Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Mathematics
Textbook
CHOO YAN MIN
& Answers.
Covers both 9740 & 9758 syllabuses.
Includes TYS
This book is optimised for viewing in PDF format (click the above link).
Other existing formats are crude conversions and may be sub-optimal.
Recent changes: First complete draft done. Spent a few days checking for errors.
Upcoming changes: None planned.
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This book is licensed under the Creative Commons license CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0.
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The scientist does not study nature because it is useful to do so. He studies it because
he takes pleasure in it, and he takes pleasure in it because it is beautiful.
- Henri Poincar (1908 [1914], Science and Method, English trans., p. 22).
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SYLLABUS ALERT
Where there are any differences between the old and revised syllabuses, Ill let you know
with a yellow box like this.
FREE! This book is free. But if you paid any money for it, I certainly hope your money
is going to me! This book is free because:
1. It is a shameless advertising vehicle for my awesome tutoring services.
2. The marginal cost of reproducing this book is zero.
DONATE! This book may be free, but donations are more than welcome! Donation
methods in footnote.3
Its irrational for Homo economicus to donate. But please consider donating because:
1. Youre a nice human being , [*emotional_manipulation*].
2. Your donations will encourage me and others to continue producing awesome free content
for the world.
Three Letter Abbreviations.
Indeed, some chunks of the old syllabus (9740) have simply been moved into the syllabus of Further Maths (9649), which
the authorities have kindly resurrected for the 2017 exam season.
3
Singapore. POSB Savings Account 174052271 or OCBC Savings Account 5523016383 (Name: Choo Yan Min). International. Bitcoin wallet: 1GDGNAdGZhEq9pz2SaoAdLb1uu34LFwViz. Paypal ychoo@umich.edu (Name: Yan Min Choo,
USD preferred because this account was set up in the US). USA. Venmo link (Name: Yanmin Choo).
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Wolfram Alpha is somewhat more advanced (but also slower). Enter sin x for example
and youll get graphs, the derivative, the indefinite integral, the Maclaurin series, and a
bunch of other stuff you neither know nor care about.
The Derivative Calculator and the Integral Calculator are probably unbeatable for the
specific purposes of differentiation and integration. Both give step-by-step solutions for
anything you want to differentiate or integrate.
Here is a collection of spreadsheets I made. These spreadsheets are for doing tedious and
repetitive calculations youll often encounter in H2 maths (e.g. with vectors, complex
numbers, etc.). As with anything I do, I welcome any feedback you may have about
these spreadsheets. Perhaps in the future I will make a more attractive version of it.
(Instructions: Click Make a copy to open up your own independent copy of
this spreadsheet. Enter your input in the yellow cells. Output is produced in
the blue cells. If you mess up anything, simply click the same link and Make
a copy again.)
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And of course, you can find countless free maths textbooks online (some less legal than
others). Two totally illegal7 resources are: LibGen for books and SciHub for articles.8
An old reliable is Bittorrent.
There is an entire StackExchange family of websites. The flagship site is StackOverflow where you can ask any programming
question and get it answered amazingly quickly.
7
Well, depending on which jurisdiction you live in. Of course, in Singapore, unless told otherwise, you should assume that
everything is illegal.
8
Note though that these sites are constantly playing whac-a-mole with the fascist authorities so the URLs often change
if so, simply google to look up the current URLs.
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Preface
Divide students into two extremes:
1. Type #1 is happy to get an A, even if this means learning absolutely nothing.
2. Type #2 would rather learn a lot, even if this means getting a C.
The good Singaporean is trained to view pragmatism is the highest virtue (and obedience
second). She is thus also trained to be a Type #1 student (and indeed a Type #1 human
being).
If youre a Type #1 student, then this textbook may not be the best use of your time
(though you may still find the TYS and answers useful). Please use instead these three
resources, which are provided with the efficient Type #1 student in mind:
The H2 Mathematics CheatSheet, which contains all the formulae youll ever need
on two sides of a single A4 sheet of paper.9
The H2 Maths Exercise Book (coming soon), which teaches you how to mindlessly
apply formulae and give the correct answer to every exam question.
My totally awesome tuition classes!
Of course, it is fully intended that this textbook (complemented by a capable teacher) will
help any student get her A. But that for me is quite beside the point.
My broader goal in writing this textbook is to impart genuine understanding or at least
as much as is possible, within the stultifying confines of the A-level syllabus.
Maths education in Singapore is at least every bit as stupid and boring and formulaic
and mindless as in the US.10 But at least the average US student has the consolation
that only a very small portion of her life will have been squandered on mindless pseudomaths.
The same cannot be said for the average Singaporean student. By the time she turns 18,
she will have just for the subject of maths alone clocked many thousands of hours
attending classes; doing homework; doing practice exam questions; doing assessment books,
Ten Year Series; going to tuition classes; taking common tests, promos, prelims, one big
exam after another; etc.
This textbook is for the Singaporean A-level student. So a good deal of mindless formulae
is unavoidable. But at the same time, I try in this textbook to give the student a tiny
glimpse of what maths really is the art of explanation.11 So for example, this textbook
explains
Two things: (1) This CheatSheet does not include many of the formulae already printed in List MF26. (2) It is written for
9758 (revised) students (so 9740 students may find a few things missing).
10
At least as described by Paul Lockhart, in A Mathematicians Lament.
11
Lockhart, p. 29.
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12
The internet was, at that time, not so well-developed, so one could not easily find answers online.
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Tuition Ad
I give tuition for the following at any level:
Economics.
Mathematics.
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Or email:
DrChooYanMin@gmail.com
Contents
About This Book
Preface
12
35
1 Sets
36
1.1
In and Not In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
1.2
Greater than >, Less Than <, Positive > 0, and Negative < 0 . . . . . . . . . .
38
1.3
Types of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
1.4
40
1.5
41
1.6
42
1.7
43
1.8
44
1.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
47
1.11 Subset Of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
49
1.13 Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
1.14 Intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
52
53
54
2 Dividing By Zero
55
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3 Functions
56
3.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.2
62
3.3
64
3.4
65
3.5
66
3.6
One-to-One Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.7
Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.8
73
3.9
Composite Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4 Graphs
4.1
77
83
86
5.1
Laws of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
5.2
87
5.3
Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
6 Intercepts
90
7 Symmetry
93
7.1
93
7.2
94
7.3
Lines of Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
99
8.1
8.2
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.3
8.4
8.5
99
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
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9 Differentiation
114
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9.5
d
Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
dx
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
133
135
151
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
159
162
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15 Transformations
166
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
f (x)
176
y 2 x2
= 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
b2 a2
bx + c
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
dx + e
ax2 + bx + c
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
16.9 The Hyperbola y =
dx + e
17 Simple Parametric Equations
203
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211
18.1
ax + b
> 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
cx + d
18.2
ax2 + bx + c
> 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
dx2 + ex + f
II
19 Finite Sequences
224
225
231
233
236
240
242
245
III
251
Vectors
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252
264
284
293
30 Vector Product
297
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31 Lines
305
323
333
345
357
IV
Complex Numbers
374
375
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379
384
390
398
406
411
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423
432
Calculus
441
442
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
451
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466
470
481
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
492
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
502
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
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VI
511
512
523
539
547
557
566
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574
578
586
589
596
608
609
612
. . . . . . . . . . 615
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617
. . . . . . . . . . . 623
630
636
. . . . . . . . . 658
. . . . . . . . . . 659
660
675
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71 Sampling
678
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
701
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725
VII
Ten-Year Series
757
758
769
779
788
794
823
VIII
854
855
876
889
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908
IX
921
Appendices (Optional)
922
bx + c
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
dx + e
ax2 + bx + c
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
dx + e
929
930
943
946
. . . . . . . . . . . . 950
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986
Answers to Exercises
1007
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1008
1068
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1077
1105
1128
94.1 Answers for Ch. 45: Solving Problems Involving Differentiation . . . . . . . . 1128
94.2 Answers for Ch. 46: Maclaurin Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1130
94.3 Answers for Ch. 47: The Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
94.4 Answers for Ch. 48: Integration Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1134
94.5 Answers for Ch. 49: The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus . . . . . . . . . 1143
94.6 Answers for Ch. 50: Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1144
94.7 Answers for Ch. 51: Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147
Page 33, Table of Contents
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1152
95.1 Answers for Ch. 52: How to Count: Four Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1152
95.2 Answers for Ch. 53: How to Count: Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1155
95.3 Answers for Ch. 54: How to Count: Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
95.4 Answers for Ch. 55: Probability: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1160
95.5 Answers for Ch. 56: Conditional Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1164
95.6 Answers for Ch. 57: Probability: Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1165
95.7 Answers for Ch. 59: Random Variables: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1166
95.8 Answers for Ch. 60: Random Variables: Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1170
95.9 Answers for Ch. 61: Random Variables: Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1171
95.10Answers for Ch. 62: Random Variables: Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1173
95.11Answers for Ch. 64: Bernoulli Trial and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174
95.12Answers for Ch. 65: Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1175
95.13Answers for Ch. 66: Poisson Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176
95.14Answers for Ch. 67: Continuous Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178
95.15Answers for Ch. 68: Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1179
95.16Answers for Ch. 71: Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
95.17Answers for Ch. 72: Null Hypothesis Significance Testing . . . . . . . . . . . 1189
95.18Answers for Ch. 73: Correlation and Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
96 Answers to Exercises in Part VII (2006-2015 A-Level Exams) 1198
96.1 Answers for Ch. 74: Functions and Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1198
96.2 Answers for Ch. 75: Sequences and Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225
96.3 Answers for Ch. 76: Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1255
96.4 Answers for Ch. 77: Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1269
96.5 Answers for Ch. 78: Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1292
96.6 Answers for Ch. 79: Probability and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345
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Part I
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Sets
The glory of [maths] is its complete irrelevance to our lives. Thats why its so fun!
Paul Lockhart (2009, A Mathematicians Lament, p. 38).
I have never done anything useful. No discovery of mine has made, or is likely to make,
directly or indirectly, for good or ill, the least difference to the amenity of the world.
- G.H. Hardy (1940 [1967], A Mathematicians Apology, p. 150).
The set is the basic building block of mathematics. Informally, a set is a container that
usually has some objects in it, but can sometimes also be empty.
Each object in a set is called an element (of that set).
Example 1. Let A = {3, 2 , Clementi Mall, Love, the colour green}.
Observations:
The name of a set is often an upper-case letter; in this case, it is A.
Mathematical punctuation marks called braces {} are used to denote a set. Listed within
these braces are the elements of the set.
Elements of the set are separated by commas (,). This mathematical punctuation mark
means and.
Thus, {3, 2 , Clementi Mall, Love, the colour green} is the set consisting of five elements, namely 3 and 2 and Clementi Mall and Love and the colour green.
Elements in a set can be almost anything whatsoever! In this example, the
elements included a building (Clementi Mall), an abstract notion (Love), and even a
colour (green). The elements of a set can even be another set! But dont worry, in the
context of A-level maths, the elements of a set will almost always be numbers.
When we talk about a set, we refer to both the container itself and all the objects in
it.
Exercise 1. B is the set of the first 7 positive integers. Write down B in set notation.
(Answer on p. 1008.)
Exercise 2. C is the set of even prime numbers. Write down C in set notation. (Answer
on p. 1008.)
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1.1
In and Not In
The mathematical punctuation mark means is in, while means is not in.
Example 2. Let B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. Then 1 B, 2 B, 3 B, etc. You can read these
statements aloud as 1 is in B, 2 is in B, 3 is in B, etc.
We can also write 1, 2, 3 B (1, 2, and 3 are in B).
Also, 8 B, 9 B, 10 B, etc. (8 is not in B, 9 is not in B, 10 is not in B, etc.).
We can also write 8, 9, 10 B (8, 9, and 10 are not in B).
Example 3. Cow {Cow, Chicken} reads aloud as Cow is in the set consisting of Cow
and Chicken.
Cow, Chicken {Cow, Chicken} reads aloud as Cow and Chicken are in the set consisting
of Cow and Chicken.
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1.2
Greater than >, Less Than <, Positive > 0, and Negative < 0
In this textbook:
Greater than means strictly greater than (>). So I wont bother saying strictly,
unless its something I want to emphasise.
Less than means strictly less than (<).
If I want to say greater than or equal to () or smaller than or equal to (), Ill
say exactly that.
Positive means greater than zero (> 0).
Negative means less than zero (< 0).
Non-negative means greater than or equal to zero ( 0).
Non-positive means less than or equal to zero ( 0).
0 is neither positive nor negative. Instead, 0 is both non-negative and non-positive.
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1.3
Types of Numbers
The following taxonomy lists the several types of numbers youll encounter in this textbook.
Complex
Numbers
Real
Numbers
Rational
Numbers
Imaginary
Numbers
Irrational
Numbers
Integers
NonIntegers
Well study imaginary numbers only later on in Part IV of this textbook. For now, all
numbers well consider are real numbers (or reals). We wont define what real numbers
are. Instead, well simply assume (like in secondary school) that everyone knows what
real numbers are.
Infinity () and negative infinity () are NOT numbers. Informally, is the thing
that is greater than any real number. Similarly, is the thing that is smaller than any
real number. I repeat: INFINITY IS NOT A NUMBER.13
So what exactly are real numbers, infinity, and negative infinity? This is actually a fascinating question that mathematicians were able to answer satisfactorily only from the 19th
century, but is beyond the scope of the A-levels.
Definition 1. An integer is any one of these real numbers: . . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Definition 2. A rational number (or simply rationals) is any real number that can be
expressed as the ratio of two integers. An irrational number (or simply irrationals) is any
other real number.
Example 5. The number 1.87 is a rational and a real, but it is not an integer.
Example 6. The number 3.14159 is an irrational and a real, but it is neither an integer
nor a rational.
13
Actually, the truth is somewhat more complicated. Under certain special contexts in more advanced mathematics, infinity
is treated as a number. But in this textbook, Ill simply keep it simple and insist that infinity is not a number.
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1.4
The order in which we write out the elements of the set does not matter:
Definition 3. Two sets are equal (or identical) if both sets contain exactly the same elements.
Example 7. There are at least six equivalent ways to write the set of the 3 smallest positive
even numbers: {2, 4, 6} = {2, 6, 4} = {4, 2, 6} = {4, 6, 2} = {6, 2, 4} = {6, 4, 2}.
Example 8. {Cow, Chicken} = {Chicken, Cow}.
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1.5
Note that more commonly, the number of elements in the set A is written as A. But for
some reason, the A-level syllabus instead uses the notation n(A), so thats what well use.
Exercise 3. W = {Apple, Apple, Apple, Banana, Banana, Apple}. What is n(W )? (Answer on p. 1008.)
Exercise 4. C is the set of even prime numbers. What is n(C)? (Answer on p. 1008.)
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1.6
The mathematical punctuation mark . . . is called the ellipsis and means continue in the
obvious fashion.
Example 11. D is the set of all odd positive integers smaller than 100. So in set notation,
we can write D = {1, 3, 5, 9, 11, . . . , 99}.
Example 12. T is the set of all negative integers greater than 100. So in set notation, we
can write T = {99, 98, 97, . . . , 2, 1}.
What is obvious to one person might not be obvious to another. So only use the ellipsis
when youre confident it will be obvious to your reader! And never be shy to write a few
more of the sets elements (as I did with the sets above)!
Exercise 5. Let D and T be as in the above two examples. What are n(D) and n(T )?
(Answer on p. 1008.)
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1.7
Example 13. Z+ is the set of all positive integers. So, Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . . }. And since Z+ is
infinite, we write n(Z+ ) = .
Example 14. Z is the set of all integers. So, Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }. And since
Z is infinite, we write n(Z) = .
Obviously, for an infinite set, we cannot explicitly list out all of its elements. So well often
use ellipses to help out, as we did in the above examples. Alternatively, we can use interval
notation or set-builder notation, which well learn about shortly.
Exercise 6. H is the set of all prime numbers. Write down H in set notation. (Answer on
p. 1008.)
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1.8
The following sets are so common that they have special symbols:
1. Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } is the set of all integers. (Z is for Zahl, German for
number.)
2. Q is the set of all rational numbers. (Q is for quoziente, Italian for quotient.)
3. R is the set of all real numbers.
4. C is the set of all complex numbers. (To be studied only in Part IV of this textbook.)
To create a new set that contains only the positive (or negative) elements of the old set,
append a superscript plus (+ ) or minus ( ) to the name of a set:
1. Z+ = {1, 2, 3, . . . } is the set of all positive integers. Z = {. . . , 3, 2, 1} is the set of all
negative integers.
2. Q+ is the set of all positive rational numbers. Q is the set of all negative rational
numbers.
3. R+ is the set of all positive real numbers. R is the set of all negative real numbers.
As well learn later, there is no such thing as a positive or negative complex number. Hence,
there is no such set named C+ or C .
To add the number 0 to a set, append a subscript zero (0 ) to its name:
Example 15. The set A = {3, 2 , Clementi Mall, Love, the colour green}. And so the set
A0 = {3, 2 , Clementi Mall, Love, the colour green, 0}.
Example 16. The set B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}. And so the set B0 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}.
Adding both a superscript + and a subscript 0 to the name of a set creates a new set that
contains all positive elements of the old set and in addition the number 0.
Similarly, adding both a superscript and a subscript 0 to the name of a set creates a new
set that contains all negative elements of the old set and in addition the number 0.
Example 17. If V = {2, 1, 3, 4}, then V + = {3, 4}, V = {2, 1}, V0+ = {0, 3, 4}, and
V0 = {2, 1, 0}.
Exercise 7. If U = {1, 0, 2}, then what are U + , U , U0 , U0+ , and U0 ? (Answer on p. 1008.)
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1.9
The left-bracket: [
The right-bracket: ]
2. [a, b] is the set of all real numbers that are greater than or equal to a and smaller than
or equal to b. Such a set is also called an closed interval.
Example 19. The set J = [0, 3] denotes the set of all real numbers that are
greater than
or equal to 0 and smaller than or equal to 3. So for example, the numbers 0, 2, 3 J.
3. (a, b] is the set of all real numbers that are greater than a and smaller than or equal to
b. Such a set is also called a half-open interval or a half-closed interval.
Example 20. The set K = (0, 3] denotes the set of all real numbers
that are greater than
4. [a, b) is the set of all real numbers that are greater than or equal to a and smaller than
b. Such a set is also called a half-open interval or a half-closed interval.
Example 21. The set L = [0, 3) denotes the set of all real numbers that are greater
than
or equal to 0 and smaller than or equal to 3. So for example, the numbers 0, 2 L, but
3 L.
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Exercise 8. How many elements does the set Z = [1, 1] contain? (Answer on p. 1008.)
Exercise 9. How many elements does the set Y = (1, 1) contain? (Answer on p. 1008.)
Exercise 10. How many elements does the set X = (1, 1.01) contain? (Answer on p. 1008.)
Exercise 11. Write down R, R+ , R+0 , R , and R0 in interval notation. (Answer on p.
1008.)
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1.10
The empty set is literally the set that contains no elements. Hence the name!
Definition 4. The empty set is the set {}. It can also be denoted .
Example 22. In 2016, the set of all Singapore Ministers who are younger than 30 is {} or
. This means that there is no Singapore Minister who is younger than 30.
Example 23. The set of all even prime numbers greater than 2 is {} or . This means
that there is no even prime number that is greater than 2.
Example 24. The set of numbers that are greater than 4 and smaller than 4 is {} or .
This means that there is no number that is simultaneously greater than 4 and smaller than
4.
As already mentioned, in this textbook (and also for the A-levels), the elements in a set will
almost always be numbers. But in general, the elements of a set can be (nearly) anything
whatsoever. In other words, a set really and simply is a container that can contain
(nearly) anything whatsoever.
Indeed, the elements of a set can be other sets, including even the empty set! Here are two
examples to illustrate:
Example 25. The set {} is not the same as the set . The former is a set containing a
single element, namely the empty set. The latter is the empty set. It is perhaps clearer if
we rewrite them as
{} = {{}} and = {} .
Now we clearly see that {{}} {}.
Note that the set {} = {{}} is certainly not empty, because it contains a single element
(namely the empty set).
Example 26. The set {, 1, {}} is the set containing three elements, namely the empty
set, the number 1, and a set containing the empty set.
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1.11
Subset Of
Exercise 12. State whether Z, Q, and R are subsets of each other. (Answer on p. 1008.)
Exercise 13. True or false: The set of currently-serving Singapore Prime Ministers is a
subset of the set of currently-serving Singapore Ministers. (Answer on p. 1008.)
The next fact is useful for showing that two sets are equal.
Fact 1. Two sets are subsets of each other They are identical.
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1.12
Proper Subset Of
Exercise 14. Is the set of all squares (call it S) a proper subset of the set of all rectangles
(call it R)? (Answer on p. 1008.)
Exercise 15. Does A B imply that A B? (Answer on p. 1009.)
Exercise 16. Does A B imply that A B? (Answer on p. 1009.)
Exercise 17. True or false statement: If A is a subset of B, then A is either a proper
subset of or is equal to B. (Answer on p. 1009.)
Remark 1. The official A-level syllabus uses the symbol to mean subset of and to
mean proper subset of. So this is what well use in this textbook.
However, confusingly enough, many writers use the symbol to mean subset of and to
mean proper subset of. We will not follow such practice in this textbook. Just to let you
know, in case you get confused while reading other mathematical texts!
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1.13
Union
Definition 7. The union of the sets A and B (denoted A B) is the set of elements that
are either in A OR B.
Tip: U for Union.
Example 29. Let T = {1, 2}, U = {3, 4}, and V = {1, 2, 3}. Then T U = {1, 2, 3, 4},
T V = {1, 2, 3}, and U V = {1, 2, 3, 4}. And T U V = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Exercise 18. Rewrite each of the following sets more simply: (a) [1, 2] [2, 3]. (b)
(, 3) [16, 7). (c) {0} Z+ ? (Answer on p. 1009.)
Exercise 19. What is the union of the set of squares (S) and the set of rectangles (R)?
(Answer on p. 1009.)
Exercise 20. What is the union of the set of rationals (Q) and the set of irrationals?
(Answer on p. 1009.)
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1.14
Intersection
Definition 8. The intersection of the sets A and B (denoted A B) is the set of elements
that are in A AND B.
Definition 9. Two sets intersect if their intersection contains at least one element (i.e.
A B ).
Definition 10. Two sets are mutually exclusive or disjoint if their intersection is empty
(i.e. A B = ).
Example 30. Let T = {1, 2}, U = {3, 4}, and V = {1, 2, 3}. Then T U = , T V = {1, 2},
and U V = {3}. And T U V = .
Exercise 21. Rewrite each of the following sets more simply: (a) (4, 7] (6, 9). (b) [1, 2]
[5, 6]. (c) (, 3) (16, 7). (Answer on p. 1009.)
Exercise 22. What is the intersection of the set of squares (S) and the set of rectangles
(R)? (Answer on p. 1009.)
Exercise 23. What is the intersection of the set of rationals (Q) and the set of irrationals?
(Answer on p. 1009.)
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1.15
Set Minus /
The set minus (sometimes also called set difference) operator is very convenient. Sadly,
it is not in the A-level syllabus and so Ill avoid using it in this textbook. Nonetheless, its
worth a quick mention.
Definition 11. A set minus B (denoted A/B or A B) is the set that contains every
element in A that is not also in B.
Example 31. Let T = {1, 2}, U = {3, 4}, and V = {1, 2, 3}. Then T /U = T , T /V = , and
U /V = {4}.
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1.16
Set Complement A
Definition 12. The set complement of A (denoted A or Ac ) is the set of all elements that
are not in A.
Example 32. Consider the set of positive integers. Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, . . . }. Then in
this context, A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, . . . }.
Example 33. Consider the set of all reals. Let A = R+ . Then in this context, A = R0 .
Example 34. Consider the roll of a die. The set of desired outcomes was A = {1, 6}.
Unfortunately, no desired outcome occurred. In other words, the actual outcome was an
element in the set A = {2, 3, 4, 5}.
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1.17
Set-Builder Notation
Set-builder notation is an alternative method of writing down sets. In the current context,
the mathematical punctuation mark colon will mean such that.
Example 35. The set {x R x > 0} contains all x R such that x > 0. In words, this set
contains all real numbers that are positive.
What comes after the colon are the conditions or criteria that x must satisfy, in order to
qualify as a member of the set. Our sets will usually contain only numbers, but heres an
example to show you how we can write down one particular set of musical artists.
Example 36. The set {x x is an artist that has had a US Billboard Hot 100 #1 Single}
contains all the artists who have ever had a US Billboard Hot 100 #1 Single.
It will however be more typical for our sets to be sets such as these:
Example 37. {x R x > 0} = R+ , Q+ = {x Q x > 0}, Z+ = {x Z x > 0},
R+0 = {x R x 0}, Q+0 = {x Q x 0}, and Z+0 = {x Z x 0}.
Remark 2. We use the colon but some writers use instead the pipe .
Exercise 24. Write down R , Q , Z , R0 , Q0 , and Z0 in set-builder notation. (Answer
on p. 1009.)
Exercise 25. Write down (a, b), [a, b], (a, b], and [a, b) in set-builder notation. (Answer
on p. 1009.)
Exercise 26. Let X = {x x is a living current or former Prime Minister of Singapore}.
Write down the set X so that all its elements are explicitly stated. (Answer on p. 1009.)
Exercise 27. Rewrite
each of the following sets in set-builder notation: (a) (, 3)
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Dividing By Zero
This very brief chapter is to warn you against making a common mistake dividing by
0. Students have little trouble avoiding this mistake if the divisor is obviously a big fat 0.
Instead, students usually make this mistake when the divisor is an unknown constant or
variable that might be 0.
Example 38. Find the values of x for which x(x 1) = (2x 2)(x 1).
Heres the wrong solution: Divide both sides by x 1 to get x = 2x 2. So x = 2.
