Clave and Trsillo

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Clave (rhythm)
Tresillo (rhythm)

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Clave (rhythm)

Clave (rhythm)
This article is about the rhythmic pattern. For the musical instrument, see claves.

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v
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[1]

The clave rhythmic pattern is used as a tool for temporal organization in Afro-Cuban music, such as abaka, rumba,
conga de comparsa, son, son montuno, mambo, salsa, Latin jazz, songo and timba. The five-stroke clave pattern
represents the structural core of many Afro-Cuban rhythms.[2]
The clave pattern originated in sub-Saharan African music traditions, where it serves essentially the same function as
it does in Cuba. In Ethnomusicology, clave is also known as a key pattern,[3][4] guide pattern,[5] phrasing referent,[6]
timeline,[7] or asymmetrical timeline.[8] The clave pattern is also found in the African diaspora musics of Haitian
vodou drumming, Afro-Brazilian music and Afro-Uruguayan music (Candombe). The clave pattern is used in North
American popular music as a rhythmic motif or ostinato, or simply a form of rhythmic decoration.

Clave (rhythm)

Etymology
Anglicized pronunciation: clah-vay
Clave is a Spanish word meaning 'code,'
'key,' as in key to a mystery or puzzle, or
'keystone,' the wedge-shaped stone in the
center of an arch that ties the other stones
together. Clave is also the name of the
patterns played on claves; two hardwood
sticks used in Afro-Cuban music
ensemblesPealosa (2009).

The key to Afro-Cuban rhythm

Playing a pair of claves

Son clave

Rumba clave
Both patterns shown in simple meter (duple-pulse) and compound meter (triple-pulse) structures
Just as a keystone holds an arch in place, the clave pattern holds the rhythm together in Afro-Cuban music.[] The two
main clave patterns used in Afro-Cuban music are known in North America as son clave and the rumba clave.[9]
Both are used as bell patterns across much of Africa.[10][11][12][13] Son and rumba clave can be played in either a
triple-pulse (12/8 or 6/8) or duple-pulse (4/4, 2/4 or 2/2) structure.[14] The contemporary Cuban practice is to write
the duple-pulse clave in a single measure of 4/4.[15] It is also written in a single measure in ethnomusicological
writings about African music.[16]
Although they subdivide the beats differently, the 12/8 and 4/4 versions of each clave share the same pulse names.
The correlation between the triple-pulse and duple-pulse forms of clave, as well as other patterns, is an important
dynamic of sub-Saharan-based rhythm. Every triple-pulse pattern has its duple-pulse correlative.
Son clave has strokes on: 1, 1a, 2&, 3&, 4.
4/4:
1 e & a 2 e & a 3 e & a 4 e & a ||
X . . X . . X . . . X . X . . . ||
12/8:

Clave (rhythm)
1 & a 2 & a 3 & a 4 & a ||
X . X . X . . X . X . . ||
Rumba clave has strokes on: 1, 1a, 2a, 3&, 4.
4/4:
1 e & a 2 e & a 3 e & a 4 e & a ||
X . . X . . . X . . X . X . . . ||
12/8:
1 & a 2 & a 3 & a 4 & a ||
X . X . . X . X . X . . ||
Both clave patterns are used in rumba. What we now call son clave (also known as Havana clave) used to be the key
pattern played in Havana-style yamb and guaguanc.[17] Some Havana-based rumba groups still use son clave for
yamb.[18] The musical genre known as son probably adopted the clave pattern from rumba when it migrated from
eastern Cuba to Havana at the beginning of the 20th century.
During the nineteenth century, African music and European music sensibilities were blended together in
original Cuban hybrids. Cuban popular music became the conduit through which sub-Saharan rhythmic
elements were first codified within the context of European ('Western') music theory. The first written
music rhythmically based on clave was the Cuban danzn, which premiered in 1879. The contemporary
concept of clave with its accompanying terminology reached its full development in Cuban popular
music during the 1940s. Its application has since spread to folkloric music as well. In a sense, the
Cubans standardized their myriad rhythms, both folkloric and popular, by relating nearly all of them to
the clave pattern. The veiled code of African rhythm was brought to light due to claves omnipresence.
Consequently, the term clave has come to mean both the five-stroke pattern and the total matrix it
exemplifies. In other words, the rhythmic matrix is the clave matrix. Clave is the key that unlocks the
enigma; it de-codes the rhythmic puzzle. Its commonly understood that the actual clave pattern does not
need to be played in order for the music to be 'in clave'Pealosa (2009).
One of the most difficult applications of the clave is in the realm of composition and arrangement of
Cuban and Cuban-based dance music. Regardless of the instrumentation, the music for all of the
instruments of the ensemble must be written with a very keen and conscious rhythmic relationship to the
clave . . . Any breaks and/or stops in the arrangements must also be in clave. If these procedures are
not properly taken into consideration, then the music is 'out of clave' which, if not done intentionally, is
considered an error. When the rhythm and music are in clave, a great natural swing is produced,
regardless of the tempo. All musicians who write and/or interpret Cuban-based music must be clave
conscious, not just the percussionistsSantos (1986).[19]

Clave theory
There are three main branches of what could be called clave theory.

Cuban popular music

First is the set of concepts and related terminology, which were created and developed in Cuban popular music from
the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries. In Popular Cuban Music, Emilio Grenet defines in general terms, how the
duple-pulse clave pattern guides all members of the music ensemble.[20] An important Cuban contribution to this
branch of music theory is the concept of the clave as a musical period, which has two rhythmically opposing halves.
The first half is antecedent and moving, and the second half is consequent and grounded.

Clave (rhythm)

Ethnomusicological studies of African rhythm

The second branch comes from the ethnomusicological studies of sub-Saharan African rhythm. In 1959, Arthur
Morris Jones published his landmark work Studies in African Music, in which he identified the triple-pulse clave as
the guide pattern for many musics from ethnic groups across Africa.[21] An important contribution of
ethnomusicology to clave theory is the understanding that the clave matrix is generated by cross-rhythm.[22]

The 3-2 / 2-3 clave concept and terminology

The third branch comes from the United States. Ironically, there are more books published about Afro-Cuban
rhythms in the U.S. than in Cuba itself. An important North American contribution to clave theory is the worldwide
propagation of the 3-2/2-3 concept and terminology, which arose from the fusion of Cuban rhythms with jazz in New
York City.[23]
Only in the last couple of decades have the three branches of clave theory begun to reconcile their shared and
conflicting concepts. Thanks to the popularity of Cuban-based music and the vast amount of educational material
available on the subject, many musicians today have a basic understanding of clave. Contemporary books that deal
with clave, share a certain fundamental understanding on what clave means.Wikipedia:Verifiability
Chris Washburne considers the term to refer to the rules that govern the rhythms played with the claves.
Bertram Lehman regards the clave as a concept with wide-ranging theoretical syntactic implications for
African music in general, and for David Pealosa, the clave matrix is a comprehensive system for
organizing musicToussaint (2013).[24]

Mathematical Analysis
In addition to these three branches of theory, clave has in recent years been thoroughly analyzed mathematically. The
structure of clave can be understood in terms of cross-rhythmic ratios, above all, three-against-two (3:2). Godfried
Toussaint, a Research Professor of Computer Science, has published a book and several papers on the mathematical
analysis of clave and related African bell patterns.[25][26] Toussaint uses geometry[27] and the Euclidean algorithm as
a means of exploring the significance of clave.[28]

Types
Son clave
The most common clave pattern used in Cuban popular music is called the son clave, named after the Cuban musical
genre of the same name. Clave is the basic period, composed of two rhythmically opposed cells, one antecedent and
the other consequent.[29][30] Clave was initially written in two measures of 2/4 in Cuban music.[31] When written this
way, each cell or clave half is represented within a single measure.
Three-side / two-side
The antecedent half has three strokes
and is called the three-side of clave.
The consequent half (second measure
above) of clave has two strokes and is
called the two-side.[32]
Going only slightly into
the rhythmic structure of our music we find that all its melodic design is constructed on a rhythmic
pattern of two measures, as though both were only one, the first is antecedent, strong, and the second is
consequent, weakGrenet (1939).

Clave (rhythm)

[With] clave... the two measures are not at odds, but rather, they are balanced opposites like positive and
negative, expansive and contractive or the poles of a magnet. As the pattern is repeated, an alternation
from one polarity to the other takes place creating pulse and rhythmic drive. Were the pattern to be
suddenly reversed, the rhythm would be destroyed as in a reversing of one magnet within a series... the
patterns are held in place according to both the internal relationships between the drums and their
relationship with clave... Should the drums fall out of clave (and in contemporary practice they
sometimes do) the internal momentum of the rhythm will be dissipated and perhaps even
brokenAmira and Cornelius (1992).[33]
Tresillo
In Cuban popular music, the first three strokes of son clave are
also known collectively as tresillo, a Spanish word meaning triplet
i.e. three equal beats in the same time as two main beats. However,
in the vernacular of Cuban popular music, the term refers to the
figure shown here.

