CHAPTER

10
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators

10-1
Introduction

sinusoidal oscillator consists basically of an amplifier

The

shifting network.

network, amplifies
of the network.

it,

phase

shifts

When

shift,

produce an output which

is

it

the amplifier gain

attenuation and phsise

circuit

it

through 180 and applies

The network phase

another 180 and attenuates

input.

generating

its

and a phase-

amplifier receives the output of the phase-shifting

is

own

before applying

and phase

the circuit

is

it

to the input

the amplifier output through

shifts

shift

it

back

to the amplifier

are equal to the network

amplifying an input signal to

attenuated to become the input signal.

input,

and a

The

state of oscillation exists.

For oscillation to be sustained certain conditions, known as the

Barkhausen
equal

10-2
PhaseShift

Oscillator

to

criteria,

must be

{or greater than) 1,

fulfilled.

and

the

These are

phase

shift

the loop gain of the circuit

around the

circuit

must be

must be

zero.

In the phase-shift oscillator an external resistor-capacitor (RC)

network feeds a portion of the ac output of an zimplifier back to the
amplifier input. If the amplifier has an internal phase shift of 180 and the

230

network provides a further 180 phase shift, the signal fed back to the input
can be amplified to reproduce the output. The circuit is then generating its
own input signal, and a state of oscillation is sustained.
Figure 10-1 shows an IC operational amplifier connected as an inverting amplifier (see Section 9-6) to give a 180 phase shift between amplifier

input and output. An RC network consisting of three equal-value capacitoi-s

and three equal resistors is connected between the amplifier output and
input terminals. Each stage of the network provides some phase shih to give

180 from output to input.

total of

The frequency
resistor values

of the oscillator

output dep)ends ujxin the capacitor and

employed. Using basic

shown that the network phase

shift

is

RC

circuit analysis

180

when

methods,

it

/=

is

(10-1)

2itRCV6

Fed back
voltage

Figure 10-1.

can be

the oscillating frequency

Phase-shift oscillator using an IC operational amplifier.

231
PhaseShift

Oscillator

232
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators

Figure 10-2.

Transistor phase-shift oscillator.

As well as phase shifting, the RC network attenuates the amplifier

Network analysis shows that, when the necessary 180 phjise shift is
achieved, this network always attenuates the output voltage by a factor of
29. This means that the amplifier must have a voltage gain of at least 29 for
the circuit to oscillate. For example, if the output amplitude is 2.9 V, the
feedback voltage is t^ = ( 2.9/29)= 100 mV. To reproduce the 2.9-V
output, V^ must be amplified by a factor of 29.
The amplifier gain of A^ = 29 and network attenuation of /3 = 29 give a
loop gain of /iA^ = 1. Also, the amplifier phase shift of 180 combined with

output.

the network phase shift of 180 gives a loop phaise shift of zero. Both these

conditions are necessary to satisfy the Barkhausen

Another phase-shift
a single

common

oscillator circuit

is

criteria.

shown

emitter transistor amplifier stage

in Fig. 10-2. In this case

is

employed. The com-

mon

RC

emitter circuit has 180 phase shift between input

network phase

shifts

and output, and the

233

Once

Phase-

the output to reproduce the necessary input.

again the amplifier must have a voltage gain of at least 29. Note that the
amplifier input resistance (Z) forms the last resistor of the

The

RC

input impedance of the

(especially in the circuit of Fig.

Shift

Oscillator

RC network.

network loads the amplifier, and

10-2) this affects the amplifier gain.

As

frequency increases, the capacitor impedances decrease, so that the loading

effect

When

greatest at high frequencies.

is

the loading effect reduces the

amplifier gain below 29, the circuit will not oscillate.

phase-shift oscillator

mum

is

most suitable

It is

found that the

ranging up to a maxi-

about 100 kHz.

of

An

external load can also reduce the amplifier gain and cause the

Because the operational amplifier circuit

circuit to cease oscillating.

10-1

for frequencies

has a very low output imjjedance,

it

less likely

is

in Fig.

to be affected

by

overloads than the circuit of Fig. 10-2.

If

the amplifier gain

waveform
the output

is

For example,

Fig. 10-1)

is

if

likely to

Fig. 10-2, the

fier

greater than 29, the oscillator output

When

the gain

is

slightly greater

than 29,

output

waveform depends upon the supply

the output

of

and the amplifier

tional amplifier tends to

levels.

much

usually a reasonably pure sine wave.

is

The amplitude
voltage

is

be distorted.

likely to

bias conditions.

the supply

is

be approximately
is

The output

go to approximately

likely to

be

voltage of the opera-

t>elow the supply voltage

15 V, then the oscillator output (for

14 V. In the case of the circuit in

Vf.^ or

F^jj,

whichever

is

least.