Heres the correct solution: Case #1. Suppose x 1 = 0. Then the given equation is
satisfied. So x = 1 is one possible value for which x(x 1) = (2x 1)(x 1). Case #2.
Now suppose x 1 0. So we can divide both sides by x 1 to get x = 2x 2. So x = 2.
Conclusion. The two possible values of x for which x(x 1) = (2x 1)(x 1) are x = 1 and
x = 2.
Moral of the story. Whenever you divide by a certain quantity, make sure its non-zero.
If youre not sure whether it equals 0, then break up your analysis into two cases, as was
done in the above example: Case #1 the quantity equals 0 (and see what happens
in this case); Case #2 the quantity is non-zero (in which case you can go ahead and
divide).
By the way, lets take this opportunity to clear up another popular misconception You
1
1
may have heard that = . This is wrong. . Instead, any non-zero number divided
0
0
by 0 is undefined.14 Undefined is the mathematicians way of saying, You havent told
me what you are talking about. So what you are saying is meaningless.15
Exercise 28. Whats wrong with this proof that 1 = 0? (Answer on p. 1010.)
1. Let x, y be positive numbers such that x = y.
2. Square both sides: x2 = y 2 .
3. Rearrange: x2 y 2 = 0
4. Factorise: (x y)(x + y) = 0.
14
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Functions
16
This definition is still informal. See Definition 135 in the Appendices for the exact, formal definition (optional).
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3.1
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Exercise 29. For each of the following functions, write down the value of the function at
1. (a) The function f R R is defined by x x + 1. (b) The function g [1, 1] R is
defined by x 17x. (c) The function h Z+ R is defined by x 3x . (d) The function
i Z R is defined by x 3x . (Answer on p. 1011.)
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3.2
This section simply repeats and emphasises what was already said above.
Example 44. Say we have ...
Domain {Cow, Chicken};
Codomain {Produces eggs, Produces milk, Guards the home}; and
Mapping rule: Chicken is mapped to Produces eggs.
Can we define a function using the above domain, codomain, and mapping rule?
No. The reason is that the mapping rule fails to specify what Cow (an element of the
domain) should be mapped to. It thus fails the requirement that every element in the
domain be mapped to an element in the codomain.
Example 45. Say we have ...
Domain {Cow, Chicken};
Codomain {Produces eggs, Produces milk, Guards the home}; and
Mapping rule: Cow is mapped to both Produces milk and Guards the home; and
Chicken is mapped to Produces eggs.
Can we define a function using the above domain, codomain, and mapping rule?
No. The reason is that the mapping rule maps Cow (an element of the domain) to more
than one element in the codomain. It thus fails the requirement that every element in the
domain be mapped to exactly one element in the codomain.
Example 46. Say we have ...
Domain R;
Codomain [0, 1]; and
Mapping rule: x x + 1.
Can we define a function using the above domain, codomain, and mapping rule?
No. The reason is that the mapping rule fails to map some elements in the domain (e.g.
14) to any element in the codomain. It thus fails the requirement that every element in the
domain be mapped to an element in the codomain.
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For Exercises 30-37: (i) State (yes/no) whether we can define a function using the given
domain, codomain, and rule. (ii) Explain why or why not. (iii) If we can, then write down
the function in formal notation.
Exercise 30. Let the domain be {5, 6, 7}, the codomain be Z+ , and the mapping rule be
x 2x (Answer on p. 1011.)
Exercise 31. Let the domain be {0, 3}, the codomain be {3, 4}, and the mapping rule be
(informally) any larger number will work. (Answer on p. 1011.)
Exercise 32. Let the domain be {2, 4}, the codomain be {3, 4}, and the mapping rule be
(informally) any smaller number will work. (Answer on p. 1011.)
Exercise 33. Let the domain be {1}, the codomain be {1}, and the mapping rule be
(informally) stay exactly the same. (Answer on p. 1011.)
Exercise 34. Let the domain be {1}, the codomain be {1, 2}, and the mapping rule be
(informally) stay exactly the same. (Answer on p. 1011.)
Exercise 35. Let the domain be {1, 2}, the codomain be {1}, and the mapping rule be
(informally) stay exactly the same. (Answer on p. 1011.)
Exercise 36. Let the domain be R, the codomain be R, and the mapping rule be x x.
(Answer on p. 1011.)
1
Exercise 37. Let the domain be R, the codomain be R, and the mapping rule be x .
x
(Answer on p. 1011.)
Exercise 38. How might you change the domain in Exercise 36 so that a function can be
defined? (Answer on p. 1012.)
Exercise 39. How might you change the domain in Exercise 37 so that a function can be
defined? (Answer on p. 1012.)
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3.3
Definition 13. A function of a real variable is any function whose domain is a subset of
R.
Altogether then, a real-valued function of a real variable is any function both of whose
domain and codomain are subsets of R.
Example 48. Consider the functions f R R, g R R, and h R R defined by
x x2 . All three are real-valued functions, functions of a real variable, and thus also
real-valued functions of a real variable.
Consider the function i {Cow, Chicken} Z defined by Cow 5 and Chicken 32. This
is a real-valued function, but not a function of a real variable. Thus, it is not a real-valued
function of a real variable.
Consider the function j Z {Cow, Chicken} defined by x Cow if x is odd and x
Chicken if x is even. This is a function of a real variable, but not a real-valued function.
Almost all functions considered in H2 Maths are real-valued functions of a real variable. So
well see plenty of functions like f , g, and h from the above example, but rarely (if ever)
will we see functions like i or j.
In this textbook, unless otherwise clearly-stated, it may be assumed that all functions are
real-valued functions of a real variable.
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3.4
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3.5
f g is the function with domain R, codomain R, and mapping rule x (7x + 5) x3 ; and
f
is the function with domain R R+ , codomain R, and mapping rule x (7x + 5) /x3 .
g
kf is the function with domain R, codomain R, and mapping rule x 2 (7x + 5).
We can of course give these four new functions new names (perhaps a single-letter name
for each), but this is not necessary. We can simplywrite:
(f + g) (1) = 7(1) + 5 + 13 = 13,
(f g) (1) = 7(1) + 5 13 = 11,
17
Formally, f + g is the function with domain A B, codomain R, and mapping rule x f (x) + g(x). Similarly, f g is the
function with domain A B, codomain R, and mapping rule x f (x) g(x).
f g is the function with domain A B, codomain R, and mapping rule x f (x)g(x).
f
is the function with domain {x x A B, g(x) 0}, codomain R, and mapping rule x f (x)/g(x). The set A
g
B/ {x g(x) = 0} is the set of all elements x that are in both A and B, excluding those for which g(x) = 0. This exclusion
is necessary, otherwise f (x)/g(x) may sometimes not be well-defined.
Finally, kf is simply the function with domain A, codomain R, and mapping rule x kf (x).
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3.6
One-to-One Functions
Informally, a function is one-to-one (or invertible) if every element in its range is hit
exactly once (by exactly one element in the domain). Put another way: every element y in
the range corresponds to exactly one element in the domain. Formally:
Definition 16. A function f D C is one-to-one (or invertible) if for every y f (D),
there is only one x D such that f (x) = y.
Example 54. Consider the function f whose domain is the set {Cow, Chicken}, codomain
is the set {Produces eggs, Produces milk, Guards the home}, and mapping rule is Cow
Produces milk and Chicken Produces eggs.
The range is {Produces eggs, Produces milk}.
This function is one-to-one because each element in the range is hit exactly once, as we
can easily verify: Produces eggs is hit once by Chicken and Produces milk is hit once
by Cow.
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3.7
Inverse Functions
Given a one-to-one (or invertible) function f , to find its inverse function f 1 , follow these
steps:
1. Dom (f 1 ) = Range (f ).
2. Cod (f 1 ) = Dom (f ).
3. Write down an expression f 1 (y) that involves only y and show that f 1 (y) = x
y = f (x) .
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1
f
(y)
f(x), f -1(x)
4
3
2
1
x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
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Example 58. You can verify for yourself that the function f R R defined by x 2x is
one-to-one. Lets find its inverse function f 1 .
1. f has range R. So f 1 has domain R.
2. f has domain R. So f 1 has codomain R.
3. As usual, lets pick any element y in the range of f and write:
y =f (x) y = 2x 0.5y = x.
1
f
(y)
f(x), f -1(x)
4
3
2
1
x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
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Example 59. You can verify for yourself that the function f R+ R R defined by
1
x is one-to-one. Lets find its inverse function f 1 .
x
1. f has range R+ R . So f 1 has domain R+ R .
y =f (x) y =
= x ( y 0).
x
y
1
f
(y)
1
So f 1 has mapping rule y .
y
(Note that is the shorthand symbol for because. Similarly, is the shorthand symbol
for therefore.)
The condition here that y 0 is important and goes back to our warning that was Chapter
2 (Dividing by Zero). We know for sure that the range of f does not contain 0. This is
why in the last line above, we can safely divide both sides of the equation by y.
5
f(x), f -1(x)
4
3
2
1
x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
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Example 60. You can verify for yourself that the function f R+0 R defined by x x2
is one-to-one. Lets find its inverse function f 1 .
1. f has range R+0 . So f 1 has domain R+0 .
y =f (x) y = x2 y = x.
1
f
(y)
Here there are two possibilities for the mapping rule of f 1 , namely y y and y y.
We must pick one. We know that the domain of f and
hence the codomain of f 1 is
f(x), f -1(x)
4
3
2
1
x
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
+
Exercise 44. Find
the inverse function for each of the following functions. (a) f R0 R
defined by x x. (b) g [0.5, 0.5] R defined by x sin x. (c) h R R defined by
x x3 .(Answers on p. 1014.)
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3.8
We saw that some functions were not one-to-one (or non-invertible). And so for these
functions, an inverse function simply does not exist.
Nonetheless, we can often transform a non-invertible function into an invertible function.
One way to do this is by restricting the domain. The new invertible function will then have
an inverse function.
Example 61. We saw in Exercise 43 that the function j R R defined by x sin x was
not one-to-one. However, we can restrict the domain to [0.5, 0.5] to get a brand new
function g [0.5, 0.5] R defined by x sin x. This brand new function g is identical
to the original function j except for its domain. g is one-to-one, as you should verify for
yourself.
We can thus go ahead and construct the inverse function g 1 . Actually, we already did this
in Exercise 44.
There is almost always more than one way to restrict the domain of a non-invertible function
to obtain an invertible function. Indeed, a trivial case would be where we restrict its domain
to be the empty set! In which case the function thus formed would certainly be invertible,
though not very interesting (it would have an empty domain and an empty range so too
would its inverse function).
1
(x 1)2
is not one-to-one. (b) Show that by restricting its domain to (1, ), we can create a new
invertible function g (you must prove that this new function is invertible). (c) Then find
the inverse function g 1 . (Answer on p. 1015.)
Exercise 45. (a) Show that the function f (, 1) (1, ) R defined by x
Exercise 46. For the function f in Example 62, lets instead restrict the domain to [20, 30].
Show that the new function thus obtained is one-to-one and find its inverse. (Answer on
p. 1015.)
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3.9
Composite Functions
Definition 18. Let f and g be functions such that the range of g is a subset of the domain
of f . Then the composite function f g is the function with the same domain as g, the same
codomain as f , and mapping rule x f (g(x)).
The composite function f g can be read aloud as f circle g and is sometimes denoted
f g, especially when we want to make clear that we are not talking about f g. But well
rarely use the f g notation, unless there is some risk of confusion with f g.
The underlined condition is important: The range of g must be a subset of the domain of
f in order for the composite function f g to exist. This condition ensures that given any x
from the domain of g, the value g(x) is itself also in the domain of f , so that f (g(x)) is
well-defined.
If this condition fails, then the composite function f g simply does not exist.
Example 63. The functions g, f R R are defined by g x x + 1 and f x 2x. The
range of g is R this is indeed a subset of the domain of f (which is R). So the composite
function f g R R exists and is defined by x f (g(x)) = 2 (g(x)) = 2(x + 1).
Lets try computing f g(2). We can use the definition of a composite function: f g(2) =
f (g(2)) = f (2 + 1) = f (3) = 6.
Alternatively, we can directly use f g(x) = 2(x + 1) to compute f g(2) = 2(2 + 1) = 6.
Notice that for the composite function f g, we apply the function g first before applying the
function f . So for example, to compute, say f g(7), we compute g(7) first, then compute
f (g(7)). (A common mistake by students is to instinctiely read from left to right, and so
apply f first before g.)
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Exercise 47. For each of the following pairs of functions f and g, verify that the composite
function f g exists and write it out in full. Also, compute f g(1) and f g(2). (a) The functions
g, f R R defined by g x x2 + 1 and f x ex . (b) The functions g, f R R defined
by g x ex and f x x2 + 1. (c) The functions g, f R R+ R defined by g x 1/2x
and f x 1/x. (d) The functions g, f R R+ R defined by g x 1/x and f x 1/2x.
(Answer on p. 1016.)
We can of course also build a composite function out of a single function.
Example 66. The function f R R is defined by x 2x. The range of f is R and this
is indeed a subset of the domain of f (which is R). So the composite function f f R R
exists and is defined by x f (f (x)) = 2f (x) = 2(2x) = 4x. And so for example f f (3) =
2(2 3) = 12.
The composite function f f can instead be written as f 2 . So in the above example, wed
write f 2 (3) = 12.
We can, analogously, define the composite function f f 2 and denote it f 3 . Using the above
example, f 3 (x) = 8x and f 3 (3) = 24.
Of course, there are also f 4 , f 5 , etc.
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Remark 5. The official A-level syllabus uses f 2 to mean the composite function f f and
nothing else. So this is what well do in this textbook.
But confusingly enough, some writers use the symbol f 2 to mean the second derivative of
f , f 3 to mean the third derivative of f , etc.. We wont follow such practice. Just to let
you know, in case you read other mathematical texts and get confused.
However, we will use f (3) to mean the third derivative of, f (4) to mean the fourth
derivative of, etc. This will show up occasionally in Part V (Calculus).
Exercise 48. For each of the following functions f , verify that the composite function f 2
exists and write it out in full. Also, compute f 2 (1) and f 2 (2). (a) The function f R R
defined by x ex . (b) The function f R R defined by x 3x + 2. (c) The function
f R R defined by x 2x2 + 1. (Answer on p. 1016.)
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Graphs
An ordered pair is a mathematical object. Like set of two objects, an ordered pair is,
informally, a container with two objects, where the objects are listed out with a comma
separating them.
The only difference between a set of two objects and an ordered pair is that order
matters for the latter.
To distinguish an ordered pair from a set of two objects, we use parentheses (instead of
braces).
Example 67. (Cow, Chicken) is an ordered pair. (5, 4) is an ordered pair.
We also refer to (a, b) as ordered set notation. So (Cow, Chicken) and (5, 4) are both
examples of ordered pairs, written out in ordered set notation.
Example 68. Let (Cow, Chicken) and (Chicken, Cow) be ordered pairs. Let {Cow,
Chicken} and {Chicken, Cow} be sets.
Recall that for sets, order did not matter. Hence, {Cow, Chicken} = {Chicken, Cow}.
In contrast, for ordered pairs, order does matter. And so (Cow, Chicken) (Chicken, Cow).
Definition 19. An ordered pair of real numbers is any (x, y) where both x, y are real.
Example 69. (5, 4), (1, 1), and (2, 3) are all ordered pairs of real numbers.
Confusingly, above in Section 1.9 (Intervals), we said that (5, 4) was a set, namely {x R
5 < x < 4}. Here we say instead that (5, 4) is an ordered pair, consisting of two objects
(5 and 4), the order of which matters.
Unfortunately this is yet another bit of confusing notation youll have to live with. Youll
have to learn to tell, from the context, whether (5, 4) is a set of infinitely-many real
numbers or an ordered pair. But dont worry, this is usually pretty obvious.
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Definition 20. In any ordered pair of real numbers, the first real is called the x-coordinate
and the second is the y-coordinate.
Definition 21. The cartesian plane is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers.
In set-builder notation, the cartesian plane can be written as {(x, y) x R, y R}. This
reads aloud as the cartesian plane is the set of ordered pairs of real number (x, y).
In this textbook, well usually only ever look at ordered pairs of real numbers.
Hence, rather than say ordered pair of real numbers, well simply say ordered pair. And
so whenever you see the notation (x, y), it should be understood that this is an ordered
pair of real numbers (and not cows or chickens).
And so instead of writing the cartesian plane as {(x, y) x R, y R}, well simply write it
as {(x, y)}, with the understanding that x, y are reals.
In the present context, well also simply call any ordered pair of real numbers a point.
(Later on, in the context of three-dimensional geometry, points will also refer to ordered
triples of real numbers.)
Definition 22. In the context of the cartesian plane, the origin is the point (0, 0).
Points are usually given lower-case letters as names.
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We can illustrate the cartesian plane graphically. The horizontal axis corresponds to the
x-coordinate of the points and is thus also called the x-axis. The vertical axis corresponds
to the y-coordinate of the points and is thus also called the y-axis.
Example 70. The points (or ordered pairs of real numbers) a = (5, 4), b = (1, 1), and
c = (2, 3) are illustrated graphically on the cartesian plane:
a
3
b
x
-5
-3
-1
-1
-3
-5
Example 71. The set of three points {a, b, c} = {(5, 4), (1, 1), (2, 3)} is a graph.
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The graph of a function f is simply the set of points (x, y) that satisfy x D, y C, and
f (x) = y. Formally:
Definition 24. The graph of a function f D C is the set {(x, y) x D, y C, y = f (x)}.
Given a function that is named with a lower-case letter, we will often use the upper-case
version of that same letter to denote that functions graph. So for example, given the
function f , we often give its graph the name F .
Example 72. Consider the function f R R defined by x x2 . Its graph may be written
as F = {(x, y) y = x2 }.
f(x), y
x
0
-2
-1
Weve defined graph as a noun. But at the slight risk of confusion, well also use it as a
verb that means draw in the cartesian plane a given set of points. So we can say either
we draw the graph of f (graph as a noun), or we graph f (graph as a verb).
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Definition 25. Given a function f D C, a point of the function is any element of its
graph. That is, it is any ordered pair (x, f (x)), where x D.
To use the above example, we say that (2, 4) and (5, 25) are both points of f .
But since x determines f (x), it is nice but not necessary to specify the complete ordered
pair (x, f (x)). Instead, we can refer to the point simply as x. So in the above example, we
can simply say that 2 and 5 are both points of f , with the understanding that what we
really mean is (2, 4) and (5, 25) are both points of f . This is a bit sloppy and at the risk
of some confusion, but will save us a lot of messy notation.
So in the context of functions, x does double duty. It can either refer to an element in the
functions domain OR it can refer to a point of the function.
On exams though, it is probably safer to simply list out the full co-ordinates, whenever
youre referring to a point. Just in case your marker is damn niao.
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We just learnt about the graph of a function. A graph of an equation is very similarly
defined:
Definition 26. Given an equation involving x and y as the only two variables, the graph
of the equation is the set of points (x, y) that satisfy the equation.
Example 73. The graph below is of the equation x2 + y 2 = 1. It is simply the set {(x, y)
x2 + y 2 = 1}.
1
f(x), g(x), y
p = (x, y)
x 2 + y2 = 1
y
x
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
(-0, 0)
Centre
-1
Exercise 49. (a) Can the equation x2 + y 2 = 1 be rewritten into the form of a single
function? (b) Can it be rewritten into the form of two functions? (Answer on p. 1017.)
Exercise 50. Draw the graphs of each of the following equations. (a) y = ex . (b) y = 3x + 2.
(c) y = 2x2 + 1. (Answers on pp. 1017, 1018, and 1019.)
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4.1
You are required to know how to use a graphing calculator to graph a given function.
Pretty bizarre that in this age of the smartphone, they want you to learn how to use these
clunky and now-useless devices from the 80s and 90s. It is the equivalent of having to
learn how to program a VCR.
This textbook will give only a very few examples involving graphing calculators.
There is no better way of learning to use it than to play around with it yourself. By the
time you sit down for your A-level exams, you will have had plenty of practice with it.
You can also use any of the seven calculators in the list below (last updated by SEAB on
March 1st, 2016, PDF). But this textbook will stick with the TI-84 PLUS Silver Edition
(which Ill simply call the TI84).18
Ill always start each example with the calculator freshly reset.
Example 74. Graph the function f R R defined by x x2 .
1. Press ON to turn on your calculator.
2. Press Y= to bring up the Y= editor.
3. Press X,T,,n to enter X; then x2 to enter the squared 2 symbol.
4. Now press GRAPH and the calculator will graph y = x2 .
After Step 1.
18
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
My understanding is that most students use a TI calculator and that the five approved TI calculators are pretty similar.
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2
1 x2 and g [1, 1] R defined
by x 1 x. We can thus tell our calculator to
graph two separate equations: y = 1 x2 and y = 1 x2 .
1. Press ON to turn on your calculator.
2. Press Y= to bring up the Y= editor.
Most buttons on the TI84 have three different roles. If you simply press a button, then the
TI84 executes the role that is printed on the button itself. If you press the blue 2ND and
then a button, then the TI84 executes the role printed in blue above the button. And if
you press the green ALPHA and then a button, then the TI84 exexcutes the role printed
in green above the button.
entered 1 x2 .
4. Now press ENTER and the blinking cursor will move down, to the right of Y2 =.
After Step 1.
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
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After Step 6.
After Step 8.
After Step 9.
After Step 7.
repeat what we did in step 3 above: Press the blue 2ND button and then
(which
2
1 X ). Altogether you will have entered 1 x2 .
5. Now press GRAPH and the calculator will graph both y = 1 x2 and y = 1 x2 .
Notice the graphs are very small. To zoom in:
6. Press the ZOOM button to bring up a menu of ZOOM options.
7. Press 2 to select the Zoom In option. Nothing seems to happen. But now press ENTER
and the TI84 will zoom in a little for you.
We expected to see a perfect circle. Instead we get an elongated oval whats going on?
The reason is that by default, the x- and y- axes are scaled differently. To set them to the
same scale:
8. Press the ZOOM button again to bring up the ZOOM menu of options. Press 5 to
select the ZSquare option. Nothing seems to happen. But now press ENTER and the
TI84 will adjust the x- and y- axes to have the same scale. And now we have a perfect
circle.
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Heres a super quick revision of some O-Level Maths well be using. If you have severe
difficulty with these exercises, you should go back and review your O-Level Maths material!
5.1
Laws of Exponents
=x
a+b
x a
xa
( ) = a,
y
y
xa
= xab ,
b
x
(xa )
= xab ,
(xy)a = xa y a ,
xa =
1
,
xa
a1/b =
b
a,
ac/b =
c
b
ac = ( b a) .
(8x+2 34(23x ))
.
2x+1
( 8)
19
By convention, 00 is usually defined to be equal to 1 this textbook will follow this practice.
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5.2
Example 76. Heres a case where theres just a surd in the denominator:
1
2
2
= =
.
2
2
2 2
For more complicated cases, the trick is to use the fact that (a + b)(a b) = a2 b2 .
Given a + b, we call a b the conjugate of a + b. We refer to a + b and a b as a conjugate
pair.
Example 77.
1 2
1 2 1 2
1
1 2
=
=
=
=
= 2 1.
12
1
1 + 2 (1 + 2) (1 2) 12 ( 2)2
x
y
x2
y2
+1
x
x2
+1 .
2
y
y
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5.3
Absolute Value
z,
z =
z,
if z 0,
if z < 0.
20
The absolute value operator is the function with domain R, codomain R+0 , and mapping rule x x if x 0 and x x
if x < 0.
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Fact 4.
a a
= (provided b 0).
b
b
a
a
a
< 0 so that = . Moreover,
b
b
b
a a
a a
a a
either
=
or
= . Altogether then, indeed
= .
b
b
b b
b
b
If a and b have opposite signs (and are non-zero), then
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Intercepts
Example 79. The graph below is of the equation y = x + 3. It has horizontal intercept 3
and vertical intercept 3.
5
y
y=x+3
3
1
x
-5
-3
-1
-1
-3
-5
Horizontal intercepts are the x-coordinates of the points at which the graph intersects
the horizontal or x-axis. Similarly, vertical intercepts are the y-coordinates of the points
at which the graph intersects the vertical or y-axis.
Definition 27. a is a horizontal intercept (or x-intercept) of a graph G if (a, 0) G.
Definition 28. b is a vertical intercept (or y-intercept) of a graph G if (0, b) G.
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Where the graph G is of an equation (or function), we sometimes also call the horizontal
intercepts zeros or roots of the equation (or function). (Well use the terms zeros and
roots interchangeably in this textbook.)
Example 80. Consider the equation y = x2 1. Its zeros or roots are 1 and 1, because
these are the values of x for which y = 0.
Of course, 1 and 1 are also the horizontal intercepts (or x-intercepts) of the graph of the
equation.
Example 81. Consider the the function f with domain R, codomain R, and mapping rule
x x2 1. Its zeros or roots are 1 and 1, because these are the values of x for which
f (x) = 0.
Of course, 1 and 1 are also the horizontal intercepts (or x-intercepts) of the graph of f .
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f(x)
f(x) = x2 - 1
x
0
-2
-1
-1
The A-level exams will often ask you to write down the full co-ordinates of the points at
which a graph (or curve) crosses the axes this means writing down both the x- and
y-coordinates, and not just the horizontal intercept or the vertical intercept. Heres an
exercise to help you make this a habit.
Exercise 54. Write down in full the point(s) at which the graphs of each the following
equations crosses the axes: (a) x2 +y 2 = 1. (b) y = x2 4. (c) y = x2 +2x+1. (d) y = x2 +2x+2.
(Answer on p. 1022.)
