Michael D. Moga, S.J.

[From What Makes Man Truly Hunan? A Philosophy of Man and Society, Makati City: St. Pauls Press, 1995, pp. 3-10.]

Human beings are not necessarily human. Such a statement may sound very puzzling but it is
true for two reasons. First of all, it takes much time and effort for a human being to grow to the
point where his own nature has reached full realization. When born he acts like a little animal,
not yet being fully human. It will take many years of training and education by his family and
society, many years of effort and struggle on his own part before the fullness of humanity can
be achieved. Until that state of full humanness is attained we cannot say that he is fully human.
Secondly, it is very possible that an individual human being will not reach full development at all.
We recognize that there are human beings which fail to possess those basic qualities which are
required for full humanness. Sometimes we use the word inhuman to describe such persons.
They may be cruel, insensitive to others, irrational, or robot-like in their lives and dealings with
others. At other times we use the word animal to describe persons who follow their lower
instincts and ignore their consciences, their human dignity and the higher values of human life.
We judge such inhuman people, such animals, to be less than fully human.
That a human being can possibly not be human strikes us as a puzzling paradox, revealing that
man is quite different from all other living species. Every other living organism very quickly
grows to a state of full development. Very rarely do we encounter a plant or an animal that is
such a monster that it does not truly represent its species.
Every acacia tree is necessarily an acacia tree and every dog is necessarily a dog. Every tree
grows to full size in a few years and is completely a tree, taking nourishment from the soil and
the air, developing new branches and leaves, producing seeds. Most dogs grow to full size and
maturity within a year. From the very beginning ever dog is clearly a dog, breathing, barking and
smelling like a dog.
How strange it is that human life is so different from the lives of trees and dogs! The fullness of
humanity not only takes a great deal of time to reach but often in a significant way it is not
reached at all. We are surrounded on this planet earth with many human beings who sadly lack
very important human traits.

Such a truth challenges each one of us. Am I as an individual going to realize the full
humanness that is possible for me? Will I play a role in helping other human beings to grow
into the humanness that they are capable of? For the task that confronts me in my life is not
only one of coping with the problems of survival but also one of achieving a level of life that is
truly human. I am challenged in life not only to survive and to be prosperous but also to be
human.
But a question arises. What is this fullness of human life which we human beings can attain?
What are those characteristics that we should strive to develop? What makes man truly human?
This question is not a new one. In a hidden, implicit way it has confronted every human being
that has ever existed in the history of man. In the course of human history philosophers have
given many different answers to this question, many different ideals of being human. We call
such ideals humanisms. As we study the history of human cultures we discover many different
humanisms which have inspired and guided those cultures. It is worthwhile to reflect on these
various ideals since they open up to us many rich possibilities of human life.
The Greek Ideal of Full Development
One very distinctive humanism that arose in the past was that of the ancient Greeks. The Greeks
understood man as a being composed of many natural potentialities, many possibilities for
growth. They sensed that nature actively guided man to develop those potentialities, a
development that was meant to reach a state of fullness or excellence. In such an understanding
of life the fully human person is one who lives a life of a completely developed human being.
First of all, human beings have physical potentialities and it is possible for them to develop their
bodies and their bodily skills. Some of these skills are connected with sports and leisure as they
learn to run, to swim and to dance. Other skills are practical: the ability to type, the ability to
drive a car or to fly a plane, the ability to master crafts such as carpentry or masonry.
Secondly, human beings have many mental abilities that can be developed. They can expand
their capacities to imagine and to dream of new possibilities. They can develop their human

sensitivity, becoming more aware of themselves, of other people and of nature. They can learn
to think more logically and to bring rationality more completely into their lives. They can
become expert in one of the many human sciences. They can become more aware of the
presence of beauty in nature and in the human arts. They can become more open to the realm
of the mysterious and the sacred. In many different ways the human mind can be developed.
Thirdly, human beings can develop communication skills, learning how to read and to write and
to talk. It may take years to develop these skills but, once they are mastered, individuals are
better able to function as full human beings. They can express their ideas clearly and forcefully.
They can bring understanding, joy and beauty to those who read what they write or who listen
to what they say.
Fourthly, human beings can develop their social skills in many different ways. They can become
loyal friends, good mothers and fathers, active members of society. They can become generals in
armies, religious leaders, effective leaders of political communities. As individuals learn to play
their roles in society and make significant contributions to society, they fulfill some of their social
potentialities.
The Greeks conceived of nature to be the guide and inspiration for the development of all of
these human possibilities. This development was pointed toward an ideal, the fullness of human
life, a life of excellence.
Although these examples give us an understanding of human fulfillment in terms of an
individual human being, this Greek ideal was also meant to be realized on a social level. A
human community can achieve full development. This fullness of social development would
include many elements such as peace, economic prosperity, the rule of law, active community
interaction as well as the full development of education and the arts.
Thus, from the Greeks we have a clear ideal for human life, the development of all human
potentialities to the level of excellence. It is a humanism which has inspired and guided many
peoples over the ages.
The Oriental View

