Glass working on the

margins of Roman London

Excavations at 35 Basinghall Street,
City of London, 2005
Angela Wardle with Ian Freestone, Malcolm McKenzie and John Shepherd

M U S E U M O F LO N D O N A R C H A E O LO GY M O N O G R A P H 7 0

MOLA

Glass working on the margins of

Roman London
Excavations at 35 Basinghall Street,
City of London, 2005

MOLA Monograph Series

36 The London Guildhall: an archaeological history of a neighbourhood from early

medieval to modern times

For more information about these titles and other MOLA publications visit the
publications page at www.mola.org.uk

37 Roman London and the Walbrook stream crossing: excavations at 1 Poultry and
vicinity, City of London

1 Excavations at the priory and hospital of St Mary Spital, London

38 The development of early medieval and later Poultry and Cheapside: excavations at
1 Poultry and vicinity, City of London

2 The National Roman Fabric Reference Collection: a handbook

39 Burial at the site of the parish church of St Benet Sherehog before and after the Great
Fire: excavations at 1 Poultry, City of London

3 The Cross Bones burial ground, Redcross Way, Southwark, London: archaeological
excavations (19918) for the London Underground Limited Jubilee Line Extension Project

40 Londons delftware industry: the tin-glazed pottery industries of Southwark and Lambeth

4 The eastern cemetery of Roman London: excavations 198390

5 The Holocene evolution of the London Thames: archaeological excavations (19918) for
the London Underground Limited Jubilee Line Extension Project
6 The Limehouse porcelain manufactory: excavations at 108116 Narrow Street, London,
1990
7 Roman defences and medieval industry: excavations at Baltic House, City of London

41 Early and Middle Saxon rural settlement in the London region

42 Roman Southwark settlement and economy: excavations in Southwark 197391
43 The Black Death cemetery, East Smithfield, London
44 The Cistercian abbey of St Mary Graces, East Smithfield, London
45 The Royal Navy victualling yard, East Smithfield, London

8 London bridge: 2000 years of a river crossing

46 St Marylebone church and burial ground in the 18th to 19th centuries: excavations at
St Marylebone school, 1992 and 20046

9 Roman and medieval townhouses on the London waterfront: excavations at Governors

House, City of London

47 Great houses, moats and mills on the south bank of the Thames: medieval and Tudor
Southwark and Rotherhithe

10 The London Charterhouse

48 The Rose and the Globe playhouses of Shakespeares Bankside, Southwark:

excavations 198891

11 Medieval Westminster floor tiles

12 Settlement in Roman Southwark: archaeological excavations (19918) for the London
Underground Limited Jubilee Line Extension Project
13 Aspects of medieval and later Southwark: archaeological excavations (19918) for the
London Underground Limited Jubilee Line Extension Project
14 The prehistory and topography of Southwark and Lambeth
15 Middle Saxon London: excavations at the Royal Opera House 198999
16 Urban development in north-west Roman Southwark: excavations 197490

49 A dated type series of London medieval pottery: Part 5, Shelly-sandy ware and the
greyware industries
50 The Cluniac priory and abbey of St Saviour Bermondsey, Surrey: excavations 198495
51 Three Ways Wharf, Uxbridge: a Lateglacial and Early Holocene hunter-gatherer site in
the Colne valley
52 The impact of the railways in the East End 18302010: historical archaeology from the
London Overground East London line

17 Industry in north-west Roman Southwark: excavations 19848

53 Holywell Priory and the development of Shoreditch up to 1600: archaeology from the
London Overground East London line

18 The Cistercian abbey of St Mary Stratford Langthorne, Essex: archaeological

excavations for the London Underground Limited Jubilee Line Extension Project

54 Archaeological landscapes of east London: six multi-period sites excavated in advance of

gravel quarrying in the London Borough of Havering

19 Material culture in London in an age of transition: Tudor and Stuart period finds
c 1450c 1700 from excavations at riverside sites in Southwark

55 Mapping past landscapes in the lower Lea valley: a geoarchaeological study of the
Quaternary sequence

20 Excavations at the priory of the Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem,

Clerkenwell, London

56 Disease in London, 1st19th centuries: an illustrated guide to diagnosis

21 Roman and medieval Cripplegate, City of London: archaeological excavations 19928

22 The royal palace, abbey and town of Westminster on Thorney Island: archaeological
excavations (19918) for the London Underground Limited Jubilee Line Extension Project
23 A prestigious Roman building complex on the Southwark waterfront: excavations at
Winchester Palace, London, 198390
24 Holy Trinity Priory, Aldgate, City of London: an archaeological reconstruction and
history
25 Roman pottery production in the Walbrook valley: excavations at 2028 Moorgate,
City of London, 19982000
26 Prehistoric landscape to Roman villa: excavations at Beddington, Surrey, 19817
27 Saxon, medieval and post-medieval settlement at Sol Central, Marefair, Northampton:
archaeological excavations 19982002
28 John Bakers late 17th-century glasshouse at Vauxhall
29 The medieval postern gate by the Tower of London
30 Roman and later development east of the forum and Cornhill: excavations at Lloyds
Register, 71 Fenchurch Street, City of London
31 Winchester Palace: excavations at the Southwark residence of the bishops of Winchester
32 Development on Roman Londons western hill: excavations at Paternoster Square, City
of London
33 Within these walls: Roman and medieval defences north of Newgate at the Merrill
Lynch Financial Centre, City of London
34 The Augustinian priory of St Mary Merton, Surrey: excavations 197690
35 Londons Roman amphitheatre: excavations at the Guildhall

