INTRODUCTION

TO
METROLOGY &
MESUREMENTS
By
DINBANDHU SINGH
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
G. Pulla Reddy Engineering College (Autonomous), Kurnool

Contents
Introduction
Metrology Defined

Objectives of Metrology
Types of Metrology

Line standard (Yard, Metre)

Advantages
Disadvantages

End Standard

Legal Metrology

Advantages

Introduction to Measurement

Disadvantages

Concept of Measurement

Line standard V/S End standard

Need for Measurement

Disadvantages of Material Standards

Definition of Standard

Wavelength standards

Role of Standard

Advantages

Standards of Measurement

Disadvantages

INTRODUCTION

We know that the knowledge about anything is accomplished only when it is expressed
in numbers and something is known about it. Thus, for every kind of quantity

measured, there must be a unit to evaluate it and express it in the number of that unit.
Further, that unit should be universally accepted by all while performing the

measurements.

Metrology is derived from Ancient Greek words 'Metron' and Logos' which means
'measure' and 'study of' respectively.

In this subject, we shall study about the principle, methods, and characteristics of the
instruments utilized for various dimensional measurements. These dimensions include:

length, thickness, diameter, taper, angle, flatness, profiles, and others.

For example, consider the slideways for machine tools. These components must have
specific dimensions, angles, and flatness in order for the machine to function properly

and accurately.

METROLOGY DEFINED

Have you ever questioned how an inch became an inch, and why a kilogram is not a
pound? Do you know what the distance is in between the earth and the sun in

millimetres? These are questions that can only be answered if you learn about
metrology.

Metrology can be defined in many ways. Few of them are discussed below:
Metrology is the Science of Measurement.
Metrology is a science that deals with measurement and inspection.
Metrology is a science of precision measurement and it can be applied to many
fields.
Metrology is a science of weights and measures, determination of conformance to
specification or technical requirements, and development of standards.
Metrology is concerned with the establishment, reproduction, conservation and
transfer of units of measurement & their standards.
Metrology, sometimes also known as industrial inspection, involves inspection of
parts produced from production, a unit to check whether the dimensions fall within
the acceptable limits assigned by the consumer.

METROLOGY DEFINED

Thus, it can be said that metrology is mainly concerned with:

Units of measurement and their standard.

Errors of measurement.
Changing the units in the form of standards.
Ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

Developing new methods of measurements.

Analyzing these new methods and their accuracy.
Establishing uncertainty of measurement.

Gauges design manufacturing and testing.

Researching the cause of measuring errors.

Industrial inspection.

OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY

The basic objectives of metrology are:

1. To provide accuracy at minimum cost.

2. Thorough evaluation of newly developed products, and to ensure that components

are within the specified dimensions.
3. To determine the process capabilities.

4. To assess the measuring instrument capabilities and ensure that they are adequate
for their specific measurements.

5. To reduce the cost of inspection & rejections and rework.

6. To standardize measuring methods.
7. To maintain the accuracy of measurements through periodical calibration of the

instruments.
8. To prepare designs for gauges and special inspection fixtures.

TYPES OF METROLOGY

Under consideration of its applications, Metrology can be mainly divided into two
categories:
1. Engineering Metrology
2. Medical Metrology

Engineering Metrology:
It is defined as the measurement of dimensions: length, thickness, diameter, taper, angle,

flatness, profiles, and others.

Generally, engineering metrology is restricted to measurements of length, angle and
other quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms.

Medical Metrology:
It is defined as the arithmetic of pharmacy and its application to dosage, preparation,
compounding, and dispensing of medication.
Generally, medical metrology is restricted to the measurement of quantity used for the
preparation of various pharmaceutical needs.

LEGAL METROLOGY

Legal Metrology is a part of metrology and it is directed by a National Organization

which is known as National Service of Legal Metrology. Its main objective is to

maintain uniformity of measurement in a particular country.

The functions of legal metrology are as follows:
To ensure conversion of national standards.
To ensure their accuracy by comparing with international standards.
To organize training in this field.

To impart proper accuracy to the secondary standards.

To do scientific and technical work in the field of measurement.
To regulate, supervise, and control the manufacturer.