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7
7.1
Symmetry
A reflection of a point in a line is its mirror image point on that line. Formally:
Definition 29. Let a be a point and l1 be a line. Let l2 be the line that is perpendicular
to l1 and runs through a. Let x be the point where l1 and l2 intersect. Then the reflection
of a in l1 is the point a on l2 such that the distances ax and a x are equal.
l1
l2
a'
Fact 5. Let (a, b) be a point. Its reflection in the line y = x is the point (b, a).
Fact 6. Let (a, b) be a point. Its reflection in the line y = x is the point (b, a).
Example 83. (a) Given the point (3, 17), its reflection in the line y = x is (17, 3) and its
reflection in the line y = x is (17, 3).
(b) Given the point (1, 5), its reflection in the line y = x is (5, 1) and its reflection in the
line y = x is (5, 1).
(c) Given the point (0, 0), its reflection in the line y = x is (0, 0) and its reflection in the
line y = x is (0, 0).
Exercise 55. For each of the following points, write down their reflections in the lines (i)
y = x; and (ii) y = x. (a) (3, 17). (b) (1, 5). (c) (0, 0). (Answer on p. 1023.)
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7.2
Definition 30. The reflection of a graph G in a line is the graph G where each point in
G is a reflection of a point in G.
Example 84. The reflection of the graph G = {(x, y) y = x2 + 4} in the line y = 2 is the
graph G = {(x, y) y = x2 }.
G : y = x2 + 4
y=2
line of reflection
G ' : y = -x2
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Example 85. The reflection of the graph G = {(x, y) y = ln x} in the line x = 0 is the
graph G = {(x, y) y = ln(x)}.
y
x=0
line of reflection
G ' : y = ln (-x)
G : y = ln x
x
Fact 7 formalises our earlier observation in section 3.7 (Inverse Functions) that the graphs
of f and its inverse f 1 are reflections in the line y = x.
Fact 7. Let f be an invertible function. Then the reflection of the graph of f in the line
y = x is the graph of its inverse function f 1 .
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The next Fact simply makes the obvious observation that the reflection in the line y = x of
any point along the line y = x is itself.
Fact 8. Let (a, a) be a point. Its reflection in the line y = x is (a, a).
The above Fact is useful for finding where a function and its inverse intersect.
Example 86. Let f R R be the invertible function defined by x 2x. The graph of f
intersects the graph of f 1 at the point(s) where x = f (x) x = 2x x = 0. Notice
the intersection point (0, 0) is also on the line y = x. See figure on p. 70.
Example 87. Let f R+0 R be the invertible function defined by x x2 . The graph of
f intersects the graph of f 1 at the point(s) where x = f (x) x = x2 x(x 1) = 0
x = 0, 1. Notice the intersection points (0, 0) and (1, 1) are also on the line y = x. See
figure on p. 72.
Be careful not to make the mistake of believing that f and f 1 can only intersect at points
where x = f (x). A function and its inverse can certainly intersect at points that
are not on the y = x line.
Example 88. Let f R+ R R be the invertible function defined by x 1/x. The
graph of f intersects the graph of f 1 at the point(s) where x = f (x) x = 1/x
x = 1, 1.
We have merely found two points at which f and f 1 intersect. There may very well be
other intersection points. Indeed, in this example, f and f 1 also intersect at every other
x 0! See figure on p. 71.
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7.3
Lines of Symmetry
Example 89. The graph of y = x2 is symmetric in the line x = 0 (which also happens to
be the vertical axis).
4
y
x=0
Reflection
line
3
y = x2
x
0
-2
-1
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1
is symmetric in the lines y = x and y = x.
x
5
y
4
y = -x
line
y=x
line
3
2
1
y=1/x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-1
5
x
-2
-3
-4
-5
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The syllabus makes nearly no mention of limits and none of continuity. Yet differentiation
and integration are built entirely on the concept of limits. Continuity is also almost always
assumed. It is thus well-worth spending an hour or two on these concepts, especially since
theyre not difficult and everything will become that much clearer.
8.1
Statements #1 and #2 are entirely equivalent. Either may be (informally) interpreted thus:
x
-5
-3
-1
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x
-5
-3
-1
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In the next example, both h(3) and lim h(x) are well-defined, but lim h(x) h(3).
x3
x3
x
-5
-3
-1
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we cannot make i(x) as close to 17 as we like by restricting x to values that are close to
but not equal to 3. Hence,
As x 3, i(x)
/ 17,
x
-5
-3
-1
Section 8.3 gives more examples of limits. But first, lets learn about continuity.
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8.2
Continuity
Section 88.6 in the Appendices contains additional definitions and results concerning continuity (optional).
Example 91 (revisited). Graphed below is the function f R R defined by x 5x + 2.
It is continuous at 3, because lim f (x) = 17 and f (3) = 17.
x3
20
10
f is continuous
everywhere
-5
-3
0
-1
x
1
-10
-20
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However, it is not continuous at 3, because lim g(x) = 17, but g(3) is undefined, and so
x3
g is continuous
everywhere
except at x = 3.
x
-5
-3
-1
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However, it is not continuous at 3, because lim h(x) = 17, but h(3) = 0 and so lim h(x)
x3
x3
h(3).
Altogether, h is continuous at any a (, 3)(3, ), because for any a (, 3)(3, ),
we have lim h(x) = h(a). But h fails to be continuous at 3.
xa
y
h is continuous
everywhere
except at x = 3.
x
-5
-3
-1
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8.3
We now turn to examples where limits do not exist. We start with a trivial example.
Example 95. Graphed below is the function f R+0 R defined by x 5x + 2.
There is no number L such that for all values of x that are close to but not equal to 3,
f (x) is also close to L. And so we simply say that lim f (x) does not exist.
x3
This is a trivial example because 3 is far from the domain of f . So obviously, for all
values of x that are close to but not equal to 3, f (x) is undefined and so of course there
is no number L that f (x) is always close to!
x
-5
-3
-1
is
undefined.
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1
x
for all x 0. This is a very strange function. As x gets ever closer to 0, g(x) fluctuates
ever more rapidly between 1 and 1.
Example 96. Graphed below is the function g R R defined by g(0) = 0 and g(x) = sin
Its difficult or even impossible to draw an accurate graph of g near the origin.
In this example, lim g(x) does not exist. The reason is that for all values of x that are
x0
close to but not equal to 0, there is no number L that g(x) is close to. When x is close
to 0, g(x) takes on every value in [1, 1] infinitely often! And so g(x) can never be said
to be close to any one single number L.
Altogether then, g is not continuous at 0. (With a little work, we can actually prove that
g is continuous on R and also on R+ , but this is beyond the scope of A-levels.)
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(but not equal to) 3, h(x) is never close to any one single value; instead, h(x) switches
infinitely often between 1 and 2.
Indeed, lim h(x) does not exist for any a R! However we try to restrict x to values that
xa
are close to (but not equal to) a, h(x) is never close to any one single value; instead, h(x)
switches infinitely often between 1 and 2.
h is nowhere-continuous: For every a R, h(a) is perfectly well-defined, lim h(x) is not.
xa
And so for every a R, lim h(x) h(a).
xa
y
2
1
is nowherecontinuous.
x
1,
Exercise 56. Consider the function f R R defined by f (x) =
2,
x0
if x 0,
if x > 0.
What are
x5
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8.4
This section considers infinite limits, i.e. where as x approaches some number, f (x)
increases (or decreases) grows without bound .
Example 98. Graphed below are the functions f and g, both with domain (, 3)(3, )
1
1
and codomain R, defined by f x 2 +
and g x 2
.
2
(x 3)
(x 3)2
vertical asymptote
-2
-1
x
3
Observe that for all values of x that are close to but not equal to 3, there is no number
L that f (x) is close to. Hence, we say that lim f (x) simply does not exist. Similarly,
x3
lim g(x) = .
x3
lim f (x) (no such thing exists); or that this thing is equal to some other thing called
x3
(recall that is not a number!). Instead, lim f (x) = is interpreted informally as:
x3
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x/2
15
Vertical
asymptote
x = - /2
10
y = tan x
x
0
/2
/2
-5
Vertical
asymptote
x = /2
-10
-15
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8.5
This section considers limits at infinity (not to be confused with the infinite limits discussed in the previous section). That is, the behaviour of f (x) as x increases (or decreases) grows without bound.
Example 98 (revisited). Reproduced below are the graphs of the functions f and g,
1
and
both with domain (, 3) (3, ) and codomain R, defined by f x 2 +
(x 3)2
1
g x 2
.
(x 3)2
We already saw that f and g both have vertical asymptote x = 3, because as x , f (x)
increases without bound and g(x) decreases without bound. We now consider instead what
happens as x increases or decreases without bound.
horizontal asymptotes
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20
y = ex
15
10
Horizontal asymptote
x
y=0
0
-4
-2
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1
x
-5
-3
-1
-1
Oblique
asymptote
y=x
-3
-5
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9
9.1
Differentiation
The problem of finding the derivative is the problem of finding the slope of the tangent to
a graph at a given point.
Graphed below is some function f R R. Pick some point A = (a, f (a)). Draw the line l
which is tangent to the graph at the point A.
How do we find the slope of l? Unsure of how to proceed, we try a crude approximation.
Pick some point X1 = (x1 , f (x1 )) that is also on the graph. Consider the line AX1 . Whats
f (x1 ) f (a)
its slope? Slope = Rise Run and so AX1 has slope
.
x1 a
This number serves as our first crude approximation of the slope of l.
How can we improve on this approximation? Simple just pick some point X2 = (x2 , f (x2 ))
f (x2 ) f (a)
that is closer to A. The line AX2 has slope
.
x2 a
This number serves as our second, improved approximation of the slope of l.
y
f (x1)
X1
l
f (x2)
X2
A
f (a)
y = f (x)
x
a
x2
x1
At least in theory, we can keep repeating this procedure, by picking points that are ever
closer to A. Our estimates of the slope of l will get ever better. Altogether then, we are
motivated to make the following formal definition of the derivative:
Page 114, Table of Contents
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If this limit exists, then we say that f is differentiable at the point a D and we call this
limit the value of f s derivative at the point a D.
But if this limit does not exist, then we say that f is not differentiable at the point a D
and the value of f s derivative at the point a D is undefined or does not exist.
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y
Derivative = -1 for a < 0
Indeed, the value of f s derivative at any point a < 0 is 1, because for any a < 0,
f (x) f (a)
x a
x + a
= lim
= lim
= lim 1 = 1.
xa
xa x a
xa x a
xa
xa
lim
lim
= lim 1 = 1,
x0 x
x0
f (x) f (0)
x 0
x
lim
= lim
= lim
=
x0 x 0
x0 x
x0
x0
lim
= lim (1) = 1,
x0 x x0
So as x 0, there is no one single value towards which the expression
proaches. So the limit does not exist.
Page 116, Table of Contents
for x > 0,
for x < 0.
f (x) f (0)
apx0
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9.2
Lagranges notation:
Leibnizs notation:
Newtons notation:
f (x) f (a)
.
xa
xa
f (a) = lim
R
f (x) f (a)
df (x) RRRR
RRR = lim
xa
dx RR
xa
Rx=a
or
R
f (x) f (a)
df RRRR
RRR = lim
.
xa
dx RR
xa
Rx=a
f (x) f (a)
.
xa
xa
f (a) = lim
Some remarks.
Lagranges and Leibnizs notation are widely-used. Newtons notation is not.
But Newtons notation is sometimes used in physics (especially when the independent
variable is time). You certainly need to know about Newtons notation because it is on the
A-level syllabus. Nonetheless, this textbook will avoid using Newtons notation.
d
Leibnizs notation is convenient in that it allows us to interpret
as the differentiate
dx
with respect to operator.
Section 9.5 will give some examples of how this operator works.
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a=2
a=0
f (2) = 1,
f (0) is undefined,
Leibnizs notation:
R
df RRRR
= 1,
R
dx RRRR
Rx=5
R
df RRRR
R = 1,
dx RRRR
Rx=2
R
df RRRR
is undefined,
R
dx RRRR
Rx=0
Newtons notation:
f (5) = 1,
f (2) = 1,
f (0) is undefined.
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the correct informal interpretation (easily seen when written in Leibnizs notation) is this:
The change in z caused by a small unit change in x is equal to The change in z caused
by a small unit change in y The change in y caused by a small unit change in x.
Another result is the Inverse Function Theorem, which may informally be stated as:
dy 1
= .
dx dx
dy
dy
dx
and
as fractions, so that indeed by nave
dx
dy
algebra, the above equation is true. But again, the correct informal interpretation (easily
seen when written in Leibnizs notation) is this: The change in y caused by a small unit
change in x is equal to The reciprocal of the change in x caused by a small unit change
in y.
Again, the nave interpretation would be of
For a more detailed discussion, see the leading answer to this question on Math StackExchange.
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9.3
The Derivative of f
Lagranges notation:
f .
Leibnizs notation:
df (x)
dx
Newtons notation:
f.
or
df
.
dx
d 2
d
cx = 2cx and
cx = c.
dx
dx
Example 103. Let f R R be defined by f (x) = 7x2 . Its derivative is the function
f R R defined by f (x) = 14x. This derivative may be denoted
f or
df (x)
df
or
or f .
dx
dx
df (x)
df
=
= f (0.5) = 1.75.
dx x=0.5 dx x=0.5
df (x)
df
The value of the derivative of f at 1 is f (1) =
= = f (1) = 7.
dx x=1 dx x=1
df (x)
df
The value of the derivative of f at 2 is f (2) =
= = f (2) = 28.
dx x=2 dx x=2
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9.4
The derivative is also known as the first derivative. The second derivative is, similarly, also
a function:
Definition 35. Let f D R be a function. The second derivative of f is simply the
derivative of the derivative of f .
The Derivative of f
Lagranges notation:
f .
Leibnizs notation:
d2 f (x)
dx2
Newtons notation:
f.
d2
d2 f
f
or
.
dx2
dx2
or
d2 f
.
dx2
d
is the operator, it makes sense to denote the second
dx
d2 f (x)
d2 f
or
or
f
.
dx2
dx2
df (x)
df
=
= f (0.5) = 14.
dx x=0.5 dx x=0.5
df (x)
df
The value of the second derivative of f at 1 is f (1) =
= = f (1) = 14.
dx x=1 dx x=1
df (x)
df
The value of the second derivative of f at 2 is f (2) =
= = f (2) = 14.
dx x=2 dx x=2
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We similarly define the third, fourth, fifth, etc. derivatives in the obvious fashion.
Definition 36. Let f D R be a function. For n 3, the nth derivative of f is simply
the derivative of the (n 1)th derivative of f .
The 3rd
The 4th
Derivative of f Derivative of f
Lagranges notation:
f (3) .
f (4) .
Leibnizs notation:
d3 f
dx3 .
d4 f
dx4
Newtons notation:
f.
Etc.
f.
Example 103 (revisited). Let f R R be defined by x 7x2 . Its first derivative is the
function f R R defined by x 14x. Its second derivative is the function f R R
defined by x 14. We have f (2) = 28 and f (2) = 14.
Its third derivative is the function f (3) R R defined by x 0. Its fourth derivative is
the function f (4) R R defined by x 0. Observe that f (3) = f (4) . Indeed, the third and
all higher-order derivatives are identical functions: f (3) = f (4) = f (5) = . . .
We have f (3) (2) = f (4) (2) = f (5) (2) = = 0. Indeed, for any x R, we have f (3) (x) =
f (4) (x) = f (5) (x) = = 0.
Exercise 57. Given f D R and f A R, what is f ? (Answer on p. 1025.)
Exercise 58. (Tedious but easy.) Let g R R be defined by x x4 x3 + x2 x + 1.
Write down all of its derivatives. Evaluate all of these derivatives at 1. Write your answers
in Lagranges, Leibnizs, and Newtons notation. (Answer on p. 1025.)
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9.5
Example 104.
d
Operator
dx
d 2
x = 2x is simply shorthand for this statement:
dx
The derivative of the function with mapping rule x x2 is the function with mapping rule
x 2x.
Example 105.
d
f = g is simply shorthand for this statement:
dx
The derivative of the function f is the function g.
Example 106.
d
f g = g f + f g is simply shorthand for this statement:
dx
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9.6
d
sin x =
dx
cos x,
d
f g = f g,
dx
d
cos x =
dx
sin x,
d
dx
kf
d
dx
f g
g f + f g,
d
dx
xk
= kxk1 ,
d
dx
f
g
g f f g
,
gg
d
dx
ex
ex ,
d
d (f g) dg
f g =
.
dx
dg
dx
d
dx
ln x
1
,
x
0,
kf ,
(My mnemonic for the Quotient Rule is: Lo-D-Hi minus Hi-D-Lo; cross over and square
the low.)
Proof. Optional, see p. 957 in the Appendices.
Of the above rules, the Chain Rule is the most powerful. We can also write it more elegantly
(if a little imprecisely) as
dz dz dy
=
.
dx dy dx
As discussed above in the historical note (p. 118), thus written, the Chain Rule has a
beautiful informal interpretation: The change in z caused by a small unit change in x is
equal to The change in z caused by a small unit change in y The change in y caused
by a small unit change in x. This makes perfect sense:
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Example 107. When I add 1 g of Milo (the x-variable) to a cup of water, the volume of
dy
the water increases by 2 cm3 (the y-variable). That is,
= 2 cm3 g-1
dx
When the volume of the water increases by 1 cm3 (the y-variable), the water level (in the
dz
cup) rises by 0.3 cm (the z-variable). That is
= 0.3 cm cm-3 = 0.3 cm-2 .
dy
Altogether then, when I add 1 g of Milo (the x-variable) to a cup of water, I should expect
dz
the water level to rise by 0.6 cm. That is,
= 0.6 cm g-1 . This is indeed consistent with
dx
dz dz dy
=
= 2 0.3 = 0.6 cm g-1 .
dx dy dx
In case youve forgotten how it works, here are a few examples to illustrate:
Example 108. Let h R R be defined by x esin x .
desin x desin x d sin x
h (x) =
=
= esin x cos x.
dx
d sin x dx
4x 1.
d 4x 1 d 4x 1 d (4x 1)
0.5
0.5
g (x) =
=
= 0.5 (4x 1)
4 = 2 (4x 1)
.
dx
d (4x 1)
dx
Heres a more complicated example, where the Chain Rule is applied twice.
3
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Exercise 59. For each of the following functions (assume they have a suitably defined
domain and codomain), evaluate the first derivative at 0. (a) f (x) = x2 . (b) g(x) =
x
2
1 + [x ln (x + 1)] . (c) h(x) = sin
2 . (Answer on p. 1026.)
1 + [x ln (x + 1)]
Corollary 1.
d
d
d
tan x = sec2 x,
cot x = csc2 x, and
csc x = csc x cot x.
dx
dx
dx
SYLLABUS ALERT
d
csc x = csc x cot x is in the List of Formulae for 9758 (revised), but not for 9740 (old).
dx
d
csc x = csc x cot x.
dx
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9.7
In other words, f is differentiable if and only if f has the same domain as f . Similarly, f
is twice-differentiable if and only if f has the same domain as f .
And of course, if a function is twice-differentiable, then it is also differentiable.
(The definitions for a function to be thrice-differentiable, four-times-differentiable,
etc. are very much analogous, but this textbook will have no reason to use these terms.)
The condition that the first derivative (or second derivative) exists at every point in the
domain is important. Failing which, we do not consider the function to be differentiable
(or twice-differentiable). The three functions in the next example illustrate:
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2,
g (x) =
2,
for x < 0,
for x > 0.
But g (0) does not exist. And so g is differentiable but NOT twice-differentiable.
, for all .
x
- 2, for x < 0,
2, for x > 0.
is undefined.
2,
h (x) =
2,
for x < 0,
for x > 0.
But h (0) does not exist. So h is not even once-differentiable. (And thus it is certainly not
twice-differentiable either.)
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We can of course also consider thrice-differentiable, four-times-differentiable, etc. functions. We can even consider infinitely-differentiable functions. Indeed, in the A-levels, most
functions are usually infinitely differentiable. For example, all polynomials are infinitelydifferentiable, as illustrated in the next example.
Example 112. Consider i R R defined by x x5 x4 + x3 x2 + x 1. We have, for all
x R,
i (x) = 5x4 4x3 + 3x2 2x + 1,
The function i is infinitely-differentiable, with the 6th and higher-order derivatives all having the mapping rule x 0.
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9.8
y
h is neither continuous
nor differentiable.
f is both continuous
and differentiable.
g is continuous, but
not differentiable.
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9.9
Implicit Differentiation
dy
?
dx
d
to the given equation:
dx
d
d
dy
dy
x
(x2 + y 2 ) = (1) 2x + 2y
= 0
= .
dx
dx
dx
dx
y
y
dy
dy
= 1. What is
(i.e. what is
cos x
dx x=0
dx
In this example, its difficult to express y in terms of x. But this doesnt matter, because
we can use implicit differentiation:
d
y
d
1 dy y( sin x) cos x dx
(x2 y +
) = (1) 2x y + x2
+
= 0.
dx
cos x
dx
2 y dx
cos2 x
dy
Now plug in x = 0:
1 dy y( sin 0) cos 0 dx
dy
2 0 y + 02
+
=
0
= 0.
2 y dx
cos2 0
dx
dy
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The four rules of differentiation in the next corollary are in the List of Formulae you get
during A-level exams (both 9740 and 9758), so you need not know these by heart.
d
1
d
1
d
sec x = sec x tan x,
sin1 x =
,
cos1 x =
, and
dx
dx
1 x2 dx
1 x2
d
1
tan1 x =
.
dx
1 + x2
Corollary 2.
d
1
, first rewrite y = sin1 x as x = sin y. Next
sin1 x =
2
dx
1x
d
dy
then apply
(implicit differentiation) to get 1 = cos y . But sin2 y + cos2 y = 1, so
dx
dx
2
cos y = 1 x . And so,
Proof. To prove that
dy
d
1
1
.
=
sin1 x =
=
dx dx
cos y
1 x2
Exercise 62 asks you the prove the derivatives of sec x, cos1 x and tan1 x are as claimed.
d
d
1
d
sec x = sec x tan x,
cos1 x =
, and
tan1 x =
2
dx
dx
dx
1x
1
. (Answer on p. 1026.)
1 + x2
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10
10.1
y
Decreasing on
Strictly decreasing on
Increasing on
Strictly decreasing on
Note: At x = 0, f is both decreasing and increasing, but neither strictly decreasing nor
strictly increasing. This follows from the formal definitions (below).
Definition 41. Given a function f and a set of points S, we say that f is ...
1. ... increasing on S if for any x1 , x2 S with x2 > x1 , we have f (x2 ) f (x1 );
2. ... strictly increasing on S if for any x1 , x2 S with x2 > x1 , we have f (x2 ) > f (x1 );
3. ... decreasing on S if for any x1 , x2 S with x2 > x1 , we have f (x2 ) f (x1 );
4. ... strictly decreasing on S if for any x1 , x2 S with x2 > x1 , we have f (x2 ) < f (x1 );
Of course, if a function is strictly increasing on a set of points, then it is also increasing on
that set. And if it is strictly decreasing, then it is also decreasing.
Exercise 63. Let g R R defined by x sin x. Identify the sets on which which g is
increasing, decreasing, strictly increasing and/or strictly decreasing. (Answer on p. 1027.)
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10.2
The derivative is the slope of the tangent. And so not surprisingly, the derivative is intimiately related to whether a function is increasing or decreasing. Formally:
Fact 10. Let f R R be a differentiable function. Let a, b R with b > a. Then
1. f is decreasing on (a, b) f (x) 0, for all x (a, b).
2. f is increasing on (a, b) f (x) 0, for all x (a, b).
, for
, for
, for
, for
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11
21
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x = -1
minimum
point for g
x=1
maximum
point for f
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y
x = 1
maximum points
x
-2
-1
x = 0, 2
minimum points
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The next example highlights the fact that a maximum point is sometimes not a strict
maximum point. Likewise with minimum points.
Example 120. Below is graphed i R R defined by x 3. (This is a constant
function.)
Every point x R is a maximum point of i. The corresponding maximum value is always
i(x) = 3.
But no point is a strict maximum point.
Every point x R is a minimum point of i. The corresponding minimum value is always
i(x) = 3.
But no point is a strict minimum point.
Every point is a
maximum point.
Every point is a
minimum point.
x
-2
-1
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11.2
Proof. Suppose for contradiction that two distinct points x1 and x2 are strict global maximum points of f . Then since x1 is a strict global maximum point, we have f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
Similarly, since x2 is a strict global maximum point, we have f (x2 ) > f (x1 ). The two
inequalities are contradictory. So it is impossible that two distinct points x1 and x2 are
strict global maximum points of f .
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x
-2
-1
x = 0, 2
minimum points
We next restrict the domain of h in two ways to create two new functions i and j:
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Example 119 (revisited). Graphed below (left) is the function i [1.5, 2.5] R defined
by x 6x5 15x4 10x3 + 30x2 .
i has three maximum points in total, namely 1, 2.5. However, only 2.5 is a global maximum
point of i because only i(2.5) i(x) for all x [1.5, 2.5]. Of course, it is also a strict global
maximum point because i(2.5) > i(x) for all x [1.5, 2.5].
i has three minimum points in total, namely 1.5, 0, 2. However, only 1.5 is a global
maximum point of i because only i(1.5) i(x) for all x [1.5, 2.5]. Of course, it is also
a strict global minimum point because i(1.5) < i(x) for all x [1.5, 2.5].
x = 1
max
x = 2.5
max and
global max
x = -1
max and
global max x = 1, 1.2
max
x
-2
-1
0
1
2
x = -1.5
min and
global min x = 0, 2 min
x
-2
-1
x = -1.2, 0 min
x = 2 min and
global min
Also graphed above (right) is the function j [1.2, 2.2] R defined by x 6x5 15x4
10x3 + 30x2 .