57 The Augustinian nunnery of St Mary Clerkenwell, London: excavations 197496

58 The northern cemetery of Roman London: excavations at Spitalfields Market, London
E1, 19912007
59 The medieval priory and hospital of St Mary Spital and the Bishopsgate suburb:
excavations at Spitalfields Market, London E1, 19912007
60 A bioarchaeological study of medieval burials on the site of St Mary Spital: excavations
at Spitalfields Market, London E1, 19912007
61 The Spitalfields suburb 15391860: excavations at Spitalfields Market, London E1,
19912007
62 Doctors, dissection and resurrection men: excavations in the 19th-century burial ground
of the London Hospital, 2006
63 Lundenwic: excavations in Middle Saxon London, 19872000
64 He being dead yet speaketh: excavations at three post-medieval burial grounds in
Tower Hamlets, east London, 200410
65 Roman fortifications and urban development on the eastern hill: excavations at
Plantation Place, City of London, 19972003
66 Medieval to early post-medieval tenements and Middle Eastern imports: excavations at
Plantation Place, City of London, 19972003
67 Romano-British round houses to medieval parish: excavations at 10 Gresham Street,
City of London, 19992002
68 The evolution and exploitation of the Avon flood plain at Bath and the development of
the southern suburb: excavations at SouthGate, Bath, 20069
69 The upper Walbrook valley cemetery of Roman London: excavations at Finsbury
Circus, City of London, 19872007
70 Glass working on the margins of Roman London: excavations at 35 Basinghall Street,
City of London, 2005

Glass working on the

margins of Roman London
Excavations at 35 Basinghall Street,
City of London, 2005

Angela Wardle with Ian Freestone,

Malcolm McKenzie and John Shepherd

MOLA MONOGRAPH 70

Published by MOLA (Museum of London Archaeology)

Copyright MOLA 2015

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission
of the copyright owner.
The Ordnance Survey mapping included in this publication is
Crown copyright 2015, Ordnance Survey 100049883. All rights reserved.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Production and series design by Tracy Wellman

Typesetting and design by Sue Cawood
Reprographics by Andy Chopping
Copy editing by Wendy Sherlock
Series editing by Sue Hirst/Susan M Wright
Printed in the United Kingdom by Henry Ling Ltd
at the Dorset Press, an ISO 14001 certified printer

Front cover: a glass trail formed on a gather during experimental glass working
(Fig 56) (not to scale)

CONTRIBUTORS

Principal authors

Angela Wardle with Malcolm

McKenzie and John Shepherd

Building material

Ian M Betts

Clay slabs

Angela Wardle

Pottery

Joanna Bird, Kay Hartley, Beth

Richardson

Ceramic industrial
vessels

Ian Freestone, Beth Richardson

Glass

John Shepherd, Angela Wardle

Glass analysis

Ian Freestone, Marcus Gutjahr,

Jerzy Kunicki-Goldfinger, Iain
McDonald, Alaistair Pike

Accessioned finds

Angela Wardle

Plant remains

John Giorgi

Animal bone

Alan Pipe

Human bone

Natasha Powers

Graphics

Carlos Lemos (plans), Hannah Faux,

Sandra Rowntree, Daniel Bashford
(finds)

Site photography

Maggie Cox, Malcolm McKenzie

Studio photography

Andy Chopping, Maggie Cox,

Edwin Baker

Project managers

David Bowsher (post-excavation),

Sophie Jackson (fieldwork)

Editor

Sue Hirst

CONTENTS

List of figures

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of tables

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xiv

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xv

Summary

Acknowledgements

Introduction

The archaeological sequence

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xi

xvi

1.1

Location and circumstances of the excavation

. . . . .

1.2

History of the site and the surrounding area

. . . . .

1.3

Roman glass and recycling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Aims and objectives

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

Organisation of the report

1.6

Textual and graphical conventions

. . . . . . . . . . .

2.1

Pre-Roman topography (period 1)

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Natural geology and topography

2.2

Brickearth extraction, external activity and initial

occupation, c AD 110/12040 (period 2)
Summary

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Initial clearance and activity (OA2)

. . . . . . . . . . .

The earliest buildings (B1, B2, S4 and OA3)

. . . . . .

10
12

The northern property boundary (S1) and other

features in the northern area

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The southern property boundary (S3 and S7)

. . . . .

Evidence for nature and development of the area

2.3

Summary

15

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

. . . . . . .

15

. . . . . . . .

17

. . . . . . . . .

