcanic breccias and
underlying phyllite hosts 50,000g/t Au and kaolin clay is common throughout the mine, but
regarded by the boilers as post-mineral.
162. Frute del Norte
163. Kapit, Lihir Is., Papua New Guinea We documented hot springs at Kapit when we
evaluated Lihir in the 1980s and so exploration there was postponed. Much later Terry
Leach documented deposition of high grade Au at a contact between the collapsing acid
sulphate water and rising ore fluids.
164. San Cristobal, Bolivia Some mines exploit elevated precious metal grades at the base
of the acid sulphate cap, recognised collapsing down faults.
165. Sleeper Nevada Mixing of ore fluids with low pH waters evidenced by hypogene
kaolin provides an explanation for the bonanza Au at the Sleeper mine. The high fineness Au
is probably of epithermal quartz Au + Ag style.
166. Hanging wall splay Palinpinon geothermal field, Philippines Terry Leach noted Au
deposition by mixing of collapsing acid sulphate waters and rising pregnant neutral chlorite
waters. The over 4000m deep drill hole draws hot water derived from recent porphyry
intrusions to derive geothermal power. The drill hole is cased to here and perforated below to
collect water. The drill hole became blocked and when the scale was reamed out it was found
to contain anhydrite, barite, alunite, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, tennantite and electrum.
The presence of alunite supports the interpretation that the scale was deposited by the mixing
collapsing of acid sulphate waters with rising pregnant waters. This represents current active
deposition of epithermal mineralisation at a depth of about 1000m below the palaeo surface.
Here the venturi effect of fluids rising up the drill pipe has drawn the acid sulphide waters
into the depositional environment. At closer 2 km depth there has been deposition of a
porphyry mineral assemblage comprising chalcopyrite bornite Au and carbonate.
167. Intersection of collapsing acid sulphate waters and rising mineralised fluids The
Buchanan 1981 hand wall splay model features bonanza Au at the intersection of a major
fault and hanging wall splay deposited by fluid boiling. An alternative explanation is that, as
we say in the geothermal example, this intersection represents a site of fluid mixing. This
specimen for San Jose (Huevos Verde) mine in Argentine Patagonia comprises Au and
electrum at the contact between kaolin and ginguro, and of course bonanza precious metal
grades.
168. Ore shoot as mixing at structural intersection Here the mixing of acid sulphate waters
collapsing down a hanging wall structure with ore fluids rising up the main structure resulted
in the formation of a bonanza ore shoot at the intersection. The red is >300gram metre.
169. Guadalupe, Palmarejo, Mexico Here is an exploration success by drilling below an
acid sulphate cap which had only negligible Au at the surface, but some nearby colonial
Spanish era mine workings. Elevated Au-Ag is recognised where kaolin is in contact with
ginguro-like sulphidic material.
170. Peru examples & Clay blooms Clay blooms although barren surface represent
prospecting targets and can be identified in remote sensing clay alteration studies. Note
someone thought to carry out some prospecting in Spanish colonial times
171. Exploration implications Mechanisms of Au deposition
172. Dilution This model presented earlier illustrates how banded quartz veins may contain
abundant barren chalcedony deposited from meteoric waters which have the effect of diluting
the Au grade of the veins.

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173. Chatree Thailand dyes cut ore Post mineral dykes emplaced into the same structures as
the veins dilute ore at Chatree Thailand.
174. Dilution by late calcite fill Calcite is deposited post-mineral in many veins.
175. Exploration implications Controls to low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag
176. Kupol Far Eastern Russia At Kupol many of the features required to provide elevated
Au grade coincide composite host rocks, steep section of a growth listric fault, high Au
style chalcedony-ginguro style and local mixing with oxygenated and low pH waters
evidenced by haematite or kaolin.

Section 7. High sulphidation epithermal Au

1. High sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag-Cu In the SW Pacific these deposits have no Ag but
may be Ag-rich in Latin America and we will see how at deep levels Cu may be economic.
The Au vs Ag variation may be a reflection of oceanic crust in the SW Pacific rim vs more
underlying continental crust in the Americas.
2. The terms high sulphidation epithermal and advanced argillic alteration Advanced
argillic alteration occurs in several settings including within barren shoulders so we should
talk about high sulphidation epithrmal Au-Ag mineralisation and associated advanced argillic
alteration. I avoid the terms high sulphidation alteration or advanced argillic
mineralisation.
3. High sulphidation epithermal Au distribution While high sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits are recognised in the SW Pacific rim magmatic arcs, the home of these deposits is in
the high Andes extending into Mexico and western US.
4. Enargite-barite-alunite veins - Some D veins (in the classification of Gustafson and Hunt,
1975) formed marginal to porphyry deposits contain high sulphidation epithermal mineralogy
and many high sulphidation Au deposits are underlain by similar veins.
5. Magmatic arc porphyry to epithermal To some extent there is a continuation between
high sulphidation epithermal and porphyry mineralisation. However, I prefer a scenario in
which there is a clear separation between the source porphyry and related high sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits.
6. Lepanto Philippines Lepanto provides an indication of the preferred scenario herein of a
the high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation developed a km or so above the source
porphyry, having developed late in the history of the porphyry evolution.
7. Distinction between high and low sulphation fluids Barren shoulders of advanced argillic
alteration which we discussed in hydrothermal alteration and porphyry mineralisation form
much earlier whereas high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits develop late in the stage
porphyry-epithermal evolution. I refer to advanced argillic alteration and high sulphidation
epithermal mineralisation as separate features in the same overall event.
The model is that a plume of volatile-rich fluids responsible for the development of high
sulphidation epithermal mineralisation and associated advanced argillic alteration vent from
an intrusion source at depth as a bubble and travel rapidly to a higher crustal setting typically
within a structure without significant reaction with wall rocks or entrainment of ground
waters. The rapidly rising fluids become increasing depressurised moving to elevated crustal
settings causing volatiles including SO2 come out of solution in progressively increased
quantities. SO2 reacts with water to form H2SO4 and condenses. Consequently, the rising hot
fluids become progressively more acidic during the ascent so that what was a hot and near
neutral hydrothermal fluid at porphyry levels has become a hot and extremely acidic at
epithermal levels, with a pH of 1-2. This hot acidic fluid then reacts with permeable hot rocks
and becomes progressively cooled and neutralised. Zoned alteration results from the reaction