To inspect and detect guilty of measurement.

INTRODUCTION TO MEASUREMENT

Measurement is a process of determining an unknown dimension by comparing with a

predefined standard. Measurement systems are mainly used in industries for quality

control management.

For a production engineer, the most important parameter in metrology is the Length
which can be measured in several ways. Other important parameters are the Time,
Mass, Force, Temperature, the flow of an electric current, Angle and so on.

The results obtained by measurements provide information upon which decisions are

made. The purpose of any measurement is to provide a service to enable a decision to

be made. The service will not be complete unless the measurement is made with an

acceptable degree of accuracy, but it must be realized that no measurement is exact.

Thus, Metrology is the science of measurement, and measurement is the language of

science. It is the language we use to communicate about size, quantity, position,

condition and time.

CONCEPT OF MEASUREMENT

There are two important requirements of the measurement:

1. The standards used for comparison must be accurate and universally accepted.

2. The apparatus or instrument and the process used for comparison must be provable.

The following Fig. illustrates the fundamental measuring process.

The word measurand is used to entitle the particular physical parameter being
observed i.e. unknown quantity which is to be measured. It is the input quantity to the
measuring process. This unknown quantity is compared with the available standard
quantitites such as length, mass, time and lastly it produces a result.

NEED FOR MEASUREMENT

We need measurement:
to determine the true dimensions of a part.

to increase our knowledge and understanding of the world.

to ensure public health and human safety.

to convert physical parameters into meaningful numbers.

to evaluate the performance of the system.
to ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the established standard.
to meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
to provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no faulty product reaches the
customers.
to coordinate the functions of quality control, production, procurement & other

departments of the organization.

to judge the possibility of making some of the defective parts acceptable after minor

repairs.

DEFINITION OF STANDARD

Since the beginning of civilization, measurement played a vital role in humans

development. During the medieval period, the measurement process have gone under

various evolutions and people accepted the process of measurement in specific trades
but no common standards were set.

Generally, these measurement standards were region-dependent and as trade and

commerce grew, the need for standardization was also realized.

A standard is defined as a fundamental value of any known physical quantity, as

established by national and international organizations of authority, which can be

reproduced.

OR

A standard is defined as something that is set up and established by an authority as rule

of the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality.

ROLE OF STANDARD

Today, in the era of mass production, almost all manufacturing units practise the
principle of interchangeability of manufacture. In order to achieve complete

changeability of manufacture in industries, standards are being set by the international

authorities.

A globally accepted standard allows the manufacturer to convince the customers

about the quality of the product.

Thus, standards play a vital role for manufacturers across the world in achieving

consistency, accuracy, precision, uniformity, and repeatability in measurements.

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT

There are two standard systems being used for linear measurement throughout the world:
English (Yard)

Metric (Metre)

Realizing the importance and advantages of metric system, most of the countries are
adopting metre as the fundamental unit of linear measurement.

Length can be measured by using:

Material standards
Wavelength standards

Material standards are further classified as:

Line standards
End standards

Since these two standards of length were made of metal alloys they are called material
standards.

LINE STANDARD

According to it, yard or metre is defined as the distance between two scribed lines
on a bar of metal under certain conditions of temperature and support. These are

the legal line standards and are governed by the Act of Parliament for their use.

The first accurate standard was made in England and was known as Imperial
Standard yard which was followed by International Prototype meter made in
France.

YARD / IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD

An imperial standard yard is a bronze bar 1 sq. inch in cross-section and 38 inches in
length, having a composition of 82% Cu, 13% tin, and 5% Zn. The bar contains holes

of 1/2-inch diameter 1/2-inch depth. The following Fig. shows the orthographic
views of the imperial standard yard.

YARD / IMPERIAL STANDARD YARD

It has two round recesses, each located 1-inch away from either end and extends up to
the central plane or neutral axis of the bar.

A highly polished gold plug-1/10 of an inch diameter, consists of 3 transversely

engraved lines and 2 longitudinal lines, is inserted into each of these holes such that
the lines lie in the neutral plane. The top surface of the plug lies on the neutral axis.