18

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

A new western building (B3, S8 and S9)

Other new buildings (B4, B5 and S10)
Pitting in the south-east (OA6)

The departure of the glassworkers, c AD 160/17080

(period 4)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21

The western area (OA7)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A new southern property boundary (S11)

The recutting of the western ditch (S13)

24

. . . . . . . .

24

. . . . . .

25

. . . . . . .

28

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

28

Further property divisions (S12 and S19) .

Light industrial activity (OA9)
Empty land and wells (OA10)

21

. . . . . . .

The abandonment of the workshop (OA8) .

Abandonment and plans for the future, c AD 180400

(period 5)

vi

15

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Levelling of the period 2 buildings (OA5)

2.5

14

Redevelopment and the arrival of the glassworkers,

c AD 14060/70 (period 3)

2.4

. . .

13

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Late activity on the site (S14, S15 and OA11)

Work in the margins the glass-working waste

. . . . .

31

. . . . . . .

34

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

2.6

Material culture at Basinghall and beyond

3.1

Introduction

from Basinghall Street

Distribution and dating

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

36

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

3.2

Methodology

3.3

The glass-working furnace

Furnace structure

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

37

Kiln furniture and waste associated with glass working

39

. . . . . . . . . .

41

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

3.4

The raw materials used at Basinghall

3.5

Preparation of the raw glass

Cullet

Cullet preparation
Tank metal

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

42

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

43

3.6

Charging the furnace

3.7

Heating of glass within the tank

3.8

Testing viscosity and quality of glass

3.9

Removal of the gather on hollow blowpipe

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 Blowing vessel on iron

49

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

50

. . . . . . . . . . .

51

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

51

. . . . .

53

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

54

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

62

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

64

Introduction and methodology

Typology
Discussion
Colour

3.15 Empontilling

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.17 Annealing

68

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

3.18 Wasters: what were they making?

3.19 The scale of production

. . . . . . . . . . .

69

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

72

3.20 Tools of the Roman glass-blower

. . . . . . . . . . .

73

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

Blowing iron
Pontil rod .

glass from the workshop at 35 Basinghall Street

4.2

65

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.16 Attachment of handles

4 4.1

47

. . . . . . . . .

3.13 Removal of the vessel from the blowing iron

Composition, technology and origin of the

46

48

3.12 Manipulation on the blowing iron

Tooled waste

. . . . . . . . .

45

. . . . . .

3.10 Shaping the gather on a marver stone

3.14 Moils

30

Tongs/pincers

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73

Wooden tools

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

75

Introduction

Methods of analysis

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76
vii

Major element analysis

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76

Trace element analysis

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

77

Isotope analysis
4.3

Samples analysed

4.4

Composition and colour

4.5

Colourless glass and decolorisation

4.6

Weakly coloured glasses and the main furnace

production

4.7

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recycling, campaigns and batches

Colourless glass

82

83

. . . . . . . . . . .

85

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

86

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

89

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

91

5.1

Introduction

5.2

2nd-century AD glass working in the north-western

provinces

87

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Concluding remarks

80

Synthesis: the life of the 35 Basinghall Street

glass workshop

The Basinghall glass in context

78

Origins of the glass: isotopic composition and rare

Weakly coloured glasses

4.9

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

earth elements
4.8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Furnace and waste sites (type A)

. . . . . . . . . . . .

92
92

Redeposited furnace fragments found with glassworking debris, but no in situ furnaces (type B)

. . . .

95

. . . . . . . .

96

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

96

Glass assemblages containing mainly vessel and

waste fragments (?cullet dumps, type C)
Discussion
5.3

Basinghall and glass working in London

. . . . . . . .

Glass working in 1st-century AD Londinium

. . . . .

97
97

Early 2nd-century AD glass working in the Fleet

valley

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Glass-working sites in the upper Walbrook valley

. .

The upper Walbrook valley in the 2nd century AD

99
100

101

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

102

The character of glass working in the upper

Walbrook valley

The procurement of cullet

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The end of glass working in Londinium

Specialist appendices

. . . . . . .

106

5.4

Concluding discussion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

107

6.1

The building material

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111

Introduction

Roman ceramic building material

Daub, fired clay, mud brick
viii

105

. . . . . . . . . . .

111

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

113

Roman painted wall plaster

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

113

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

114

The clay slab

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

115

Introduction

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

115

Description

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

115

The bosses

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

117

Stone building material

6.2

Reconstruction
Function
6.3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

117

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

117

The Roman pottery

Introduction

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

118

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

118

The oxidised dishes

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Evidence for pottery manufacture

6.4

118

. . . . . . . . . .

120

The pottery from period 2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

120

The pottery from period 3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

123

The pottery from period 4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

125

. . . . . . . .

127

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

127

The industrial vessels with red deposits

The ceramics

Analysis of the industrial vessel sherds from

35 Basinghall Street
Conclusion
6.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

129

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

131

The decorated samian

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

131

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

131

. . . . . . .

131

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

133

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

133

Catalogue of selected decorated samian .