Design of a phase-shift oscillator commences with design of the amplito have a voltage gain slightly greater than 29. In the case of the

transistor circuit, final selection of the load resistor (R^ in Fig.

have to wait
account of

its

10-2)

may

impedance can be estimated to take

The network resistor value (R) is determined by

until the attenuator input

loading

effect.

considering the amplifier input impedance.

Then

the capacitor value

is

calculated using Eq. (10-1).

Using a /iA741 IC operational amplifier, with Vcc + 10 V, design a

have an output frequency of 1 kHz.

phase-shift oscillator to

solution
amplifier

and
/,/i.

Example

10-1

234

For the /iA741 4() = 500 nA.

Let
,

Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators

/,100x/a

= 100X50 nA = 50j[iA

Fo(Kcc-lV)=(10V-l)=9V
9 V
29

'

and

'

V.

9V

/,

29x50jaA

as6.2 kJ2

^2 = ^X7f,

i?3

62

(use 5.6-ki2 standard resistor value; see

Appendix

1)

= 29X5.6kn
(use

kfl

80-kn standard value

to give

> 29

= /?,||^25.6kB

RC network
Amplifier 2;

To

ensure that ^, does not load

= ^, = 5.6

significantly,

kfi

make /?<^,.

Leti? = /?,/10 = 560fi.

From Eq.

(10-1),

2-nRp/l
1

2irX560i2xi kHzVe

= 0.1 16 jaF

10-3
Colpitis
Oscillator

(use 0.12-/iF standard capacitor value; see

Appendix

2)

The Colpitis oscillator circuit shown in Fig. 10-3 uses an LC network (C,,
and L) to provide the necessary phase shift between amplifier output
voltage and feedback voltage. In this case the network acts as a filter to pass
the desired oscillating frequency and block all other frequencies. The filter

(72,

circuit resonates at the desired oscillating frequency.

^L ~ ^CT
where X^r

is

For resonance,

the reactance of the total capacitance in parallel with the

235
Colpitis

Oscillator

Output
Fed back
voltage

Figure 10-3.

an IC operational amplifier,

Colpitis oscillator using

inductance. This gives the resonance frequency (and oscillating frequency)

/=

(10-2)

lirVLCj.
where

C^ =
C^
Ck>nsideration of the

amplifier output to input)

LC

(10-3)

C^

network shows that

is

)8

its

attenuation (from the

236
Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators

It can be shown that when the 180 phase shift is achieved (A'^ A'c) = A'(,2This gives ^ = Xq.^/ Xq2- For the loop gain to equal 1, ^A^= 1, and

(1(M)

As

for other oscillator circuits, the loop gain

unity to ensure that the circuit oscillates.

Also,

should be greater than

as

before,

the output

waveform is likely to be severely distorted when A is much larger than

Xq^I Xq^. (In more complex circuits a method of stabilizing the output
amplitude

may

Design

of

be employed.)

commence with

a Colpitis oscillator might

values for C, and C^

much

the choice of

any stray capacitance. X^.^ should

also be much larger than the amplifier output impedance. Using the desired
oscillating frequency, the inductance L can be calculated using Eqs. (10-2)
and (10-3). The inductance should be as purely inductive as possible at the
specified oscillating frequency; i.e., the Q_ factor {uL)/ R should be as large
as possible. The minimum circuit gain is determined from Eq. (10-4). R^ is
selected large enough to avoid overloading A^., (i.e., ^,^A'c,). Then R2 is
determined from A^ and R^.

Example 10-2

Design a Colpitts

larger than

oscillator

operational amplifier with V(^f,=

to

10

/=4

give

kHz. Use a /iA741

IC

V.

solution
A'(;23>than

any

stray capacitance; take C2

= 0.1

/xF

and

(10-3):

C,C2

C,-l-C2

0.1 /iiFxO.l /iF

0.1 /iF

+ 0.1

= 0.05 juF
At/=4

kHz,
1

Xro~

27rX4kHzX0.1

= 398
and the /tA741 has Z^wTO

fi

^C2^^0

/xF

/tF

let

C^

= C2

Use Eq.

From Eq.

237

(10-2),

Hartley
Oscillator

L=
^ttYCt

4ff2x(4kHz)2X0.05/iF

32mH

4 > {^ci/^c2} >

Make

1-

R^

^as4.

>Xc^

Let

100X^c, = 100X398
as 39 kfi

For A^

fi

(standard value)

= 4,

= 4X39
=

156

kfl

kJ2

(use 150-kJ2 standard value)

A Colpitts oscillator using a single-stage transistor amplifier is shown

Fig. 10-4(a).

obvious.