[34][35]
Tresillo.
PlayWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Tresillo divisive.mid

Rumba clave
The other main clave pattern is the
rumba clave. Rumba clave is the key
pattern used in Cuban Rumba. Use of
the triple-pulse form of rumba clave in
Cuba can be traced back to the iron
bell (ekn) part in abaku music. The
form of rumba known as columbia is
culturally and musically connected
Rumba clave in duple-pulse and triple-pulse structures
with abaku which is an Afro Cuban
cabildo that descends from the Kalabari of Cameroon. Columbia also uses this pattern. Sometimes 12/8 rumba clave
is clapped in the accompaniment of Cuban bat drums. The 4/4 form of rumba clave is used in yamb, guaguanc
and popular music.
There is some debate as to how the 4/4 rumba clave should be notated for guaguanc and yamb. In actual practice,
the third stroke on the three-side and the first stroke on the two-side often fall in rhythmic positions that do not fit
neatly into music notation.[36] Triple-pulse strokes can be substituted for duple-pulse strokes. Also, the clave strokes
are sometimes displaced in such a way that they don't fall within either a triple-pulse or duple-pulse "grid".[37]
Therefore, many variations are possible.
The first regular use of rumba clave in Cuban popular music began with the mozambique, created by Pello el
Afrokan in the early 1960s. When used in popular music (such as songo, timba or Latin jazz) rumba clave can be
perceived in either a 3-2 or 2-3 sequence.

Clave (rhythm)

Standard bell pattern

The seven-stroke standard bell pattern
contains the strokes of both clave
patterns. Some North American
musicians call this pattern clave.[38][39]
Other North American musicians refer
to the triple-pulse form as the 6/8 bell
because they write the pattern in two
measures of 6/8.

4/4 standard pattern and 12/8 standard pattern

Like clave, the standard pattern is

expressed in both triple and duple-pulse. The standard pattern has strokes on: 1, 1a, 2& 2a, 3&, 4, 4a.
12/8:
1 & a 2 & a 3 & a 4 & a ||
X . X . X X . X . X . X ||
4/4:
1 e & a 2 e & a 3 e & a 4 e & a ||
X . . X . . X X . . X . X . . X ||
The ethnomusicologist A.M. Jones observes that what we call son clave, rumba clave, and the standard pattern are
the most commonly used key patterns (also called bell patterns, timeline patterns and guide patterns) in Sub-Saharan
African music traditions and he considers all three to be basically one and the same pattern.[40] Clearly, they are all
expressions of the same rhythmic principles. The three key patterns are found within a large geographic belt
extending from Mali in northwest Africa to Mozambique in southeast Africa.[41]

"6/8 clave" as used by North American musicians

In Afro-Cuban folkloric genres the
triple-pulse (12/8 or 6/8) rumba clave is the
archetypal form of the guide pattern. Even
when the drums are playing in duple-pulse
(4/4), as in guaguanc, the clave is often
played with displaced strokes that are closer
to triple-pulse than duple-pulse.[42] John
Santos states: "The proper feel of this
[rumba clave] rhythm, is actually closer to
triple [pulse].[43]
Conversely, in salsa and Latin jazz,
especially as played in North America, 4/4
is the basic framework and 6/8 is considered
6/8 standard pattern; 6/8 son clave; 6/8 rumba clave.
something of a novelty and in some cases,
an enigma. The cross-rhythmic structure
(multiple beat schemes) is frequently misunderstood to be metrically ambiguous. North American musicians often
refer to Afro-Cuban 6/8 rhythm as a feel, a term usually reserved for those aspects of musical nuance not practically
suited for analysis. As used by North American musicians, "6/8 clave" can refer to one of three types of triple-pulse
key patterns.

Clave (rhythm)

Triple-pulse standard pattern

When one hears triple-pulse rhythms in Latin jazz the percussion is most often replicating the Afro-Cuban rhythm
bemb. The standard bell is the key pattern used in bemb and so with compositions based on triple-pulse rhythms, it
is the seven-stroke bell, rather than the five-stroke clave that is the most familiar to jazz musicians. Consequently,
some North American musicians refer to the triple-pulse standard pattern as "6/8 clave."

Triple-pulse rumba clave

Some refer to the triple-pulse form of rumba clave as "6/8 clave." When rumba clave is written in 6/8 the four
underlying main beats are counted: 1, 2, 1, 2.
1 & a 2 & a |1 & a 2 & a ||
X . X . . X |. X . X . . ||
Claves... are not usually played in Afro-Cuban 6/8 feels... [and] the clave [pattern] is not traditionally
played in 6/8 though it may be helpful to do so to relate the clave to the 6/8 bell patternThress
(1994).[44]
The main exceptions are: the form of rumba known as Columbia, and some performances of abaku by rumba
groups, where the 6/8 rumba clave pattern is played on claves.

Triple-pulse son clave

Triple-pulse son clave is the least common form of clave used in Cuban music. It is however, found across an
enormously vast area of sub-Saharan Africa. The first published example (1920) of this pattern identified it as a
hand-clap part accompanying a song from Mozambique.[45]

Cross-rhythm and the correct metric structure

Because 6/8 clave-based music is generated from cross-rhythm, it is possible to count or feel the 6/8 clave in several
different ways. The ethnomusicologist A.M. Jones correctly identified the importance of this key pattern, but he
mistook its accents as indicators of meter rather than the counter-metric phenomena they actually are. Similarly,
while Anthony King identified the triple-pulse "son clave" as the standard pattern in its simplest and most basic
form, he did not correctly identify its metric structure. King represented the pattern in a polymetric 7/8 + 5/8 time
signature.[46]

Anthony King's polymetric representation of triple-pulse "son clave".

It wasn't until African musicologists like C.K. Ladzekpo entered into the discussion in the 1970s and 80s that the
metric structure of sub-Saharan rhythm was unambiguously defined. The writings of Victor Kofi Agawu and David
Locke must also be mentioned in this regard.[47]
In the diagram below 6/8 (son) clave is shown on top and a beat cycle is shown below it. Any or all of these
structures may be the emphasis at a given point in a piece of music using the "6/8 clave."

Clave (rhythm)

Different ways to count the 6/8 clave, the first of which is correct

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:6-8_clave_tapping.mid.

The example on the left (6/8) represents the correct count and ground of the "6/8 clave".[48] The four dotted
quarter-notes across the two bottom measures are the main beats. All clave patterns are built upon four main
beats.[49][50][51] The bottom measures on the other two examples (3/2 and 6/4) show cross-beats. Observing the
dancers steps almost always reveals the main beats of the music. Because the main beats are usually emphasized in
the steps and not the music, it is often difficult for an "outsider" to feel the proper metric structure without seeing the
dance component. Kubik states: "In order to understand the motional structure of any music in Africa, one has to
look at the dancers as well and see how they relate to the instrumental background" (2010: 78).[52]
For cultural insiders, identifying the... dance feet occurs instinctively and spontaneously. Those not familiar
with the choreographic supplement, however, sometimes have trouble locating the main beats and expressing
them in movement. Hearing African music on recordings alone without prior grounding in its dance-based
rhythms may not convey the choreographic supplement. Not surprisingly, many misinterpretations of African
rhythm and meter stem from a failure to observe the dance.
Agawu,(2003)[53]

3-2 / 2-3 clave concept and terminology

In Cuban popular music, a chord
progression can begin on either side of
clave. When the progression begins on
the three-side, the song or song section
is said to be in 3-2 clave. When the
chord progression begins on the
two-side, it is in 2-3 clave. In North
America, salsa and Latin jazz charts
commonly represent clave in two
measures of cut-time (2/2); this is most
3-2 clave and 2-3 clave written in cut-time.
likely
the
influence
of
jazz
[54]
conventions.
When clave is written
in two measures (right), changing from one clave sequence to the other is a matter of reversing the order of the
measures.

Clave (rhythm)

10

Chord progression begins on the three-side (3-2)

A guajeo is a typical Cuban ostinato melody, most often consisting of arpeggiated chords in syncopated patterns.
Guajeos are a seamless blend of European harmonic and African rhythmic structures. Most guajeos have a binary
structure that expresses clave.
Clave motif
Kevin Moore states: "There are two common ways that the three-side is expressed in Cuban popular music. The first
to come into regular use, which David Pealosa calls 'clave motif,' is based on the decorated version of the three-side
of the clave rhythm."[55] The following guajeo example is based on a clave motif. The three-side (first measure)
consists of the tresillo variant known as cinquillo.

3-2 piano guajeo: clave motif, written in cut-time.

Since this chord progression begins on the three-side, the song or song section is said to be in 3-2 clave.
Offbeat/onbeat motif
Moore: "By the 1940s [there was] a trend toward the use of what Pealosa calls the 'offbeat/onbeat motif.' Today, the
offbeat/onbeat motif method is much more common." With this type of guajeo motif, the three-side of clave is
expressed with all offbeats. The following I-IV-V-IV progression is in a 3-2 clave sequence. It begins with an
offbeat pick-up on the pulse immediately before beat 1. With some guajeos, offbeats at the end of the two-side, or
onbeats at the end of the three-side serve as pick-ups leading into the next measure (when clave is written in two
measures).

3-2 guajeo: offbeat/onbeat motif, written in cut-time.

Clave (rhythm)

11

Chord progression begins on the two-side (2-3)

Clave motif
A chord progression can begin on either side of clave. One can therefore be on either the three-side or the two-side
because the harmonic progression, rather than the rhythmic progression, is the primary referent.[56] The following
guajeo is based on the clave motif in a 2-3 sequence. The cinquillo rhythm is now in the second measure.

2-3 piano guajeo: clave motif, written in cut-time.