62

with wall rocks of hydrothermal fluids with varying pH and temperature during cooling and
neutralisation. This alteration zonation as shown here might grade outwards from the feeder
structure.
8. Zoned alteration Residual or vughy silica In the central portion of the zoned alteration,
close to the feeder structure the hot most acidic fluids rip through the wall rocks, especially if
there is wall rock permeability, removing just about everything except silica and perhaps
some rutile (TiO2) and FeO, although some silica may also be deposited. Here we see
removal of feldspars from this porphyry has produced a vughy texture which is also used to
describe these rocks. However, as vughy or open space rock textures may occur in many
settings, the term residual silica is preferred. In addition to the pseudomorphous vughy
texture derived from the removal of feldspars, more rounded vughs develop as part of textural
destruction during this process.
9. High sulphidation epithermal Au zoned advanced argillic alteration If hydrothermal
alteration results from the reaction with wall rocks of hydrothermal fluids which become
progressively cooled and neutralised by wall rock reaction, then zoned advanced argillic
hydrothermal alteration develops in response to the changes in the nature in the reacting
fluids. As the hot acid fluid which produced the residual silica by wall rock reaction becomes
progressively cooled and neutralised, the zoned hydrothermal advanced argillic alteration
grades outwards as mineral assemblages dominated by alunite, then pyrophyllite-diaspore,
dickite-kaolin and then marginal near neutral clays such as illite. However, several factors
such as crustal level of formation influence this alteration zonation in detail.
10. High sulphidation epithermal Au zoned advanced argillic alteration at different crustal
levels We have touched upon steam heated alteration and discussed barren shoulders in
detail earlier. The mineral assemblages and nature of zonation within advanced argillic
alteration associated with high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits are influenced by crustal
level and the nature of permeability. Zoned advanced argillic alteration developed at an
elevated crustal setting displays lower temperature alteration assemblages and along with
structurally controlled alteration may display narrow alteration zones. The zoned advanced
argillic alteration in deeper crustal level systems displays higher temperature mineral
assemblages and like host rock permeability controlled systems may display wide alteration
zones. Firstly lets look at the zoned alteration.
11. Zoned alteration Nena PNG The Nena high sulphidation epithermal Au system appears
to be localised by the intersection of a flat-lying permeable rock unit and steeply dipping
feeder structure to define a sub-horizontal pencil like ore shoot. Hydrothermal fluid appears
to enter the shoot and flow laterally. A slice cut through the ore shoot illustrates the zoned
advanced argillic alteration. As the slice is cut towards the periphery of the fluid flow, the
outer quenched alteration zones are quite sharp. As most Au mineralisation commonly lies
within the residual silica zone, here the outcropping alunite may mask mineralisation.
12. Wafi advanced argillic alteration The zoned advanced argillic alteration at Wafi defined
in the 1980s using XRD clay alteration data and studied by Terry Leach. In fact Terrys pH
vs temperature figure came out of that analysis. We see a silica core grading out to alunite,
pyrophyllite, dickite and marginal illite and propylitic alteration assemblages.
13. Wafi advanced argillic alteration Permeability is interpreted to be controlled by
conglomerate in the meta-sedimentary host rocks and an earlier diatreme breccia.
14. High sulphidation advanced argillic alteration zonation Critical elements in the
alteration zonation vary laterally and vertically. As illustrated earlier the lateral variation
grades from a core of silica outwards through alunite, kaolin group minerals illite clay.
Vertical zonations include: the type of silica, dickite is the deeper level higher temperature
equivalent of kaolin and pyrophyllite dominates at depth, we have seen earlier how the illite
group minerals vary with depth.