Yard is then defined as the distance between the two central transverse lines of
the gold plug at 62F.

The advantage of maintaining the gold plug lines at neutral axis is that the axis remains
unaffected due to bending of the beam.

Another advantage is that the gold plug is protected from getting accidentally
damaged.

METRE / INTERNATIONAL PROTOTYPE METRE

An international prototype metre is made of an alloy consisting of 90% platinum and

10% iridium. It is provided with a very rigid section of the shape shown in the Fig.

METRE / INTERNATIONAL PROTOTYPE METRE

Metre is then defined as the distance between the centre positions of the two lines
engraved on the highly polished surface of a 1020 mm bar maintained at 0C

under normal atmospheric pressure and having the cross-section of the web.

The graduations are on the upper surface of the web which coincides with the neutral
axis of the section.

The web-shaped section gives greater rigidity for the amount of material involved and
is therefore economic in the use of an expensive metal. The platinum-iridium alloy is

used because it is inoxidizable and retains good polished surface required for
engraving good quality lines.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Line Standards

Advantages
A scale is a quick and easy to use over a wide range.

Scales can be accurately engraved.

The scale markings are not subjected to wear.

Disadvantages
Line standards are affected by changes in environmental conditions such as
temperatures, pressure, humidity, and ageing, resulting in variation in length.

Though scales are accurately engraved but the engraved lines themselves possess
thickness and it is not possible to take a measurement with high accuracy.

A scale doesnt possess a built in datum. Therefore, it is not possible to align the
scale with the axis of measurement.

Scales are subjected to parallax error.

Magnifying glass or microscope is required to achieve higher accuracy.

END STANDARD

When length is expressed as the distance between two flat parallel surfaces, it is
known as end standard. E.g.: Measurement by vernier calliper, screw gauge, slip

gauges, end bars, etc.

The end surfaces are hardened, flat and parallel to a very high degree of accuracy.

These standards are developed in two basic forms:

Small block or slip gauge: for short length, up to 150 mm.
Cylindrical end bars: for larger length, above 150 mm.

Advantages & Disadvantages of End Standards

Advantages
Highly accurate and used to measure close tolerances in precision engineering,

standard laboratories, tool rooms, inspection department, etc.

They possess a built in datum. Therefore, they can be positively locked on datum
surface.
They are not subjected to parallax error.

Disadvantages

End standards are affected by changes in environmental conditions such as

temperatures, pressure, humidity, and ageing, resulting in variation in length.
Require more time for measurement and measure only one dimension at a time.

Subjected to wear on their measuring surfaces.

Group of slips can be clubbed together to build up a given size but faulty clubbing

and careless use may lead to inaccurate results.

LINE STANDARDS V/S END STANDARDS

Disadvantages of Material Standards

Material standards are affected by changes in environmental conditions such as

temperatures, pressure, humidity, and ageing, resulting in variation in length.

Preservation of these standards is difficult because they must have appropriate security
to prevent their damage or destruction.

Replica of material standards are not available for use at other places.

They can not be easily produced.

Comparison and verification of the sizes of gauges pose difficulty.

Conversion factors have to be used for changing over to metric system.

WAVELENGTH STANDARD

Because of the problems of variation in length of material standards, the possibility of

using light as a basic unit to define primary standard has been considered. The

wavelength of a selected radiation of light is used as the basic unit of length.

Since the wavelength is not a physical one, it need not be preserved & can be easily
reproducible without considerable error.

In 1983, the 17th general conference on weights & measures proposed the use of speed
of light as a technically feasible & practicable definition of meter. The light used is

iodine stabilized helium-neon laser.

Meter is now defined as the length of path travelled by light in vacuum in 1/

299792458 seconds.

Yard is now defined as the length of path travelled by light in 3 10-9 seconds.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Wavelength Standards

Advantages
No effect of environmental conditions.

No fear of being destroyed.

No wear and tear.
Easily reproducible.

Need not be preserved or stored.

Not subjected to wear, tear and parallax error.
Easily transferable to other standards such as metre yard.
Used for making comparative measurements.

Disadvantages

Need trained personal to operate.

High initial investment.

The End