Onbeat/offbeat motif
This guajeo is in 2-3 clave because it begins on the downbeat, emphasizing the onbeat quality of the two-side. The
figure has the same harmonic sequence as the earlier offbeat/onbeat example, but rhythmically, the attack-point
sequence of the two measures is reversed. Most salsa is in 2-3 clave, and most salsa piano guajeos are based on the
2-3 onbeat/offbeat motif.

2-3 guajeo: onbeat/offbeat motif, written in cut-time.

Going from one side of clave to the other within the same song
The 3-2/2-3 concept and terminology was developed in New York City during the 1940s by Cuban-born Mario
Bauza while he was the music director of Machito and his Afro-Cubans.[57] Bauz was a master at moving the song
from one side of clave to the other.
The following melodic excerpt is taken from the opening verses of "Que vengan los rumberos" by Machito and his
Afro-Cubans. Notice that the melody goes from one side of clave to the other and then back again. A measure of 2/4
moves the chord progression from the two-side (2-3), to the three-side (3-2). Later, another measure of 2/4 moves the
start of the chord progression back to two-side (2-3).

Clave (rhythm)

12

Excerpt from Machito's "Que vengan los rumberos".

According to David Pealosa:

The first 4 12 claves of the verses are in 2-3. Following the measure of 2/4 (half clave) the song flips to the
three-side. It continues in 3-2 on the V7 chord for 4 12 claves. The second measure of 2/4 flips the song back
to the two-side and the I chord.
In songs like "Que vengan los rumberos", the phrases continually alternate between a 3-2 framework and a 2-3
framework. It takes a certain amount of flexibility to repeatedly reorder your orientation in this way. The most
challenging moments are the truncations and other transitional phrases where you "pivot" in order to move
your point of reference from one side of clave to the other.
Working in conjunction with the chord and clave changes, vocalist Frank "Machito" Grillo creates an arc of
tension/release spanning more than a dozen measures. Initially Machito sings the melody straight (first line),
but soon expresses the lyrics in the freer and more syncopated inspiracin of a folkloric rumba (second line).
By the time the song changes to 3-2 on the V7 chord, Machito has developed a considerable amount of
rhythmic tension by contradicting the underlying meter. That tension is then resolved when he sings on three
consecutive main beats (quarter-notes), followed by tresillo. In the measure immediately following tresillo the
song returns to 2-3 and the I chord (fifth line).[58]
Tito Puente learned the concept from Bauz. Tito Puente's "Philadelphia Mambo" is an example of a song that
moves from one side of clave to the other. The technique eventually became a staple of composing and arranging in
salsa and Latin jazz. According to Kevin Moore:
Clave direction is relative while clave alignment is absolute. If you walk from New York to Miami,
you're walking south; if you walk from Miami to New York, you're walking north. But if you put your
left shoe on your right foot, (i.e., if your shoes are cruzado), it's going to be a very awkward walk in
either direction. Your shoes remain "aligned" (or misaligned) with your feet regardless of the direction

Clave (rhythm)
your feet are taking you, and regardless of how poorly they fit.[59]
Cuban folkloric musicians do not use the 3-2/2-3 system. Many Cuban performers of popular music do not use it
either. The great Cuban conga player and band leader Mongo Santamara said, "Dont tell me about 3-2 or 2-3! In
Cuba we just play. We feel it, we dont talk about such things."[60] In another book, Santamara said, "In Cuba we
dont think about [clave]. We know that were in clave. Because we know that we have to be in clave to be a
musician."[61] According to Cuban pianist Sonny Bravo, the late Charlie Palmieri would insist that, "Theres no such
thing as 3-2 or 2-3, theres only one clave!"[62] The contemporary Cuban bassist, composer and arranger Alain Prez
flatly states: "In Cuba we do not use that 2-3, 3-2 formula... 2-3, 3-2 [is] not used in Cuba. That is how people learn
Cuban music outside Cuba."[63]

In non-Cuban music
Controversy over use and origins
Perhaps the greatest testament to the musical vitality of the clave is the spirited debate it engenders, both in terms of
musical usage and historical origins. This section presents examples from non-Cuban music, which some musicians
(not all) hold to be representative of clave. The most common claims, those of Brazilian and subsets of American
popular music, are described below.

In Africa
A widely used bell pattern
Clave is a Spanish word and its musical usage as a pattern played on claves was developed in the western part of
Cuba, particularly the cities of Matanzas and Havana.[64] Some writings have claimed that the clave patterns
originated in Cuba. One frequently repeated theory is that the triple-pulse African bell patterns morphed into
duple-pulse forms as a result of the influence of European musical sensibilities. "The duple meter feel [of 4/4 rumba
clave] may have been the result of the influence of marching bands and other Spanish styles . . ." Washburne
(1995).[65]
However, the duple-pulse forms have existed in sub-Saharan Africa for centuries. The patterns the Cubans call clave
are two of the most common bell parts used in Sub-Saharan African music traditions. Natalie Curtis,[66] A.M.
Jones,[67] Anthony King and John Collins document the triple-pulse forms of what we call son clave and rumba
clave in West, Central and East Africa. Francis Kofi[68] and C.K. Ladzekpo[69] document several Ghanaian rhythms
that use the triple or duple-pulse forms of "son clave." Royal Harington[70] identifies the duple-pulse form of "rumba
clave" as a bell pattern used by the Yoruba and Ibo of Nigeria, West Africa. There are many recordings of traditional
African music where one can hear the five-stroke "clave" used as a bell pattern.[71]
Popular dance music
Cuban music has been popular in sub-Saharan Africa since the mid twentieth century. To the Africans, clave-based
Cuban popular music sounded both familiar and exotic.[72] Congolese bands started doing Cuban covers and singing
the lyrics phonetically. Soon, they were creating their own original Cuban-like compositions, with lyrics sung in
French or Lingala, a lingua franca of the western Congo region. The Congolese called this new music rumba,
although it was really based on the son. The Africans adapted guajeos to electric guitars, and gave them their own
regional flavor. The guitar-based music gradually spread out from the Congo, increasingly taking on local
sensibilities. This process eventually resulted in the establishment of several different distinct regional genres, such
as soukous.[73]

13

Clave (rhythm)

14

Soukous
The following soukous bass line is an embellishment of clave.[74]

Top: clave; bottom: soukous bass line.

Banning Eyre distills down the Congolese guitar style to this skeletal figure, where clave is sounded by the bass
notes (notated with downward stems).[75]

Top: clave; bottom: guitar.

Clave (rhythm)

15

Highlife
Highlife was the most popular genre in Ghana and Nigeria during the 1960s. This arpeggiated highlife guitar part is
essentially a guajeo.[76] The rhythmic pattern is known in Cuba as baqueteo. The pattern of attack-points is nearly
identical to the 3-2 clave motif guajeo shown earlier in this article. The bell pattern known in Cuba as clave, is
indigenous to Ghana and Nigeria, and is used in highlife.[77]

Top: clave. Bottom highlife guitar part.

Afrobeat
The following afrobeat guitar part is a variant of the 2-3 onbeat/offbeat motif.[78] Even the melodic contour is
guajeo-based. 2-3 clave is shown above the guitar for reference only. The clave pattern is not ordinarily played in
afrobeat.

Top: 2-3 clave. Bottom: afrobeat guitar part.

Guide-patterns in Cuban versus non-Cuban music

There is some debate as to whether or not clave, as it appears in Cuban music, functions in the same way as its sister
rhythms in other forms of music (Brazilian, North American and African). Certain forms of Cuban music demand a
strict relationship between the clave and other musical parts, even across genres. This same structural relationship
between the guide-pattern and the rest of the ensemble is easily observed in many sub-Saharan rhythms, as well as
rhythms from Haiti and Brazil. However, the 3-2/2-3 concept and terminology is limited to certain types of
Cuban-based popular musics and is not used in the music of Africa, Haiti, Brazil or in Afro-Cuban folkloric music.
In American pop music the clave pattern tends to be used as an element of rhythmic color, rather than a guide-pattern
and as such is superimposed over many types of rhythms.

Clave (rhythm)

In Brazilian music
Both Cuba and Brazil imported Yoruba, Fon
and Congolese slaves. Therefore, it is not
surprising that we find the bell pattern the
Cubans call clave in the Afro-Brazilian
musics of Candombl, Macumba and
Maculel (dance).[79] "Son clave" and
"rumba clave" are also used as a tamborim
part in some batucada arrangements. The
structure of Afro-Brazilian bell patterns can
be understood in terms of the clave concept
(see below). Although a few contemporary
Brazilian musicians have adopted the
3-2/2-3 terminology, it is traditionally not a
part of the Brazilian rhythmic concept.
Bell pattern 1 is used in maculel (dance)
and some Candombl and Macumba
rhythms. Pattern 1 is known in Cuba as son
clave. Bell 2 is used in afox and can be
thought of as pattern 1 embellished with
Afro-Brazilian bell patterns.
four additional strokes. Bell 3 is used in
batucada. Pattern 4 is the maracatu bell and can be thought of as pattern 1 embellished with four additional strokes.
Example in a Pixinguinha choro musicWikipedia:Media helpFile:Ai-seu-pinguca Pixinguinha2.mid
Bossa nova pattern
The so-called "bossa nova clave" (or
"Brazilian clave") has a similar rhythm
to that of the son clave, but the second
note on the two-side is delayed by one
Bossa nova stick pattern.
pulse (subdivision). The rhythm is
typically played as a snare rim pattern
in bossa nova music. The pattern is shown below in 2/4, as it is written in Brazil. In North American charts it is more
likely to be written in cut-time.
According to drummer Bobby Sanabria the Brazilian composer Antonio Carlos Jobim, who developed the pattern,
considers it to be merely a rhythmic motif and not a clave (guide pattern). Jobim later regretted that Latino musicians
misunderstood the role of this bossa nova pattern.[80]

16

Clave (rhythm)
Other Brazilian examples
The examples below are transcriptions of several patterns resembling the Cuban clave that are found in various styles
of Brazilian music, on the ago-g and surdo instruments.
Legend: Time signature: 2/4; L=low bell, H=high bell, O = open surdo hit, X = muffled surdo hit, and | divides the
measure:

Style: Samba 3:2; LL.L.H.H|L.L.L.H. (More common 3:2: .L.L.H.H|L.L.L.H.)