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15. Two phase fluid flow model The fluid responsible for the development of high
sulphidation epithermal Au deposits and associated advanced argillic hydrothermal alteration
breaks up into two phases. A volatile-rich phase which travels faster and so creates the bulk
of the advanced argillic alteration by reaction with the wall rocks. A liquid-rich phase
commonly travels more slowly and so it is common for the sulphide and some gangue
minerals to post-date the alteration.
16. High sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation The main characteristic minerals for
high sulphidation epithermal Au systems include enargite and its low temperature polymorph
luzonite in addition to pyrite, while others are noted below. Sulphides most commonly occur
as breccia matrix, although they may form banded veins or fill vughs in the residual vughy
silica.
17. La India - Sulphides overprint residual (vughy) silica Here, is a sulphide matrix breccia
contains vughy silica clasts and sulphide crackle breccias cut vughy silica.
18. Enargite veins cut vughy silica
19. Gangue Gangue minerals include a second generation of alunite, barite and sulphur at
low temperatures. Note low sulphidation vein-breccias may also contain barite.
20-21. High sulphidation metal zonation While high sulphidation epithermal Au systems in
the SW Pacific contain virtually no Ag, those in Latin America can by Ag rich and some are
virtually Ag deposits. All high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits display trends of Cu-rich
at depth varying to Sb and locally Te or Hg bearing at elevated crustal settings.
Consequently, the mineralogy may vary:
At high crustal levels, marcasite and luzonite as the low temperature equivalent of pyrite and
enargite respectively, along with goldfieldite in some instances,
At depth high sulphidation systems may contain Cu in addition to enargite, within covellite or
hypogene chalcocite.
22. Control to high sulphidation Permeability Three permeability end members control the
formation of fluid flow in high sulphidation deposits recognised as: structure lithology and
breccias. A common setting occurs as ore systems at the intersection of feeder structures and
permeable lithologies and breccias.
23. Structural control to high sulphidation epithermal Au Major structures Comparison of
many ore systems indicates there is a common themes. Major structures have acted as fluid
flow mechanisms for ore fluids to migrate rapidly from intrusion source rocks at depth to
epithermal crustal levels and these fluids evolve during the rapid upward migration The
major structures may also have played a role in localising the intrusion source for
mineralisation. As discussed before the major structure conduit is important to facilitate the
fluid evolution essential for the formation of high sulphidation epithermal deposits. The
rapidly rising fluids become depressurised and exsolve SO2 then oxidise to H2SO4 as strongly
acidic fluids. A common scenario is for there to be strongly enhanced fluid flow within
dilatant structural settings formed in relation to the major structure and mineralisation and so
mineralisation dominates within these second order structures.
Some of the biggest high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits lie on arc-normal transfer
structures such as those within localise the giant Yanacocha, Peru, and also Wafi systems in
Papua New Guinea. Other significant systems are localised on conjugate fractures with
extensional senses of movement such as Pascua-Lama in the high Andes along the ChileArgentina border and adjacent Veladero and Del Carmen in Argentina and Caballo Blanco,
Mexico. Here subsidiary arc-parallel fractures host mineralisation or act as feeder structures
for lithologically controlled ores. Other much smaller high sulphidation systems are localised
by conjugate fractures but in compressional tectonic environments such as Mt Kasi, Fiji; El
Guanaco, Chile and El Quevar Argentina. Arc-parallel structures with a component of strikeslip movement are important for large high sulphidation systems such as at Lepanto,

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Philippines, Nena, Papua New Guinea, along with El Indio and La Coipa Chile and smaller
ones such as Peak Hill, Australia where mineralisation occurs in subsidiary fractures.
Elsewhere extensional listric fault style structures host mineralisation in steeper dipping
portions at La India, Mexico, El Quevar Argentina and Quimsacocha, Ecuador. The sense of
movement might be less certain on other arc-parallel structures which localise high
sulphidation systems, essentially within permeable host rocks, but may include a reverse
component (Pierina and La Arena, Peru).
Lets look at some examples of structural control.
24. Lepanto, Philippines The Philippine fault is a country scale strike-slip arc parallel
structure which localises the Lepanto breccia mineralisation at the intersection of a link
structure formed between elements of the Philippine Fault and the margin of a diatreme
breccia pipe.
25. Mt Kasi Fiji Mt Kasi which formed during island arc compression, is localised on a
major structure with a conjugate relationship to the magmatic arc and so displays a sinistral
sense of movement. Small ore systems are localised about the brecciated margins of a
brecciated dacite dome.
26. Mt Kasi, Fiji Consequently an important aspect of Mt Kasi is the control by sheeted
feeder fractures formed at an angle to the major structure and supply ore fluid for the breccia
control.
27. El Guanaco, Chile El Guanaco has formed during orthogonal Andean compression as
veins essentially parallel to the direction of compression, although a component of strike-slip
movement on the adjacent conjugate fracture has facilitated the development of more dilatant
tension vein portions. We see the typical scenario of high sulphidation epithermal Au
deposits of structural feeders to lithologically controlled ores within a pumice tuff.
28. El Guanaco Outcrop scale transition from feeder structures to lithological control.
29. Quevar Argentina Quevar occurs within an eroded stratovolcano which is one of many
vents which are aligned along a NW structure. EW listric faults dilated during orthogonal
Andean compression host best mineralisation in the vicinity of the steep dipping listric faults.
The conjugate fractures provide a tension vein form to some veins and offset other. We see
the typical early vughy residual silica overprinted by barite and mineralised sulphides.
30. High sulphidation epithermal Au deposits related to extension as a relaxation of
compression Extension has activated listric faults or conjugate fractures to provide arcparallel mineralised structures.
31. Pascua-Lama-Veladero - Pascua-Lama-Veladero are localised along a country scales
conjugate fracture which may have undergone some sinistral strike-slip movement during
extension as the NS trending ore zones locally form sigmoid shapes.
32. At Quimsacocha, Ecuador and La India Mexico we see steep dipping listric faults as
feeders for moderate dipping lithologically controlled silicification and mineralisation.
33. High sulphidation epithermal changes in the nature of convergence Changes in the
nature of convergence may act as a trigger to promote the rapid rise of hydrothermal fluids.
Although we normally regard Andes of Chile-Argentina as an orthogonal magmatic arc many
ore systems formed during an episode of dextral movement on faults which previously
displayed a reverse sense of movement.
34. La Coipa Chile NE trending tension veins have developed during movement on the NS
structures and so we see veins comprising pyrite, enargite, alunite and barite in the underlying
shale basement and typical disseminated high sulphidation mineralisation in the overlying
permeable volcanic rocks. Note veins in formed in dilatant settings are banded.
35. El Indio, Chile Regionally El Indio is localised in a cross-over in strike-slip movement
between two sets of NS structures. In detail mineralisation is hosted in a sigmoidal look
mapped by Stan Caddy. Faults are in blue, enargite Au-Cu veins are in green and the later Au