Here Q,,
(b)

This

more

/?,,

is

the basic circuit,

and

its

similarity to Fig. 10-3

practical version of the circuit

R2, R^,

and C3 are unchanged from

has replaced the load resistor

R.^.

is

is

in

fairly

shovvn in Fig. 10-4(b).

Fig. 10-4(a).

However,

radio frequency choke

(RFC)

in
is

included in series with F^^ and L. This allows direct current /^ to pass, but

The upp)cr end of

and ground. The output of the
from the junction of L and C, to the

offers

a very high impedance at the oscillating frequency.

ac isolated

is

(by

phase-shifting network

amplifier

input at Q,

RFC) from
is

V(^(;

coupled via C,
base.

The output

voltage

V^

is

derived from a

secondary winding Lj coupled to the inductance L.

The

Hartley oscillator circuit

is

similar to the Colpitts oscillator, except

that the phase-shift network consists of

of

two capacitors and an inductor.

two inductors and a capacitor instead

10-4
Hartley
Oscillator

238

Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators

RFC

n
-'

"1.

Phase shift network

(a)

Basic circuit

(b) Practical circuit

Figure 10-4.

Transistor Colpitts oscillator.

Figure 10-5(a) shows the circuit of the Hartley oscillator, and Fig.

and 2 "f^^y t>e wound on a single core, so

mutual inductance between them. In this case the total
given by

10-5(b) illustrates the fact that L,

that there

inductance

is
is

L7-=L,

where
As

is

+ L2 + 2A/

(10-5)

the mutual inductance.

in the case of the Colpitts circuit, the frequency of oscillation

is

the

resonance frequency of the phase-shift network.

(10-6)

2irVcLj.

The

attenuation of the phase shift network

P=
Once

again, for a 180 phase shift (A"^,

is

Xq)

can be shown

to

equal

A'^j-

239
Hartley
Oscillator

Output

Phase shift network

Oscillator circuit

(a)

*-nfnmir

i'
(bl

Phase shift network with

and

Z.,

L-2

wound on

single core

Figure 10-5.

Hartley oscillator using an IC operational amplifier.

For the loop gain to be at

least

(10-7)

The

circuit design

procedure

for

a Hartley oscillator

is

basically similar to

that for the Colpitts circuit.

The

circuit of a transistor Hartley oscillator

is

shown

in Fig.

10-6.

Figure 10-6(a) gives a basic circuit in which the phase-shift network and
amplifier are easily identified as distinct separate stages of the oscillator. In
Fig. 10-6(b) a practical circuit
shift

is

shown. L,, Lj- ''"^

constitute the phase

network, and here the inductors are directly connected in place of the

0+K:c

Phase shift network

(a)

(b)

Basic circuit

Figure 10-6.

amplifier load resistance.

The

Practical circuit

Transistor Hartley oscillator.

radio frequency choke

(RFC)

collector current, but at oscillating frequencies isolates the

passes the direct

upper terminal

of

from the supply voltage. Capacitor C, couples the output of the phaseshift network back to the amplifier input, as in Fig. 10-6(a). Capacitor Cj in

Z,,

is no longer required in the circuit of Fig. 10-6 (b), because Lj

connected to the amplifier. However, because of the direct

Fig. 10-6 (a)

is

directly

now be

connection, the junction of L, and Lg cannot

Instead, another coupling capacitor C^

The Wein

10-5

Wein
Bridge

bridge

is

an ac bridge

is

in

directly grounded.

used.

which balance

particular supply frequency. In the IVein bridge

is

oscillator,

obtained only at a

the

Wein

bridge

is

used as the feedback network between input and output.

Oscillator

In Fig. 10-7 (a) the bridge components are

7?),

Analysis of the bridge circuit shows that balance

equations are

R2, R^, R^, C^,

is

obtained

and

Cj.

when two

fulfilled:

(10-8)
C,

(10-9)

V '^i ^l'^2
240

(a)

lb)

Wein bridge

oscillator circuit

Showing that the circuit consists

of a feedback network and a
nonlnverting amplifier

Figure 10-7.

Wein bridge

oscillator.

241

242

If

^1

= i?2 = R, and

C,

C2 = C, Eq. (10-9) yields

Basic
Sinusoidal
Oscillators

/=
and from Eq.