Style: Maracatu 3:2; LH.HL.H.|L.H.LH.H
Style: Samba 3:2; L|.L.L..L.|..L..L.L|
Instrument: 3rd Surdo 2:3; X...OO.O|X...O.O.
Variation of samba style: Partido Alto 2:3; L.H..L.L|.H..L.L.
Style: Maracatu 2:3; L.H.L.H.|LH.HL.H.
Style: Samba-Reggae or Bossanova 3:2; O..O..O.|..O..O..
Style: Ijexa 3:2; LL.L.LL.|L.L.L.L. (HH.L.LL.|H.H.L.L.)

For 3rd example above, the clave pattern is based on a common accompaniment pattern played by the guitarist.
B=bass note played by guitarist's thumb, C=chord played by fingers.
&|1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &|1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &||
C|B C . C B . C .|B . C . B C . C||
The singer enters on the wrong side of the clave and the ago-g player adjusts accordingly. This recording cuts off
the first bar so that it sounds like the bell comes in on the third beat of the second bar. This is suggestive of a
pre-determined rhythmic relationship between the vocal part and the percussion, and supports the idea of a clave-like
structure in Brazilian music.

In Jamaican and French Caribbean music

The son clave rhythm is present in Jamaican mento music, and can be heard on 1950s-era recordings such as "Dont
Fence Her In", "Green Guava" or "Limbo" by Lord Tickler, "Mango Time" by Count Lasher, "Linstead Market/Day
O" by The Wigglers, "Bargie" by The Tower Islanders, "Nebuchanezer" by Laurel Aitken and others. The Jamaican
population is partly of the same origin (Congo) as many Cubans, which perhaps explains the shared rhythm. It is also
heard frequently in Martinique's biguine and Dominica's Jing ping. Just as likely however is the possibility that
claves and the clave rhythm spread to Jamaica, Trinidad and the other small islands of the Caribbean through the
popularity of Cuban son recordings from the 1920s onward.

In African-American music
Tresillo foundation
[There] is an absence of drums and complex polyrhythms in early blues; there is, in addition, the very
specific absence of . . . timeline patterns in virtually all early twentieth-century U.S. African American
music, except in cases where these patterns were borrowed from Puerto Rico or Cuba. Only in New
Orleans genres does a hint of simple timeline patterns [occur]. . . These do not function in the same way
as African timeline patternsKubik (1999: 51)[81]
While key patterns were absent from early twentieth-century African American music, tresillo, the first half of clave,
has been present since at least the mid nineteenth century. Wynton Marsalis considers tresillo to be the "clave" of
New Orleans.[82] The use of tresillo and its variant, the habanera rhythm, in African American music was reinforced
by consecutive waves of Cuban popular music, beginning with the habanera (Cuban contradanza).[83] For the more
than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime, and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was
a consistent part of African American popular music.[84] Afro-Cuban music became the conduit through which

17

Clave (rhythm)

18

African American music was "re-Africanized," through the adoption of figures like clave and instruments like the
conga drum, bongos, maracas and claves.
Jazz
Although clave-like phrases are found in early twentieth-century
African American music, the use of the clave pattern as an overt
rhythmic motif does not appear until the 1940s with the birth of
Afro-Cuban jazz (or Latin jazz). The first original jazz
composition to be overtly based in-clave was "Tanga" (1942) by
Mario Bauza.

Dizzy Gillespie co-wrote "Manteca," the first jazz

standard based in clave.

2-3 clave piano guajeo. "Tanga" (Mario Bauz) in the style of Machito and his AfroCubans (recorded 1949).

Bauz introduced be-bop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to the Cuban conga drummer Chano Pozo. The short musical
collaboration of Gillespie and Pozo introduced Cuban rhythms into mainstream jazz. However, their groundbreaking
experiments did not always mesh rhythmically. For example, in their 1948 performance of "Manteca" the clave
pattern is played in 3-2, while the rest of the band is in 2-3. Despite its initial problems in performance, "Manteca"
proved to be a strong composition and it stands today as the first jazz standard to be based in clave.

Top: opening measures of "Manteca" melody. Bottom: common mambo bell pattern (2-3 clave).

Clave (rhythm)

19

R&B
The use of clave in R&B coincided with the growing
dominance of the backbeat, and the rising popularity of Cuban
music in the U.S. In a sense, clave can be distilled down to
tresillo (three-side) answered by the backbeat (two-side).[85]

Bo Diddley's "Bo Diddley beat" is a clave-based motif.

Tresillo combined with the backbeat, the essence of clave in African American music.

New Orleans musicians such as Dave Bartholomew and Professor Longhair incorporated Cuban instruments as well
as the clave pattern and related two-celled figures in songs such as "Carnival Day," (Bartholomew 1949) and "Mardi
Gras In New Orleans" (Longhair).

Piano excerpt from the rumba boogie "Mardi Gras in New Orleans" (1949) by Professor Longhair. 2-3 clave is
written above for rhythmic reference.

While some of these early experiments were awkward fusions, it wasn't long before the Afro-Cuban elements were
integrated into the New Orleans sound. Robert Palmer reports that, in the 1940s, Professor Longhair listened to and
played with musicians from the islands and "fell under the spell of Perez Prado's mambo records."[86] The Hawketts,
in "Mardi Gras Mambo" (1955) (featuring the vocals of a young Art Neville), make a clear reference to Prado in
their use of his trademark "Unhh!" in the break after the introduction.[87]
The "Bo Diddley beat" (1955) is perhaps the first true fusion of 3-2 clave and R&B/rock 'n' roll. Watch: "Hey Bo
Diddley" performed live by Bo Diddley (1965). [88] There is no documentation of a direct Cuban connection to Bo
Diddley's adaptation of the clave rhythm. Bo Diddley has given different accounts of the riff's origins. However, Ned
Sublette asserts: "In the context of the time, and especially those maracas [heard on the record], 'Bo Diddley' has to
be understood as a Latin-tinged record. A rejected cut recorded at the same session was titled only 'Rhumba' on the
track sheets."[89] Johnny Otis' "Willie and the Hand Jive" (1958) is another example of this successful blend of 3-2
clave and R&B. Watch: "Hand Jive" performed by Johnny Otis. The Johnny Otis Show. [90] Otis used the Cuban
instruments claves and maracas on the song. The song "Little Darling" is also built around clave. The bass riffs of
"China Grove" by the Doobie Brothers use clave. The bass line in the 1973 arrangement of Herbie Hancock's
"Watermelon Man" (from the album Head Hunters) is based on "son" clave. The Macarena uses clave. Another
example includes the song "Not Fade Away," originally written by Buddy Holly, but performed by a number of

Clave (rhythm)
artists including The Rolling Stones, The Grateful Dead, and Rush. In fact, there are hundreds of other examples
throughout jazz and popular music.
Funk
The 2-3 clave onbeat/offbeat motif is the basis for a great deal of funk music. Blues scales give these rhythmic
figures their own distinct quality. The main guitar riff for James Brown's "Bring it Up" is an example of an
onbeat/offbeat motif. Rhythmically, the pattern is similar to the typical Cuban guajeo structure, but tonally, it is
unmistakably funky.[91] Bongos are used on the 1967 version. The rhythm is slightly swung.
"Ain't it Funky" has a 2-3 guitar riff (c. late 1960s).
"Give it Up or Turn it Lose" (1969) has a similarly funky 2-3 structure. The tonal structure has a bare bones
simplicity, emphasizing the pattern of attack-points.

Experimental clave music

Art music
The clave rhythm and clave concept have been used in some modern art music ("classical") compositions. "Rumba
Clave" by Cuban percussion virtuoso Roberto Vizcaio has been performed in recital halls around the world. See:
"Rumba Clave" (Roberto Vizcaio). [92] Another clave-based composition that has "gone global" is the snare drum
suite "Cross" by Eugene D. Novotney. See: "Cross" (Eugene Novotney). [93]

Jazz
Ensemble clave-based rhythms translate well to a jazz drum kit. See: "Comping in Clave" by Conor Guilfoyle. [94]
The clave matrix offers infinite possibilities for rhythmic textures in jazz. The Cuban-born drummer Dafnis Prieto in
particular, has been a trailblazer in expanding the parameters of clave experimentation. See: "Drum Solo with
Displaced Clave" (Dafnis Prieto). [95]

Odd meter "clave"

Technically speaking, the term odd meter clave is an oxymoron. Clave consists of two even halves, in a divisive
structure of four main beats. However, in recent years jazz musicians from Cuba and outside of Cuba have been
experimenting with creating new "claves" and related patterns in various odd meters. Clave which is traditionally
used in a divisive rhythm structure, has inspired many new creative inventions in an additive rhythm context. See:
"Songo with Clave in 9" (Conor Guilfoyle). [96]
. . . I developed the concept of adjusting claves to other time signatures, with varying degrees of success.
What became obvious to me quite quickly was that the closer I stuck to the general rules of clave the
more natural the pattern sounded. Clave has a natural flow with certain tension and resolve points. I
found if I kept these points in the new meters they could still flow seamlessly, allowing me to play
longer phrases. It also gave me many reference points and reduced my reliance on "one"Guilfoyle
(2006: 10).[97]

20

Clave (rhythm)

21

Recommended listening for odd meter

"clave."
Here are some examples of recordings that
use odd meter clave concepts.[100]
Dafnis Prieto About the Monks (Zoho).
Sebastian Schunke Symbiosis (Pimienta
Records).