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veins are in red. Note veins in formed in dilatant settings are banded. I was asked to define
the nature of the ore shoots in the Viento vein system.
36 & 37. Viento vein system Careful underground mapping demonstrated that several
plunging ore shoots within the Viento vein system are each localised at a flexure in the main
structure and each flexure and slickensides suggest the main structure underwent a
combination of dip-slip and strike-slip movement to provide the plunge on the shoots. The
sense of movement is consistent with the regional setting and the main El Indio veins.
There is and evolution in the El Indio hydrothermal system in time and space. Stan Caddy
mapped faults (blue) enargite veins (green) and Au veins (red) formed in that paragenetic
sequence so a change in time. At Viento we see a change in space form south where enargiteluzonite ores dominate through carbonate-base metal style ores to quartz with free Au in the
north at the end of the system. Thus there is a change from high to lower sulphidation in time
and space. Importantly the later stage ores display higher Au grades and improved
metallurgical characteristics.
The overall fluid up-flow may related to a diatreme breccia in this vicinity.
38. Lithological control Lithological control to the formation of high sulphidation
epithermal Au deposits results mainly from the ability of permeable and locally reactive host
rocks to facilitate fluid flow and the resultant cooling and neutralisation of hot acidic ore
fluids by rock reaction. Many high sulphidation epithermal Au deposits therefore occur close
to the intersection of a feeder structure and the permeable lithology. Consequently many of
these ore systems display flat dips. Pumice tuffs commonly feature well as permeable
lithologies and may be constrained between less permeable rocks such as andesite flows. The
permeability will be seriously enhanced during the initial alteration as the core is replaced by
vughy residual silica while the marginal clay alteration may act as an aquitard for later ore
fluids.
39. Lithological control Pierina Peru At Pierina a flat dipping pumice tuff with large
fiamme provided primary permeability control creating a permeable body of vughy residual
silica which has then been exploited by ore fluids. Exploitation of this permeability by the
later ore fluids provides a flat dipping ore zone at Pierina.
40. Lithological control La Coipa Chile At La Coipa, Au mineralisation which is confined
to veins within the underlying competent shale blossoms out in the overlying permeable
volcanic rocks to form a large disseminated resource.
41. At Quevar, Argentina; La India, Mexico and Sipan Peru mineralisation is localised by the
intersection of feeder structures and a permeable lithology.
42. La India Mexico
43. Sandstone hosted high sulphidation Au - In Central Peru several high sulphidation Au
deposits are hosted within sandstone/quartzite. Permeability is provided by bedding planes
which have been activated during fold-thrust deformation as well as the porous sandstone and
breccias. The presence of altered and unaltered dykes may be indicative of the syn-alteration
magmatic activity while a steam heated zone suggests the epithermal system is little eroded
although it caps a porphyry Cu.
44. Sipan, Peru
45. Breccia control High sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation is related to felsic
volcanics which may be manifest as diatreme flow dome complexes characterised by
phreatomagmatic (milled matrix) breccias. Permeability is therefore provided by milled
matrix diatreme breccias or brecciated dome margins. There may be a relationship between
the rapid rise phreatomagmatic breccias and the evolution hydrothermal fluid to from acidic
fluids which provide high sulphidation alteration by cooling and neutralisation by wall rock
reaction. However, in some cases alteration and mineralisation may post date the diatreme
breccia event.

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46. Breccia control The most common breccia control are phreatomagmatic or diatreme
breccia pipes which may vary from bedded uppermost portions to now silicified milled
matrix breccias. These anomalously large vughy silica altered clasts may be have been
derived as juvenile intrusion clasts. Mineralisation may fill the matrix to some breccias
(Yanacocha) or occur as later fluidised breccias (Lepanto) which exploit the brecciated
contact between the breccia pipe and wall rocks.
47. Veladero Argentina Milled matrix breccias provide permeability for initial
hydrothermal alteration and are overprinted by later sulphide-rich fluidised breccias.
48. Pascua Chile Similar eruption breccia pipes are recognised at the surface and locally
bedded in the uppermost portions.
49. La Virgin Peru A regional fault localises a diatreme breccia pipe with associated domes
transects the sandstone-quartzite host rocks with later in fill of mineralised sulphides.
50. Lepanto Philippines Although the permeable milled matrix diatreme breccia rocks
readily host hydrothermal alteration, mineralisation is recognised within a fluidised breccia
localised at the intersection of a dilatant fracture and the breccia pipe, and so may post date
the breccia.
51. Wafi Papua New Guinea At Wafi the high sulphidation system clearly postdates the
diatreme. The concentration of ore zones about the diatreme margin has led to speculation
earlier low sulphidation mineralisation which commonly concentrates at diatreme margins
may have been overprinted and remobilised by the high sulphidation event.
52. Yanacocha Peru The giant Yanacocha high sulphidation system is hosted by a diatreme
flow dome complex where mineralisation lies within milled matrix breccias and brecciated
dome margins. Phreatic breccias are also recognised.
53. Mt Kasi Fiji Several small locally high grade high sulphidation epithermal Au
occurrences lie at the intersections of the regional structural trend with the brecciated margins
of a felsic dome. The breccias clearly provided permeability for ore formation.
54. Permeability Conclusion Many high sulphidation epithermal systems dependent
initially upon a major structure channelway to provide a mechanism for fluids to evolve
during migration from porphyry environment at depth to the epithermal level where host
rocks or breccias may then provide the permeability control for the formation of alteration
and mineralisation. Consequently, the intersections of dilatant structures and permeable
lithologies or breccias provide a common control.
55. Steam heated alteration In a manner similar to acid sulphate alteration in the upper most
portion of low sulphidation deposits, steam heated alteration develops at surficial levels in
high sulphidation epithermal systems and collapses to deeper levels, possibly for several
hundred metres. Above the water table SO2 oxidises to provide warm acidic ground waters
which react with the wall rocks to provide a characteristic hydrothermal alteration. While
silicification may develop at the water table, steam heated alteration commonly forms
laterally extensive blankets, in permeable host rocks and above the water table, capable of
obscuring mineralisation. Although seeing through steam blankets can be an exploration
challenge, they are an indication of the upper level of the hydrothermal system exposed by
erosion, and expected preservation of ore. A model is proposed here in that the oxidising
waters involved in the formation of steam heated blankets may participate in high grade Au
formation. Steam heated blankets are extremely soft and so dominate in arid terrains such as
the high Andes.
56. Pascua-Lama steam heated blanket
57. Veladero, Argentina Steam heated alteration displays a characteristic alteration of
kaolin, powdery alunite, cristobalite and locally sulphur commonly with total textural
destruction of the host rocks. The powdery alunite is a health hazard as the wind whips it into
your eyes where it oxidises upon contact with water to form an acidic solution.