Again, there are three maximum points in total, namely 1, 2.2. However, only 1 is a
global maximum point of j because only j(1) j(x) for all x [1.2, 2.2]. Of course, it is
also a strict global maximum point because j(1) > i(x) for all x [1.2, 2.2].
And again, there are three minimum points in total, namely 1.2, 0, 2. However, only 2 is
a global minimum point of j because only j(2) j(x) for all x [1.2, 2.2]. Of course, it is
also a strict global minimum point because j(2) < j(x) for all x [1.2, 2.2].
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Note that the A-level syllabuses and exams only ever talk about maximum and minimum
points. They do not ever talk about
1. Strict maximum points;
2. Strict minimum points;
3. Global maximum points;
4. Global minimum points;
5. Strict global minimum points; and
6. Strict global maximum points.
Nonetheless, these concepts are not difficult to grasp. It is thus well worth learning them,
just so you have a better understanding of how to find maximum and minimum points.
Note also that what we simply call maximum and minimum points are sometimes instead
called local maximum and minimum points, so that they are better contrasted with global
maximum or minimum points.
Exercise 64. (Answer on p. 1027.) For each of the following functions, write down,
if any of these exist, the (i) maximum points, (ii) minimum points, (iii) strict maximum
points, (iv) strict minimum points, (v) global maximum points, (vi) global minimum points,
(vii) strict global maximum points, (viii) strict global minimum points; and also all the
corresponding values of the function at these points.
(a) f R R defined by x 100.
(b) g R R defined by x x2 .
(c) h [1, 2] R defined by x x2 .
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11.3
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Example 121. Graphed below is the function f [1.5, 0.5] R defined by x x5 +2x4 +x3 .
Five points are labelled. The table below classifies each point.
D is a stationary point but not a turning point. (As we shall learn in Section 151, D is an
example of an inflexion point.)
A is a minimum point and E is a maximum point. But neither is a turning point.
Type
Max
Min
Strict Max
Strict Min
Global Max
Global Min
Strict Global Max
Strict Global Min
Stationary
Turning
A B C D E
y
E
C
f (x) = x5 + 2x4 + x3
A
Exercise 65. Is each of the following statements true or false? To show that a statement
is false, simply give a counterexample from the above example. If it is true, explain why.
(Answer on p. 1028.)
(a) Every maximum point or minimum point is a stationary point.
(b) Every maximum point or minimum point is a turning point.
(c) Every stationary point is a maximum point or minimum point.
(d) Every turning point is a maximum point or minimum point.
(e) Every turning point is a stationary point.
(f) Every stationary point is a turning point.
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11.4
Example 122. Consider the set S = [0, 1]. The points 0.2, 1/3, and 0.775 are all in the
interior of S. Indeed, every point x (0, 1) is in the interior of S.
In contrast, the points 0 and 1 are non-interior points of S.
Example 123. Consider the set S = [0, 0.5) (0.5, 1]. The points 0.2, 1/3, and 0.775 are all
in the interior of S. Indeed, every point x (0, 0.5) (0.5, 1) is in the interior of S.
In contrast, the points 0 and 1 are non-interior points of S.
The point 0.5 is not in the interior of S. It is not even a non-interior point of S, because
it is not in the set S to begin with.
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The Interior Extremum Theorem (IET) is the fundamental reason why we lurrrve taking
derivatives and setting them equal to zero this is a great way to find maxima and minima!
Theorem 2. (Interior Extremum Theorem [IET].) Let f D R be a differentiable
function. If a is a maximum or minimum point AND in the interior of D, then f (a) = 0
(i.e. c is a stationary point).
x = -1
minimum
point for g
x=1
maximum
point for f
Exercise 66. Refer to the above Example. Explain the intuition for why g (1) = 0.
(Answer on p. 1028.)
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11.5
In secondary school, you may have been taught that to find the maximum and minimum
points of f , simply follow this procedure:
Unfortunately, the above procedure (lets call it the Incorrect Recipe) may sometimes
fail. It rests on the false belief that f (x) = 0 x is an extremum. This is false
because
1. The IET does NOT say, f (x) = 0 x is an extremum. It is perfectly possible that
f (x) = 0 without x being an extremum.
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Example 144 (revisited). Graphed below is the function f [1.5, 0.5] R defined by
x x5 + 2x4 + x3 . Five points are labelled.
According to the Incorrect Recipe,
1. Compute f (x) = 5x4 + 8x3 + 3x2 = x2 (5x2 + 8x + 3) = x2 (5x + 3)(x + 1). We see that
3
f (x) = 0 x = , 1, 0.
5
3
2. So , 1, 0 are the maximum and minimum points of f .
5
The Incorrect Recipe does correctly identify the points B = (1, f (1)) and C =
3
3
( , f ( )) as maximum and minimum points, respectively. But it makes two mistakes.
5
5
Mistake #1: D = (0, 0) is neither a maximum nor a minimum point, contrary to the
Incorrect Recipe.
Mistake #2: A and E are respectively a minimum and a maximum point, but neither is
detected by the Incorrect Recipe.
y
E
C
f (x) = x5 + 2x4 + x3
A
We now give the Correct Recipe for finding maximum and minimum points:
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Exercise 68. For each of the following functions, find all the maximum and minimum
points using the Correct Recipe. (Answer on p. 1029.)
(a) f R R defined by x x.
(b) g [0, 1] R defined by x x.
(c) h R R defined by x x4 2x2 . Identify also the global minimum point(s) of h (if
any exist).
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12
y
Tangent line at x = 0
is concave upwards on
x
-2
-1
is concave downwards on
In contrast, f is concave upwards on R+0 because there, the line segment connecting any
two points on f is above the graph of f .
0 is an inflexion point because this is where the function f changes from being concave
downwards to being concave upwards.
A test for whether a point is an inflexion point is this: Draw the tangent line to the graph
at that point. The point is an inflexion point The line is above the graph on one side
of the point and below the graph on the other side (see Fact 95 in the Appendices).
The tangent line to the graph at the point 0 is drawn in green (it coincides with the
horizontal axis). We indeed see that the line is above the graph on the left side of the point
and below the graph on the right side of the point. Therefore, 0 is an inflexion point.
22
These are informal definitions. For the formal definitions, see p. 964 in the Appendices (optional).
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< 0,
f (x) = 3x2 = 0,
> 0,
for x R0 ,
for x = 0,
for x R+0 .
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It is very tempting to believe that the converse of part (c) of the above proposition is true.
That is, it is very tempting to believe that
f (x) = 0 x is an inflexion point.
But this is wrong! It is perfectly possible that f (x) = 0 without x being an inflexion
point! Heres an example:
Example 126. Consider g R R defined by x x4 . We have g (x) = 4x3 and g (x) =
12x2 , so that g (x) = 0 x = 0.
We might thus be tempted to conclude that 0 is an inflexion point. However, this is not
the case. Although g (0) = 0, we have g (x) > 0 for x > 0 and we also have g (x) > 0 for
x < 0, and so the concavity of g does not change at the point 0.
To qualify as an inflexion point, the concavity of the function must change. At 0,
the concacivty of g does not change. Therefore, 0 is NOT an inflexion point.
y
g is concave upwards everywhere
.
However, is not an
inflexion point of .
x
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Inflexion points may be further sub-divided into stationary points of inflexion and
non-stationary points of inflexion.
Definition 46. A stationary point of inflexion is simply any point that is both an inflexion
point and a stationary point.
A non-stationary point of inflexion is simply any point that is an inflexion point, but not
a stationary point.
Concave upwards on
x
Tangent line at 0
Concave downwards on
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12.1
So
From graphs, it looks like around a maximum turning point a, f must be concave downwards, i.e. f (a) < 0. Similarly, around a minimum turning point b, f must be concave
upwards, i.e. f (b) > 0. The next proposition is thus intuitively plausible.
Proposition 3. (Second Derivative Test [2DT].) Let f be a twice-differentiable function. Let a be a stationary point (i.e. f (a) = 0).
1. If f (a) < 0, then a is a maximum point.
2. If f (a) > 0, then a is a minimum point.
3. If f (a) = 0, then the 2DT is uninformative. That is, a could be a maximum point, a
minimum point, an inflexion point, or something else altogether!
The third part of the above Proposition must be heavily emphasised: If f (a) = 0 and
f (a) = 0, then the 2DT tells us absolutely nothing about a! a could be a maximum
point, a minimum point, an inflexion point, or something else altogether!
We previously gave the Correct Recipe for finding maximum and minimum points. Lets
now add the 2DT to this recipe:
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If f is not twice-differentiable, then the Enriched Recipe may not work. Fortunately, most functions in A-levels are twice-differentiable.
Example 121 (revisited). Consider f [1.5, 0.5] R defined by x x5 + 2x4 + x3 .
1. Identify all the stationary points. f (x) = 5x4 + 8x3 + 3x2 = x2 (5x2 + 8x + 3) = 0
x = 0 or x = 1, 0.6 (quadratic formula).
(a) f (x) = 20x3 + 24x2 + 6x = 2x(10x2 + 12x + 3).
(b) f (0.6) > 0 0.6 is a minimum point. f (1) < 0 1 is a maximum
point. But f (0) = 0, so the 2DT tells us nothing. By sketching the graph (nonrigorous method that will suffice for the A-levels), we see that 0 is an inflexion
point.
2. The only two non-interior points are 1.5 and 0.5. Again by sketching the graph, we see
that 1.5 is a minimum point and 0.5 is a maximum point.
Altogether, we conclude that there are two maximum points 1 and 0.5 and two
minimum points 0.6 and 1.5.
Exercise 69. Use the Enriched Recipe to find the maximum and minimum points of each
of the following functions. (Answer on p. 1031.)
(a) g R R defined by x x8 + x7 x6 .
(b) h ( , ) R defined by x tan x.
2 2
(c) i [0, 2] R defined by x sin x + cos x.
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12.2
The Venn diagram below depicts the five types of points you need to know for the A-levels:
Inflexion, maximum, minimum, stationary, and turning points. To its right is a graph of a
rather-arbitrary function t D R designed to illustrate these various points. The x- and
y-coordinates of a are denoted ax and ay ; similarly for other points.
a
b
Inflexion
All
points
y
e
Stationary
i
f
h
Turning
g
c
f
h
Max
Min
b
a
x
For most functions youll ever encounter, most points are like a. For lack of a better
name, we can call such points boring points a boring point is simply any point that
is not an inflexion, maximum, minimum, stationary, or turning point.
b is a non-stationary point of inflexion (explicitly excluded from the A-levels).
c is a stationary point of inflexion.
A point like d (not illustrated) a stationary point that is not a maximum, minimum,
or inflexion point is extremely unusual. You can find an exotic example on p. 968.
f is both a maximum and minimum point because for all x D that are close to
fx D, we have t(x) t (fx ) t(x).
The set of turning points is simply the intersection of the set of stationary points and
the set of maximum and minimum points.
h is a maximum point because t(x) t (hx ) for all x D that are close to hx .
j is a minimum point because t(x) t (jx ) for all x D that are close to jx .
i is both a maximum and minimum point because there are simply no x D that are
close to ix D, and thus it is trivially or vacuously true that t(x) t (ix ) t(x) for x
that are close to x.23 i is not a stationary point because t (ix ) 0 indeed, t (ix ) is
undefined.24
23
24
A point like ix D that is not close to any other x D is, aptly enough, called an isolated point.
ix is an example of a critical point. A critical point is any point that is either stationary or where the derivative is
undefined. Dont worry, not something you need to know for the A-levels.
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Exercise 70. For each of the following equations, (i) sketch its graph. (ii) Write down the
points at which it intersects the axes. (iii) Identify any turning points. (iv) Write down the
equations of any lines of symmetry and also (v) asymptotes. (a) y = 2ex + x. (b) x = 3x + 2.
(c) y = 2x2 + 1. (Answers on pp. 1032, 1033, and 1034.)
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13
Given the graph of f , you are required to know how to figure out what f looks like. Lets
start with a very simple example.
Example 128. Let f R R be some differentiable function. Graphed below in blue is
its derivative f . You are told also that f (0) = 2. What does the graph of f look like?
(Pretend for a moment that you cant see the red graph.)
The derivative simply gives the slope of f . Since f (x) = 1 for all x, this means that f has
constant slope of 1. We are given moreover that f (0) = 2 (i.e. the vertical intercept is 2).
Altogether then, f (x) = x + 2 and is graphed in red above.
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-1
The derivative simply gives the slope of g. Since g (x) = 1 for all x < 0 and g (x) = 1 for
all x > 0, this means that g has constant slope of 1 for x < 0 and constant slope of 1 for
all x > 0. We are given moreover that lim g(x) = 2, so the two branches of g nearly meet
x0
x 2,
g(x) =
x 2,
for x < 0,
for x > 0.
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Example 130. Let h R R be some differentiable function. Graphed below in blue is its
derivative h defined by h (x) = x. You are told also that h(x) = 0. What does the graph
of h look like? (Pretend for a moment that you cant see the red graph.)
The derivative simply gives the slope of h. Since h (x) < 0 for all x < 0, h (0) = 0, and
h (x) > 0 for all x > 0, this means that h is strictly decreasing on R , a turning point at 0,
and strictly increasing on R+ .
Moreover, the derivative (slope) is increasing (indeed it is increasing at a constant rate)
so the graph of h is concave upwards throughout.
Altogether then, even if we dont know how to figure out what h(x) is, we can at least
roughly sketch the graph of h (in red above below). (Of course, you probably already know
x2
from secondary school that h(x) = , but were not supposed to know this until we learn
2
about integration later in this textbook.)
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14
Quadratic equations show up very often in various contexts. So here is a fairly complete if
brisk review of quadratic equations, which you were supposed to have completely mastered
in secondary school.
Example 131. Below are the graphs of the equations y = x2 + 3x + 1 (red), y = x2 + 2x + 1
(blue), y = x2 +x+1 (green), y = x2 +x+1 (red dotted), y = x2 2x1 (blue dotted),
and y = x2 x 1 (green dotted).
6
y=
x2
+x+1
y = x2 + 2x + 1
y = x2 + 3x + 1
2
y = - x2 + x + 1
0
-4
-3
-2
-1
-2
y=-
x2
1
y = - x2 - x - 1
- 2x - 1
-4
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1 2 b
c
(x + x + ) .
a
a
a
b 2 b2
c 1
b 2 b2 4ac
1
].
Hence, ax + bx + c = [(x + ) 2 + ]= [(x + )
a
2a
4a
a a
2a
4a2
2
What we just did above is called completing the square. We can use this to compute the
zeros or roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0.
ax2 + bx + c = 0
b 2 b2 4ac
1
b 2 b2 4ac
] = (x + )
= [(x + )
a
2a
4a2
2a
4a2
b 2 b2 4ac
(x + ) =
2a
4a2
x=
b2 4ac
.
2a
This last expression give the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. This expression will
NOT be printed in the A-Level List of Formulae! So be sure you remember it!
b b2 4ac
x=
.
2a
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We can distinguish between six categories of quadratic equations, based on the signs of
a (the coefficient of x2 ) and b2 4ac (the discriminant). Each of these six categories was
illustrated in the figure above.
Category
1. a > 0, b2 4ac > 0
2. a > 0, b2 4ac = 0
3. a > 0, b2 4ac < 0
4. a < 0, b2 4ac > 0
5. a < 0, b2 4ac = 0
6. a < 0, b2 4ac < 0
Features
-shaped.
Intersects the horizontal axis at two points.
-shaped.
Just touches the horizontal axis at the minimum point.
-shaped.
Doesnt intersect the horizontal axis.
-shaped.
Intersects the horizontal axis at two points.
-shaped.
Just touches the horizontal axis at the maximum point.
-shaped.
Doesnt intersect the horizontal axis.
b2 4ac
.
2a
b +
b2 4ac
b + b2 4ac
) (x +
).
2a
2a
What we have just done is to factorise the expression ax2 + bx + c. Factorisation is often
a useful trick to play.
Notice that if you plug in either of the roots into the right hand side (RHS) of the above
equation, we do indeed get zero, as expected.
Page 164, Table of Contents
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If b2 4ac = 0, then:
There is only one real root (or zero or horizontal intercept), namely
b
.
2a
b
Notice that if you plug x = into the RHS of the above equation, we do indeed get
2a
zero, as expected.
If b2 4ac < 0, then:
There are no real roots (or zeros or horizontal intercepts).
There is no way to factorise the expression ax2 +bx+c (unless we use complex numbers,
which well learn about only in Part IV).
Exercise 71. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph and identify its intercepts
and turning points (if these exist). (a) y = 2x2 + x + 1. (b) y = 2x2 + x + 1. (c) y = x2 + 6x + 9.
(Answer on p. 1035.)
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15
Transformations
15.1
y = f (x) + a
The graph of y = f (x) + a is simply the graph of y = f (x) translated (moved) upwards by
a units.
Example 132. Define the function f R R by x x3 1. The graphs of f (red) and
y = f (x) + 2 (blue) are shown below.
Notice the blue curve is simply the red curve translated upwards by 2 units.
f(x), f(x) + 2
10
x
0
-3.0
-1.5
0.0
1.5
3.0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
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15.2
y = f (x + a)
f(x), f(x+2)
10
x
0
-4
-2
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
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15.3
y = af (x)
The graph of y = af (x) is simply the graph of f (x) vertically-stretched (outwards from the
horizontal axis) by a stretching factor of a.
Example 134. Define the function f R R by x x3 1. The graphs of f (red) and
y = 2f (x) (blue) are shown below.
Notice the blue curve is simply the red curve stretched vertically (outwards from the
horizontal axis) by a factor of 2.
10
f(x), 2f(x)
x
0
-3.0
-1.5
0.0
1.5
3.0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
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15.4
y = f (ax)
The graph of y = f (ax) is simply the graph of f (x) horizontally-stretched (outwards from
the vertical axis) by a stretching factor of 1/a. Or equivalently, the graph of y = f (ax) is
simply the graph of f (x) horizontally-compressed (inwards towards the vertical axis) by a
compression factor of a.
Why a stretching factor of 1/a (and not a)? The reason is that in order for f (x1 ) and
f (ax2 ) to hit the same value, we must have x2 = x1 /a. That is, every x value is scaled by
a factor of 1/a.
Example 135. Define the function f R R by x x3 1.The graphs of f (red) and
y = f (2x) (blue) are shown below. (The latter equation is simply y = (5x)3 1 = 125x3 1.)
Notice the blue curve is simply the red curve stretched horizontally (outwards from the
1
vertical axis) by a factor of . (Again, the A-level exams might instead word this as a
2
stretch with scale factor 0.5 parallel to the y-axis.)
Equivalently, the blue curve is simply the red curve compressed horizontally (inwards
towards from the vertical axis) by a factor of 2.
8
f(x), f(2x)
x
0
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
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15.5
x
0
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
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15.6
y = f (x)
The graph of y = f (x) is simply the graph of f (x), but with all points for which f (x) < 0
reflected in the horizontal axis.
Example 137. Define the function f R R by x x3 1. The graphs of f (red) and
y = f (x) (blue) are shown below.
f(x), |f(x)|
x
0
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
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15.7
y = f (x)
The graph of y = f (x) is simply the graph of f (x), but with all points for which x < 0
reflected in the vertical axis.
Example 138. Define the function f R R by x x3 1. The graphs of f (red) and
y = f (x) (blue) are shown below.
f(x), f(|x|)
x
0
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
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15.8
y=
1
f (x)
f(x), 1/f(x)
x
0
-2
-1
-2
-4
-6
-8
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15.9
y 2 = f (x)
2. If f (x) < 0, then there is no value of y for which y 2 = f (x). And so the graph of y 2 = f (x)
is empty wherever f (x) < 0.
3. The graph of y 2 = f (x) intersects the horizontal axis at the same point as the graph of
y = f (x). Moreover, at any such point, the tangent to the graph of y 2 = f (x) is vertical.
7
y = f(x)
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-1 0
-2
y2 = f(x)
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
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Exercise 72. The graph of the function f R R is drawn below in red. Graph each of
the following equations. (a) y = 2f (3x). (b) y = f (x 1). (c) y 2 = f (x) + 4. (Answer on
p. 1036.)
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
30 f(x), y
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
-1 0
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
x
2
1
Exercise 73. Describe a series of transformations that would transform the graph of y =
x
1
to y = 3
. (Answer on p. 1037.)
5x 2
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16
Conic Sections
Conic sections are formed from the intersection of a double cone and a 2D cartesian plane.
Take an infinitely large double cone (it goes upwards and downwards forever). Use a 2D
cartesian plane to slice the double cone from all conceivable positions and at all conceivable
angles. The intersection of the plane and the surface of the double cone form curves which,
aptly enough, are called conic sections.
The figure below25 doesnt show the upper half of the double cone, but you can easily
imagine it. Of the four curves depicted, only the hyperbola also cuts the upper half of the
double cone.
25
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The three types of conic sections are the ellipse (plural: ellipses), the parabola (parabolae), and the hyperbola (hyperbolae). The circle is regarded as a special case of the
ellipse.26 Here are the distinguishing characteristics of each:
Type
Ellipse
Parabola
Hyperbola
Description
Formed from only one half of the double cone.
A closed curve.27
Formed from only one half of the double cone.
Not a closed curve.
Formed from both halves of the double cone and is
thus composed of two distinct branches.
Not a closed curve.
Arises when
B 2 4AC < 0
B 2 4AC = 0
B 2 4AC > 0
We can prove (but do not do so in this textbook) that in general, a conic section is the
graph of the equation
1
Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0,
where A, B, C, D, E, F are real constants and x and y are the two variables (on the
cartesian plane).
We refer to the expression B 2 4AC as the discriminant of the above equation. It is so
named because it discriminates between the three possible types of conic sections. We
can prove (but do not do so in this textbook) that if B 2 4AC > 0, then we have an ellipse;
if B 2 4AC = 0, then we have a parabola; and if B 2 4AC < 0, then we have a hyperbola.
In secondary school, we already learnt in some detail a special case of conic sections the
1
quadratic y = ax2 + bx + c. This is the special case of the equation = where
A = a, B= 0, C = 0, D= b, E = 1, and F = c.
The quadratic y = ax2 + bx + c is indeed a parabola, because B 2 4AC = 02 4(a)(0) = 0.
We already reviewed qudratic equations in section 14 and so we wont talk any more about
them in this chapter.
26
Strictly speaking, there are also the so-called degenerate conic sections, but we shall ignore these.
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For A-levels, we are only required to learn about five more special cases of conic sections,
listed below. And so thats the plan for this chapter.
1.
x2 y 2
+
= 1,
a2 b2
2.
x2 y 2
= 1,
a2 b2
3.
y 2 x2
= 1,
b2 a2
ax + b
,
cx + d
4.
y=
5.
ax2 + bx + c
y=
.
dx + e
1
Exercise 74. As per the general form given in =, state for each of the above five equations,
what A, B, C, D, E, and F are. Compute the discriminant for each equation. Hence,
conclude that first equation is of an ellipse and the remaining four are of hyperbolae.
(Answer on p. 1038.)
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16.1
x2 y 2
+
= 1 describes an ellipse. In this section, well study a special case of
a2 b2
this equation, where a = b = 1. The equation then becomes x2 + y 2 = 1, which is the unit
circle centred on the origin.
The equation
By unit circle, we mean that it has radius of unit length, i.e. length 1.
1
f(x), g(x), y
p = (x, y)
x2
y2
=1
y
x
-1.0
-0.5
0.0
0.5
1.0
(-0, 0)
Centre
-1
Why does this equation describe a circle?
You can easily see that (1, 0), (0, 1), (1, 0), and (0, 1) all satisfy the equation and are
thus part of its graph. Indeed, these are the horizontal and vertical intercepts. What about
elsewhere on the circle?
Consider any point p on the unit circle. It forms a triangle the line connecting it to the
origin is the hypothenuse; that connecting it to the horizontal axis is the side; and that
Page 179, Table of Contents
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by x 1 x2 . Above, the graph of the function f is the upper semicircle (red) and
the graph of the function g is the lower semicircle (blue).
Lets compute the first derivative of f and set it equal to 0:
f (x) = 0.5(1 x2 )0.5 (2x)
= x(1 x2 )0.5
x(1 x2 )0.5 = 0
x = 0.
So the only stationary point of the function f is 0. We must now determine whether it is
a maximum, minimum, or inflexion point.
Compute the second derivative and evaluate it at the stationary point:
f (x) = (1 x2 )0.5 x [0.5(1 x2 )1.5 (2x)] .
This second derivative is messy and can be further simplified, but in this case there is no
need to simplify it, since all we want is to evaluate it at 0. We have
f (0) = (1 02 )0.5 0 [0.5(1 02 )1.5 (2 0)] = 1 < 0.
Hence, the point x = 0 is a maximum turning point of f . We should make it a habit to
write out the point in full, as (0, f (0)) = (0, 1).
Since g = f , it follows that g (0) = 0 and g (0) = 1 > 0. That is, the only stationary point
of the function g is (0, g(0)) = (0, 1). and it is a minimum point.
3. Asymptotes. By observation, there are no asymptotes.
4. Symmetry. The graph is a perfect circle centred on the origin. So by observation,
every line that passes through the origin is a line of symmetry!
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16.2
x2 y 2
The Ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
f(x), g(x), y
b
Vertical Intercept
a
Horizontal Intercept
x2 / a2 + y2 / b2 = 1
(-0, 0)
Centre
y=0
Line of Symmetry
x=0
Line of Symmetry
-b
Vertical Intercept
-a
Horizontal Intercept
Squares are a proper subset of rectangles. Similarly, circles are a proper subset of ellipses.
The ellipse can be regarded as the generalisation of the circle.