[98]

"Clave" in 5/2 after Guilfoyle.

Paoli Mejias Mi Tambor (JMCD).

John Benitez Descarga in New York
(Khaeon).
Deep Rumba A Calm in the Fire of
Dances (American Clave).
Nachito Herrera Bembe en mi casa (FS
Music).

[99]

"Clave" in 7/4 after Guilfoyle.

Bobby Sanabria Quarteto Ach (Zoho).

Julio Barretto Iyabo (3d).

Michel Camilo Triangulo (Telarc).

Samuel Torres Skin Tones (www.samueltorres.com).
Horacio "el Negro" Hernandez Italuba (Universal Latino).
Tony Lujan Tribute (Bella Records).
Edward Simon La bikina (Mythology).
Jorge Sylvester In the Ear of the Beholder (Jazz Magnet).
Uli Geissendoerfer "The Extension" (CMO)

Notes
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Music_of_Cuba& action=edit
[2] Gerhard Kubik cited by Agawu, Kofi (2006: 1-46). Structural Analysis or Cultural Analysis? Comparing Perspectives on the Standard
Pattern of West African Rhythm Journal of the American Musicological Society v. 59, n. 1.
[3] Novotney, Eugene N. (1998: 165) Thesis: The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics, UnlockingClave.com.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
[4] Pealosa, David (2012: 255) The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN
1-886502-80-3.
[5] Gerstin, Julian (2013) "Rhythmic Structures in the African Continuum" Analytical Approaches to World Music.
[6] Agawu, Kofi (2003: 73) Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions. New York: Routledge.
[7] Nketia, Kwabena (1961: 78) African Music in Ghana. Accra: Longmans.
[8] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 54) Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-145-8.
[9] "There are just two clavesson clave and rumba clave" Berroa, Ignacio (1996: Warner Brothers VHS). Mastering the Art Afro-Cuban
Drumming.
[10] Jones, A.M. (1959: 210, 212) Studies in African Music. London: Oxford University Press. 1978 edition: ISBN 0-19-713512-9.
[11] King, Anthony (1960: 51-52) The Employment of the Standard Pattern in Yoruba Music American Music Society Journal.
[12] Egblewogbe cited by Collins (2004: 29) African Musical Symbolism in Contemporary Perspective (Roots, Rhythms and Relativity) Berlin:
Pro Business. ISBN 3-938262-15-X.
[13] C.K. Ladzekpo quoted by Pealosa (2009: 244)
[14] "In reality, as Pealosa explains in great detail in The Clave Matrix, theres really only son and rumba clave, each of which can be played
with a pure triple pulse structure feel, a pure duple pulse structure feel or somewhere inbetween. Needless to say, the terms son and rumba
came much later." Moore, Kevin (2010: 72). Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Revolution. v. 3 Cuban Piano Tumbaos (1960-1979).
Santa Cruz, CA: Moore Music/Timba.com. ISBN 1-4505-4553-X
[15] Moore, Kevin (2010: 65) Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Revolution. v. 1 The Roots of the Piano Tumbao. Santa Cruz, CA: Kevin
Moore. ISBN 978-1-4392-6584-0.
[16] Pealosa (2009).

Clave (rhythm)
[17] Centro de Investigacin de la Msica Cubana (1997: 63) Instrumentos de la Msica Folclrico-Popular de Cuba v. 1. Havana: CIDMUD.
Recorded examples of "son clave" used in guaguanc: Ultima rumba," Festival in Havana, Piiero, Ignacio with Carlos Embale (1955: CD).
Ague que va caer, Patato y Totico, Patato (1968: CD).
[18] Recorded examples of "son clave" used in yamb: Ave Maria," Conjunto Folkloric Nacional de Cuba, (1965: phonorecord).Mama
abuela, Songs and Dances, Conjunto Clave y Guaguanc (1990: CD). Maria Belen, El callejon de los rumberos, Yoruba Andabo (1993:
CD). Chevere, Djala en la puntica, Conjunto Clave y Guaguanc (1996: CD). Las lomas de Beln, Buenavista en guaguagnc, Ecu
Tumba (2001: CD).
[19] Santos, John (1986) The Clave: Cornerstone of Cuban Music Modern Drummer Magazine p. 32 Sept.
[20] Grenet, Emilio, translated by R. Phillips (1939). Popular Cuban Music New York: Bourne Inc.
[21] Jones (1959: 3).
[22] Locke, David (1982). "Principles of Off-Beat Timing and Cross-Rhythm in Southern Ewe Dance Drumming Society for Ethnomusicology
Journal Nov. 11.
[23] Pealosa, David (2012: 248). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN
1-886502-80-3.
[24] Toussaint, Godfried T. 2013 The Geometry of Musical Rhythm: What Makes a "Good" Rhythm Good? p. 17. ISBN 1-4665-1202-4
[25] Toussaint, Godfried, A Mathematical Analysis of African, Brazilian and Cuban Clave Rhythms Montreal, School of Computer Science.
Web.
[26] Toussaint, Godfried, "The Rhythm that Conquered the World: What Makes a 'Good' Rhythm Good?," Percussive Notes. Web.
[27] Toussaint, Godfried T. 2013 The Geometry of Musical Rhythm: What Makes a "Good" Rhythm Good? ISBN 1-4665-1202-4
[28] Toussaint, Godfried, The Euclidean Algorithm Generates Traditional Musical Rhythms, Proceedings of BRIDGES: Mathematical
Connections in Art Music and Science p. 47 Banff.
[29] "The time span of the bell rhythm and its division into beats establish meter, a concept that implies a musical period" Locke, David
"Improvisation in West African Musics" Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5, (Jan., 1980), p. 125-133. Published by: MENC: The
National Association for Music Education.
[30] "We find that all its melodic design is constructed on a rhythmic pattern of two measures, as though both were only one, the first is
antecedent, strong, and the second is consequent, weak" Grenet, Emilio, translated by R. Phillips (1939). Popular Cuban Music New York:
Bourne Inc.
[31] Maulen, Rebeca (1999: 6) 101 Montunos. Petaluma, CA: Sher Publishing.
[32] [The] clave pattern has two opposing rhythm cells: the first cell consists of three strokes, or the rhythm cell, which is called tresillo (Spanish
tres = three). This rhythmically syncopated part of the clave is called the three-side or the strong part of the clave. The second cell has two
strokes and is called the two-side or the weak part of the clave. . . The different accent types in the melodic line typically encounter with the
clave strokes, which have some special name. Some of the clave strokes are accented both in more traditional tambores bat -music and in
more modern salsa styles. Because of the popularity of these strokes, some special terms have been used to identify them. The second stroke
of the strong part of the clave is called bombo. It is the most often accented clave stroke in my research material. Accenting it clearly identifies
the three-side of the clave (Pealosa The Clave Matrix 2009, 93-94). The second common clave stroke accented among these improvisations is
the third stroke of the strong part of the clave. This stroke is called ponche. In Cuban popular genres, this stroke is often accented in unison
breaks that transition between the song sections (Pealosa 2009, 95; Maulen 1993, 169). The third typical way to accent the clave strokes is
to play a rhythm cell, which includes both bombo and ponche accents. This rhythm cell is called [the] conga pattern (Ortiz, Fernando 1965
[1950] La Africania De La Musica Folklorica De Cuba, 277; Maulen 1993, 169-170). Iivari, Ville (2011: 1, 5). The Relation Between Clave
Pattern and Violin Improvisation in Santeras Religious Feasts. Department of Musicology, University of Turku, Finland. Web. http:/ / www.
siba. fi/ fi/ web/ embodimentofauthority/ proceedings;jsessionid=07038526F10A06DE7ED190AD5B1744D7
[33] Amira and Cornelius (1992: 23, 24) The Music of Santeria; Traditional Rhythms of the Bat Drums. Tempe, AZ: White Cliffs. ISBN
0-941677-24-9
[34] Garrett, Charles Hiroshi (2008). Struggling to Define a Nation: American Music and the Twentieth Century, p.54. ISBN 978-0-520-25486-2.
Shown in common time and then in cut time with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.
[35] Sublette, Ned (2007), Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo, p.134. ISBN 978-1-55652-632-9. Shown with tied
sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.
[36] "Rumba Clave: An Illustrated Analysis" (http:/ / rumbaclave. blogspot. com/ ), Rumba Clave, BlogSpot. January 21, 2008. "One thing is
certain: What you see in standard western notation as written-clave is a long way from what's actually played."
[37] Spiro, Michael (2006: 38). The Conga Drummer's Guidebook. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music Co.
[38] Maulen (1999: 49)
[39] Amira and Cornelius (1992: 23)
[40] Jones, A.M. (1959: 211-212)
[41] Pealosa (2009: 53)
[42] "Rumba Clave: An Illustrated Analysis" (http:/ / rumbaclave. blogspot. com/ ), Rumba Clave, BlogSpot. January 21, 2008. "... as the tempo
increased the clave would be played closer and closer to straight 12/8..."
[43] Santos (1986: 33)
[44] Thress, Dan (1994). Afro-Cuban Rhythms for Drumset, p.9. ISBN 0-89724-574-1.
[45] Curtis, Natalie (1920: 98)