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58. La Coipa Chile Here we see the form of a steam heated blanket capping the Coipa
Norte pit. Although essentially barren in metals steam heated alteration may contain Hg seen
here as a cinnabar fracture coating from within the blanket photographed many years earlier.
59. Basal silica a zone of pervasive silicification, commonly brecciated and with kaolin fill
is common within steam heated zones at the palaeowater table. .
60. La Arena collapsing steam heated Steam heated collapsing down a fault marginal to the
mine.
61. Economics of high sulphidation systems
62. Sulphide ores Most high sulphidation epithermal sulphide ores are refractory although
oxidised ores may be readily heap leached. Many high sulphidation systems such as
Yanacocha are exploited by heap extraction of oxidised ores and only high grade ores can
support the additional cost of roasting the sulphide ores such as at El Indio begun in the
1970s. Environmental constraints might make approval for such an operation difficult now
and so many sulphide ores are blended.
63. Sipan Peru Sipan represents a typical scenario where mining stopped at the contact
between oxide and sulphide ores. Note that oxidation commonly extends to greater depths
down the structures which localise high sulphidation systems, aided by the permeable vughy
residual silica alteration.
64. Higher Au-Ag grade high sulphidation ores Some sulphide-rich ores host higher Au-Ag
grades
65. Hypogene oxidation The extremely oxidising fluids which result in the formation of
steam heated alteration may collapse into the ore environment and some workers suggest
these fluids might mix with rising ore fluids and provide hypogene oxidation may account for
high grade ores.
66. Hypogene oxidation - At Pierina higher Au grades are associated with a particular
leaching which has resulted in the development of covellite rims and sulphur in the cores. At
Veladero we see different types of jarosite, some with high grade Au also interpreted to have
formed by hypogene oxidation. This free Au in quartz might be a different matter.
67. Transition from high to lower sulphidation We have seen the characteristic zonation of
hydrothermal alteration in high sulphidation epithermal systems results from the progressive
cooling and neutralisation of the ore fluids by wall rock reaction and the acid alteration is
rimmed by neutral argillic alteration typical of low sulphidation Au deposits. Lower
temperature ore fluids may evolve to deposit low sulphidation ore assemblages either on the
margins of high sulphidation deposits or later in the paragenetic sequence. Importantly these
lower sulphidation ores which are typical of carbonate-base metal Au + Cu or epithermal
quartz Au + Ag style, host higher Au grades and display vastly improved metallurgy.
68. Fluid evolution Viento veins El Indio Ores at the Viento vein system El Indio clearly
change from luzonite-rich (the low temperature polymorph of enargite) in the south through
carbonate-base metal Au style to quartz with free Au which would be of epithermal quartz
Au + Ag style. Here is a fluid evolution in space during fluid flow. Clearly the high grade
free Au would display vastly improved metallurgy to the enargite-luzonite ores. Also there is
a diatreme breccia pipe about here which could have been a focus for the introduction of ore
fluids which then flowed north.
Moving to nearby El Indio.
69. Fluid evolution El Indio vein system Stan Caddy mapped faults (in blue) Cu-rich
enargite veins (in green) and Au- veins (in red) and much of the published literature suggests
the Au-rich veins are later. Some of us believe this represents a fluid evolution in time from
high to lower sulphidation.

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70. Quimsacocha Ecuador Here we seem a common trend of low temperature yellow
sphalerite overprinting high sulphidation mineralisation as part of a trend to lower
sulphidation.
71-72. At Quevar Argentina initial alteration is typical of high sulphidation systems evolving
from vughy residual silica cores to marginal alunite and steam heated alteration is locally
recognised. However the mineralisation evolves from enargite to more typical low
sulphidation mineral assemblages such as low temperature yellow sphalerite and Ag
sulphosalts. Of interest is that best Au-Ag grades occur where kaolin is in contact with the
sulphides and so the oxidising steam heated waters are interpreted to have entered the ore
environment to promote mineral deposition.
73-74. Fluid evolution Mt Carlton Australia - Similarly at Mt Carlton Australia initial
alteration and mineralisation typical of high sulphidation epithermal systems evolves to host
similar low temperature yellow sphalerite high grade Ag-sulphosalts and free Au.
75-76. Collapse of steam heated waters onto and evolved lower sulphidation fluid
77. Exploration implications
78. Prospecting below steam heated blankets - At Quimsachocha the discovery drill hole for
the high sulphidation ore system was DDH136 yet it lies below a steam heated blanket. Use
of models such as this could have led to a more rapid discovery.