6.6

The stamped mortaria

Catalogue

6.7

The vessel glass

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Catalogue of vessel glass from periods 2 and 3

. . . .

137
138

Catalogue of the vessel glass from the cullet dumps

and associated contexts
6.8

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

138

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

144

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

144

Summary

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

144

Catalogue

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

145

The accessioned finds

Introduction

6.9

The plant remains

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction and methodology

Diet

147

. . . . . . . . . . . .

147

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

150

The local environment

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

151

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

152

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

152

6.10 The animal bone

Methodology

Preservation and quantification

Faunal composition

. . . . . . . . . . . .

152

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154

Exploitation of wild species

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154
ix

6.11 The human bone

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154

Methods
Results

Discussion

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154

Conclusions

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

154

French and German summaries

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

156

Bibliography

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

159

Index

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

166

FIGURES

Fig 27
Fig 28
Fig 29
Fig 30

Fig 1
Fig 2

Fig 3

Fig 4
Fig 5
Fig 6
Fig 7
Fig 8
Fig 9
Fig 10
Fig 11
Fig 12
Fig 13

Fig 14
Fig 15
Fig 16
Fig 17
Fig 18
Fig 19
Fig 20
Fig 21
Fig 22
Fig 23
Fig 24
Fig 25
Fig 26

Map showing site location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Detail of the site comprising 35 Basinghall Street
(BAZ05) and 16 Coleman Street (COA86) showing
excavation areas (AE) and trenches (tr AI/1tr AI/6) . 3
View of the site under excavation, with trenches in
the basement (area C) and machine clearance of the
car park (area A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Map showing the site in relation to the major features
of Roman London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Experimental glass furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Graphical conventions used in this report . . . . . . . 7
35 Basinghall Street, the Walbrook stream system
and the sites in the vicinity mentioned in the text . . 9
Artists impression of Roman London in the early
2nd century AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Excavation of Roman levels showing the late Roman
ditch (S14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Vessel glass <G138> and <G140>, from period 2
contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Principal archaeological features, c AD 110/12040
(period 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Early 2nd-century AD pottery being excavated from
the eastern ditch (S1) segment, trench AI/3 . . . . . . 13
Glass melon bead <S6>, copper-alloy flask <S11>,
shale tray <S12> and ceramic lamp <S13>, of 1st-/
2nd-century AD date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Ceramic storage jar from context [1289] set into the
ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Opaque red glass bowl <G139> . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Pottery group from pit [1400] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Principal archaeological features, c AD 14060/70
(period 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Shale bracelet <S8> and ceramic Venus figurine
<S20>, associated with Building 5 . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Kiln pit [1283] in Open Area 6 containing clay slabs . 20
Clay bosses <T21> and <T25> from Open Area 6 . . 21
Principal archaeological features, c AD 160/17080
(period 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Copper-alloy trumpet brooch <S2> from Open
Area 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Infant burial from Open Area 7, with detail of lead
circlet <S10> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Large fragment of solidified molten glass <G7> from
pit [1778] under excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Marble inlay <S22> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Glass <S3> and bone <S4> hairpins, ceramic lamp
<S14>, lead-alloy spoon <S17>, copper-alloy lock
bolt <S18> and ceramic counter <S19>, from Open

Fig 31

Fig 32
Fig 33
Fig 34
Fig 35
Fig 36
Fig 37
Fig 38
Fig 39
Fig 40
Fig 41
Fig 42
Fig 43
Fig 44
Fig 45
Fig 46
Fig 47
Fig 48
Fig 49
Fig 50
Fig 51
Fig 52
Fig 53
Fig 54
Fig 55
Fig 56
Fig 57
Fig 58
Fig 59
Fig 60
Fig 61

Area 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Industrial vessel sherds with red silt and glassy
deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principal archaeological features, c AD 160/17080+
(period 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber-lined well [891] in Open Area 10 . . . . . . .
Principal archaeological features, c AD 180400
(period 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shale bracelet <S9> and ceramic lamp <S15>, from
Structure 14, and copper-alloy spoon <S16>, from
Open Area 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Well cutting Structure 14 in Open Area 11 . . . . . .
Gold and emerald pendant <S1> from Open Area 11 .
Iron tongs or pincers <S24>, from 5561 Moorgate/
7579 Coleman Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two views of a fragment from the base of a glassworking furnace found at 2028 Moorgate . . . . .
Reconstruction of a tank furnace based upon
archaeological evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fragments of kiln structure <T1><T4> . . . . . . .
Modern experimental furnace showing the inspection
hole, sealed with a fired clay plug . . . . . . . . . . .
Fired clay plugs <T5><T8> . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fired clay rings <T9><T13> . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Naturally coloured green-blue vessel glass from
context [1710] (OA8, period 4) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Colourless vessel glass from context [1710] (OA8,
period 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fused window glass <G1>, fused bottle glass <G2>
and window glass with mortar adhering <G3> . . . .
Large lumps of tank metal <G4> and <G5> . . . . . .
Large lump of tank metal <G7> in situ in pit [1778]
(OA8, period 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tank metal fragments <G8><G13> . . . . . . . . . .
Fragments of crushed cullet <G14> and <G15> . . . .
Spherical, <G16>, colourless, <G17>, and flattened,
<G18>, glass droplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glass runnels, flows and droplets <G19> . . . . . . .
Glass flows <G20> and <G21> which have cooled on
a flat surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bicoloured glass droplet or runnel <G22> . . . . . . .
Threads <G23> of glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flat trails <G24> of glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Opaque cake fragments <G25> and <G26> of glass .
Gather <G27> of glass showing the impression of
the blowing iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trails formed on a gather during experimental glass
working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Glass gathers <G28><G30> . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Excess gathers <G31> and <G32> of glass . . . . . . .
Gather being rolled on a marver stone during
experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Marble inlay <S23>, possibly a fragment from a
marver stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The first inflation to make the paraison, during
experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26
27
29
29
30