22

Clave (rhythm)
[46] King, Anthony (1961:14). Yoruba Sacred Music from Ekiti. Ibadan University Press.
[47] Agawu, Kofi (2003). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions New York: Routledge.
[48] Novotney, Eugene D. (1998: 155). Thesis: The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics (http:/ / www.
unlockingclave. com/ 3-2-thesis-abstract. html), UnlockingClave.com. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
[49] Novotney (1998: 250).
[50] Maulen (1993: 47).
[51] Pealosa (2009: 1-3).
[52] Kubik, Gerhard (2010: 78). Theory of African Music v. 2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
[53] Agawu, Kofi (2003: 73). Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions New York: Routledge.
[54] Maulen, Rebeca (1993: 52) Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 0-9614701-9-4.
[55] Moore 2011 p. 32. Understanding Clave.
[56] Pealosa 2010 p. 136. The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN
1-886502-80-3.
[57] Bobby Sanabria quoted by Pealosa (2009: 252).
[58] Pealosa, David (2010: 154). The Clave Matrix.
[59] Moore, Kevin (2012: 28). Understanding Clave and Clave Changes: Singing, Clapping and Dancing Exercises. Santa Cruz: Moore Music.
ISBN 146642302
[60] Mongo Santamara, cited by Washburne, Christopher (2008: 190) Sounding Salsa; Performing Latin Music in New York City. Philadelphia:
Temple University Press ISBN 1-59213-315-0.
[61] Mongo Santamara, cited by Gerard, Charley (2001: 49) Music from Cuba: Mongo Santamaria, Chocolate Armenteros, and Other Stateside
Cuban Musicians. Praeger Publishers.
[62] Sonny Bravo cited by Pealosa (2009: 253).
[63] Alain Prez cited by Pealosa (2009: 253).
[64] Ortiz, Fernando (1950). La Africania De La Musica Folklorica De Cuba. Ediciones Universales, en espaol. Hardcover illustrated edition.
ISBN 84-89750-18-1.
[65] Washburne, Christopher (1995). "Clave: The African Roots of Salsa" Kainda, Fall.http:/ / www. chriswashburne. com/ articles. html
[66] Curtis, Natalie (1920: 98). Songs and Tales from the Dark Continent. New York: Dover Press.
[67] Jones (1959: 212).
[68] Kofi, Francis (1997: 30, 42). Traditional Dance Rhythms of Ghana v.1. Everett, PA: Honey Rock.
[69] C.K. Ladzekpo cited by Pealosa (2009: 244).
[70] Harington, Royal (1995: 63) West African Rhythms for Drumset. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing.
[71] Recorded examples of son clave in traditional music from Ghana and Benin: "Waka" (oge) Addy, Mustapha Tettey, The Royal Drums of
Ghana (1991: CD). "Kpanlogo" and "Fumefume" Traditional Dance Rhythms of Ghana v.1, Kofi, Francis (1997: pp. 30, 42/CD).
"Nago/Yoruba", Benin, Rhythms and Songs for the Vodun (1990: CD)
[72] Nigerian musician Segun Bucknor: "Latin American music and our music is virtually the same"quoted by Collins 1992 p. 62
[73] Roberts, John Storm. Afro-Cuban Comes Home: The Birth and Growth of Congo Music. Original Music cassette tape (1986).
[74] After Banning Eyre (2006: 16). Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music. Alfred Pub. ISBN 0-7390-2474-4
[75] After Banning Eyre (2006: 13).
[76] Eyre, Banning (2006: 9). "Highlife guitar example" Africa: Your Passport to a New World of Music. Alfred Pub. ISBN 0-7390-2474-4
[77] Pealosa (2010: 247). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN
1-886502-80-3.
[78] Graff, Folo (2001: 17). "Afrobeat" by Folo Graff. African Guitar Styles. Lawndale CA: ADG Productions.
[79] Recorded examples of son clave used in Brazilian Candombl and Macumba rhythms: Afro-Brazileiros Batucada Fantastica v.4,
Perrone, Luciano (1972: CD). Avaninha / Vassi d'ogun Musique du monde : Brsil Les eaux d'Oxala, (1982: CD). Opanije The Yoruba /
Dahomean Collection, (1998: CD). Popolougumde Pontos de Macumba (1999: CD). Recorded example of son clave used in Brazilian
maculule: Maculule Brazil Capoeira Pereira, Nazare (2003: CD).
[80] Bobby Sanabria cited by Pealosa (2009: 243).
[81] Kubik (1999: 51).
[82] "Wynton Marsalis part 2." 60 Minutes. CBS News (26 Jun 2011).
[83] "[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black American styles far more consistently than into white popular music, despite Latin
music's popularity among whites" (Roberts The Latin Tinge 1979: 41).
[84] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 16) Latin Jazz. New York: Schirmer Books.
[85] Pealosa (2010: 174) The Clave Matrix.
[86] Palmer 1979 p. 14
[87] Stewart 2000) p. 307.
[88] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=yeZHB3ozglQ
[89] Sublette, Ned (2007: 83). "The Kingsmen and the Cha-cha-ch." Ed. Eric Weisbard. Listen Again: A Momentary History of Pop Music.
Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-4041-0
[90] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=qOrQTh_Cq7U

23

Clave (rhythm)
[91] "John Storm Roberts cites many examples of Latin-tinged 1950s rhythm and blues, from artists such as Professor Longhair, Ruth Brown,
Clyde McPhatter and Ray Charles. Roberts believes that R&B became a 'vehicle for the return of the Latin tinge to mass popular
music'"Stewart (2000: 295).
[92] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=FCoM6cl1IwY
[93] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=uxDIzbeceDY
[94] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?feature=player_embedded& v=92BfYng3W5I
[95] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=3A1Ik_zShJQ& feature=share
[96] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=dHLUnowOZYs
[97] Guilfoyle, Conor (2006: 10). Odd Meter Clave for Drumset; Expanding the Rhythmic Language of Cuba. Essen, Germany: Advance Music.
[98] Guilfoyle (2006: 58)
[99] Guilfoyle (2006: 41)
[100] discography compiled by Guilfoyle (2006: 71)

References
Maulen, Rebeca (1993). Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN
0-9614701-9-4.
Moore, Kevin (2012). Understanding Clave and Clave Changes: Singing, Clapping and Dancing Exercises.
Santa Cruz: Moore Music. ISBN 146642302
Ortiz, Fernando (1950). La Africania De La Musica Folklorica De Cuba. Ediciones Universales, en espaol.
Hardcover illustrated edition. ISBN 84-89750-18-1.
Palmer, Robert (1979). A Tale of Two Cities: Memphis Rock and New Orleans Roll .Brooklyn.
Pealosa, David (2009). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway,
CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN 1-886502-80-3
Pealosa, David (2010). Rumba Quinto. Redway, CA: Bembe Books. ISBN 1-4537-1313-1.
Stewart, Alexander (2000). "Funky Drummer: New Orleans, James Brown and the Rhythmic Transformation of
American Popular Music." Popular Music, v. 19, n. 3. Oct., 2000), p.293-318.

External links
The Four Great Clave Debates (http://www.timba.com/artist_pages/study-the-4-great-clave-debates)
Clave Concepts; Afro Cuban Rhythms (http://pertout.customer.netspace.net.au/lclaveac.htm)
An introduction to clave theory (http://web.archive.org/web/20091027082120/http://geocities.com/sd_au/
clavetheory/clavetheory1.htm)
Clave Patterns (http://www.formedia.ca/rhythms/1clave.html)
Clave Changes in the Music of Charanga Habanera (http://www.timba.com/artist_pages/269)
Clave Analysis of Charanga Habanera's Tremendo delirio (http://www.timba.com/artist_pages/271)
Bossa Nova Clave (http://www.rockdrummingsystem.com/underground/drum-beats/clave-bossa.php)
Video about Bossa Nova Clave (http://www.expertvillage.com/video/87727_play-claves-bossa-nova.htm)
family of cuban clave patterns (http://www.jamesdreier.com/files/family_of_cuban_clave.pdf)
BBC World Service - Special Reports - A Short History of Five Notes (http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/
specialreports/five_notes.shtml)

24

Tresillo (rhythm)

25

Tresillo (rhythm)
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[1][2]

Tresillo.

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Tresillo
divisive.mid

v
t
[1]

Tresillo is a more basic form of the rhythmic figure known as

the habanera. It is the most fundamental duple-pulse rhythmic
cell in Cuban and other Latin American musics. Tresillo was
introduced in the New World through the Atlantic slave trade
during the Colonial period. The pattern is also the most
fundamental and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic cell in
Sub-Saharan
African
music
traditions.
Anglicized
pronunciation: tray-see-yo.