Section 8. Exploration from above epithermal and porphyry ore zones

1. Here are two conceptual exploration successes. At Guadalupe at about 2004 we identified
good Au-Ag grade epithermal mineralisation below an essentially barren acid sulphate cap
using a model we will discuss again. At Wafi in 1989 we discovered what is now called the
Golpu porphyry prospecting the deeper portions of a high sulphidation. In that case we were
not using the normal model I would use today which might be what exploration is all
about something else no one else has recognised.
2. Tops of low sulphidation epithermal 3. Model for zonation in low sulphidation veins 4. Acid sulphate caps surficial portions of low sulphidation vein systems are formed by the
reaction with wall rocks of warm acidic ground waters and characterised by kaolincristobalite alteration with local sulphur and alunite.
5. Acid sulphate cap and Au deposition by fluid mixing Arcata Peru Higher Au grades
occur within vein portions where sulphides such as yellow sphalerite are in contact with
hypogene kaolin deposited from collapsing acid sulphate caps waters.
6. Sleeper mine Nevada Clay studies demonstrate strong surficial clay which in drill core is
hypogene and so an acid sulphate cap is interpreted to have collapsed upon this ore system
and promoted Au deposition
7. Guadalupe Palmarejo Mexico We used this model to discover ore here
8. Target collapsing acid sulphate Collapsing low pH acid sulphate waters which produce
kaolin by reaction with wall rocks may mix with rising mineralised fluids to deposit high
grade Au. Various mechanisms account for collapse.
9. Eruption breccias and sinter deposits 10-11. Eruption breccias Silicified polyphasal breccias commonly contain sinter and even
wood clasts as well as local vein fragments.
12 & 13. Bedded sinter deposits form as the surficial fluid outflows of hydrothermal systems.
While traditional models suggest most metals are deposited at deeper levels, the fluids which
deposit sinter may contain a significant portion of circulating meteoric waters. While
typically barren in Au-Ag some such as the Puhipuhi sinter are rich in Hg as cinnabar.

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14. Sinter or silicification This specimen is from a prospect where substantial pervasive
silicification was wrongly described as sinter, with profound genetic implications. A common
mistake which might seriously alter the geological interpretation of a project is to misidentify
silicified finely laminated rocks as sinter.
Features used to positively identify sinter include:
15. Plant material
16. Algal mats formed normal to layering
17. Geyserite as silica accretions formed in bubbling pools
18 & 19. Travertine Venting bicarbonate waters give rise to travertine deposits, while
stromatolites are interpreted to have grown in carbonate rich waters.
20 Silica ledges - Sub-horizontal silica ledges develop within permeable host rocks in the
upper portions of low sulphidation hydrothermal systems, typically at the water table.
21. Silica ledges
22. Eroded silica ledges boulder fields - Clay alteration which might surrounds silica ledges
readily erodes away contributing towards the ready break up of these ledges which may then
be preserved as boulder fields.
23. Zoned wall rock alteration grades from prograde adularia as secondary Kfeldspar to illite
closest to veins through illite-smectite and lowest temperature smectite-zeolite-carbonate
alteration.
24. Illite
25. Smectite
26. Demagnetisation by argillic alteration
27. Top of vein opal and jasper
28. Marginal to a vein From immediately below and acid sulphate cap to a marginal setting
29. Temperature
30. Sleeper Nevada grades from illite to smectite (montmorillonite in US data)
31-32. A long section close to but not intersecting the Golden Cross veins shows the zonation
from illite to marginal smectite.
33. Tops of veins metal zonation
34. Champagne Pool Sb, As, Ag rich
35. Tops of veins opal-marcasite
36. Tops of veins polymetallic systems display white sphalerite-marcasite
37. Silica type as an indication of level in the system
38. Fluid inclusion studies
39. No ginguro no Au
40. Midas Nevada The Midas chalcedony-ginguro vein system occurs as pervasive
silicification at the surface
41. Tops of epithermal veins This is the sheared clay altered outcrop above the 76 clavo at
Palmarejo Mexico.
42. Spectural technology
43. Connect between spectural and field data
44. Rock competency in layered volcanic sequences Low sulphidation veins are hosted
within competent host rocks and do not penetrate incompetent commonly clay altered
permeable volcanics. Many exploration discoveries have been made where these less
competent overlie and obscure mineralisation.
45. Hishikari
46. Hishikari discover history
47. Hishikari clay alteration
48. El Penon 49. Clay altered volcanic cap to silicified sediments -

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50. Targets non-outcropping low sulphidation epithermal Au-Ag veins