A distinctively different understanding of human life is found in the classical writings of oriental
religions, in Hinduism, Confucianism and Taoism. In these traditions human existence is
understood not to be a matter of living a full life as a separate individual but to be a matter of
living as part of something greater. In these traditions living wisely as a human being means that
an individual finds his true place in that greater reality and conforms himself to it. In a true
sense the wise man seeks to lose himself in that greater reality. From this oriental viewpoint
any understanding of human life is primarily an understanding of a greater reality of which the
individual man is a part. This sense of human life is expressed in different ways in each of the
various oriental traditions.
Hinduism conceives the greater reality to be divine and calls it Brahman or Atman. This divine
Brahman is the only thing which is truly real and everything else is only real to the extent that it
is part of Brahman. Brahman is like a great sea and all the other beings in the world are just
drops of water in that sea. Such drops do not have their own distinct individual existence but
exist as drops of water in a great sea; they are elements of something greater.
Mans life is thus conceived by Hinduism to be rooted in a divine totality, drawing its ultimate
truth and reality from this root. Of course, man can ignore this truth and live superficially,
absorbed by the happenings and ever-changing experiences of his individual existence. But such
a way of living is foolish. A wise man lives in terms of the basic divine reality of which he is a
part. He draws meaning from Brahman and seeks to lose himself in it.
In a similar way the Chinese tradition of Confucianism understands the life of man in terms of
something greater. In this case the greater reality is human society. What is really important in
human life is society as it is concretized in family and friendship and the state. Mans major
concern should be to act in such a way that these social units are preserved in a traditional and
correct form.
In this philosophy of Confucianism the individual human being is understood precisely as a part
of family, friendship or state. The purpose of his life is found in his fulfilling of his assigned role
in these various social units. From family and state he has certain clear obligations which he
must endeavor to fulfill. He lives wisely and his life is truly human to the extent that he fulfills
these obligations, and his family and state prosper.

A third prominent tradition in oriental thought is that of Taoism, a way of thinking that arose in
ancient China. In this tradition the emphasis is on Tao, a mysterious, all-encompassing reality.
Tao is the source of everything. It is an ultimate power that actively guides everything that exists
in the heavens, in the earth and in human life. Tao is thus a way that directs all of these
various levels of nature.
As an ultimate reality this Tao is conceived not only to be all-powerful (guiding the existence of
all beings) but also to be wise (guiding those beings to move in the best possible way). Because
of this the individual human being is wise if he trusts Tao, is sensitive to its guidance and follows
it in his life. He lets go of his own plans and his own efforts to control his own life and lives with
natural spontaneity. By doing so the wise mans life becomes the expression of his own
individual desires but of Tao.
Each of these three ways of life (Hinduism, Confucianism and Taoism) presents a picture of
human life as part of something greater. In each of them a human being is truly human when he
loses himself in that greater reality. To ignore that greater reality is to go astray and to live a life
which is foolish. Such understandings of life present deep wisdom that has guided the lives of
many millions of people for many centuries.
The Hebrew Understanding
A third quite distinctive understanding of human life is found in the Hebrew tradition. In this
tradition human life is conceived to consist of a situation where man constantly faces challenges
and expectations and is called upon to respond. In this situation man lives in a truly human way
to the extent that he is sensitive to these challenges and responds to them in a noble and
worthy way.
This Hebrew sense of human life is concretized in the story of the father of all the Jews,
Abraham. Abraham was called by Yahweh and told to take his family and possessions and to go
into a far country where Yahweh would bless him. Abraham was challenged to believe in this call
from God and to carry it out. He responded to Yahweh by trusting in His word and by fulfilling
faithfully what was asked of him. He achieved greatness in his life by the way that he was