The cinquillo pattern is another common embellishment of tresillo. Cinquillo is used frequently in the Cuban
contradanza (the "habanera") and the danzn.

Triplet (formal usage)

Tresillo is a Spanish word meaning tripletthree equal notes within the same time span normally occupied by two
notes. In its formal usage, tresillo refers to a subdivision of the beat that does not normally occur within the given

Tresillo (rhythm)

27

structure. Therefore it is indicated by the number 3 (in brackets) as shown below. The top measure divides each beat
in three: one, and, ah, two, and, ah. The bottom measure divides the span of two main beats by three (hemiola): one,
one-ah, two-and.

Triplets

Duple-pulse correlative of 3:2

Tresillo-over-two
In sub-Saharan rhythm the four main beats are typically divided into three or four pulses, creating a 12-pulse (12/8),
or 16-pulse ( 4/4) cycle.[3] Every triple-pulse pattern has its duple-pulse correlative; the two pulse structures are two
sides of the same coin. Cross-beats are generated by grouping pulses contrary to their given structure, for example:
groups of two or four in 12/8 or groups of three or six in 4/4.[4] The duple-pulse correlative of the three cross-beats
of the hemiola, is known in Afro-Cuban music as tresillo. The pulse names of tresillo and the three cross-beats of the
hemiola (3:2) are identical: one, one-ah, two-and.[5]

Tresillo over two Video

Top: "tresillo" over two; bottom: three-over-two (3:2).

Tresillo (rhythm)

28

Cross-beat generation
The composite pattern of tresillo and the main beats is commonly known as the habanera,[6] congo,[7]
tango-congo,[8] or tango.[9] The habanera rhythm is the duple-pulse correlative of the vertical hemiola (above). The
three cross-beats of the hemiola are generated by grouping triple pulses in twos: 6 pulses 2 = 3 cross-beats. Tresillo
is generated by grouping duple pulses in threes: 8 pulses 3 = 2 cross-beats (consisting of three pulses each), with a
remainder of a partial cross-beat (spanning two pulses). In other words, 8 3 = 2, r2. Tresillo is a cross-rhythmic
fragment. It contains the first three cross-beats of 4:3.[10]

Tresillo consists of the first three cross-beats of four-over-three (4:3).

Basic rhythmic cell (common usage in Cuban popular music)

Habanera (Cuban contradanza)
The Cuban contradanza, known outside of Cuba as the habanera, was the first written music to be rhythmically based
on an African motif (tresillo and its variants). Tresillo is used as an ostinato figure in the left hand. The habanera was
the first dance music from Cuba to be exported all over the world. Because of the habanera's global popularity,
tresillo and its variants are found in popular music in nearly every city on the planet. Later Cuban musical exports,
such as the son, son montuno, and the mambo continued to reinforce the use of tresillo bass lines and vamps.
"La Paloma" is one of the most popular habaneras, having been produced and reinterpreted in diverse cultures,
settings, arrangements, and recordings over the last 140 years. The song was composed and written by Spanish
composer Sebastin Iradier (later Yradier) after he visited Cuba in 1861. The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm.

Excerpt from "La Paloma" by Sebastian Yradier (1863).

Tresillo (rhythm)

29

The "three-side" of clave

As used in Cuban popular music, tresillo refers to the "three-side" (first three strokes) of the son clave pattern.[11]

The most basic duple-pulse cell

Although the triplet divides the main beats by three pulses (triple-pulse) and tresillo divides them by four pulses
(duple-pulse), the two figures share the same pulse names: one, one-ah, two-and.[12] The common figure known as
the habanera consists of tresillo with the second main beat.

The "habanera" pattern. PlayWikipedia:Media

helpFile:Habaera.mid

The cinquillo pattern is another common embellishment of tresillo. Cinquillo is used frequently in the Cuban
contradanza (the "habanera") and the danzn. The figure is also a common bell pattern found throughout
sub-Saharan Africa.

Cinquillo.

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Cinquillo.mid

Bass tumbao
Tresillo is the rhythmic basis of many African and Afro-Cuban drum rhythms, as well as the ostinato bass tumbao in
Cuban son-based musics, such as son montuno, mambo, salsa, and Latin jazz.[13][14]

Tresillo-based tumbao from "Alza los pies Congo," by Septeto Habanero (1925).

Tresillo (rhythm)

30

In art music
Because of the popularity of the Cuban contradanza (habanera), the tresillo variant known as the habanera rhythm
was adopted into European art music. For example Georges Bizet's opera "Carmen" (1874) has a famous habanera
movement. The cello part (bottom staff) in the example below is playing the habanera rhythm

Habanera from "Carmen" with the tresillo variant known as the habanera rhythm in the left hand.

The symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1860) by New Orleans native
Louis Moreau Gottschalk, was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba.[15]
Gottschalk used the tresillo variant cinquillo extensively. With Gottschalk, we see
the beginning of serious treatment of Afro-Caribbean rhythmic elements in New
World art music. Tresillo and the habanera rhythm are heard in the left hand of
Gottschalk's salon piano compositions such as "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859).

Cinquillo-Tresillo in the French Antilles

Bl (also called belair) was developed in rural Martinique and is played on a
drum of the same name. The drum is played by two performers: one straddles the
drum, playing on the drum-head with both hands and a foot (which is used to
dampen and un-dampen the drum-head in order to produce different pitches); the
other performer uses a pair of sticks (called tibwa) to beat out characteristic and
intricate cross-rhythms on the side of the drum.
In bl, the cinquillo is beat out by the tibwa, but it translates very well to the
Louis Moreau Gottschalk
chacha (a maracas) when the rhythms are applied for playing biguine music. The
biguine, a modern form of bl, is accompanied by call-and-response singing and
by dancing. The tibwa rhythm also provided inspiration for the chouval bwa and then for zouk (two Antillean
popular music).
In zouk, the rhythm is often simplified to an almost-constant 3+3+2 motive and played with rim shots on the snare
while the chacha or hi-hats play the cinquillo-tresillo rhythm.

In African American music

Ragtime and jazz
African American music began incorporating Afro-Cuban rhythmic motifs in the 1800s with the popularity of the
Cuban contradanza (known outside of Cuba as the habanera). The habanera was the first written music to be
rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).[16] Musicians from Havana and New Orleans would take the
twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform and not surprisingly, the habanera quickly took root in the musically
fertile Crescent City. The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in
the United States, and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African American music.[17] From

Tresillo (rhythm)

31

the perspective of African American music, the habanera rhythm can be thought of as a combination of tresillo and
the backbeat.[18]

Habanera rhythm written as a combination of tresillo (bottom notes)

with the backbeat (top note). PlayWikipedia:Media
helpFile:Tresillo+ backbeat.mid

Tresillo in African American music is one of the clearest examples of African rhythmic retention in the United
States.[19] There are examples of tresillo-like rhythms in a few African American folk musics such as the foot
stomping patterns in ring shout and the post-Civil War drum and fife music.[20] Tresillo is also heard prominently in
New Orleans second line music. Wynton Marsalis considers tresillo to be the New Orleans "clave," although
technically, the pattern is only half a clave.[21]
John Storm Roberts states that "the habanera reached the U.S. 20 years before
the first rag was published."[22] Scott Joplin's "Solace" (1909) is considered a
habanera. For the more than quarter-century in which the cakewalk, ragtime
and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent
part of African American popular music.[23] Ned Sublette postulates that the
habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,"[24] while
Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what
freed black music from ragtime's European bass."[25]

Scott Joplin 1907.

Early New Orleans jazz bands had habaneras in their repertoire and the
tresillo/habanera was a rhythmic staple of jazz at the turn of the 20th century.
For example "St. Louis Blues" (1914) by W.C. Handy has a tresillo bass line.
Jelly Roll Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the
Spanish tinge) to be an essential ingredient of jazz. The two rhythmic figures
can be heard in his left hand on songs like "The Crave" (1910, recorded
1938).
Now in one of my earliest tunes, New Orleans Blues, you can
notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you cant manage to put tinges
of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right
seasoning, I call it, for jazzMorton (1938: Library of Congress
Recording).[26]

Jelly Roll Morton

Tresillo (rhythm)

32

Excerpt from Jelly Roll Morton's "New Orleans Blues" (c. 1902). The left hand plays the tresillo rhythm. The right hand
plays variations on cinquillo. PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:New orleans blues corrected.mid

James P. Johnson's influential "Charleston" rhythm is based on the first two strokes of tresillo. Johnson said he
learned the rhythm from dockworkers in the South Carolina city of the same name. Although the exact origins of
jazz syncopation may never be known, theres evidence that the habanera/tresillo was there at its conception. Buddy
Bolden, the first known jazz musician, is credited with creating the big four, a tresillo/habanera-based pattern. The
big four (below) was the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.[27] As
the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm.

[28]

Buddy Bolden's "big four" pattern.