51. Tops of high sulphidation epithermal systems- near surficial steam heated alteration
52. Steam heated alteration as a blanket and showing the total textural destruction
53. Basal silica
54. Zoned hydrothermal alteration in high sulphidation epithermal using pH vs temp
55. Zoned alteration Nena PNG Mineralisation normally occurs in the silica core and so as
on this cross section at Nena the soft clay weathers away yet the resistant alunite may obscure
mineralisation. I have seen ASD analysis vector towards buried silica zones identified by
drilling that did not show up in the original geological mapping.
56. Target non outcropping high sulphidation epithermal
57. Silica ledges silica legdes occur in different settings with various relationships to
mineralisation
58. Silica ledges barren shoulders
59. Silica ledges high sulphidation epithermal
60. Silica ledges low sulphidation epithermal
61. Prospecting above porphyry systems
62. Targeting porphyry Cu arc parallel structures Arc parallel structures, possibly formed as
terrain boundaries, may host prospective dilatant segments at link structures or splays.
63. Cross faults localise ore systems at intersections with arc-parallel structures
64. Arc normal structures Repeated intrusion emplacement may occur in trans-arc
structures.
65. Splays - Ridgeway pull-apart basin setting
66 Above porphyry systems Zonation in: propylitic-potassic alteration, barren shoulders, D
veins provide vectors. Several aspects of hydrothermal alteration provide vectors in porphyry
exploration:
Barren shoulders develop early in the porphyry cooling history as steep dipping
ledges of structurally controlled advanced argillic alteration at depth grading to
extensive blankets of permeability controlled alteration at higher crustal levels.
Propylitic alteration may vector towards mineralisation which is likely to be hosted
within the central potassic zone.
Phyllic alteration may overprint porphyry intrusions from higher levels and is the
source of chargeability anomalies.
67. Alteration zonation
68. Propylitic alteration - Outer propylitic characterised by chlorite, carbonate, zeolites,
marginal illite-smectite alteration passes to inner propylitic characterised by epidotecarbonate and actinolite closest to the intrusion source and potassic alteration.
69. Actinolite While epidote provides a larger footprint, actinolite forms close to the
porphyry environment as a very good vector for porphyry systems. The recognition of
actinolite within a larger zone of epidote is reported to have been infuencial in the Ridgeway
discovery.
70. Magnetite in propylitic-potassic Vector propylitic alteration This propylitic alteration
characterised by strong magnetite-chlorite was used as a vector in porphyry exploration.
Potassic alteration commonly also provides magnetic anomalies.
71-72. Magnetite destruction Retrograde phyllic alteration which overprints prograde
potassic-propylitic is associated with destruction of magnetite. Consequently, the
interpretation of magnetic imagery requires an understanding of the degree of magnetite
creation/destruction. In Eastern Australia much of the magnetite is preserved and so magnetic
highs are prospective whereas in South America phyllic alteration is commonly much
stronger. As phyllic alteration commonly collapses there is a pronounced change with vertical
level. A magnetic signature above a porphyry such as Ridgeway would be a spot higher

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whereas more eroded porphyry systems, yet obscured by cover such as at Goonumbla,
provide a donut signature.
73-74. Chargeability-magnetics Whereas the sulphides within potassic alteration and
associated mineralisation provide only moderate chargeability anomalies, phyllic alteration
produces a strong chargeability anomaly with associated magnetite destruction and variable
resistivity. It is important to note chargeability anomalies do not necessarily equal
mineralisation as the phyllic alteration might be later and overprint mineralisation from a
higher crustal level. Oyu Tolgai contains 3 porphyry systems with variable geophysical
responses at varying levels of erosion, but obscured by soil cover. The southern well eroded
intrusion is characterised by prograde alteration and so displays a strong magnetic signature
and moderately strong chargeability signature, the central porphyry exhibits phyllic alteration
and so displays high chargeability and total magnetite destruction, while the buried northern
porphyry with advanced argillic alteration displays only moderate chargeability and no
magnetic signature.
75. Barren shoulders within the lithocap model Although barren themselves, higher
temperature barren shoulders developed at deeper crustal levels may vector towards a
porphyry target.
76. Different settings of advanced argillic alteration
77. Structurally controlled deep level barren shoulders of advanced argillic alteration The
silica ledges at Lookout rocks and Ekwai Debom each lie adjacent to outcropping porphyry
Cu-Au bodies and so under conditions of less erosion would have provided vectors to
mineralisation. The top of this body (Lookout 3) contained high temperature andalusite.
78. Vectors barren shoulders This is the common exploration scenario as a broad area of
permeability controlled alteration in which we might prospect for a feeder structure.
79-81. Wafi
82. Caspiche
83. D veins - D veins typically form marginal to source porphyry intrusions and provide
vectors
84. D veins Gustafson and Hunt, 1975
86-8. D vein examples
89. Quartz-sulphide Au + Cu - Low sulphidation (deep) epithermal quartz-sulphide Au + Cu
mineralisation occurs within the wallrocks overlying porphyry systems and includes the D
vein classification of Gustafson and Hunt (1975).
90. D veins with Mo Copper Hill Australia and Rawbelle Australia
91-93. Marginal Mo
94-96. Metal zonation
97. Pebble dykes Milled and transported clasts within structures above the porphyry act as
one of several vectors
98. Breccias may contain clasts or matrix from interpreted deeper mineralised intrusion
source rocks.
99. Leached cap
100. Porphyry exploration magnetite skarn
101. Target buried porphyry Cu-Au
102. This is the current trend of Pacific rim exploration as a covered target for porphyry
mineralisation in northern Chile.