faithful, responding to Yahwehs call. All believers in the Hebrew tradition understand their lives
in terms of this model of Abraham. They see themselves challenged and called by God in all of
the happenings of their lives.
This Hebrew model for understanding human life is not limited to a situation of religious faith
but can be understood in a broader context. Every human being can see his life as a matter of
challenges where the meaning of that life arises from the way that he responds. It is evident in
life that every individual is constantly confronted by challenges arising from nature, his family,
his friends, his community and his God. He experiences his life as something more than simply
being alive, occupying a place in a quiet situation. Mans situation is rather one of being
constantly challenged, of facing expectations at every moment. In life he is never left alone.
The Hebrew tradition thus presents us with an ideal of human life which is quite distinctive. The
ideal human being in this tradition is one who is first sensitive to the challenges of his situation
and who then responds to those challenges with courage, generosity and fidelity. Through this
sensitivity and this responsiveness a person becomes truly human.
Other Humanisms
Besides the three humanisms presented above there are many other ideals of human life which
have guided and inspired men and women through the ages. Let us briefly consider a few of
them.
There can be a type of moral humanism. Here the ideal human life is a full living of morality.
This can be found in a life of correctness where an individual follows exactly all the moral laws
of his religion and society. A slightly different version of this ideal is found in a life where moral
virtues are lived in a full way, virtues such as love, courage, prudence, patient endurance and
loyalty.
In such a moral humanism the fully human person is one who is good.
There can be a humanism which emphasizes creativity. The ideal here is a person who is
creative on all levels of his life, in his artistic productions, in his expression, in his relationships, in

his religion, in his personal growth. Such a fully human person is always open to new life as he
constantly moves into new ways of living. His life is growing, full of surprises.
For such a humanism of creativity the idea is embodied in an artist.
There can be a religious humanism. Such a humanism would be based on the understanding
that a human being is basically the image of God. According to this understanding the ideal
human life is achieved when one becomes a full child of God, living fully ones relationship to
God. This life would include many different things, including the fulfilling of Gods will in ones
life, setting God as ones primary goal, and emphasizing prayer and worship in ones life.
According to this view a person is fully human when he lives fully as the image of God.
In such a religious humanism the ideal is the holy person, the saint.
There can be a humanism of love. Human existence is understood here as basically a matter of
relating to other people. The ideal human life is achieved when a person establishes deep
human relationships with others and lives those relationships fully. One strives, for example, to
be loving friend or a loving mother or father. Included in this ideal life is a high level of
compassion and sensitivity. The ideal human being must be one who understands what others
are experiencing and who is deeply sensitive to the needs and feelings of others.
The Question
This question (What is the ideal way to live human life?) is not a mere theoretical problem. In
our lives in todays world we make major decisions based on our preference for one or other of
these humanisms, one of these ideals of human life. An example of this might be found in the
ideas behind womens liberation. Many modern women feel that their lives are somewhat
empty when their existence consists merely of being wives and mothers. They want more in their
lives than just the living out of such roles. They seek fulfillment in their lives, a fulfillment which
they find in a career. In such a choice they are being guided by the Greek ideal for human life.
A student may set aside her career in order to work and to gain money for the education of her
brothers and sisters. The welfare of her family is more important for her than her own

development. In acting this way she lives in terms of a humanism which gives priority to
commitments and to a larger reality (a social group) and makes individual development
secondary. (There is a similarity to the Hebrew and Oriental humanisms here.)
Another example of conflict between models is found in the contemporary emphasis on
involvement. This emphasis urges young people to go beyond their concern for their studies
and success in their careers and to commit themselves to some form of social action. Those who
stress such involvement are guided by an ideal of human life which looks beyond human
development and fulfillment. This ideal conceives human life to be fully found in a life of
response to the needs of ones community. (There is an echo of the Hebrew humanism here.)
Modern environmentalists urge us to cut back on our efforts for economic growth and to live in
tune with nature, limiting our usage of natural resources. Such people are guided by a Taoist
ideal of human life where life is understood in terms of conformity with nature and economic
growth is secondary.
Some people today choose to step aside from the world and to give their lives to God in
religious or contemplative life. These people conceive God to be all important and they choose
to live in terms of Him alone. Personal development and human relationships are conceived to
be subordinated to this greater reality. (There is something similar to Oriental humanism here.)
These examples show us that our ideal of human life has great influence over the choices that
we make in life. We began this chapter with a simple question: What makes man truly human? It
is clear now that the answer we give to that question will have a great effect on our lives.