Why does the equation x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1 describe an ellipse? Rewrite the equation as
y 2
x 2
( ) + ( ) = 1.
a
b
Hence, going from x2 + y 2 = 1 to x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1 involves two transformations:
1. First, stretch the graph horizontally, outwards from the vertical axis, by a factor of a.
2. Then stretch the graph vertically, outwards from the horizontal axis, by a factor of b.
This gives us an elongated circle that we call an ellipse.
1. Intercepts. The graph intersects the vertical axis at the points (0, b) and (0, b), and
the horizontal axis at the points (a, 0) and (a, 0).
2. Turning points. Clearly, there are maximum and minimum turning points at (0, b)
and (0, b). Lets find these rigorously using calculus.
Lets again break the equationup and rewrite it into the form of two functions.
Namely, f
[a, a] R defined by x b 1 x2 /a2 and g [a, a] R defined by x b 1 x2 /a2 .
These are graphed above. Lets compute the first derivative of f and set it equal to 0:
f (x) = 0.5b
0.5
2x
x2
( 2 ) = bx (1 2 )
a
a
0.5
a2 = 0 x = 0.
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So the only stationary point of the function f is 0. We can show that it is a maximum
point, by computing the second derivative and evaluating it at 0:
d
x2
f (x) =
[bx (1 2 )
dx
a
0.5
d
x2
a ] = a b [x (1 2 )
dx
a
2
0.5
0.5
1.5
x2
x2
2x
= a b [(1 2 )
0.5 (1 2 )
( 2 )]
a
a
a
2
2
0
0
0x
f (0) = a2 b [(1 2 ) 0.5 0.5 (1 2 ) 1.5 ( 2 )] = a2 b < 0.
a
a
a
2
(x + c)
(y + d)
+
= 1.
a2
b2
(i) Sketch its graph. (ii) Write down the points at which it intersects the axes. (iii) Identify
any turning points. (iv) Write down the equations of any lines of symmetry and also (v)
asymptotes.
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16.3
y = 1/x (graphed) is the first hyperbola well study. It is also the simplest possible hyperbola.
y = -x
line of
symmetry
y
The graph of
y = 1 / x has
two branches.
4
3
y=x
line of
symmetry
2
1
x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
(0, 0)
Centre
4
y=0
horizontal
asymptote
-3
-4
x=0
vertical
asymptote
-5
It turns out that all hyperbolae well study have some common features. They have two
branches. In the case of y = 1/x, one branch is top-right and the other is bottom-right.
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The Hyperbola x2 y 2 = 1
16.4
x2 y 2 = 1 is a hyperbola and so it has two distinct branches. Notice also that if x (1, 1),
then there is no value of y for which x2 y 2 = 1. Hence, the graph of this equation is empty
in the region where x (1, 1).
f(x), g(x), y
x=0
Line of
Symmetry
(-0, 0)
Centre 3
y = f(x)
2
x2 - y2 = 1
y=0
Line of
Symmetry
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
Horizontal
Intercept
-2
Horizontal
Intercept
-3
y = g(x)
y = x -4
Linear
Asymptote
-5
y = -x
Linear
Asymptote
1. Intercepts. The graph crosses the horizontal axis at the points (1, 0) and (1, 0), but
does not intersect the vertical axis.
2. The two turning points there is a minimum turning point at (0, b) and a maximum
turning point at (0, b).
3. Asymptotes. We have y = x2 1. So as x , y = x2 1 x2 = x.
(Informally, as x , the 1 becomes negligible and we can simply ignore it). And so
the two asymptotes are y = x and y = x. The two asymptotes are perpendicular and
so this is a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (0, 0).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes.
So they must have slope 1 and 1. Moreover, both pass through the centre (0, 0).
Altogether, we can work out that the lines of symmetry are y = x and y = x.
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16.5
x2 y 2
The Hyperbola 2 2 = 1
a
b
f(x), g(x), y
y = f(x)
(-0, 0)
Centre
x=0
Line of
Symmetry
x2 / a2 - y2 / b2 = 1
y=0
Line of
Symmetry
a
Horizontal
Intercept
-a
Horizontal
Intercept
y = g(x)
y = bx / a
Linear
Asymptote
y = -bx / a
Linear
Asymptote
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y 2
x 2
The graphs characteristics are similar to before. Again, ( ) ( ) = 1 is a hyperbola
a
b
and so it has two distinct branches. Notice also that if x (a, a), then there is no value
x2 y 2
of y for which 2 2 = 1. Hence, the graph of this equation is empty in the region where
a
b
x (a, a).
1. Intercepts. The graph crosses the horizontal axis at the points (a, 0) and (a, 0), but
does not intersect the vertical axis.
2. There are no turning points.
x
x 2
3. Asymptotes. We have y = b ( ) 1. So as x , y = b ( ) 1
a
a
x 2
x
x
x
b ( ) = b . And so the two asymptotes are y = b and y = b . The two
a
a
a
a
asymptotes are perpendicular and so this is a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (0, 0).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes.
So they must have slope 1 and 1. Moreover, both pass through the centre (0, 0).
Altogether, we can work out that the lines of symmetry are y = x and y = x.
Exam Tip
On the A-level exams, they typically only ask for (i) the intercepts; (ii) the asymptotes;
and (iii) turning points.
Nonetheless, you might as well know about the centre and the two lines of symmetry,
because these concepts are not difficult and will help you to sketch better graphs.
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16.6
y 2 x2
The Hyperbola 2 2 = 1
b
a
SYLLABUS ALERT
y 2 /b2 x2 /a2 = 1 is explicitly in the 9758 (revised) but not the 9740 (old) syllabus.
But even if youre taking 9740, you might as well learn to draw y 2 /b2 x2 /a2 = 1, because
its really simple (since you now know how to draw x2 /a2 y 2 /b2 = 1).
y 2 x2
The graph of the equation 2 2 = 1 is simply the graph we studied in the previous section,
b a
y = f(x)
x=0
Line of
symmetry
(-0, 0)
Centre
f(x), g(x), y
b
Vertical
Intercept
y2 / b2 - x2 / a2 = 1
y=0
Line of
symmetry
y = -bx / a
Linear
asymptote
y = bx / a
Linear
asymptote
y = g(x)
-b
Vertical
intercept
Lets summarise the graphs characteristics. This is a hyperbola and so there are two
distinct branches. Notice also that if y (b, b), then there is no value of x for which
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y 2 x2
= 1. Hence, the graph of this equation is empty in the region where y (b, b). The
b2 a2
range of y is thus (, b] [b, ).
1. Intercepts. The graph crosses the vertical axis at the points (0, b) and (0, b), but does
not intersect the horizontal axis.
2. The two turning points are (0, b) (minimum) and (0, b) (maximum).
2
x
x 2
3. Asymptotes. We have y = b 1 + ( ) . So as x , y = b 1 + ( )
a
a
2
x
x
x
x
b ( ) = b . And so the two asymptotes are y = b and y = b . The two
a
a
a
a
asymptotes are perpendicular and so this is a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (0, 0).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes.
So they must have slope 1 and 1. Moreover, both pass through the centre (0, 0).
Altogether, we can work out that the lines of symmetry are y = x and y = x.
y 2 x2
If wed like, we can also find the turning points of 2 2 = 1 more rigorously, that is,
b
a
through calculus. As with the circle, although it is not possible to rewrite this equation
into the form of a single function, it is possible to rewrite
it into the form of two functions.
x 2
Namely, f (, a] [a, ) R defined by x b ( ) + 1 and g (, a) (a, )
a
2
x
R defined by x b ( ) + 1. The graph of the function f is entirely above the horia
zontal axis, while that of g is entirely below the horizontal axis.
Lets compute the first derivative of f :
x 2
f (x) = 0.5b [( ) + 1]
a
0.5
2x b
x
)=
.
a2
a x2 + a2
Hence, the only stationary point of f is (0, b). Lets check what sort of a stationary point
this is.
b
f (x) =
a
And so f (0) =
0.5
x2 + a2 x(0.5) (x2 + a2 )
(2x)
.
x2 + a2
b
> 0. Hence, this is a minimum point.
a2
Similarly, by computing the first derivative of g and doing the work, we can find that the
only stationary point of g is (0, b) and that this is a maximum point.
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16.7
Remember long division? Turns out itll be useful for dividing polynomials. Here are a
couple primary school examples to jog your memory.
Example 141. Whats 83 7? By long division, the quotient is 11 with a remainder of 6.
So, 83 7 = 116/7.
11
7 83
77
6
The quotient is the integer portion of the solution and the remainder is the left-over
integer.
Example 142. Whats 470 17? By long division, the quotient is 27 with a remainder of
11. So, 470 17 = 2711/17.
27
17 470
459
11
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Long division can be used to divide one polynomial by another. But first of all, in case you
dont remember what a polynomial is...
Definition 47. An nth-degree polynomial in one variable is any expression a0 xn + a1 xn1 +
a2 xn2 + + an1 x + an where each ai is a constant and x is the variable.
In this textbook, well almost always consider only polynomials in one variable. So when
I say polynomial, Ill always mean a polynomial in one variable, unless otherwise stated.28
Example 143. The expressions 7x 3 and 4x + 2 are 1st-degree polynomials (in one variable). These are also called linear polynomials. (Polynomials of low degree are often also
called by such special names.)
Example 145. The expressions 2x3 + 2x2 + 3x 1 and 3x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1 3rd-degree polynomials. These are also called cubic polynomials.
Example 146. The expressions 5x4 2x3 + 2x2 + 3x 1 and 9x4 + 3x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 1 are
4th-degree polynomials. These are also called quartic polynomials.
28
Actually, weve already secretly studied an example of a polynomial in two variables the expression on the LHS of the
equation of the conic section: Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
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+0x
2x
+2x
2x
4x
+1
+0
+1
+3
+3
Exercise 76. Simplify each of the following fractions through long division. (a)
(b)
4x2 3x + 1
x2 + x + 3
. (c)
. (Answer on p. 1040.)
x+5
x2 2x + 1
16x + 3
.
5x 2
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16.8
The Hyperbola y =
bx + c
dx + e
bx + c
.
dx + e
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Example 149. Graphed below is the equation y = (2x + 1)/(x + 1). This is the case where
b = 2, c = 1, d = 1, and e = 1. Do the long division:
2
x + 1 2x +1
2x +2
y=
1
7
y = -x + 1
line of
symmetry
(-1, 2)
Centre
-6
-4
2x + 1
1
=2
.
x+1
x+1
y
y=x+3
line of
symmetry
y=2
horizontal
asymptote
1
x
-2
0
-1
x = -1
vertical
asymptote
-3
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Example 150. Graphed below is the equation y = (7x + 3)/(2x + 4). This is the case where
b = 7, c = 3, d = 2, and e = 4. Do the long division:
3.5
2x + 4 7x
+3
7x +14
11
y=
7x + 3
11
= 3.5
.
2x + 4
2x + 4
Lets summarise the graphs characteristics. This is a hyperbola and so there are two
distinct branches.
1. Intercepts. The graph intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, 0.75) and the horizontal axis at the point (3/7, 0).
2. There are no turning points.
3. Asymptotes. As x 2, y . And so x = 2 is a vertical asymptote. As x ,
y 3.5. And so y = 3.5 is a horizontal asymptote. The two asymptotes are perpendicular
and so this is a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (2, 3.5).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes.
So they must have slope 1 and 1. Moreover, both pass through the centre (2, 3.5).
Altogether, we can work out that the lines of symmetry are y = x + 5.5 and y = x + 1.5.
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bx + c
. By long division, we have:
dx + e
+c
+be/d
c be/d
The quotient is b/d and the remainder is c be/d. Lets further simplify this so that x
has no coefficient.
bx + c b c be/d
= +
dx + e d dx + e
=
b c be/d 1
+
d
d
x + e/d
b cd be 1
+
d
d2 x + e/d
We can thus get from y = 1/x to the above equation, through these transformations:
1. Shift the graph leftwards by
1
e
units to get the graph of y =
.
d
x + e/d
2. Stretch the graph vertically, outwards from the horizontal axis, by a factor of
cd be
get the graph of y = 2
.
d (x + e/d)
3. Finally, shift the graph upwards by b/d units to get the final graph.
cd be
to
d2
Exam Tip
The A-level exams often ask you to list down a series of transformations that will get you
from one graph to another, as was just done.
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bx + c
Lets now summarise the characteristics of the graph of the equation y =
. This is
dx + e
a hyperbola with two distinct branches.
1. Intercepts. If e = 0, then the graph does not cross the vertical axis. If e 0, then the
graph intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, c/e). If b = 0, then the graph does not
cross the horizontal axis. If b 0, then the graph intersects the vertical axis at the point
(c/b, 0).
2. There are no turning points.29
3. Asymptotes. As x e/d, y . And so x = e/d is a vertical asymptote. As
x , y b/d. And so y = b/d is a horizontal asymptote. The two asymptotes are
perpendicular and so this is a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (e/d, b/d).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes.
So they must have slope 1 and 1. Moreover, both pass through the centre (e/d, b/d).
Altogether, we can work out that the lines of symmetry are y = x + e/d + b/d and y =
x e/d + b/d.
Exercise 77. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph and identify its intercepts, turning points, asymptotes, centre, and lines of symmetry (if there are any of these).
x2
3x + 1
3x + 2
(a) y =
. (b) y =
. (c) y =
. (Answers on pp. 1041, 1042, and 1043.)
x+2
2x + 1
2x + 3
29
bx + c
has no turning points.
dx + e
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16.9
ax2 + bx + c
The Hyperbola y =
dx + e
ax2 + bx + c bx + c
=
and this was already studied in the last
dx + e
dx + e
ax2 + bx + c ax2 + bx + c
d = 0, because in that case
=
, which is a quadratic and which
dx + e
e
we already studied in secondary school.
ax2 + bx a
b
Both c and e are 0, because in that case
= x + , which is a linear expression.
dx
d
d
Well start with the simplest possible case (a = 1, b = 0, c = 1, d = 1, and e = 0). This is the
equation
y=
x2 + 1
.
x
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10
y = (x2 + 1) / x
8
y=x
Oblique
Asymptote
6
(0, 0)
Centre
Minimum
Turning Point
2
0
-10
-6
Maximum
Turning Point
-2
-2
-4
x=0
vertical
asymptote
-8
-10
x
x x2 +1
10
y = (1 - 2) x
Line of Symmetry
-6
y = (1 + 2) x
Line of Symmetry
x2
y=
x2 + 1
1
=x+ .
x
x
1
As usual, this is a hyperbola that has two distinct branches. Other features:
1. Intercepts. The graph intersects neither the vertical axis nor the horizontal axis.
2. There are two turning points (1, 2) is a maximum turning point and (1, 2) is a
minimum turning point. (To find these, compute the first derivative dy/dx = 1 1/x2 .
Set these equal to 0 for find two stationary points: x = 1. Use the 2DT to determine
that x = 1 and x = 1 are, respectively maximum and minimum turning points.)
By observation, y can take on any value except those between these two turning points.
The range of y is thus (, 2] [2, ).
3. Asymptotes. As x 0, y . Hence, there is one vertical asymptote: x = 0. As
x , y x. Hence, there is one oblique asymptote: y = x. The two asymptotes are
not perpendicular and so this is not a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (0, 0).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes
and pass through the centre. You dont need to learn how to figure out their
equations (but see pp. 927ff. in the Appendices if youre interested).
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x2 + 3x + 1
. Do the long division:
Example 152. Graphed below is the equation y =
x+1
x +2
x + 1 x2 +3x +1
x2 +x
2x
2x
+2
1
y = (1 - 2) x + 2 - 2
Line of Symmetry
-11
y=
-7
y = (1 + 2) x + 2 + 2
Line of Symmetry
10
8
6
4
2
0
-3 -2
-4
-6
-8
-10
x2 + 3x + 1
1
=x+2
.
x+1
x+1
y=x+2
Oblique
Asymptote
x
1
(-1, 1)
Centre
x = -1
vertical
asymptote
As usual, this is a hyperbola that has two distinct branches. Other features:
1. Intercepts. The graph intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, 1) and the horizontal
axis at the points (0.5(3 + 5), 0) and (0.5(3 5), 0). (The horizontal intercepts
are simply the zeros of the quadratic x2 + 3x + 1.)
2. There are no turning points. (Compute dy/dx = 1 + 1/(x + 1)2 . Set this equal to 0
there are no stationary points and thus no turning points either.)
By observation, y can take on any value. The range of y is thus R.
3. Asymptotes. As x 1, y . Hence, there is one vertical asymptote: x = 1. As
x , y x+2. Hence, there is one oblique asymptote: y = x+2. The two asymptotes
are not perpendicular and so this is not a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (1, 1).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes
and pass through the centre. Again, you dont need to know how to find their equations.
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2x2 + 2x + 1
. Do the long division:
Example 153. Graphed below is the equation y =
x + 1
2x 4
x + 1 2x2 +2x +1
2x2 2x
4x
2x2 + 2x + 1
5
5
= 2x 4 +
= 2x 4 +
.
x + 1
x + 1
x + 1
4x
4
5
14
10
Minimum
Turning
Point
-9
6
2
-5
y = (-2 + 5) x - 4 - 5
Line of Symmetry
-1-2
-6
-10
-14
Maximum
Turning
Point
-18
y = (-2 - 5) x - 4 + 5 Line
of Symmetry
x=1
vertical
asymptote
x
3
11
(1, -6)
Centre y = -2x - 4
Oblique
Asymptote
-22
-26
As usual, this is a hyperbola that has two distinct branches. Other features:
1. Intercepts. The graph intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, 1), but not the
horizontal axis, because there are no real zeros for the quadratic 2x2 + 2x + 1.
2. There are two turning points (1 2.5, 0.325) and (1 + 2.5, 12.325) are the
minimum and maximum turning points. (Verify this.)
By observation, y can take on any value except those between these two turning points. The
range of y is thus (, 12.325] [0.325, ).
3. Asymptotes. As x 1, y . Hence, there is one vertical asymptote: x = 1. As
x , y 2x 4. Hence, there is one oblique asymptote: y = 2x 4. The two
asymptotes are not perpendicular and so this is not a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (1, 6).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes
and pass through the centre. Again, you dont need to know how to find their equations.
Page 201, Table of Contents
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ax2 + bx + c
We will not look more generally at the equation y =
, because it gets rather
dx + e
messy. But if you want, you can read about it on pp. 927ff. of the Appendices (optional).
Exercise 78. For each of the following equations, sketch its graph and identify its intercepts, turning points, asymptotes, centre, and lines of symmetry (if any of these exist). (a)
x2 + x 1
2x2 2x 1
x2 + 2x + 1
. (b) y =
. (c) y =
. (Answers on pp. 1044, 1046, and
y=
x4
x+1
x+4
1048.)
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17
A graph (or curve) is simply a set of points. Parametric equations give us an alternative
method to describing the same graph (or curve).
Example 154. Recall that the graph of the equation x2 + y 2 = 1 i.e. the set S = {(x, y)
x2 + y 2 = 1} is the unit circle centred on the origin.
t = 3 / 4, x = - 2 / 2, y = 2 / 2
vx = - 2 / 2 ms-1, vy = - 2 / 2 ms-1
ax = 2 / 2 ms-2, ay = - 2 / 2 ms-2
t = 3 / 2, x = 0, y = -1
vx = 1 ms-1, vy = 0 ms-1
ax = 0 ms-2, ay = 1 ms-2
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Having interpreted t as time, we can now also easily talk about the velocity and acceleration of the particle at different instants in time.
Example 203 (continued from above). We have x = cos t and y = sin t. From this,
we can easily compute the particles velocity in each direction: vx = dx/dt = sin t and
vy = dy/dt = cos t.
This says that at any instant of time t, the velocity of the particle is sin t ms-1 in the
x-direction and cos t ms-1 in the y-direction. (Note that if sin t < 0, then the particle is
moving westwards. And if cos t < 0, then the particle is moving southwards.)
So for example,
at
time
t
=
7/4,
its
velocity
is
sin
(7/4)
=
2/2 ms-1 rightwards and
So for example,at time t = 7/4, its acceleration is cos (7/4) = 2/2 ms-1 rightwards and
cos (7/4) = 2/2 ms1 upwards. That is, the particle is travelling rightwards (because
its velocity rightwards at this instant in time is positive); however, its rightwards velocity
is slowing down.
Exercise 79. (Answer on p. 1050.) Let P be the particle whose position (in metres) is described by the set {(x, y) x = cos t, y = sin t, t R}, where t is time (seconds). Let Q be the
particle whose position (in metres) is described by the set {(x, y) x = sin t, y = cos t, t R}.
(a) How does the starting point (when t = 0) of Q differ from that of P ? (b) What about
the direction of travel?
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Example 155. Recall that the graph of the equation x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1 i.e. the set
T = {(x, y) x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1} is the ellipse centred on the origin, with horizontal
intercepts a and vertical intercepts b.
y
t = 3 / 4
t = 3 / 2
Observe that if x = a cos t and y = b sin t, then by the same trigonometric identity as before,
x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1. As it turns out, this gives us a second way of writing the set T :
T = {(x, y) x = a cos t, y = b sin t, t R} .
Similar to before, as t increases from 0 to 2, we trace out, anti-clockwise, an ellipse centred
on the origin.
At any instant in time t, the particles position, velocity, and acceleration are (x, y) =
(a cos t, b sin t), (vx , vy ) = (a sin t, b cos t), and (ax , ay ) = (a cos t, b sin t).
Exercise 80. Let P be the particle whose position (in metres) is described
{(x, y) x = a cos t, y = b sin t, t R}, where t is time (seconds). At each of the following
times, state the particles position and also its velocity and acceleration in both the x- and
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Example 156. Recall that the graph of the equation x2 y 2 = 1 i.e. the set U = {(x, y)
x2 y 2 = 1} is the rectangular east-west hyperbola centred on the origin, with
horizontal intercepts 1 and no vertical intercepts.
Arrows indicate 5 y
the instantaneous 4
direction of travel. 3
x2 - y2 = 1
2
1
t=4
0
t=3
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1 -1 0
-2
t=2
-3
-4
-5
t=1
x
t=0
1
t=5
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Exercise 81. (Answer on p. 1051.) Suppose that the position of a particle is described by
the set {(x, y) x = tan t, y = sec t, t R}, where t is time, measured in seconds.
(a) Rewrite the set using a single cartesian equation.
(b) Compute dx/dt. And hence make an observation about how the particle travels in the
x-direction.
The graph below indicates six positions of the particle A, B, C, D, E, and F . (Also
indicated are the directions of travel.) The particle is at these positions at times t = 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5 but not necessarily in that order.
(c) Using only the graphs of s = tan t and s = sec t (above) to guide you and without using
a calculator, state where the particle is, at each of the the times t = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
3
C
2
B
1
{(x, y): x = tan t, y = sec t, t
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
}
0
-1
E
-2
D
-3
Arrows indicate -4
the instantaneous
direction of travel.
-5
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17.1
Given a pair of parametric equations that describes a set of points, we can often go in
reverse: We can eliminate the parameter t and describe the same set of points using a
single equation.
Example 157. The set {(x, y) x = t2 + t, y = t 1, t R} describes the position (metres) of
a particle at time t (seconds).
y
Instantaneous
Direction of
Travel
Instantaneous
Direction of
Travel
Instantaneous
Direction of Travel
t = 1, x = 2, y = 0
vx = (2t + 1) ms-1 = 3 ms-1
vy = 1 ms-1, ax = 2 ms-2, ay = 0 ms-2
t = 0, x = 0, y = - 1
vx = (2t + 1) ms-1 = 1 ms-1
vy = 1 ms-1, ax = 2 ms-2, ay = 0 ms-2
t = - 1, x = 0, y = - 2
vx = (2t + 1) ms-1 = - 1 ms-1
vy = 1 ms-1, ax = 2 ms-2, ay = 0 ms-2
x = y2 + 3y + 2
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Example 158. The set {(x, y) x = 2 cos t 4, y = 3 sin t + 1, t R} describes the position
(metres) of a particle at time t (seconds).
5
t = / 2, x = - 4, y = 4
vx = - 2 sin (t) ms-1 = - 2 ms-1
vy = 3 cos (t) ms-1 = 0 ms-1
ax = - 2 cos (t) ms-2 = 0 ms-2
ay = - 3 sin (t) ms-2 = -3 ms-2
t = , x = - 6, y = 1
vx = - 2 sin (t) ms-1 = 0 ms-1
vy = 3 cos (t) ms-1 = - 3 ms-1
ax = - 2 cos (t) ms-2 = 2 ms-2
ay = - 3 sin (t) ms-2 = 0 ms-2
4
3
2
1
x
0
-7
-5
-3
-1
1
-1
t = 3 / 2 , x = - 4, y = - 2
vx = - 2 sin (t) ms-1 = 2 ms-1 -2
vy = 3 cos (t) ms-1 = 0 ms-1
ax = - 2 cos (t) ms-2 = 0 ms-2
ay = - 3 sin (t) ms-2 = 3 ms-2 -3
Write (x + 4) /2 = cos t and (y 1) /3 = sin t. Using the trigonometric identity cos2 t+sin2 t =
2
2
1, we can rewrite the set as {(x, y) x = [(x + 4) /2] + [(y 1) /3] = 1}. This is the ellipse
centred on (4, 1).
As an exercise, lets also compute the velocity and acceleration of the particle.
vx = dx/dt = 2 sin t and vy = dy/dt = 3 cos t. This says that at any instant in time t, the
particle has velocity 2 sin t ms1 leftwards and 3 cos t ms1 upwards.
ax = d2 x/dt2 = 2 cos t and ay = d2 y/dt2 = 3 sin t. This says that at any instant in time
t, the particle is accelerating leftwards at the rate 2 cos t ms2 and upwards at the rate
3 sin t ms2 .