(10-10)

2itCR

(10-8),

R, = 2R,

The

(10-11)

redrawn in Fig. 10-7 (b), showing that the

/fj and R^ constitute a noninverting
amplifier (see Section 9-6). C,, /?,, C2, and R2 are seen to be a feedback
network connected from the amplifier output back to the noninverting
input. At the resonant frequency of the Wein bridge, the fed back voltage is
oscillator circuit

is

operational amplifier and resistors

in phase with the output. Since this (in phase) voltage

noninyerting input,

it

frequencies the bridge

is

is

applied to the

amplified to reproduce the output. At

is off

balance;

i.e.,

the fed back

all

other

and output voltages

do not have the correct phase relationship to sustain oscillations. The

Barkhausen criteria for zero loop phase shift is fulfilled in this circuit by the
amplifier and feedback network each having zero phase shift.
The design of a Wein bridge oscillator can be approached by first
each bridge arm. This should be much larger
than the input bias current to the operational amplifier. ^3 -I- ^4 can then be
calculated using an estimated output voltage, and the other circuit composelecting a current level for

nents can be determined using Eqs. (10-10) and (10-11).

Example 10-3

Design a Wein bridge oscillator to have an output frequency of 10

kHz. Use a /iA741 operational amplifier with Vcc~ 10 V.
solution
Amplifier

maximum

input current

is

Ig

= 500

nA. Let

/4/ through 4)

output voltage s ( F^c - V) = 9 V

1

Then
9

'^^"'^*=500M
= 18ka
Use Eq.

(10-11):

R3^2R^

3R^=l8kQ

~ ^^ M^

243

and
18

^4 =

The

kn

Review
Questions

= 6ki2

(use 5.6- kQ standard value)

lower-than-calculated value for ^4 makes

/4>500/iA
3 = 2/?4 = 2x5.6ki2

=
This will

11 .2

kn

(use

2-kn standard value)

make /?3>2^4 (and A^ >3).

kfi. Then ^, = ^2 = 5.6

Let /?2=4 = 5.6

From Eq.

kfl

= /?.

(10-10),

C=

2iTfR
1

27rXlOkHzX5.6kn

= 2842 pF

Barkhausen

States that for

criteria.

greater than

1,

(use 2700-pF standard capacitor value)

and

Phase-shift oscillator.

an

oscillator the loop gain

must be

that the phase shift must be zero.

Uses a

CR

network to phase

Glossary of
Important

Terms
the amplifier

shift

output.

Loop

gain.

Circuit gain from the amplifier input to output,

and through

the phase-shifting network back to the amplifier input.

Colpitts osciUator.
tors

and one

Hartley oscillator.
tors

Wein

10-1.

and one

Uses a phase-shifting network consisting of two capaciinductor.

Uses a phase-shifting network consisting of two induccapacitor.

bridge oscillator.

State the Barkhausen

a circuit to sustain
10-2.

Uses a Wein bridge as the feedback network.

criteria,

and explain why they must be

fulfilled for

Sketch the circuit of a phase-shift oscillator using an operational

amplifier. Briefly explain

how

the circuit operates

and how

it

fulfills

the Barkhausen criteria.

10-3.

Sketch the circuit

fier circuit.

of

a phase-shift oscillator using a transistor ampli-

Briefly explain

Review
Questions

oscillations.

how

the circuit operates,

equation for oscillating frequency.

and

state the

244

10-4.

Repeat Question 10-2

for

a Colpitis

Basic
Sinusoidal

10-5.

Repeat Question 10-3

for

a Colpitis

oscillator.

Oscillators

10-6.

Repeat Question 10-2

for

a Hartley

oscillator.

10-7.

Repeat Question 10-3

for a Hartley oscillator.

10-8.

Repeat Question 10-2

for

10-1.

Design a phase-shift oscillator to have an output frequency of approximately 3 kHz. Use a jnA741 operational amplifier with V(,(.=

10-2.

Problems

Wein

oscillator.

bridge oscillator.

12 V.
phase-shift oscillator

is

to

use three 0.05-|xF capacitors and a

have /=
10-3.

V. Design the

circuit to

circuit of Problem 10-1 to use a single-stage

Use a 2N3904 transistor vsdth K(,c= 15 V.

transistor

juA741 operational amplifier with Vq(.=

kHz.

Redesign the
amplifier.

10-4.

Repeat Problem

10-5.

10-1 for a Colpitts oscillator.

Colpitts oscillator

L = 20

is

mH

to

be designed

to

have /i5.5 kHz.

An

and a juA741 operational amplifier are

be employed. Using V^q= 18 V, complete the circuit design.
inductor with

10-6.

to

Design a Wein bridge oscillator using a ji.A741 operational amplifier

14 V. The output frequency is to be 15 kHz.

with V(.Q=
10-7.

A Wein

bridge oscillator is to have an output frequency of 9 kHz.

5000-pF capacitors and a jliA741 ojjerational amplifier are to be
employed. Complete the circuit design using Vcc~ 12 V.

Two