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Section 9. Conclusion
Conclusion What have we learned and how can we improve exploration. First when landing
cold in any region is to know what style of mineralisation is present in order to guide the
exploration methods used, know some of the pitfalls (such as supergene enrichment) and
have an idea of the overall economics.
2. Float mapping
3. Conclusion how has this short course helped our explroation
4. Styles much of the discussion herein has been devoted to description of different styles of
Au-Ag-Cu mineralisation.
5. Low sulphidation quartz-sulphide Au + Cu Of the magmatic arc epithermal
mineralisation quartz-sulphide style is deposited first with commonly low Au grades and
locally close to the intrusion source. Coarse pyrite hosts good metallurgy Au which we must
remember is susceptible to near surficial supergene enrichment. Quenched fluids deposit fine
grained ores with poor metallurgy and are As rich. These systems vary form Au rich at high
levels to Cu-rich at depth.
6. Carbonate-base metal Au Continued fluid evolution results in the overprint of quartzsulphide by carbonate-base metal Au mineralisation as higher Au grade stockwork veins and
breccias. These are possibly the most prolific epithermal Au producers in the SW Pacific.
7 & 8. Polymetallic Ag-Au The equivalent of carbonate-base metal Au deposits in
extensional settings of Latin America are Ag rich and commonly vertically zoned within
listric faults. Although ignored by major companies for many years recent discoveries of
some deposits of this type have been company makers. Mineralisation commonly occurs in
ore shoots discernible here at Palmarejo.
9. Epithermal end member of polymetallic Ag-Au hosts highest precious metal grades and
passes to chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag with the introduction of abundant chalcedony deposited
from circulating meteoric waters. The banded chalcedony-ginguro Au-Ag are characterised
by high Ag and abundant gangue of chalcedony and local adularia or quartz after platy
calcite. These therefore dominate in extensional settings.
10. Fluid evolution to two low sulphidaiton epithermal end members - There are two low
sulphidation epithermal Au end members which host bonanza Au grades.
11. Low sulphidation epithermal quartz Au+Ag Porgera Zone VII - Magmatic arc quartzsulphide and carbonate-base metal mineralisation evolve to epithermal quartz Au+ Ag style
which hosts low Ag high fineness free Au with very low gangue. At sites such as Porgera this
mineralisation is associated with rapid thrust erosion and renewed more felsic magmatism.
12. Sediment hosted replacement gold
13. Skarn as a vector to porphyry While magnetite skarn developed in association with
porphyry Cu intrusions may host economic mineralisation in themselves, these resistant rocks
commonly provide vectors to porphyry mineralisation. Resistant skarn preserved in the float
train led to the discover of the Ok Tedi, Frieda and possibly Yandera porphyry systems in
Papua New Guinea. Skarn was mined first at Erstberg leading to the eventual discovery of
Grasberg and the presence of magnetite skarn at Cadia, Kainantu and Woodlark indicated to
explorers the regions held porphyry-epithermal potential.
14. Vectors to porphyry deposits
15. Fluid evolution and levels in porphyry system Porphyry Cu formation features the
evolution of ore fluids from low grade source rocks at depth to concentrate in stockwork
veins commonly in the upper portion of the intrusion. Wall rock hosted sheeted display lower
metal grades and marginal D veins may vector towards mineralisation.
16. Controsl to porphyry Cu-Au-Mo mineralisation
17. Elevated metals due to acid overprint on a porphyry

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In the model for the staged development of porphyry Cu-Au alteration and mineralisation we
see the importance of overprinting alteration events which provide an end result and gain a
sense of the 3 dimensional view such that marginal D veins might act as vectors.
18. Staged model for porphyry evolution
19. Magnetite and pyrite Magnetite and some pyrite may be introduced during prograde
potassic-propylitic alteration and magnetite is destroyed with substantial pyrite introduction
during retrograde phyllic-argillic alteration.
20. Prospecting porphyries Magnetic and electrical geophysical signatures vary
significantly with prograde and retrograde alteration and erosional level and so we need to
understand the geology in order to interpret the geophysics.
21. Metal zonation
22. Marginal Mo
23. Exploration tools Structure Many epithermal ore systems host most ore within ore
shoots controlled by:
Structure,
Lithology as brittle for low sulphidation veins and permeable for high sulphidation,
Style of mineralisation and
Mechanism of Au deposition.
24. Ore settings and breccia types
25. Exploration tools hydrothermal alteration - Analysis of hydrothermal alteration using the
pH vs temperature figure allows the categorisation of styles of alteration and estimation of
fluid flow paths.
26. Mixing of rising ore fluids with near surficial oxidising groundwaters provides an Au
superior mechanism of Au deposition and therefore elevated Au grades. Carbonate-base
metal Au deposits form by the mixing of ore fluids with bicarbonate waters evidenced by
rhodochrosite.
27. Lithocaps Lithocaps comprise several different styles of acid alteration with different
implications for exploration. Poorly understood lithocaps consume considerable exploration
funds.
28. High sulphidation epithermal Au mineralisation is deposited from a hot acidic fluid which
displays different permeability fluid controls and forms a characteristic zoned hydrothermal
alteration centred by vughy residual silica which is overprinted by enargite with gangue of
alunite-barite. Increasing examples are emerging of high sulphidation emerging to lower
sulphidation with higher Au grades and improved metallurgy.
29. Zoned advanced argillic alteration in high sulphidation epithermal Au 30 Steam heated alteration 31-32. Zonation in low sulphidation epithermal - Geochemistry, wall rock alteration and the
importance of above mineralisation features such as acid sulphate caps.
33. Discovery by understanding lithocaps At Guadalupe, Palmarejo Mexico Bolnisi using
the models delineated herein identified quality Au-Ag mineralisation below an essentially
barren acid sulphate cap. At Quimsacocha the high sulphidation epithermal mineralisation
was discovered by drill hole 136 below the a steam heated alteration zone. The geological
models delineated herein are designed to aid the rapid discovery of resources.
34. Settings of advanced argillic alteration including lithocaps
35. Wafi A 1989 model to text below the low Au grade poor metallurgy high sulphdiation
epithermal for a possible higher grade El Indio style feeder identified the porphyry.
36. In exploration
37. Go to it yourselves
38. Model