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Exercise 82. Each of the following sets describes the position (metres) of a particle at
time t (seconds). Rewrite each set into a form where the parameter t is eliminated. Sketch
the graph of each. Indicate the particles position and direction of travel at t = 0. (Answers
on pp. 1052, 1053, and 1054.)
(a) {(x, y) x = 2 sin t 1, y = 3 cos2 t, t R}.
(b) {(x, y) x =
1
, y = t2 + 1, t R}.
t1
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18
N
N
Given any fraction
(where N and D are real numbers with D non-zero), we have
>0
D
D
if and only if one of the following is true:
1. N > 0 AND D > 0; OR
2. N < 0 AND D < 0.
The expressions that are in the numerator (N ) and denominator (D) can get pretty complicated. So here are some very simple examples just to warm you up.
Example 159.
4
> 0 because both the numerator and denominator are positive.
7
Example 160.
5
> 0 because both the numerator and denominator are negative.
3
Example 161.
9
< 0 because the numerator is negative but the denominator is positive.
2
Example 162.
1
> 0 because the numerator is positive but the denominator is negative.
8
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18.1
Example 163.
ax + b
>0
cx + d
x+3
> 0 one of the following is true:
3x + 2
Example 164.
4x 1
> 0 one of the following is true:
x+2
4x 1
> 0 x > 1/4 and x < 2 (equivalently, x (, 2)
x+2
5x + 4
> 0 one of the following is true:
2x + 1
1. 5x + 4 > 0 AND 2x + 1 > 0 x > 4/5 AND x < 1/2 x (4/5, 1/2) ; OR
2. 5x + 4 < 0 AND 2x + 1 < 0 x < 4/5 AND x > 1/2, but these are mutually
contradictory and thus impossible.
Altogether then,
5x + 4
> 0 x (4/5, 1/2).
2x + 1
When given any inequality that is of a slightly different form, be sure to always convert it
N
into what Ill call the standard form
> 0. Strictly speaking, this is not necessary, but
D
Page 212, Table of Contents
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if you always do this, youll make a habit of solving inequalities in this form, and thus be
less likely to make a careless mistake.
3x 2
< 3. This inequality is equivalent to
5x + 1
3x 2
>0
5x + 1
15x + 3 (3x 2)
>0
5x + 1
18x + 5
> 0.
5x + 1
3x 2
< 3 x < 5/18 OR x > 1/5 (equivalently, x (, 5/18)
5x + 1
2x + 1
Exercise 83. For what values of x is each of the following inequalities true? (a)
> 0.
3x + 2
1
1
3x 18
2x + 3
x1
> 0. (c)
> 0. (d)
> 0. (e)
> 0. (f)
< 9. (Answers on p.
(b)
4
4
4
9x 14
x + 7
1055.)
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18.2
ax2 + bx + c
>0
dx2 + ex + f
ax2 + bx + c
. But
dx2 + ex + f
ax2 + bx + c
> 0. This is
you are required to know how to find the values of x for which
dx2 + ex + f
just the same game as before, albeit slightly more complicated.
Dont worry, you are not required to know how to graph the equation y =
2x2 + x + 3
> 0 one of the following is true:
x2 + 3x + 2
Example 167.
y = 2x2 + x + 3 is a -shaped quadratic and has no real roots (because the discriminant is
negative). Hence, it is always positive. It is thus impossible that 2x2 + x + 3 < 0 AND
x2 + 3x + 2 < 0 (Case 2).
We need thus only examine Case 1. As we just said, it is always true that 2x2 + x + 3 > 0.
So we need only examine when it is true that x2 + 3x + 2 > 0.
The equation y = x2 + 3x + 2 has a -shaped graph and has two real zeros given by:
32 4(1)(2) 3 17 3 17
=
=
= 0.5 (3 17) .
2(1)
2
2
Altogether then,
2x2 + x + 3
>
0
(0.5
(3
17)
,
0.5
(3
+
17)).
x2 + 3x + 2
A dirty trick is to use your TI84 to do a quick check that this answer is correct:
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x2 + 4x 1
> 0 one of the following is true:
Example 168.
2x2 + x + 2
1. x2 + 4x 1 > 0 AND 2x2 + x + 2 > 0; OR
2. x2 + 4x 1 < 0 AND 2x2 + x + 2 < 0.
The equation y = 2x2 + x + 2 has a -shaped graph and has no real zeros (because the
discriminant is negative). Hence, it is always positive. It is thus impossible that x2 +
4x 1 < 0 AND 2x2 + x + 2 < 0 (Case 2).
We need thus only examine Case 1. As we just said, it is always true that y = 2x2 +x+2 > 0.
So we need only examine when it is true that x2 + 4x 1 > 0.
The equation y = x2 + 4x 1 has a -shaped graph and has two real zeros given by:
42 4(1)(1) 4 12 4 12
=
=
= 2 3.
2(1)
2
2
x2 + 4x 1
Thus,
>
0
(2
3,
2
+
3) (0.268, 3.732). As usual, lets check
2x2 + x + 2
using our TI84:
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x2 + 5x + 4
> 0 one of the following is true:
Example 169.
x2 2x + 1
1. x2 + 5x + 4 > 0 AND x2 2x + 1 > 0; OR
2. x2 + 5x + 4 < 0 AND x2 2x + 1 < 0.
The equation y = x2 + 5x + 4 has a -shaped graph and has two real zeros given by:
5
(5)2 4(1)(4) 5 9 5 3
=
=
= 4, 1.
2(1)
2
2
(2)2 4(1)(1) 2 8
=
= 1 2.
2(1)
2
Hence, the expression x2 + 4x 1 > 0 x (1 2, 2 1). Thus:
2
1. x2 +5x+4 > 0 AND x2 2x+1 > 0 x < 4 OR x > 1 AND x (1 2, 2 1).
x2 + 5x + 4
Altogether then,
>
0
(4,
1
2)
(1,
2 1). As usual, lets
x2 2x + 1
check using our TI84:
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x2 4x + 3
> 0 one of the following is true:
Example 170.
x2 2x
1. x2 4x + 3 > 0 AND x2 2x > 0; OR
2. x2 4x + 3 < 0 AND x2 2x < 0.
The equation y = x2 4x + 3 has a -shaped graph and has two real zeros given by:
4
(4)2 4(1)(3) 4 4
=
= 1, 3.
2(1)
2
(2)2 4(1)(0) 2 4
=
= 0, 2.
2(1)
2
x2 4x + 3
> 0 x (, 0) (1, 2) (3, ). As usual, lets check
x2 2x
Exercise 84. Without using a calculator, find the values of x for which each of the following
x2 + 2x + 1
x2 1
x2 3x 18
2x + 5
inequalities is true. (a) 2
> 0. (b) 2
> 0. (c)
>
0.
(d)
>
x 3x + 2
x 4
x2 + 9x 14
x + 4
3x + 1
. (Answers on pp. 1057, 1058, 1059, and 1060.)
6x 7
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18.3
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
After Step 5.
After Step 6.
In the TI84:
1. Press ON to turn on your calculator.
2. Press Y= to bring up the Y= editor.
3. Press X,T,,n SIN 0 . 5 . To enter , press the blue 2ND button and then
(which corresponds to the button). Now press X,T,,n ) and altogether you will
have entered x sin(0.5x).
4. Now press GRAPH and the calculator will graph y = x sin(0.5x).
It looks like the horizontal intercepts are close to the origin. Lets zoom in to see better.
5. Press the (ZOOM) button to bring up a menu of ZOOM options.
6. Press 2 to select the Zoom In option. Nothing seems to happen. But now press ENTER
and the TI will zoom in a little for you.
It looks like there are 3 horizontal intercepts. To find out what precisely they are, well use
the TI84s zero option.
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After Step 8.
After Step 9.
3. Press the blue 2ND button and then CALC (which corresponds to the TRACE
button). This brings up the CALCULATE menu.
4. Press 2 to select the zero option. This brings you back to the graph, with a cursor
flashing. Also, the TI84 prompts you with the question: Left Bound?
TI84s ZERO function works by you first specifying a Left Bound and a Right Bound
for x. TI84 will then check to see if there are any horizontal intercepts (i.e. values of x for
which y = 0) within those bounds.
5. Using the < and > arrow keys, move the blinking cursor until it is where you want your
first Left Bound to be. For me, I have placed it a little to the left of where I believe
the leftmost horizontal intercept to be.
6. Press ENTER and you will have just entered your first Left Bound.
TI84 now prompts you with the question: Right Bound?.
7. So now just repeat. Using the < and > arrow keys, move the blinking cursor until it is
where you want your first Right Bound to be. For me, I have placed it a little to the
right of where I believe the leftmost horizontal is.
8. Again press ENTER and you will have just entered your first Right Bound.
TI84 now asks you: Guess? This is just asking if you want to proceed and get TI84 to
work out where the horizontal intercept is. So go ahead and:
9. Press ENTER . TI84 now informs you that there is a Zero at x = 1, y = 0 and
places the blinking cursor at precisely that point. This is the first horizontal intercept
weve found.
To find each of the other 2 horizontal intercepts, just repeat steps 3 through 9. You
should be able to find that they are at x = 0 and x = 1. Altogether, the 3 intercepts are
x = 1, 0, 1. Based on these and what the graph looks like, we conclude: x > sin (0.5x)
x (1, 0) (1, ).
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Look for the values of x for which x e ln x = 0. They are x = 0.7083, 4.1387:
Leftmost horizontal intercept. Rightmost horizontal intercept.
Based on these horizontal intercepts and what the graph looks like, we conclude: x > e+ln x
if and only if x (0, 0.7083) (4.1387, ).
Exercise 85. Use a graphing calculator to find the values of x for which each of the
1
> x3 + sin x.
following inequalities is true. (a) x3 x2 + x 1 > ex . (b) x > cos x. (c)
2
1x
(Answers on pp. 1061, 1061, and 1062.)
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18.4
Systems of Equations
Warm-up questions:
Exercise 86. (PSLE-style question.) When Apu was 40 years old, Beng was twice as old
as Caleb. Today, Caleb is 28 years old and Apu is twice as old as Beng. What are the ages
of Apu and Beng today? (If necessary, assume that the age of a person is always an integer
and is fixed between January 1st and December 31st of each year.) (Answer on p. 1063.)
Exercise 87. (O-Level style question.) Planes A and B leave the same point at 12pm.
Plane A travels northeast at a constant speed of 100 km/h. Plane B travels south at a
constant speed of 200 km/h. At 3pm, both planes make an instant turn and start flying
directly towards each other at the same speed. At what time will the two planes collide?
(Answer on p. 1063.)
Definition 48. Given an equation involving a single variable x, a real solution to the
equation is any value of x R such that the equation is true.
Example 173. The equation x + 5 = 8 has one real solution: 3. The equation x2 1 = 0
has two real solutions: 1 and 1. The equation x2 1 = 8 has two real solutions: 3 and 3.
The equation x3 4x = 0 has three real solutions: 2, 0, and 2.
Example 174. The equation x2 + 1 = 0 has no real solution.
Definition 49. Given an equation involving a single variable x, a real solution set is the
set of values of x R such that the equation is true.
Example 175. The real solution set of the equation x + 5 = 8 is {3}. The real solution
set of the equation x2 1 = 0 is {1, 1}. The real solution set of the equation x2 1 = 8 is
{3, 3}. The real solution set of the equation x3 4x = 0 is {2, 0, 2}.
Example 176. The real solution set of the equation x2 + 1 = 0 is = {}.
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Definition 50. Given a system of equations (or more simply a set of equations) involving
two variables x and y, a real solution to the set of equations is any point (or ordered pair)
(x, y) with x, y R for which the system of equations is true; and a real solution set is the
set of ordered pairs (x, y) for which the system of equations is true.
Example 177. Consider the system of equations y = x + 1, y = x + 3. To solve this system
of equations, plug in the second equation into the first to get: x + 3 = x + 1. Now solve:
x = 1. And so y = x + 1 = 2. Altogether, this system of equations has one real solution (1, 2).
Its real solution set is thus {(1, 2)}.
Example 178. Consider the system of equations y = 0.5x2 1.5 and y = x. To solve this
system of equations, plug in the second equation into the first to get: x = 0.5x2 1.5.
Rearranging: x2 2x 3 = 0. Now solve: x = 3, 1. Correspondingly, y = 3, 1. Altogether,
this system of equations has two real solutions: (3, 3) and (1, 1). Its real solution set is
thus {(3, 3), (1, 1)}.
A system of equations can have no real solutions.
Example 179. Consider the system of equations y = ln x and y = x. Observe that for all
x (0, 1), ln x < 0 and hence x > ln x. Moreover, for x = 1, ln x = 0 < x. Also, for x > 1,
1
d
d
ln x = < 1 <
x = 1, so the slope of y = x is steeper than that of y = ln x. Altogether
dx
x
dx
then, for all x > 0, x > ln x. Hence, this system of equations has no real solutions. Its real
solution set is thus = {}.
A system of equations can also have infinitely many real solutions.
Example 180. Consider the system of equations y = x and 2y = 2x. Observe that this
system of equations has infinitely many real solutions, e.g. (1, 1), (2, 2), (2.74, 2.74). There
is thus no way to explicitly list out all its real solutions. However, using set-builder notation,
we can write down its real solution set as {(x, y} y = x}. This says that every ordered pair
(x, y) such that y = x is a real solution to the given system of equations.
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You are required to know how to use a graphing calculator to find the numerical solution
of equations (including system of linear equations).
Example 181. Solve the system of equations y = x4 x3 5, y = ln x.
One method is to graph both equations on your graphing calculator and then find their
intersection points.
Here Ill use another method: First rewrite the two equations as a third equation y =
x4 x3 5 ln x. Our goal is to find the horizontal intercepts of this equation, which will
in turn also be the solutions to the above set of equations.
Briefly, in the TI84:
1. Graph the equation y = x4 x3 5 ln x.
It looks like there is only one horizontal intercept.
2. Zoom in.
3. Find the horizontal intercept using the zero option.
Conclusion: There is one solution to this set of equations and its x-coordinate is 1.8658. To
find the y-coordinate, we need merely plug in this value of x into either of the equations in
the original set of equations: y = ln x = ln 1.8658 0.6237. Altogether, this set of equations
has one solution: (1.8658, 0.6237).
After Step 1.
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
Exercise 90. Using your graphing calculator, solve the following systems of equations. (a)
1
1
, y = x5 x3 + 2. (c) y =
x2 + y 2 = 1, y = sin x. (b) y =
, y = x3 + sin x. (Answers
2
1
x
1+ x
on pp. 1065, 1066, and 1067.)
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Part II
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19
Finite Sequences
Recall that an ordered pair (of real numbers) was simply any pair of real numbers, enclosed
by parentheses, and whose order matters (and this was the only difference between an
ordered pair and a set of two objects).
Example 182. (1, 2) and (2, 1) are both ordered pairs with (1, 2) (2, 1).
We can analogously define ordered triples, quadruples, quintuples, etc.
Example 183. (1, 2, 3) and (2, 1, 3) are both ordered triples with (1, 2, 3) (2, 1, 3).
(1, 1, 1, 1) and (2, 4, 1, 3) are both ordered quadruples with (1, 1, 1, 1) (2, 4, 1, 3).
(2, 2, 3, 2, 2) and (2, 4, 1, 5, 3) are both ordered quintuples with (2, 2, 3, 2, 2) (2, 4, 1, 5, 3).
Well simply call all of these ordered n-tuples or even simply tuples. Hence,
Example 184. (1, 2, 3), (2, 1, 3), (1, 1, 1, 1), (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 2, 3, 2, 2), and (2, 4, 1, 5, 3) are
all ordered n-tuples. (1, 2, 3) and (2, 1, 3) are ordered 3-ples or triples. (1, 1, 1, 1) and
(2, 4, 1, 3) are ordered 4-tuples or quadruples. (2, 2, 3, 2, 2) and (2, 4, 1, 5, 3) are ordered
5-tuples or quintuples.
In fact, when talking about tuples, it will be understood that they are ordered, so well
drop the word ordered and simply call them tuples (instead of ordered tuples).
Definition 51. A finite sequence of length n is any n-tuple.
Example 185. (1, 2, 3) and (2, 1, 3) are 3-ples or, equivalently, finite sequences of length
3.
(1, 2, 3, 4) and (2, 4, 1, 3) are 4-tuples or, equivalently, finite sequences of length 4.
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and (2, 4, 1, 5, 3) are 5-tuples or, equivalently, finite sequences of length 5.
We refer to the objects in a sequence as terms.
Example 186. Given the sequence (2, 1, 3), 2 is its first term, 1 is its second term, and
3 is its third term.
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19.1
Exercise 91. (Answer on p. 1068.) For each of the following finite sequences, write down
a corresponding function.
(a) (1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100).
(b) (2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20).
(c) (0.5, 4, 13.5, 32, 62.5, 108, 171.5).
(d) (2, 6, 6, 12, 10, 18, 14, 24, 18, 30, 22, 36, 26, 42).
(e) (18, 14.5).
30
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19.2
Recurrence Relations
SYLLABUS ALERT
Recurrence relations are included in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the 9758 (revised)
syllabus. So you can skip this section if youre taking 9758.
Example 189. (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024) is a finite sequence of length 10. A
corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule : f (1) = 1 and f (n) = 2f (n 1) (the recurrence relation), for all n 2.
The equation f (n) = 2f (n1) is an example of a recurrence relation. That is, it describes
how each term in the sequence is generated, depending on what previous terms were.
In this particular example of a sequence, we can easily write down another corresponding
function that does not involve a recurrence relation:
Example 190. (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024) is a finite sequence of length 10. A
corresponding function g for this sequence has
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule : g(n) = 2n1 (not a recurrence relation), for all n.
If we can describe a sequence without using a recurrence relation, then we can immediately
compute what each term in the sequence is. So in the case of the finite sequence just given,
we prefer to use the function g rather than the function f as a corresponding function.
In contrast, with a recurrence relation, we need to know what some of the previous terms
are, in order to compute each term. So if possible, we prefer to describe sequences without
using recurrence relations.
But sometimes, it is difficult to describe a sequence without using a recurrence relation.
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Example 191. (1, 4, 10, 22, 46, 94, 190, 382, 766, 1534) is a finite sequence of length 10. A
corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule : f (1) = 1 and f (n) = 2f (n 1) + 2 (the recurrence relation), for all n 2.
It is possible to describe the sequence just given without using a recurrence relation, but it
does not come obviously (at least to the untrained eye) and takes a little work, as well see.
A recurrence relation can certainly involve more than just the previous term. In the Fibonnaci sequence, each term (from the third term onwards) is the sum of the previous
two terms: f (n) = f (n 2) + f (n 1). This equation is again a recurrence relation.
But in the past ten years exams, I havent seen a question where the recurrence relation
involves more than just the previous term. So we shall not bother doing much of these.
Example 192. (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89) is a finite sequence of length 11, consisting
of the first 11 Fibonacci numbers. A corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule : f (n) = 1, for n = 1, 2; and f (n) = f (n 2) + f (n 1) (the recurrence
relation), for all n 3.
Exercise 92. Each of the following finite sequences involves a recurrence relation. (Hint:
Each involves only the previous term and also a squared term.) Write down a corresponding
function for each. (a) (3, 4, 9, 64, 3969). (b) (1, 2, 10, 290, 252010). (Answer on p. 1069.)
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19.3
Example 196. (1, 1, 3, 5, 11, 21, 43, 85, 171, 341, 683) is a finite sequence of length 11. We
can also write it as (dn )n11 = (d1 , d2 , d3 , . . . , d11 ), where d1 = 1, d2 = 1, d3 = 3, d4 = 5, d5 = 11,
..., d11 = 683.
We can create new sequences out of old ones, in the obvious fashion:
Example 197. Using the sequence (an )n11 = (1, 1, 1, 3, 5, 9, 17, 31, 57, 105, 193), here are
some new sequences we can create:
(zn )n11 = (an + 1)n11 = (a1 + 1, a2 + 1, a3 + 1, . . . , a11 + 1)
= (2, 2, 2, 4, 6, 10, 18, 32, 58, 106, 194) = (z1 , z2 , z3 , . . . , z11 ) ,
(yn )n11 = (2an )n11 = (2a1 , 2a2 , 2a3 , . . . , 2a11 )
= (2, 2, 2, 6, 10, 18, 34, 62, 114, 210, 386) = (y1 , y2 , y3 , . . . , y11 ) ,
(xn )n11 = (an 1)n11 = (a1 1, a2 1, a3 1, . . . , a11 1)
= (0, 0, 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 30, 56, 104, 192) = (x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . , x11 ) ,
(wn )n11 = (an /2)n11 = (a1 /2, a2 /2, a3 /2, . . . , a11 /2)
= (1/2, 1/2, 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, 9/2, 17/2, 31/2, 57/2, 105/2, 193/2) = (w1 , w2 , w3 , . . . , w11 ) .
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Moreover, using two (or more) finite sequences that are of the same length, we can
likewise create a new finite sequence (also of the same length), in the obvious fashion:
Example 198. Using the sequences (an )n11 = (1, 1, 1, 3, 5, 9, 17, 31, 57, 105, 193) and
(dn )n11 = (1, 1, 3, 5, 11, 21, 43, 85, 171, 341, 683), here are some new sequences we can create:
(en )n11 = (an + dn )n11 = (a1 + d1 , a2 + d2 , a3 + d3 , . . . , a11 + d11 )
= (2, 2, 4, 8, 16, 30, 60, 116, 228, 446, 876) = (e1 , e2 , e3 , . . . , e11 ) ,
(fn )n11 = (an dn )n11 = (a1 d1 , a2 d2 , a3 d3 , . . . , a11 d11 )
= (1, 1, 3, 15, 55, 189, . . . , 131819) = (f1 , f2 , f3 , . . . , f11 ) ,
(gn )n11 = (an dn )n11 = (a1 d1 , a2 d2 , a3 d3 , . . . , a11 d11 )
= (0, 0, 2, 2, 6, 12, 26, . . . , 490) = (g1 , g2 , g3 , . . . , g11 ) ,
(hn )n11 = (an /dn )n11 = (a1 /d1 , a2 /d2 , a3 /d3 , . . . , a11 /d11 )
= (1, 1, 1/3, 3/5, 5/11, 9/21, . . . , 193/683) = (h1 , h2 , h3 , . . . , h11 ) .
There are of course many other new sequences we can create, whether using only one
sequence, using two sequences, or even using three or more sequences.
Remark 6. You cannot create a new sequence using two finite sequences that are of different
lengths. For example, given two finite sequences (an )n11 = (1, 1, 1, 3, 5, 9, 17, 31, 57, 105, 193)
and (cn )n7 = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14), there is no such sequence as (an + cn )n11 or even
(an + cn )n7 . Either of these supposed sequences is simply undefined.
It turns out that we are rarely interested in finite sequences. Instead, we are much more
interested in infinite sequences, which is a simple extension of the concept of finite sequences.
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20
Infinite Sequences
We can easily extend the concept of finite sequences to infinite sequences, which have
domain Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } (the entire set of positive integers).
Example 199. (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, . . . ) is the infinite sequence consisting of all the
even positive integers. A corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = 2n for all n.
Example 200. (1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, . . . ) is the infinite sequence consisting of the
triangular numbers. A corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (1) = 1 and f (n) = 1 + 2 + + n for all n 2.
Example 201. The infinite sequence (1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, ...) has the corresponding
function f with
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = 1 2 n = n! for all n.
Exercise 93. For each of the following infinite sequences, write down a corresponding function. (a) (1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, . . . ). (b) (2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, . . . ). (c)
(0.5, 4, 13.5, 32, 62.5, 108, 171.5, . . . ). (d) (2, 6, 6, 12, 10, 18, 14, 24, 18, 30, 22, 36, 26, 42, . . . ).
(Answer on p. 1070.)
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20.1
(an ) is our shorthand notation for an infinite sequence, where (an ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . ).
As stated, we are rarely interested in finite sequences. And so whenever we talk about
a sequence, it should be assumed that we are talking about an infinite sequence, unless
otherwise clearly stated.
The idea of creating new sequences carries over from the finite case in the obvious fashion.
Example 202.
Let
and
Then
Analogous to Remark 6, you cannot create a new sequence using a finite sequence and an
infinite sequence. Instead, you can only create one using two infinite sequences.
Example 203.
Let
and
Then
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21
Series
Definition 52. Given a finite sequence (an )nk , its series is the expression
a1 + a2 + a3 + + ak .
We refer to a1 as the first term of the sequence and also as the first term of the series.
Similarly, a2 is the second term of both the sequence and the series. Etc.
Definition 53. Given a finite sequence (an )nk , its sum of series is the number S such
that S = a1 + a2 + a3 + + ak .
Example 204.
Example 205.
It may seem strange and unnecessary to distinguish between a series and a sum of series.
Arent they exactly the same thing?
It turns out that expressions like a1 + a2 + a3 + + ak play an important role in maths and
so we want to reserve a special name for the expression itself and distinguish it from the
sum of series. For example, we might be specifically interested in the series 1 + 2 + 3, rather
than just the sum of series 6.
Clearly, every finite sequence has a well-defined sum of series simply add up all the terms
in the finite sequence!
Definition 54. Given an infinite sequence (an ), its series is the expression a1 + a2 + a3 + . . . .
A series that corresponds to a finite sequence is called a finite series, while a series that
corresponds to an infinite sequence is called an infinite series.
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21.1
Every finite sequence has a sum of series. In contrast, not all infinite sequences do:
Example 206. Consider the sequence (an ) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . . ). Its series is the expression
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + . . . . There is no number equal to 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + . . . and so a sum of series
does not exist for this sequence.
But some infinite sequences do have sums of series:
Example 207. Consider the sequence (bn ) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, . . . ). Its series is the expression
0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + . . . . The sum of series for this sequence exists and is 0.
Definition 55. An infinite sequence for which a sum of series exists is said to have a
convergent series.