32
33
33
35
38
38
38
40
40
41
42
43
43
44
44
45
45
46
46
46
47
47
48
48
48
49
49
49
49
50
50
xi

Fig 62 Extending and inflating the paraison, during

experimental work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Fig 63 Failed ?paraison <G33> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig 64 Trailed decoration applied to the body of a vessel
while on the blowing iron, during experimental
work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig 65 Pulled and clipped trail <G34> of glass . . . . . . . . 51
Fig 66 Clipped trails <G35> of glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Fig 67 Pulled trails <G36> and <G37> of glass . . . . . . . . 51
Fig 68 Cleaning the gather in a modern experimental
workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig 69 Selection of small glass fragments, <G38>, resulting
from the cleaning of the gather . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Fig 70 Tooled waste <G39> and <G40>, created during the
removal of stones from the gather . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Fig 71 Tooled waste <G41> and <G42>, showing pincer
marks made when removing particles from the
gather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Fig 72 Removal of vessel from blowing iron by using a
wooden stick to drip water on to vessel, during
experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig 73 Moil <G61>, with crizzle spot and step . . . . . . . . 54
Fig 74 Vessel on blowing iron placed on a wooden stand,
during experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Fig 75 Diagram of a moil, showing the parameters
measured . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Fig 76 Type 1 moils <G43><G47> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Fig 77 Type 2 moils <G48><G64> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Fig 78 Type 3 moils <G65><G85> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Fig 79 Type 4 moil wraps <G86> and <G87> in green-blue
glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Fig 80 Type 4 moil wrap <G88> in dark blue glass . . . . . 60
Fig 81 A selection of crizzled fragments from context
[1710] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig 82 Moil and moil wrap fragments splintered from the
cooling blowing iron during experimental work . . 61
Fig 83 Tooled moils <G89> and <G90> . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig 84 Lid moil created by a modern glass-blower during
the making of a mould-blown beaker . . . . . . . . . 62
Fig 85 Type 5 lid moils <G91><G96> in colourless glass . 63
Fig 86 Long moils <G48>, <G49>, <G69> and <G70> . . . . 64
Fig 87 Short moils <G60><G62> and<G80> . . . . . . . . 64
Fig 88 Moils showing the range of different colours from
the 35 Basinghall Street glass assemblage . . . . . . . 64
Fig 89 Pontil scars made by a circular moil and a tooled
moil during experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fig 90 Moils used as pontils in experimental work . . . . . 66
Fig 91 Waster <G97>, vessel base with pontil pad attached . 66
Fig 92 Pontil pads <G98><G106> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fig 93 Reheated moils <G107><G113>, showing scarring
on the upper surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Fig 94 Tricorn moil from Guildhall Yard (GYE92, <12131>)
and tooled moil <G114> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fig 95 Attaching a handle, during experimental work . . . . 68
Fig 96 A selection of trails and threads from processes such
as adding handles or trailed decoration . . . . . . . . 68
xii

