Divisions of psychology

physiological psychology
studies the neural mechanisms of behavior through the direct manipulation of the brain in
controlled experiments (animals, pure research)
psychopharmacology
studies the manipulation of neural activity and behaviors with drugs (applied research)
neuropsychology
study of the psychological effects of brain damage in human patients (quasiecperimental
and case studies, MOST applied)
psychophysiology
studies the relation between physiological activity and psychological processes in human
subjects (noninvasive)
cognitive neuroscience
study of the neural bases of cognition (higher intellectual processes) (human subjects,
noninvasive, usually interdisciplinary)
comparative psychology
compares behavior of different species in order to understand evolution, genetics, and
adaptiveness of behavior (lab/ethological research)
Cells of the Nervous System
The nervous system is made up of two types of cells: neurons and glia.
Neurons
Neurons are the fundamental cellular unit of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral
nervous system (PNS)

Essential features of neurons:

The purpose of neurons is to receive, process, and transfer information. This information is made
up of chemical or electrical signals
They are unidirectional
Its an all-in-one transfer of information (see Neuronal Signaling section)
Mature neurons do not regenerate in the CNS if their soma (cell body) is damaged. However, the
dendrites can regenerate, and sometimes the axons can generate also. (This allows other

neurons to assume the function of damaged ones.) Regeneration in the PNS is more probable
and successful.
Mature neurons do not proliferate after birth, however, progenitor (stem) cells are found in the
brain and can divide after birth. Progenitor cells can become neurons or glial cells.
Histology is the method by which neurons are studied:
Analysis of the brain is done by first hardening it (e.g., in a formaldehyde solution), then cutting
extremely thin slices
Nasal Stains color the cell body (soma) purple. This makes it possible to separate the cell
bodies of neurons from glial cells, count the number of neurons in a particular area, etc.
Myelin Stains color myelin sheaths, and therefore make it easy to view axons or axonal
connections
Golgi Stains, or Silver Stains, color the entire neurons silver. However, only 2% of the
neurons present will be highlighted in this way
There are 3 main types of neurons:
Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) transfer information from the external environment to
the CNS
Motor neurons (efferent neurons) transfer information from the CNS to external environment
Interneurons, or association neurons, process information in the CNS and transfers the
information from one neuron to the other within the CNS
Neurons are divided into three parts: dendrites, soma, and axon:
Dendrites
The input of the neuron:
Receive information from other neurons or the external environment and transfer to the cell body
(soma) or axons
Are numerous, relatively short, and branch extensively in a tree-like fashion
Dendrite means tree in Greek
Dendrites have numerous spines on them, and provide a greater surface area for other neurons
to synapse on, i.e., attach to.
Dendrites receive information from other cells at these synapses. This makes
dendrites postsynaptic.
The connection between axons that synapse on dendrites is called axodendritic
The connection between dendrites that synapse on other dendrites is called dendrodendritic
Soma

The cells body:

Has typical cell components used for cell maintenance:
The membrane (a lipid bilayer), which separates and protects the cell from its environment;
the nucleus (with a large nucleolus), which contains the genetic information of the cell;
endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes, where proteins are produced;
mitochondria, the energy power houses of the cell;
golgi apparatus, where proteins are packaged in vesicles for secretion outside the cell;
and other miscellaneous organelles.
The soma is usually large
Soma means body in Greek
Axon
The output of the neuron:
Transfer information to other neurons
Begin at the axon hillock, which is a swelling at the junction of the axon and soma where there
are many Na+ channels and the action potential starts (see Neuronal Signaling section)
Are usually long (some reaching several feet)
Axon means axis in Greek
Have terminal boutons at the end of the axon where the synapse is located
This makes axons presynaptic
This swelling at the terminal bouton is where the neuron synapses with another neuron
Contains numerous vesicles which hold neurotransmitter
Has many Ca2+ channels in the membrane
Forms presynaptic membrane in any kind of axonal synapse
The space between the terminal boutons and the next cell is known as the synaptic cleft, and is
approximately 20 nm thick.
Most are myelinated:
Have myelin sheaths that are made by Schwann cells or oligodendrocytes (see glia below)
Myelin acts as insulator to help conduction of action potential

There are openings between the Schwann cells called Nodes of Ranvier. These help with the
conduction of action potentials (see Neuronal Signaling below).
Some are not myelinated
Typical of shorter axons
Axons synapse on other cells in various forms:
Axoaxonal: Axon is connected to another neurons axon
Axodendritic: Axon is connected to another neurons dendrites
Axosomatic: Axon is connected directly to another neurons soma
In neuromuscular junctions, axons synapse directly on muscles.
Neurons have different shapes:
Unipolar: Has only one process extending from the soma, branching into dendrites or axon
terminals (typical of invertebrate animals)
Bipolar: The neuron, it has one input process from dendrites and one output process to
dendrites (typical of sensory neurons: visual, auditory, olfactory)
Multipolar: One axon but many dendrites extending directly from the soma (used for motor and
sensory processing). This is the prototypical neuron
Pseudounipolar: Were originally bipolar, but the dendrites and axon extensions have fused
(typical of the dorsal root ganglia in the spinal cord)

Glia
Glia, short for neuroglial cells, provide support to the nervous system:
Their purpose is to provide metabolic support, insulate, protect, reinforce, repair, and cleanup
damaged areas
They probably do not conduct information, though they perhaps offer some integration function
of their own, but currently this is in question. As of today we do not yet completely understand
their function
Are much more numerous than neurons. In some places they outnumber neurons 3 to 1. In other
places, they are 10 to 50 times more numerous. In total, neurons only form 10% of the nervous
system
They are found in both the CNS and the PNS, but there are different types in each
Neuroglia means "nerve glue"
Unlike neurons, glia proliferate (overproduction of glia is what causes brain tumor)
The different types of glia:
Astrocytes
Are star-shaped (hence, "astro")
Are large
They may hold the neurons together, since the brain does not have any connective tissue
They may play a role in maintaining the ion concentration of neurons. An astrocytes membrane
has sodium channels, which may take up sodium when there is too much of it, thereby
maintaining a neurons resting potential
Make contact with blood vessels
Contact point is called end-feet
Transport ions across the vascular wall. This maintains ion concentration around the neurons
Prevents certain chemicals from leaving the blood and affecting the neurons. This is known as
the blood-brain barrier (BBB).
Microglia
Are irregular-shaped

Are small (hence, micro)

Are mobile
Are phagocytic, which means they engulf and consume foreign microorganisms and damaged or
dead neurons.

Oligodendrocyte

Wraps its membrane around the axons in concentric circles to form myelin, a white and shiny
fatty substance, in the CNS. This squeezes out all the cytoplasm from that region, leaving only
the lipid-bilayer. This vastly improves electrical conduction in the axon (see Neuronal Signaling
section)
Offer nourishment to the neurons
Wraps itself around several axons at once. See cross section cutting vertically though three
axons and an oligodendrocyte
Many are needed to cover the whole length of an axon
Schwann Cells
Like oligodendrocytes, they form myelin sheaths around axons, but in the PNS.
A Schwann cell wraps itself around only one axon
ANATOMICAL STUCTURE OF SPINAL CORD