An infinite sequence for which no sum of series exists is said to have a divergent series.
So in the above examples, we say that the sequence (an ) has a divergent series (because its
sum of series does not exist), while the sequence (bn ) has a convergent series (because its
sum of series exists).
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= 0 + 0 + 0 + ...
and happily conclude that the sum of series is 0. But wait a minute ... what if we instead
pair together every two terms like so:
1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 . . . = 1 + (1 + 1) + (1 + 1) + (1 + 1) + . . .
0
= 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + ...
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22
Summation Notation
is the upper-case Greek letter sigma. An enlarged version of that letter , read aloud
as sum, is used to express series in compact notation:
Example 209. Consider the series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9. Another way to write it
is to use summation notation:
9
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = n.
n=1
Altogether, the notation says that we are adding up 9 terms, namely a1 , a2 , ..., a9 .
n=1
The expression to the right of the tells us what each an is. In this example, it is n, which
simply says that for every n, an = n.
9
1.
n=1
This says that the starting point is 1 and the ending point is 9. In other words, we add
up a1 , a2 , . . . , a9 , where for each n, an = 1. And so a1 = 1, a2 = 1, etc. Altogether:
9
1 = a1 + a2 + + a9 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.
n=1
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2n.
n=1
This says that the starting point is 1 and the ending point is 7. In other words, we add
up a1 , a2 , . . . , a7 , where for each n, an = 2n. And so a1 = 2, a2 = 4, etc. Altogether:
7
2n = a1 + a2 + + a7 = 2 1 + 2 2 + + 2 7 = 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 + 12 + 14.
n=1
This says that the starting point is 1 and the ending point is 7. In other words, we add
up a1 , a2 , . . . , a7 , where for each n, an = 2n + 1. And so a1 = 3, a2 = 5, etc. Altogether:
3
15
(2n + 1) = a1 + a2 + + a7 = (2 1 + 1) + (2 2 + 1) + + (2 7 + 1).
7
n=1
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Example 212. The series 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 + 256 + 512 + 1024 can be written as
10
2n .
n=1
This says that the starting point is 1 and the ending point is 10. In other words, we
add up a1 , a2 , . . . , a10 , where for each n, an = 2n . And so a1 = 2, a2 = 4, etc. Altogether:
10
n=1
Its nice to have 1 as the starting point, but theres no reason why this must always be so.
Example 213. The series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 64 + 128 + 256 + 512 + 1024 can be written
as
10
2n .
n=0
This says that the starting point is 0 and the ending point is 10. In other words, we
add up a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , a10 , where for each n, an = 2n . And so a0 = 1, a1 = 2, a2 = 4, etc.
Altogether:
10
n=0
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Exercise 94. Rewrite each of the following in summation notation. (Answer on p. 1071.)
(a) 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 + 49 + 64 + 81 + 100.
(b) 2 + 5 + 8 + 11 + 14 + 17 + 20 + 23.
(c) 0.5 + 4 + 13.5 + 32 + 62.5 + 108 + 171.5.
Exercise 95. Find the sum of each of the following series. (Answer on p. 1071.)
5
(a) (2 n) .
n=2
17
(c) (x 3).
x=31
n=s
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23
Example 214. Consider the finite sequence (4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22). A corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} (a subset of Z+ );
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (1) = 4 and f (n) f (n 1) = 3 for all n 2.
This is an example of a finite arithmetic sequence.
Example 215. Consider the infinite sequence (4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, . . . ). A
corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (1) = 4 and f (n) f (n 1) = 3 for all n 2.
This is an example of an infinite arithmetic sequence.
Definition 57. An arithmetic sequence (or an arithmetic progression) is any finite or infinite sequence (an ) where an+1 an is a constant for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . We call an+1 an
the common difference. We call the series for an arithmetic sequence an arithmetic series.
And its sum of series (if it exists at all) is called an arithmetic sum of series.
Example 216. The sequence (an ) = (1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, . . . ) is an arithmetic sequence
because an+1 an is constant for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
But the sequence (bn ) = (1, 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, . . . ) is not an arithmetic sequence because
a2 a1 = 0 a3 a2 = 3.
The next fact is intuitively obvious. Clearly, there is no number for which, for example,
4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + 16 + 19 + 22 + . . . is equal to.
Fact 12. The infinite arithmetic sequence (an ) has no sum of series, except in the trivial
case where (an ) = (0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, . . . ).
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23.1
101
101
101
= 101 50 = 5050.
In general, there is a simple formula for the sum of a finite arithmetic series: (First Term
+ Last Term) (Number of Terms) 2.
k
Fact 13. The finite arithmetic series a1 + a2 + + ak has sum of series (a1 + ak ) .
2
(We will only prove Fact 13 on p. 249.)
Example 218. Consider the arithmetic sequence (7, 17, 27, 37, . . . , 837). Its common difference is 10. The difference between the first and last terms is 830. And so the last term
is 830 10 = 83 terms after the first. Hence, there are in total 84 terms. By Fact 13, its
84
sum of series is (7 + 837)
= 35488.
2
Example 219. Consider the arithmetic sequence (1, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, . . . , 393). Its
common difference is 4. The difference between the first and last terms is 392. And so the
last term is 392 4 = 98 terms after the first. Hence, there are in total 99 terms. By Fact
99
13, its sum of series is (1 + 393)
= 19503.
2
Exercise 96. Rewrite each of the following arithmetic series in summation notation and
compute their sums. (a) 2+7+12+17+22+27+32+ +997. (b) 3+20+37+54+71+ +1703.
(c) 81 + 89 + 97 + 105 + 113 + + 8081 (Answer on p. 1072.)
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24
Example 220. Consider the finite sequence (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128). A corresponding
function f for this sequence has
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} (a subset of Z+ );
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (1) = 1 and f (n + 1) f (n) = 2 for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
This is an example of a finite geometric sequence.
Example 221. Consider the finite sequence (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, . . . ). A corresponding function f for this sequence has
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (1) = 1 and f (n + 1) f (n) = 2 for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
This is an example of a infinite geometric sequence.
Definition 58. A geometric sequence (or a geometric progression) is any sequence (an )
where an+1 an is constant for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . We call an+1 an the common ratio. We
call the series for a geometric sequence a geometric series. And its sum of series (if it exists
at all) is called a geometric sum of series.
Example 222. The sequence (an ) = (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . ) is a geometric sequence because
an+1 an is constant for all n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
But the sequence (bn ) = (1, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, . . . ) is not a geometric sequence because a2 a1 =
1 a3 a2 = 2.
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24.1
It turns out that just like with finite arithmetic series, there is a nice formula for the finite
geometric series. Lets start with the simple case first where the first term is simply 1.
Fact 14. 1 + r + r + r + + r
n1
1 rn
.
=
1r
Fact 15. a1 + a1 r + a1 r + a1 r + + a1 r
n1
1 rn
= a1
.
1r
Example 223. Consider the geometric sequence (1, 2, 4, 8, 16, . . . , 1024). Its common ratio
is 2. The ratio of the last term to the first is 1024 1 = 1024 = 210 . And so the last term
is 10 terms after the first. Hence, there are in total 11 terms. Thus, its sum of series is
1 211 2047
1
=
= 2047.
12
1
Example 224. Consider the geometric sequence (4, 12, 36, 108, . . . , 8748). Its common
ratio is 3. The ratio of the last term to the first is 8748 4 = 2187 = 37 . And so the last
term is 7 terms after the first. Hence, there are in total 8 terms. Thus, its sum of series is
1 38
6560
4
=4
= 4 3280 = 13120.
13
2
Exercise 97. Rewrite each of the following geometric series into summation notation and
compute their sums. (a) 7 + 14 + 28 + 56 + + 448 + 896. (b) 20 + 10 + 5 + + 5/8. (c)
1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + + 1/243. (Answer on p. 1073.)
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24.2
Perhaps surprisingly, it turns out that under a certain condition, an infinite geometric
sequence can have a sum of series. Again, lets start with the simple case:
1
.
1r
way, we can also use summation notation for infinite series: S = r and S = rn+1 .)
n=0
n=0
1
.
1r
a1
.
1r
Exercise 98. Rewrite each of the following infinite geometric series in summation notation
and compute its sum. (a) 6 + 9/2 + 27/8 + . . . . (b) 20 + 10 + 5 + . . . . (c) 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + . . . . (Answer
on p. 1073.)
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25
SYLLABUS ALERT
Proof by the method of mathematical induction is included in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but
not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip this Chapter if youre taking 9758.
Well now learn a new technique called proof by the method of mathematical induction. Its pretty difficult, so go real slow.31
Imagine an infinite chain of dominos. Our goal is to knock all of them down. Suppose we
manage to do two things:
1. Knock down the 1st domino (the base case).
2. Prove that if the jth domino is knocked down, then so too is the (j + 1)th domino
(the inductive step).
Then we will have succeeded. Because once the 1st domino is knocked down, the inductive
step implies that the 2nd domino is also knocked down, and now again by the inductive
step the 3rd domino is also knocked down, and now again by the inductive step the 4th
domino is also knocked down, ..., ad infinitum (to infinity).
31
Which is perhaps why they decided to drop it from the revised 9758 syllabus! It does appear though as the first topic of
Further Maths, which will be revived in 2017 and for which a free textbook will soon be appearing!
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Step #1 rarely involves much work. Step #2 is usually, but not always, very easy. Step
#3 is usually the hardest part on the A-level exams, it usually just involves some (or a
lot of) algebra.
Why does the method of mathematical induction work? Step #2 (the base case) shows
that P(1) is true (knock down the 1st domino). Step #3 (the inductive step) then
implies that P(2) is also true (the falling 1st domino knocks down the 2nd domino).
Step #3 (the inductive step) then implies that P(3) is also true (the falling 2nd domino
knocks down the 3rd domino).
Step #3 (the inductive step ) then implies that P(4) is also true (the falling 3rd domino
knocks down the 4th domino).
Ad infinitum (to infinity). Thus, we have proven that P(k) is true for all k = 1, 2, 3, . . . , as
desired.
Too abstract? Work through all the examples and exercises and you should find that it is
not very difficult. For our first example, well reprove an earlier fact, but now using the
method of mathematical induction.
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1 rn
.
1r
Proof. Step #1. Let P(k) be (shorthand for) the proposition that
1 + r + r2 + r3 + + rk1 =
1 rk
.
1r
1 r1
.
1r
1 + r + r2 + r3 + + rj1 =
1 rj
.
1r
1 rj+1
.
1r
1 + r + r2 + r3 + + rj = (1 + r + r2 + r3 + + rj1 ) + rj
j
1 rj + (1 r)rj 1 rj+1
1 1r
j
=
+r =
=
, as desired.
1r
1r
1r
In this particular instance, the method of mathematical induction was terribly cumbersome,
compared to our earlier four-sentence proof (p. 243). But it turns out that in many other
instances, this method is the best and sometimes the only tool to use.
Lets try more examples.
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n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
.
6
k
k(k + 1)(2k + 1)
.
6
1(1 + 1)(2 1 + 1)
.
6
j(j + 1)(2j + 1)
.
6
r2 =
n=1
(j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [2(j + 1) + 1]
.
6
r2 = r2 + (j + 1)2
n=1
n=1
=
6
=
7
=
5
=
4
j(j + 1)(2j + 1)
+ (j + 1)2
6
j+1
[j(2j + 1) + 6(j + 1)]
6
j+1
(2j 2 + 7j + 1)
6
(j + 1)(j + 2)(2j + 3)
6
(j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [2(j + 1) + 1]
,
6
(Using =)
as desired.
I just used the backwards-forwards method. The order in which I wrote down each line
is given by the numbers above each = sign.
Another trick is to exploit the fact that it has got to work out right. So for example,
it might not immediately be obvious that 2j 2 + 7j + 1 = (j + 2)(2j + 3), but you know it
has got to work out right and thus this must surely be true (unless of course you made
some mistake with the algebra somewhere). And if you expand the RHS, you find that this
equation is indeed true.
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Fact 13 (reproduced from p. 241). The finite arithmetic sequence (an )nk has sum of
k
series (a1 + ak ) .
2
Proof. Step #1. Let P(k) be (shorthand for) the proposition that
a1 + a2 + + ak =
k(a1 + ak )
.
2
1(a1 + a1 )
.
2
a1 + a2 + + aj =
j(a1 + aj )
.
2
(j + 1)(a1 + aj+1 )
.
2
Lets first observe that aj a1 = (j 1) (aj+1 aj ). In words, this equation says: Consider
the difference between the j th term and the first term; it is equal to j 1 times the difference
2 (j 1)aj+1 + a1
between two consecutive terms. Rearranging, we have aj =
.
j
Now write:
a1 + a2 + + aj+1
j(a1 + aj )
+ aj+1
2
j {a1 + [(j 1)aj+1 + a1 ] /j}
ja1 + (j 1)aj+1 + a1
=
+ aj+1 =
+ aj+1
2
2
(j + 1)a1 + (j 1)aj+1
(j + 1)a1 + (j 1)aj+1 + 2aj+1
=
+ aj+1
=
2
2
(j + 1)a1 + (j + 1)aj+1
(j + 1)(a1 + aj+1 )
=
=
, as desired.
2
2
= (a1 + a2 + + aj ) + aj+1
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n(n + 1)
Exercise 99. Prove that r = [
] . (Answer on p. 1074.) By the way, this shows
2
r=1
n
r=1
r=1
that r3 = ( r) .
Exercise 100. (Answer on p. 1075.) Let a R. Prove that
1 (n + 1)an + nan+1
,
ra = a
(1 a)2
r=1
n
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Part III
Vectors
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26
The length of the line segment ab is thus a well-defined concept. In contrast, it makes no
sense to talk about the length of the line ab.
A ray is a portion of a line, beginning at some point along the line, then going towards
infinity. You can think of a ray as a half-infinite-line. The figure above illustrates in grey
the ray that starts from the point a and goes in the direction b.
This textbook will strictly reserve the word ray to mean a half-infinite-line. But you should
know that some other writers use ray to mean a (finite) line segment.
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26.2
We will not use the degree as a unit of measurement for angles. In this textbook, the
unit of measurement for angles is the radian. As well see in a moment, the radian is
actually a unitless unit. So well always write, for example, /3 instead of /3 rad.
rad= 45 ,
rad= 90 , rad= 180 , and
4
2
2 rad= 360 . (This last sentence is the one and only time in this textbook that well use
degrees as a unit of measurement for angles.)
is an obtuse angle if ( , ),
2
is a straight angle if = ,
is a right angle if =
,
2
In the figure below, the angle A is acute, R is right, O is obtuse, S is straight, and X is
reflex. The zero angle is not depicted.
By convention, every angle is depicted as a sector of a circle, unless it is a right angle, in
which case it is depicted by a square.
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26.3
Triangles are also given different names, depending on the size of their largest angle. A
triangle is:
Acute if its largest angle is acute;
Right if its largest angle is right; and
Obtuse if its largest angle is obtuse.
In the figure below, the largest angle of each triangle is highlighted.
Obtuse triangle
Acute triangle
Right triangle
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26.4
Both the sine and cosine functions have domain R and codomain [1, 1].
The tangent function has domain (1.5, 0.5)(0.5, 0.5)(0.5, 1.5). . . i.e.
all reals except half-integer multiples of . And the tangent functions codomain is R.
Draw a unit circle. Then given any point p = (px , py ) on the unit circle and the angle A
that the line segment op makes with the positive x-axis, we define sin A = py , cos A = px ,
py
and tan A = . Note that the line segment op has length 1.
px
y
p
py
A
px
In the case where A is acute (the point p is in the top-right quadrant of the cartesian
plane), one mnemonic is SOH, CAH, TOA Sine is Opposite over Hypothenuse, Cosine
is Adjacent over Hypothenuse, and Tangent is Opposite over Adjacent.
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26.5
Sine and cosine fluctuate between 1 and 1. We describe their fluctuations as being sinusoidal. In contrast, tangent fluctuates between and . At half-integer multiples of ,
the tangent function is undefined.
y = tan x
y = cos x
y = sin x
0
3
x
0
-2
You dont need to memorise the following (because you have a calculator). But you will
solve problems a little more quickly if you have these memorised.
x
sin x 0
cos x 1
tan x 0
6
1/2
3/2
3/3
2/2
2/2
3/2
1/2
2
3
3/2
1/2
Undefined 3
3
4
2/2
5
6
1/2
3/3
2/2 3/2 1
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26.6
For all x for which all expressions are well defined, we have:
tan x =
sin x
,
cos x
sin(x) = sin x,
sin(x + 2) = sin x,
cos(x) = cos x,
cos(x + 2) = cos x,
tan(x) = tan x,
tan(x + 2) = tan x.
The following formulae will appear in the List of Formulae youll get during exams, so
you dont need to memorise them. Exam Tip: Whenever you see a question with
trigonometric functions, make sure you have this list right next to you! For all
A, B, P, Q for which all expressions are well-defined, we have:
sin(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B,
cos(A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B,
tan(A B) =
tan A tan B
,
1 tan A tan B
2 tan A
,
1 tan2 A
P Q
P +Q
) cos (
),
2
2
P +Q
P Q
) sin (
),
2
2
P +Q
P Q
) cos (
),
2
2
P +Q
P Q
) sin (
).
2
2
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26.7
We define sin2 A to be the square of sin A. One might thus suppose that analogously,
sin1 x = 1/ sin x, but this is not so! Instead:
Definition 59. The arcsine function, denoted sin1 , has domain [1, 1], codomain (and
range) [0.5, 0.5], and rule x y where sin y = x.
Below is the graph of the arcsine function. The endpoints (1, 0.5) and (1, 0.5) are
marked with red dots.
y
0.5
y = sin-1 x
x
-1.0
-0.6
-0.2
0.2
0.6
1.0
-0.5
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Angles come full circle every 2 radians. And so for example, sin = 0.5. But also
6
sin ( + 2) = 0.5. And also sin ( + 4) = 0.5. And also sin ( 2) = 0.5. Indeed,
6
6
6
sin ( + 2k) = 0.5 for any k Z. We say that the sine function is periodic.
6
Yet we do not say that sin1 (0.5) = + 2k for any k Z because this would mean that
6
sin1 maps each element in the domain to more than one (indeed infinitely many) elements
in the codomain. And so sin1 wouldnt be a function.
Instead, we define the arcsine function so that its principal values are [0.5, 0.5]. That
is, the codomain of the arcsine function is [0.5, 0.5]. And thus, sin1 (0.5) = .
6
Note that the choice of [0.5, 0.5] as the principal values of the arcsine function is a
somewhat arbitrary convention. We could equally well have chosen, say, [0.5, 1.5] as our
principal values. Its nicer though that our principal values are centred on 0.
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Definition 60. The arccosine function, denoted cos1 , has domain [1, 1], codomain (and
range) [0, ], and rule x y where cos y = x.
Below is the graph of the arccosine function. The endpoints (1, ) and (1, 0) are marked
with blue dots.
Note that [0, ] are the principal values of the arccosine function. Why cant we select
[0.5, 0.5] as the principal values for the arccosine function, like we did for the arcsine
function?32
y = cos-1 x
-1.0
32
-0.6
-0.2
0.2
0.6
1.0
x
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Definition 61. The arctangent function, denoted tan1 , has domain R, codomain (and
range) (0.5, 0.5), and rule x y where tan y = x.
Below is the graph of the arctangent function. There are two horizontal asymptotes, namely
y = 0.5 and y = 0.5. That is, as x , y 0.5.
Note that (0.5, 0.5) are the principal values of the arctangent function.
y
y = 0.5
horizontal
asymptote
x
-10
-6
y=
tan-1
-2
10
y = -0.5
horizontal
asymptote
Remark 7. This notation can be tremendously confusing, which is why many writers prefer
to write arcsin x, arccos x, and arctan x instead of sin1 x, cos1 x, tan1 x. But the Singapore
Cambridge A-level syllabus does not use the arcsin x, arccos x, or arctan x notation and so
neither shall this textbook.
Page 261, Table of Contents
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26.8
a
a sin C
A
b - a cos C
a cos C
b
Proposition 4. A triangle with sides of lengths a, b, and c and angles A, B, and C has
area is 0.5ab sin C.
Proof. The triangle has base b and height a sin C. Hence, its area is 0.5ab sin C.
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Proposition 5. (The Law of Sines.) For a triangle with sides of lengths a, b, and c and
angles A, B, and C,
a
b
c
=
=
.
sin A sin B sin C
Proof. The area of the above triangle is 0.5ab sin C. By symmetry, it is also 0.5bc sin A and
0.5ac sin B. Equate these and divide by 0.5abc:
0.5ab sin C = 0.5bc sin A = 0.5ac sin B
b
c
a
=
=
.
sin A sin B sin C
Proposition 6. (The Law of Cosines.) For a triangle with sides of lengths a, b, and c
and angles A, B, and C, c2 = a2 + b2 2ab cos C.
One perhaps-obvious implication of the Law of Cosines is that the length of any one side
of a triangle is always less than the sum of the lengths of the other two sides.
Corollary 3. For a triangle with sides of lengths a, b, and c, a < b + c.
Proof. c2 = a2 +b2 2ab cos C = a2 +b2 2ab+2ab2ab cos C = (ab)2 +2ab(1cos C) > (ab)2 .
Hence, c > a b or a < b + c.
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27
a
2
c
1
0
-3
-2
-1
o
0
b
-1
-2
-3
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Example 228. In the figure, ab, cd, and u are all vectors. (As well see, there are multiple
ways to denote vectors.)
y
4
The vector ab = v = v
3
Length = 5
c 1
0
-3
-2
-1
-1
The vector cd = v = v
-2
5
x
b
The vector u
d
-3
Given two points a and b, ab denotes the vector from point a to point b. The word vector
means carrier (in Latin). You may have learnt in biology that mosquitoes are vectors,
because they carry diseases (to humans). In mathematics likewise, a vector carries us
from one point to another.
Example 229. The vector ab carries us from point a to point b. The vector cd carries us
from point c to point d.
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Like a point, a vector can be described as being an ordered pair of real numbers
Example 230. The vector ab = (4, 3) carries us 4 units to the right and 3 units down. The
vector cd = (4, 3) carries us 4 units to the right and 3 units down. The vector u = (2, 1.5)
carries us 2 units to the right and 1.5 units down.
Note that were now using the (x, y) ordered set notation for the third time!33
Do not confuse a point with a vector!
Example 231. The point (4, 3) is a zero-dimensional object. In contrast, the vector
(4, 3) is a two-dimensional object.
x
.
y
4
2
and u = (2, 1.5) =
.
3
1.5
a
notation for vectors is very useful, because as well see shortly, well be doing a
b
lot of addition and multiplication with vectors, and this notation can help us see better (in
a literal sense). But in print, Ill often prefer using the (a, b) notation, simply because this
takes up less space.
The
The point a is called the vectors tail and the point b is called the vectors head. This is
potentially confusing, so always remember: a vector carries us from tail to head and
not the other way round!
A vector is defined by two characteristics: direction and length.
It must be stressed that the tail and head of a vector do not matter. Only the
direction and length do. So long as two vectors have the same direction and length, they
are considered to be exact same vector. Examples to illustrate
33
So far, we have used (x, y) to denote (i) an open interval specifically, the set of real numbers greater than x but smaller
than y; (ii) the ordered pair of real numbers x and y; and now also (iii) the vector that carries us x units to the right and
y units up.
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Example 233. Informally, ab, cd, and u all point in the same direction. ab
and cd have
the same length, which we can compute using the Pythagorean Theorem as 32 + 42 = 5.
Hence, ab and cd are considered to be exactly the same: ab = cd. Even though they have
different heads and tails, both ab and cd carry us 4 units right and 3 units down. The
vector (4, 3) can carry us from a to b or from c to d. Thus, cd = (4, 3) = ab = (4, 3).
They are one and the same vector.
In contrast, the vector u has only half the length of ab and so u ab. (Indeed, as we shall
= (0, 1).
Thus, bd = (0, 1) =
ac
But,
and
= (0, 1)
= (0, 1),
ca
ac
= (0, 1).
(0, 0.5)
ac
Yet another way of denoting vectors is by a single letter, either with a right arrow overhead
or in bold font. For example, in the figure above, the vector ab or cd is also named using
Example 235. So altogether, I can write the vector ab in five different ways:
4
ab =
v = v = (4, 3) =
.
3
Exercise 102. Using a, b, c, or d from the above figure as the tail and a distinct point as
the head, there are 12 possible vectors. Weve already written out 4 of these in the last two
examples. Write out the other 8 in ordered set notation. (Answer on p. 1077.)
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The position vector of a point a is simply the vector from the origin o = (0, 0) to the
point a. Formally:
Definition 62. Given a point a = (a1 , a2 ), its position vector is the vector a = (a1 , a2 ).
The position vector of the point a carries us from the origin o to the point a and so it
Take care not to confuse the point a = (a , a ) with the vector
can also be denoted
oa.
1 2
a = (a1 , a2 ) they are different objects!
Informally, the zero vector is the vector that carries us nowhere. Formally:
Definition 63. The zero vector is the vector (0, 0) and can be denoted 0 or 0 .
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27.1
Point
Point
Point
Point
+ Point = Undefined,
Point =
Vector,
+ Vector =
Point,
Vector =
Point.
p+v
v
u
ba
p
34
b
qu
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Definition 64. Given two points a = (a1 , a2 ) and b = (b1 , b2 ), their difference ba is defined
to be the vector from a to b, i.e., b a = (b1 a1 , b2 a2 ).
Example 237. Paris Tokyo = The journey that carries us from Tokyo to Paris. We might
write Paris Tokyo =(9000 km, 1000 km), meaning that to get from Tokyo to Paris, we
must travel 9, 000 km west and 1, 000 km north.