PlayWikipedia:Media helpFile:Big four Buddy

Bolden.mid

It is probably safe to say that by and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz . . .
because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions. Some survived, others
were discarded as the Europeanization progressed. It may also account for the fact that patterns such as
[tresillo have] . . . remained one of the most useful and common syncopated patterns in jazzSchuller
(1968).[29]

R&B
In the late 1940s R&B music borrowed tresillo directly from Cuban music.
New Orleans producer-bandleader Dave Bartholomew first employed this figure (as a
saxophone-section riff) on his own 1949 disc "Country Boy" and subsequently helped make it the most
over-used rhythmic pattern in 1950s rock n roll. On numerous recordings by Fats Domino, Little
Richard and others, Bartholomew assigned this repeating three-note pattern not just to the string bass,
but also to electric guitars and even baritone sax, making for a very heavy bottom. He recalls first
hearing the figure as a bass pattern on a Cuban discPalmer (1995).[30]
In a 1988 interview with Robert Palmer, Bartholomew revealed how he initially superimposed tresillo over swing
rhythm.
I heard the bass playing that part on a 'rumba' record. On "Country Boy" I had my bass and drums
playing a straight swing rhythm and wrote out that rumba bass part for the saxes to play on top of the
swing rhythm. Later, especially after rock n roll came along, I made the 'rumba' bass part heavier and
heavier. Id have the string bass, an electric guitar and a baritone all in unison Palmer (1988).[31]

Tresillo (rhythm)

33

Bartholomew referred to son by the misnomer rumba, a common practice of that time. On Bartholomew's 1949
tresillo-based "Oh Cubanas" we clearly hear an attempt to blend African American and Afro-Cuban music.
Fats Domino's "Blue Monday," produced by Bartholomew, is another example of this now classic use of tresillo in
R&B. Listen: Fat's Domino's "Blue Monday" (1956). [32] On Bartholomew's 1949 tresillo-based "Oh Cubanas" we
clearly hear an attempt to blend African American and Afro-Cuban music. In his composition "Misery," New
Orleans pianist Professor Longhair (Henry Roeland Byrd) plays a habanera-like figure in his left hand.

"Misery" by Professor Longhair (1957).

Post-bop
The first jazz standard composed by a non-Latin to play off of the correlation between tresillo and the hemiola, was
Wayne Shorter's "Footprints" (1967).[33] On the version recorded on Miles Smiles by Miles Davis, the bass switches
to tresillo at 2:20. This type of African-based rhythmic interplay between the two pulse (subdivision) structures, was
explored in the 1940s by Machito's Afro-Cubans. Those structures are accessed directly by Ron Carter (bass) and
Tony Williams (drums), via the rhythmic sensibilities of swing. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether
sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below the main beats are indicated by
slashed noteheads. They are shown here for reference, and do not indicate bass notes.

"Footprints" bass lines, with main beats indicated by slashed noteheads.

In Middle Eastern and Asian music

Tresillo written in divisive form: 8 3.

Tresillo (rhythm)

34

Tresillo written in additive form: 3 + 3 + 2.

"Tresillo" is found within a wide geographic belt stretching from Morocco in North Africa, to Indonesia in South
Asia. Tresillo is used in many different types of music across the entire continent of Africa. Use of the pattern in
Moroccan music can be traced back to slaves brought north across the Sahara Desert from present-day Mali. This
pattern may have migrated east from North Africa to Asia through the spread of Islam.[34] African-based music has a
divisive rhythm structure (top).[35] Tresillo is generated through cross-rhythm: 8 pulses 3 = 2 cross-beats
(consisting of three pulses each), with a remainder of a partial cross-beat (spanning two pulses). In other words, 8 3
= 2, r2. In Middle East and Asian music the figure is generated through additive rhythm (bottom), 3+3+2:
Although the difference between the two ways of notating this rhythm may seem small, they stem from
fundamentally different conceptions. Those who wish to convey a sense of the rhythms background
[main beats], and who understand the surface morphology in relation to a regular subsurface
articulation, will prefer the divisive format. Those who imagine the addition of three, then three, then
two sixteenth notes will treat the well-formedness of 3+3+2 as fortuitous, a product of grouping rather
than of metrical structure. They will be tempted to deny that African music has a bona fide metrical
structure because of its frequent departures from normative grouping structureAgawu (2003: 87).[36]
In divisive form, the strokes of tresillo contradict the beats. In additive form, the strokes of tresillo are the beats.
From a metrical perspective then, the two ways of perceiving tresillo constitute two different rhythms. On the other
hand, from the perspective of simply the pattern of attack-points, tresillo is a shared element of traditional folk music
from the northwest tip of Africa to southeast tip of Asia. Today through the global spread if hip-hop music we hear
the tresillo bass drum superimposed over traditional genres in dance clubs across the vast Africa-Asia "tresillo-belt."

References
[1] Garrett, Charles Hiroshi (2008). Struggling to Define a Nation: American Music and the Twentieth Century, p.54. ISBN 9780520254862.
Shown in common time and then in cut time with tied sixteenth & eighth note rather than rest.
[2] Sublette, Ned (2007), Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo, p.134. ISBN 9781556526329. Shown with tied sixteenth &
eighth note rather than rest.
[3] Ladzekpo, C.K. (1996). Web. "Main Beat Schemes," Foundation Course in African Music. Web.
[4] Pealosa, David (2010). Rumba Quinto p. 180. Redway, CA: Bembe Books. ISBN 1-4537-1313-1
[5] Pealosa, David (2010: 43). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN
1-886502-80-3.
[6] Roberts, John Storm (1979: 6). The Latin tinge: the impact of Latin American music on the United States. Oxford.
[7] Manuel, Peter (2009: 69). Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
[8] Acosta, Leonardo (2003: 5). Cubano Be Cubano Bop; One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Books.
[9] Maulen (1999: 4) Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. ISBN 0-9614701-9-4.
[10] Pealosa (2010). Rumba Quinto p. xxx.
[11] [The] clave pattern has two opposing rhythm cells: the first cell consists of three strokes, or the rhythm cell, which is called tresillo (Spanish
tres = three). This rhythmically syncopated part of the clave is called the three-side or the strong part of the clave. The second cell has two
strokes and is called the two-side or the weak part of the clave. . . The different accent types in the melodic line typically encounter with the
clave strokes, which have some special name. Some of the clave strokes are accented both in more traditional tambores bat -music and in
more modern salsa styles. Because of the popularity of these strokes, some special terms have been used to identify them. The second stroke
of the strong part of the clave is called bombo. It is the most often accented clave stroke in my research material. Accenting it clearly identifies
the three-side of the clave (Pealosa The Clave Matrix 2009, 93-94). The second common clave stroke accented among these improvisations is
the third stroke of the strong part of the clave. This stroke is called ponche. In Cuban popular genres, this stroke is often accented in unison
breaks that transition between the song sections (Pealosa 2009, 95; Maulen 1993, 169). The third typical way to accent the clave strokes is
to play a rhythm cell, which includes both bombo and ponche accents. This rhythm cell is called [the] conga pattern (Ortiz, Fernando 1965
[1950] La Africania De La Musica Folklorica De Cuba, 277; Maulen 1993, 169-170). Iivari, Ville (2011: 1, 5). The Relation Between clave

Tresillo (rhythm)
Pattern and Violin Improvisation in Santeras Religious Feasts. Department of Musicology, University of Turku, Finland. Web. http:/ / www.
siba. fi/ fi/ web/ embodimentofauthority/ proceedings;jsessionid=07038526F10A06DE7ED190AD5B1744D7
[12] Pealosa (2010: 43). The Clave Matrix.
[13] Pealosa (2009: 40).
[14] "Alza los pies Congo," Septeto Habanero. (CD: 1925).
[15] Sublette, Ned (2008:125). Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.
[16] Manuel, Peter (2009: 67). Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
[17] "[Afro]-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black American styles far more consistently than into white popular music, despite Latin
music's popularity among whites" (Roberts 1979: 41).
[18] Pealosa, David (2010: 42). The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. ISBN
1-886502-80-3.
[19] Schuller, Gunther (1968: 19) "It is probably safe to say that by and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz . . . because
they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions. Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization
progressed. It may also account for the fact that patterns such as [tresillo have] . . . remained one of the most useful and common syncopated
patterns in jazz." Early Jazz; Its Roots and Musical Development. New York: Oxford Press.
[20] Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 52). Africa and the Blues. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.
[21] "Wynton Marsalis part 2." 60 Minutes. CBS News (26 Jun 2011).
[22] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 12) Latin Jazz. New York: Schirmer Books.
[23] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 16) Latin Jazz. New York: Schirmer Books.
[24] Sublette, Ned (2008:155). Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.
[25] Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40). The Latin Tinge. Oxford University Press.
[26] Morton, Jelly Roll (1938: Library of Congress Recording) The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax.
[27] Marsalis, Wynton (2000: DVD n.1). Jazz. PBS
[28] " Jazz and Math: Rhythmic Innovations (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ jazz/ classroom/ rhythmicinnovations. htm)", PBS.org. The Wikipedia
example shown in half time compared to the source.
[29] Schuller, Gunther (1968: 19) Early Jazz; Its Roots and Musical Development. New York: Oxford Press.
[30] Palmer, Robert (1995: 60). An Unruly History of Rock & Roll. New York: Oxford University Press.
[31] Dave Bartholomew quoted by Palmer, Robert (1988: 27) The Cuban Connection Spin Magazine Nov.
[32] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=nVtnoy8aZyA
[33] "Footprints" Miles Smiles (Miles Davis). Columbia CD (1967).
[34] Pealosa (2009: 236).
[35] Novotney, Eugene D. (1998: 100). Thesis: The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics (http:/ / www.
unlockingclave. com/ 3-2-thesis-abstract. html). UnlockingClave.com. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Tresillo additive.png Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tresillo_additive.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Dr clave

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