Fig 97 Tooled waste <G115><G117> from the attachment

of handles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 98 Rim wasters from jars <G118><G121>, flasks
<G122><G125>, phial <G126> and unknown form
<G127> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 99 Wasters of jug handles <G128><G130>, bases
<G131> and <G132> and body fragments <G133> . .
Fig 100 Waster fragments of bubbly glass <G134>, bottle
handle <G135>, small bottle or flask rim <G136>
and bicoloured jar or bowl rim <G137> . . . . . . . .
Fig 101 A Roman oil lamp showing glassworkers around a
furnace, from kolarice-Kriie, Slovenia . . . . . .
Fig 102 A vessel attached to the blowing
c iron during
experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 103 Vessel in wooden cradle, attached to pontil rod
during experimental work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 104 Wooden tools used by experimental glass-blowers .
Fig 105 Salts forming around the edge of a soda lake in the
Nile delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 106 Lime versus soda by weight percentage for
colourless and weakly coloured green-blue glasses
from 35 Basinghall Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 107 Antimony and manganese oxide contents by weight
percentage in glass from 35 Basinghall Street . . . . .
Fig 108 Lime versus alumina by weight percentage for
colourless and weakly coloured green-blue glasses
from 35 Basinghall Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 109 Titanium and iron oxide contents by weight
percentage in weakly coloured and colourless glasses
from 35 Basinghall Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 110 Barium versus strontium in parts per million in
weakly coloured and colourless glasses from
35 Basinghall Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 111 Lime versus soda by weight percentage for large
masses of glass <G4><G7> related to the furnace . .
Fig 112 Lime versus soda by weight percentage for large
furnace blocks <G4><G7>, naturally coloured
moils and wasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 113 Neodymium and strontium isotope results for glasses
from the workshop at 35 Basinghall Street . . . . . .
Fig 114 Neodymium and strontium isotope data for greenblue and colourless glasses from 35 Basinghall
Street, other sites in London and the Jerusalem
workshop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 115 Rare earth element distributions for the three glass
groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 116 Lead and tin contents in parts per million of green
and green-blue glasses and colourless cullet . . . . . .
Fig 117 Manganese versus calcium oxide contents by weight
percentage for colourless glass, showing probable
mixing of manganese- and antimony-decolorised
glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fig 118 Phosphorus versus manganese oxide contents by
weight percentage, showing very low concentrations
in antimony colourless moils and some cullet
fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69

70
70

71
72
73
74
74
76

80
80

81

81

81
82

82
83

84
85
86

87

87

Fig 119 Chlorine versus sulphur trioxide by weight

percentage in manganese colourless moils, showing
the possible existence of two groups . . . . . . . . . 87
Fig 120 British and Continental Roman glass-working sites . 93
Fig 121 Map showing sites with evidence for glass working
in Roman London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig 122 Glass beads <2229> [9725] from 212 Gresham
Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Fig 123 Twisted glass rods from 39, 4046 King William
Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig 124 Modern bottle bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig 125 Detail of Roman cullet from 35 Basinghall Street . 103
Fig 126 Lydion brick and tile fragment from 5561 Moorgate/
7579 Coleman Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fig 127 Sorting and washing some of the glass cullet found
at Guildhall Yard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Fig 128 Moils from 35 Basinghall Street . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig 129 Artists impression of Roman London in the 3rd
century AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fig 130 A selection of 1st- and 2nd-century AD glass from
Roman London in the Museum of London . . . . 108
Fig 131 Experimental glass working in a reconstructed
Roman glass furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Fig 132 Roofing tile, complete imbrex <T14> and complete
tegula <T15>, and chimney fragment <T16> . . . . 112
Fig 133 Combed keying on daub clay slab <T17> and shaped
daub <T18> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Fig 134 Painted wall plaster dado fragments, <T19>, with
imitation breccia design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fig 135 Fragment of clay slab <T20>, with finger marks
and luting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig 136 Fired clay bosses <T21><T24> . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig 137 Fired clay bosses <T25><T27> . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Fig 138 Reconstruction of a clay slab . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Fig 139 Group of oxidised dishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Fig 140 Pottery vessels <P1><P12> from Structure 1 . . . 121
Fig 141 Pottery vessels <P13><P15> from dumped deposit
[1386] in Open Area 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fig 142 Pottery vessels <P16><P19> from levelling deposit
contexts [1340] and [1912] in Open Area 2 . . . . . 122
Fig 143 Pottery vessels <P20><P27> from pit fill [1399] in
Open Area 5 and <P28> from [1732] in Building 5 . 123

Fig 144 Pottery vessels <P29><P35> from Open Area 6 . . 124

Fig 145 Pottery vessels <P36><P44> from ditch fills [2168]
and [2210] of Structure 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Fig 146 Pottery vessels <P45><P48> from Open Area 7 . . 126
Fig 147 Pottery vessels <P49><P54> from pit fill [1667] in
Open Area 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig 148 Two unusual Baetican vessels <P55> and <P56> from
Open Area 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Fig 149 Industrial vessels <P57><P62> . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig 150 Sherds <2154> (ad) from pit fill [930], with vitrified
and/or red silty deposits on external and internal
surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig 151 Deposits of soda-lime-silica glass and potash glass in
or on the red deposits of sherds <2154> from pit fill
[930] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig 152 Photomicrographs of thin-section samples of sherd
BAS 3 under polarised light . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fig 153 Photomicrograph of thin-section sample BAS 3
showing vitrification and bloating . . . . . . . . . . 130
Fig 154 Samian Dragendorff form 37 bowl <DS6> in the
style of X-12 of Les Martres-de-Veyre . . . . . . . 132
Fig 155 Stamped mortaria <MS1>, <MS4>, <MS5>, <MS7>,
<MS8>, <MS11><MS13> and <MS15> . . . . . . . 134
Fig 156 Cast glass bowls <G141> and <G142> . . . . . . . . 140
Fig 157 Free-blown monochrome jar <G143> and bowl base
<G144> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig 158 Colourless drinking vessels <G145><G153> . . . . 141
Fig 159 Free-blown colourless bowls <G154><G156>, dish
or platter <G157>, jar <G158> and bowl or cup
body fragment <G159> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Fig 160 Free-blown naturally coloured beaker <G160>,
beaker or bowl base <G161>, bowls <G162><G167>
and platter <G168> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Fig 161 Free-blown naturally coloured jug body fragment
<G169>, jug handles <G170><G177>, jug or jar
bases <G178> and <G179>, jar rims <G180><G185>,
jar or phial <G186> and lid <G187> . . . . . . . . . 143
Fig 162 Free-blown naturally coloured flasks or jars <G188>
and <G189>, unguent bottle <G190>, phials
<G191><G194> and bath flask handles <G195> and
<G196> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Fig 163 Lead strip <S21> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

xiii

TABLES

Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15

Table 1

Fragments of furnace structure by count, weight

and length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Table 2 Moil types 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Table 3 Quantification of the colour of moil and wrap
fragments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table 4 Quantification of the colour of cullet fragments
by weight and weight percentage . . . . . . . . . . 65
Table 5 Summary of identifiable waster fragments . . . . . 71
Table 6 Average compositions of naturally coloured glass
fragments, by weight percentage . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 7 Average compositions of unshaped glass lumps
and glass from the furnace, by weight percentage . 79
Table 8 Average compositions of colourless glass samples,
by weight percentage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 9 Details of illustrated building material <T14>
<T19> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Table 10 Complete and near-complete roof tiles from
Roman (periods 4 and 5) and post-Roman

xiv

Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
Table 19
Table 20

Table 21
Table 22

Table 23

contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Distribution of clay slab fragments . . . . . . . .
Details of illustrated clay slab <T20><T27> . . .
Clay slab quantified by fabric group (AD, U) and
form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Details of the illustrated Roman pottery <P1>
<P56> . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vessel glass from periods 25 summarised by
colour, quantified by accession numbers . . . . .
Vessel glass from periods 25 summarised by
form, quantified by accession numbers . . . . . .
Summary of the identified Roman finds by
functional group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The plant remains from periods 2 and 3 . . . . .
The plant remains from periods 4 and 5 . . . . .
Hand-collected animal bone from 35 Basinghall
Street, fragment counts for selected Roman
contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand-collected animal bone from 35 Basinghall
Street, summary of selected Roman contexts . .
Dental eruption and wear evidence from
35 Basinghall Street, age estimates for selected
Roman contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of the human remains, including
minimum number of individuals, from
35 Basinghall Street . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

112
115
115
116
119
137
138
145
147
149

152
152

153

155

SUMMARY

Excavations at 35 Basinghall Street, City of London, recovered

important new evidence for the glass-working industry in
Roman London, with the discovery of over 70kg of broken
vessel glass and production waste thought to be from a workshop
located in the immediate area. Detailed study of this waste has
provided new insights into the workings of the industry and its
craftsmen, and has shed further light on a marginal area of
Roman London.
The site was located in the upper Walbrook valley in the
north-western part of the city, which remained undeveloped
until the Flavian building programme of the late 1st/2nd century
AD. This saw the development of the amphitheatre to the south
of the site, the construction of the Cripplegate fort and attempts
at management and reclamation of the valley. In period 2 (c AD
110/12040) the open space was used as a source of building
material, perhaps for properties along the nearby road leading
out of the eastern gate of the fort, and for occasional waste
disposal. Following initial quarrying (OA2), two buildings (B1,
B2) were constructed and excavations revealed evidence for
property divisions and possible enclosures (S1S3, S7) which,
along with other structures (S4) and occupation (OA3), help to
characterise the nature of the occupation.
After the demolition of the first buildings, Buildings 3, 4 and
5 were constructed in the mid 2nd century AD (period 3, AD
14060/70). The last two, which were separated from Building
3 by a boundary ditch (S9), may have been associated with the
glass-working industry. Quantities of diagnostic glass-working
waste, which included tank metal from a furnace and moils
(residue from the production of blown vessels, confirming the
presence of contemporary glass-blowers), were recovered from
pits in the south-east corner (OA6) of the site. This is likely to
have been close to the working area which is presumed to have
been further south, beyond the limits of the excavation. These
pits, dated to the mid 2nd century AD by pottery from the nearby
Moorgate kilns, also contained large quantities of clay slab, with
distinctive bosses, the function of which remains obscure.
In period 4 (AD 160/17080), a boundary ditch to the west
was recut (S13), indicating maintenance of that particular
property division, while further to the east other ditch fragments
(S11, S12, S19) indicate the break-up and reorganisation of what
had previously been considered a single property into new land
divisions. These included quarrying and the inhumation of an
infant to the west (OA7), and the disposal of a huge amount of
glass-working waste (over 70kg), thought to represent the

abandonment of a glass-blowing workshop, in the area (OA8)

earlier associated with the industry. Other land uses included
light industry (OA9; OA10) and an area of empty land, possibly
for pasture.
Little activity was recorded on the site after the end of the
2nd century AD (period 5, c AD 180400), indicating a period
of abandonment after the occupation of the glassworkers. By
the 3rd century AD, the area in the vicinity of the site had
reverted to open land, demonstrated by the formation of peaty
organic deposits on some areas of the site suggesting the absence
of occupation. Attempts at drainage, with the digging of a large
ditch (S14) suggest that the area was not completely abandoned,
but the presence of a possibly late recut (S15) of a meandering
tributary of the Walbrook system points to the complete
abandonment of the area by the 4th century AD.
Comparison of the general finds assemblage from 35
Basinghall Street with other sites nearby emphasises the marginal
character of the area, frequently used for the dumping of
rubbish with waste from the various local industries. The
comprehensive nature of the glass-working waste has made it
possible to study the various processes from the furnace
structure and kiln furniture, to preparation of the raw (cullet
broken vessel and window glass) material and finishing of the
vessel. Discussion incorporates comparative evidence and
experimental work and includes an illustrated catalogue of the
glass-working waste. The study includes discussion of the
exceptional assemblage of moils.
The application of scientific analysis has produced a picture
of a complex glass-working operation, with the identification
of three fundamental types of glass: green-blue glass, colourless
glass decolorised by antimony and colourless glass decolorised
by manganese. All the glass originated ultimately in the eastern
Mediterranean and it appears that some of the glass from the
site arrived as pristine raw glass chunks, but was supplemented
by cullet collected locally. At least two melts of green-blue glass
were identified, but the furnace began to leak and failed, leading
to the slow cooling and partial devitrification of the glass in the
tank and abandonment of the remaining waste, normally
recycled by the peripatetic glass-blowers.
The Basinghall assemblage is discussed in the context of the
glass industry in the Continental western Roman Empire and in
Britain, drawing upon the excavated evidence. A more detailed
discussion of the evidence from London, where glass-working
waste has now been found on over 20 sites in eight geographically
and chronologically distinct areas, examines the character of
glass working in the upper Walbrook valley and looks at the
possible permutations for the sources of cullet and the
implications for the organisation of the industry.
Specialist appendices give further details of the building
materials, clay slab, Roman pottery, ceramic industrial vessels,
decorated samian, stamped mortaria, vessel glass, accessioned
finds, plant remains and animal and human bone.

xv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

MOLA (Museum of London Archaeology) would like to thank

Pillar Property plc, subsequently part of British Land, and
Stanhope plc who, together with Lend Lease, funded the
archaeological fieldwork, post-excavation analysis and publication
of the results of the excavations that took place at 35 Basinghall
Street. MOLA is particularly grateful to Brett Wharton of
Stanhope plc for his consistent support throughout the project
and for facilitating the research on the Roman glass assemblage.
We would also like to thank Kathryn Stubbs, Assistant Director
Historic Environment, City of London, and Jane Sidell, then
English Heritage Science Adviser, for their advice and
comments during the excavation. Thanks are also due to those
who aided in the planning and running of the site. These
include Stuart Bowhill, Greg Munday and Graham Stark of
Lend Lease, along with Ian McKay, Anthony Walsh and Martin
Webb and their team at Keltbray. MOLA would also like to
thank Standard Chartered Bank for their interest in the project.
Surveying was carried out by Catherine Drew, Cordelia
Hall, Dave Mackie and Joseph Severin from MOLA Geomatics.
Geoarchaeological advice and environmental sampling policy

xvi

was devised and carried out by Jane Corcoran and Richard

Macphail (Institute of Archaeology, University College London).
Particular thanks are extended to Chiz Harward who cosupervised the excavations. We would like to thank all the field
staff who worked on the site: Rick Archer, Ryszard Bartkowiak,
Raoul Bull, Howard Burkhill, Peter Cardiff, Audun Clark,
Andy Daykin, Bruce Ferguson, Craig Halsey, David Harrison,
Richard Hewett, Isca Howell, Mark Ingram, Nigel Jeffries,
Sylvia Kennedy, Antonietta Lerz, Will Mills, Ingrid Okland,
Iris Rodenbuesch, Rik Sayer, Simon Stevens, Dan Swift, Jeremy
Taylor, Riley Thorne, Paul Thrale, Sue Turnbull, Aidan
Turner, Steve Turner, Johanna Vuolteenaho and Mark Wiggins.
Many MOLA staff contributed to the post-excavation work
besides those listed as contributors and we would like to thank
in particular Fiona Seeley for commenting on the pottery
report. Finds and environmental processing was carried out by
Craig Halsey and the late Graham Kenlin, under the supervision
of the late Penny MacConnoran, and her excellent team of
volunteers accessioned hundreds of fragments of glass waste
after sorting.
The authors would particularly like to thank Mark Taylor
and David Hill for allowing their excellent work in
reconstructing Roman glass-working techniques and furnaces
to be used in this monograph, for the use of Fig 36 and for
providing valuable discussion and advice. Thanks also to Irena
Lazar for permission to use the image of the kolarice-Kriie
c
lamp (Fig 101); this lamp is kept at the Regional Museum Koper
(Pokrajinski muzej Koper), Slovenia.