It makes sense to talk about the distance of the journey from Tokyo to Paris. Shortly, well
see that it similarly makes sense to talk about the length of the vector from a to b.
Example 238. (See figure on p. 265.) Given the points a = (1, 2) and b = (3, 1), their
difference b a is the vector from a to b, i.e., b a = (3 (1), 1 2) = (4, 3).
Definition 65. Given the point p = (p1 , p2 ) and the vector v = (v1 , v2 ), their sum p + v is
defined to be the point p + v = (p1 + v1 , p2 + v2 ).
Geometrically, if the vector v has tail p, then it also has head p + v.
Example 239. Tokyo + (9000 km, 1000 km) = Paris. This says that starting from Tokyo,
if we embark on a journey that carries us 9, 000 km west and 1, 000 km north, then well
end up in Paris.
Example 240. (See figure on p. 265.) Consider the vector (4, 3). If its tail is a = (1, 2),
then its head is (1, 2) + (4, 3) = (3, 1) = b. And if its tail is c = (1, 1), then its head is
(1, 1) + (4, 3) = (3, 2) = d.
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Definition 66. Given the point q = (q1 , q2 ) and the vector u = (u1 , u2 ), their difference
q u is defined to be the point q u = (q1 u1 , q2 u2 ).
Geometrically, if the vector u has head q, then it also has tail q u.
Example 241. Paris (9000 km, 1000 km) = Tokyo. This says that starting from Paris,
if we embark on a journey that is the exact opposite of going 9, 000 km west and 1, 000 km
north (equivalently, we embark on a journey that goes 9, 000 km east and 1, 000 km south),
then well end up in Tokyo.
Example 242. (See figure on p. 265.) Consider again the vector (4, 3). If its head is
b = (3, 1), then its tail is (3, 1) (4, 3) = (1, 2) = a. And if its head is d = (3, 2), then
its tail is (3, 2) (4, 3) = (1, 1) = c.
Exercise 103. Consider the vector (4, 3). (a) If it has tail (0, 0), then what is its head?
(b) If it has head (0, 0), then what is its tail? (c) If it has tail (5, 2), then what is its head?
(d) If it has head (5, 2), then what is its tail? (Answer on p. 1077.)
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27.2
Definition 67. If u = (u1 , u2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ) are vectors, then their sum, denoted u + v,
is the vector defined by u + v = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ).
Geometrically, if the tail of v is the head of u, then u + v is the vector from the tail of u
to the head of v.
u+v
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Definition 69. Given two vectors u and v, their difference, denoted u v, is defined to
be the sum of the vectors u and v. Or equivalently, if u = (u1 , u2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ), then
u v is the vector defined by u v = (u1 v1 , u2 v2 ).
Geometrically, if we place the heads of u and v at the same point, then u v is the vector
from the tail of u to the tail of v.
u-v
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vector
pq.
Example 249. (See figure on p. 265.) Without any numbers, we can compute: ab cb =
+
Exercise 104. Write down what
ac
cb, dc +
ca, bd + da, ad cd, dc bd, and bd + db are,
without writing out any numbers.(Answer on p. 1077.)
Exercise 105. Using the figure on p. 265, compute each of the following:
ac
cb, dc
ca,
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27.3
Displacement Vectors
Definition 70. If a moving particle starts at point a and ends at point b, we call ab its
displacement vector.
Example 251. A particle is travelling along the red arc, along the path shown. Its starting
point is in blue and its ending point is in purple. Its displacement vector is thus (2, 2).
y
x
0
-1
0
-1
-2
2 Ending
point
Displacement
vector (2, 2)
Starting point
-3
-4
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27.4
c
a
As you learnt in secondary school we can calculate the distance between two points using
the Pythagorean Theorem:
Example
be two points. Then the distance between p
252. Let p = (1, 1) and q =(1, 1)
2
2
and q is [1 (1)] + [1 (1)] = 4 + 4 = 8.
1 - (-1)
1 - (-1)
0
-2
-1
-1
-2
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The vector v = (v1 , v2 ) goes v1 units right and v2 units up. We are thus motivated to define
its length (or magnitude) as:
Definition
71. The length (or magnitude) of a vector v = (v1 , v2 ) is denoted v and defined
by v = v12 + v22 .
Example 252 (continued). Another way to find the distance between p and q is to first
= (2, 2). The distance between p
find the vector that carries us from p to q. This is
pq
2
2
and q is thus simply the length (or magnitude) of this vector: pq = (2) + (2) = 8.
Of course, the distance from p to q is the same as the distance from q to p. So we could
= (2, 2) and gotten the same answer
=
just as well have calculated the length of
qp
qp
22 + 22 = 8.
Exercise 106. Using the figure on p. 265, compute each of the following:
ac
cb, dc
ca,
bd da, ad + cd, dc + bd, and bd db. Also, find the distance between (18, 4) and
(1, 2). (Answer on p. 1077.)
Exercise 107. In general, given any two vectors u and v, is it true that u + v = u + v?
(Answer on p. 1077.)
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27.5
v
cv
Proof.
2
2
cv = (cv1 , cv2 ) = (cv1 ) + (cv2 )
2
2
2
2
= c v1 + c v2 = c v12 + v22
= c (v1 , v2 ) = c v .
= 3
and 4
notation. Verify that 2ab = 2 ab, 3
ac
ac,
ad = 4 ad. (Answer on p. 1078.)
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27.6
Unit Vectors
2 2
Example 253. Lets verify that the vectors (1, 0), (0, 1), and (
,
) are all unit vectors:
2 2
(1, 0) = 12 + 02 = 1,
(0, 1) = 02 + 12 = 1,
2
2
2
2 2
2
(
(
,
) =
) +(
) = 2/4 + 2/4 = 1.
2 2
2
2
Example 254. Lets verify that the vectors (1, 1) and (1, 1) are not unit vectors:
12 + 12 = 2 1,
2
2
(1, 1) = (1) + (1) = 2 1.
(1, 1) =
We specially reserve the name i (or i ) for the unit vector (1, 0), which is the unit vector
that is purely in the direction of the x-axis. Similarly, we specially reserve the name j (or
j ) for the unit vector (0, 1), which is the unit vector that is purely in the direction of the
y-axis.
And so, using also what we learnt about the sum of and scalar multiplication of vectors,
we can rewrite any vector into the sum of is and js:
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Example 255. The position vectors for the points a, b, and c (illustrated below) are
a = (1, 2) = i + 2j, b = (4, 3) = 4i 3j, and c = (0, 6) = 6j.
y
c
6
j
5
j
4
j
3
j
2
ji
1
j
0
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
0-j
-j
-j
i
b
i
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1
v.
v
Exercise 109. In the figure on p. 265, what are the unit vectors in the directions ab,
ac,
and ad? What are the unit vectors in the directions 2ab, 3ac, and 4ad? (Answer on p.
1078.)
Informally, two vectors have the same unit vector they both point in the same
direction. Formally:
a can be written as a scalar
=b
Fact 22. Let a and b be any two vectors. Then a
multiple of b.
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27.7
b
o
Theorem 3. Ratio Theorem. Let a, b, and p be points, where p is on the line segment
ab. Let a, b, and p be the corresponding position vectors. Then
bp
ap
p=
a+
b.
+
+
ap
ap
bp
bp
Proof. Optional, see p. 932 (Appendices).
and =
Or if we let =
ap
bp, then the above can be rewritten in a form that is perhaps
easier to remember:
p=
a
b
a + b
+
=
.
+ +
+
a + b
.
+
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Example 256. Consider the points a = (3, 4) and b = (1, 2). Find the point p that divides
the line segment ab into the ratio 3 2.
2
3
2
3
3 14
3 14
We have p = a + b = (3, 4) + (1, 2) = ( , ). Hence, the point is p = ( , ).
5
5
5
5
5 5
5 5
Example 257. Consider the points a = (8, 3) and b = (2, 6). Find the point p that divides
the line segment ab into the ratio 3 7.
We have p = 0.7a +0.3b = 0.7(8, 3)+0.3(2, 6) = (6.2, 0.3). Hence, the point is p = (6.2, 0.3).
Exercise 111. (a) Consider the points a = (1, 2) and b = (3, 4). Find the point p that
divides the line segment ab into the ratio 5 6. (b) Consider the points a = (1, 4) and
b = (2, 3). Find the point p that divides the line segment ab into the ratio 5 1. (c)
Consider the points a = (1, 2) and b = (3, 4). Find the point p that divides the line
segment ab into the ratio 2 3. (Answer on p. 1078.)
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28
Scalar Product
Definition 76. Given two 2D vectors u = (u1 , u2 ) and v = (v1 , v2 ), their scalar product (or
dot product), denoted u v, is defined by u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 .
And so to get the scalar product, simply multiply each term of each vector with the corresponding term of the other, then add these up. Its that simple!
The scalar product is itself simply a scalar (i.e. a real number). Hence the name.
Example 258. (5, 3) (2, 1) = 5 2 + (3) 1 = 7.
Example 259. (0, 17) (1, 3) = 0 (1) + 17 3 = 51.
Ordinary multiplication is distributive:
Example 260. 3 (5 + 11) = 3 5 + 3 11 and 18 (7 31) = 18 7 18 31.
It turns out that the scalar product is likewise distributive:
Fact 24. Let a, b, and c be vectors. Then a (b + c) = a b + a c and (a + b) c = a c + b c.
v v.
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28.1
Fact 26. Let [0, ] be the angle between two non-zero vectors u and v. Then
u v = u v cos .
35
uv
).
u v
We have two possible interpretations of the scalar product that are entirely equivalent. We can use either of these
interpretations as our definition and then prove that the other interpretation is true.
(1) In this textbook, we first define the scalar product by u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 , then prove that u v = u v cos . That is,
we start with the algebraic definition, then prove a geometric property.
(2) In contrast, others may prefer to first define the scalar product by uv = u v cos , then prove that uv = u1 v1 +u2 v2 .
That is, we start with the geometric definition, then prove an algebraic property.
Either way, we first define the scalar product one way or the other. We then prove that the alternative statement is
equivalent.
(It is possible that your JC teachers take the second approach, rather than the first, as is done in this textbook.
Or worse, your teachers simply leave you confused as to why the hell u v = u v cos and at the same time, magically
enough, u v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 . This was my experience as a JC student a number of years ago. If this is also your current
experience, hopefully this textbook has helped to clear things up!)
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Example 261. The vector i = (1, 0) points east. The vector (1, 1) points northeast. We
know the angle between these two vectors is . Lets check and verify that the formula
4
works:
= cos1 (
i (1, 1)
(1, 0) (1, 1)
) = cos1 (
)
i (1, 1)
(1, 0) (1, 1)
11+01
= cos
( 12 + 02 ) ( 12 + 12 )
1
= cos1 (
1+0
1
) = cos1 ( ) = .
4
1 2
2
Example 262. The vector i = (1, 0) points east. The vector j = (0, 1) points north. We
know the angle between these two vectors is right (i.e. ). Lets check and verify that the
2
formula works:
= cos1 (
ij
(1, 0) (0, 1)
) = cos1 (
)
i j
(1, 0) (0, 1)
10+01
= cos
( 12 + 02 ) ( 02 + 12 )
1
= cos1 (
0+0
) = cos1 0 =
11
2
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Example 263. The angle between the vectors (3, 2) and (1, 4) is
= cos1 (
(3, 2) (1, 4)
)
(3, 2) (1, 4)
(1)
+
2
(4)
= cos1
2
2
2
2
( 3 + 2 ) ( (1) + (4) )
11
3 8
) = cos1 (
) 2.404
= cos1 (
13 17
221
y
(3, 2)
x
2.404 rad
(-1, -4)
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Recall that the arccosine function is defined to have range [0, ]. That is, cos1 x [0, ].
Moreover,
These three observations, together with Fact 26, imply the following Fact, which by the
way was already illustrated by the previous three examples:
Fact 27. Let u and v be vectors. The angle between u and v is
(i) acute (or zero) if u v < 0;
(ii) right if u v = 0; and
(iii) obtuse (or straight) if u v > 0.
Well use the words perpendicular, orthogonal, and normal interchangeably:
Definition 77. Two vectors are orthogonal (or perpendicular or normal) if the angle be
tween them is right (i.e. equal to ).
2
I will sometimes write u v to mean u is orthogonal (or perpendicular or normal) to v.
Exercise 112. First write down the angle between each of the following pairs of vectors
without using the above formula. Then verify that the formula does indeed
give you
these correct angles: (a) (2, 0) and (0, 17); (b) (5, 0) and (3, 0); (c) i and (1, 3/3); (d) i
Exercise 113. Verify that i and j are orthogonal, by computing their scalar product.
(Answer on p. 1081.)
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28.2
The scalar product also gives a convenient way of computing the length of the projection
of one vector on another.
Say we have a right triangle (left diagram) where the angle and the length a are known.
What is the length b? It is simply a cos .
Now suppose a (blue) and b (green) are vectors (right diagram). The projection of the
vector a on the vector b is denoted ab (red). Note that ab is itself a vector.
What is the length of the projection? Well, if a is the length of the vector a and is the
angle between the two vectors, then the length of the projection is ab simply a cos .
Nicely enough, we actually have a quick alternative method of computing this length. Let
be the unit vector for b. Then
b
= ab
cos = a 1 cos = a cos = ab .
ab
or more correctly a b,
since a b
may sometimes
So we have a nice interpretation for a b
be negative:
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5
5 2
1
= (3 1 + 2 1) = =
.
2
2
2
(3, 2) (1,
1) = (3, 2) [
You should
verify for yourself that the length of the projection of (3, 2) on (1000, 1000) is
5 2
. The length of the vector to be projected (3, 2) matters, but the length of
also
2
the vector onto which it is projected be it (1, 1) or (1000, 1000) doesnt matter.
(6, 1) (2,
0) = (6, 1) [
Again, you can verify for yourself that the length of the projection of (6, 1) on (50000, 0)
is also 6. Again, the length of the vector to be projected (6, 1) matters, but the
length of the vector onto which it is projected be it (2, 0) or (50000, 0) doesnt matter.
Exercise 114. What are the lengths of the projections of (a) (1, 0) on (33, 33) and (b)
(33, 33) on (1, 0)? (Answer on p. 1081.)
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28.3
Direction Cosines
The angle between a vector v and the x-axis is simply the angle between v and i = (1, 0).
Similarly, the angle between v and the y-axis is simply the angle between v and j = (0, 1).
Example 266. Consider the angle a between the vector (3, 2) and the x-axis. We have:
= cos a =
31+20
3
(3, 2) (1, 0)
=
= .
(3, 2) (1, 0) ( 32 + 22 ) ( 12 + 02 )
13
cos1 = cos1 (3/ 13) 0.588, we find that the angle a between the vector (3, 2) and the
x-axis is 0.588.
y
(3, 2)
0.983 rad
x
2.404 rad
(-1, -4)
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Example 267. Consider the angle b between the vector (3, 2) and the y-axis. We have:
= cos b =
(3, 2) (0, 1)
2
2
30+21
= .
=
=
(3, 2) (0, 1) ( 32 + 22 ) ( 02 + 12 )
13 1
13
cos1 = cos1 (2/ 13) 0.983, we find that the angle b between the vector (3, 2) and the
y-axis is 0.983.
Definition 78. Given a vector v, its x-direction cosine is simply the length of the
on the x-axis.
projection of v
on the y-axis.
Similarly, its y-direction cosine is simply the length of the projection of v
The next Fact is immediate from the above definition:
= (, ).
Fact 28. Let v be a vector and and be its x- and y-direction cosines. Then v
Example 268. The x- and y-direction cosines of the vector (3, 2) are
3
=
13
2
and = .
13
3
2
Hence, the unit vector in the direction (3, 2) is ( , ).
13 13
Exercise 115. For each of the following vectors, find their x- and y-direction cosines.
Hence write down their unit vectors. (a) (1, 3). (b) (4, 2). (c) (1, 2). (Answer on p.
1081.)
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29
Vectors in 3D
In two dimensions, we had the cartesian (or two-dimensional) plane with x- and y-axes.
Informally, the x-axis goes to the right and the y-axis goes up. A point was any ordered
pair of real numbers. The origin o = (0, 0) was the intersection point of the two axes. And
relative to the origin, the generic point a = (a1 , a2 ) was the point a1 units to the right and
a2 units up.
In three dimensions, we now instead have the three-dimensional space (3D space).
The x- and y-axes are as before. There is an additional z-axis that, informally, comes
out of the paper, perpendicular to the plane of the paper, straight towards your face.
We call this the right hand coordinate system, because if you take your right hand,
stick out your thumb, forefinger, and middle finger so that they are perpendicular, your
thumb represents the x-axis, your forefinger the y-axis, and your middle finger the z-axis.
(Try it!)
(If instead the z-axis goes into the paper, then wed have a left hand coordinate system.
Can you explain why?)
a2
x
a1
a3
z
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In the context of 3D space, a point is any ordered triple of real numbers. The origin
o = (0, 0, 0) is the point where the x-, y-, and z-axes intersect. And relative to the origin,
the generic point a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is the point a1 units to the right, a2 units up, and a3 units
out of the paper.
Everything we learnt about 2D vectors finds its analogy in three-dimensional (3D)
vectors. Most of the time, the analogy is obvious. Try these exercises.
Exercise 116. (Answer on p. 1082.) (a) Fill in the blanks. A 3D vector is an arrow
that has two characteristics: __________ and __________. Just like a
point, it can be described by an __________ of __________. The vector
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) carries us from the origin to _______________.
(b) What other ways are there to denote the vector a = (a1 , a2 , a3 )? (Hint. The unit vector
in the z-axis is now called k.)
(c) Let a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) be points. What are (i) a+b; (ii) a+ ob; (iii)
oa+
ob;
ba?
and (iv)
oa
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The length (or magnitude) of a 2D vector v = (v1 , v2 ) was defined by v12 + v22 . What then
is the length (or magnitude) of a 3D vector? This is the one instance where the analogy
from the 2D case to the 3D case is perhaps less than obvious. So lets explore this issue.
Consider the blue point a in the figure below. What is its distance from the origin (0, 0, 0)?
In other words, what is the length of the green dotted line?
a2
x
a1
a3
z
First lets calculate the distance of the red point from the origin,
in other words the length
Now, notice the the green dotted line, the red dotted line (length a22 + a23 ), and the
blue dotted line (length a1 ) form a right-angled triangle, with the hypothenuse being the
green dotted line. Thus, the length of the green dotted line is (again by the Pythagorean
Theorem):
a21
2
2
2
+ ( a2 + a3 ) = a21 + a22 + a23 .
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We are thus motivated to define the length (or magnitude) of a 3D vector as follows:
Definition 79.
The length (or magnitude) of a vector a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is denoted a and
defined by a = a21 + a22 + a23 .
This is very much analogous to the definition of the length (or magnitude) of a 2D vector.
Exercise 117. (Answer on p. 1083.) (a) Compute the lengths of the vectors a = (1, 2, 3),
b = (4, 5, 6), and a b.
(b) Compute the lengths of the vectors 2a = (2, 4, 6), 3b = (12, 15, 18), and 4(a b).
(c) Compute the unit vectors in the directions a = (1, 2, 3), b = (4, 5, 6), and a b.
(d) Compute (1, 2, 3) (4, 5, 6) and (2, 4, 6) (1, 2, 3).
(e) Compute the angles (i) between the vectors a = (1, 2, 3) and b = (4, 5, 6); and (ii)
between the vectors u = (2, 4, 6) and v = (1, 2, 3). (iii) Are the vectors (2, 4, 6) and
(1, 2, 3) orthogonal?
(f) Compute the length of the projection of a = (1, 2, 3) on b = (4, 5, 6).
(g) Find the point that divides the line segment ab in the ratio 2 3.
(h) For each of the following vectors, find their x-, y-, and z-direction cosines. And then
write down their unit vectors. (i) (1, 3, 2). (ii) (4, 2, 3). (iii) (1, 2, 4).
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30
30.1
Vector Product
Vector Product in 2D
Recall that given two 2D vectors u = (ux , uy ) and v = (vx , vy ), their scalar product was the
scalar defined by u v = ux vx + vx vy . We now define a very similar concept.
Definition 80. Given two 2D vectors u = (ux , uy ) and v = (vx , vy ), their vector product (or
cross product), denoted u v, is the scalar defined by
u v = ux vy uy vx .
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Recall that if [0, ] is the angle between two vectors, then based on our definition that
u v = ux vx + uy vy , we could prove that u v = u v cos .
It turns out based on our definition that u v = ux vy uy vx , we can prove a very similar
result:36
Fact 29. Let u and v be two non-zero 2D vectors and [0, ] be the angle between them.
Then the scalar u v is equal to either u v sin or u v sin .
Earlier we already had one formula for calculating the angle between two vectors. Let
[0, ] be the angle between u and v. Then
= cos1 (
uv
).
u v
The above Fact now gives us a second formula. Let [0, ] be the acute or right angle
between u and v. Then
= sin1
uv
.
u v
However, well stick with using only the first cosine formula. We wont use the second
sine formula, mainly because, as well see, computing the vector product is very tedious,
especially in the 3D case, where it is a different creature altogether.
36
Footnote 36 explained that the scalar product could be defined in one of two equivalent ways.
Similarly, the vector product can be defined in one of two equivalent ways. We can use either definition and then prove
that the other is true.
(1) In this textbook, we first define the vector product by u v = ux vy uy vx ; we then prove that u v = u v sin ,
where is the angle between the two vectors. That is, we start with the algebraic definition, then prove a geometric
property.
The alternative approach is this:
(2) Define the vector product by u v = u v sin if [0, ] or u v = u v sin if ( , ] ; then prove that
2
2
u v = ux vy uy vx . That is, we start with the geometric definition, then prove an algebraic property.
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30.2
SYLLABUS ALERT
Calculation of the area of a triangle or parallelogram is included in the 9740 (old) syllabus,
but not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip this section if youre taking 9758.
The vector product is also helpful for computing the area of triangles and parallelograms.
Fact 30. The triangle with sides of lengths u, v, and v u has area 0.5u v.
Case #1.
|v| sin ( )
v
|v| sin
vu
vu
Case #2.
Proof. Case #1. If the vectors u and v form an acute or right angle , then the area of the
triangle is simply 0.5 Base Height or 0.5 u v sin . And by Fact 29, 0.5 u v sin =
0.5u v.
Case #2. And if the vectors u and v form an obtuse angle , then the area of the triangle is
again simply 0.5 Base Height or 0.5 u v sin( ). Recall that sin( ) = sin cos
sin cos = sin . So again the area of the triangle is 0.5 u v sin or 0.5u v.
Example 275. Consider the triangle formed by the points (0, 0), (3, 4), and (5, 6). Its
area is simply 0.5 (3, 4) (5, 6) = 0.53 6 4 5 = 1.
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Fact 31. The parallelogram with sides of lengths u and v, and diagonal of length v u
has area u v.
vu
u
Proof. Such a parallelogram is simply composed of two of the triangles from Fact 30. And
so its area is simply twice the area of the triangle, or 2 0.5u v = u v.
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30.3
Vector Product in 3D
The 3D vector product is very different from the 2D vector product. The latter was simply
a scalar (real number); in contrast, the 3D vector product is instead a VECTOR!
Also previously, we first started with the algebraic definitions. For example, the 3D scalar
product was defined as uv = u1 v1 +u2 v2 +u3 v3 and the 2D vector product as uv = u1 v2 u2 v1 .
We then showed that these algebraic definitions were equivalent to some geometric
interpretations.
For the vector product in 3D, I will go the other way round. That is, I will start with
the (very long) geometric definition, then show that it is equivalent to some algebraic
interpretation.
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Definition 81. Given two distinct 3D vectors u = (ux , uy , uz ) and v = (vx , vy , vz ), their
vector product (or cross product), denoted u v, is the (unique) vector that satisfies 3
properties:
1. u v is orthogonal (perpendicular) to both u and v.
Lets see what this first property means. Recall that it doesnt matter where we put the
heads and tails of vectors. So lets put u and v on the same plane, with their heads at the
same point.
uv
Plane
We see that there are exactly two vectors that are orthogonal to both u and v the vector
pointing up (green) and the vector pointing down (purple).
There is thus an ambiguity. Which of these two vectors is u v?
To resolve this ambiguity, we also require that u v satisfy a second property:
2. u v satisfies the right-hand rule: Take your right hand, stick out your thumb,
forefinger, and middle finger so that they are perpendicular, your thumb represents the
vector u v, your forefinger the vector u, and your middle finger the vector v. Hence,
in the figure, u v points up (green). (Try it yourself!)
Note that the right-hand rule is a mere convention, but one that everyone has agreed upon.
There is no especially compelling reason for using it, other than the fact that left-handed
people are an oppressed minority! (If instead we used the left-hand rule, then u v would
point down (purple) (try it!), but for better or worse, we dont use the left-hand rule.)
The third and last property specifies the length (or magnitude) of u v.
3. u v = u v sin , where [0, ] is the angle between them.
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Note that [0, ] sin 0, so that u v sin is never negative. (Otherwise, wed
have the distressing possibility that the length of u v is sometimes negative!)
One implication of this third and last property is that if both u and v point in the same
direction (so that = 0), then u v is the zero vector (i.e. u v = 0).
Fact 32. (a) i j = k; (b) j k = i; (c) k i = j; (d) j i = k; (e) k j = i; and (f)
i k = j.
Proof. In each case, use the right-hand rule to show that properties #1 and #2 of Definition
81 are satisfied.
In each case, the length of the cross product is u v sin = 1 1 sin = 1. So indeed,
2
property #3 is also satisfied.
The next proposition gives the promised algebraic interpretation of the vector product.
Proposition 7. Given two 3D vectors u = (ux , uy , uz ) and v = (vx , vy , vz ), their vector
product is given by:
uy vz uz vy
uv=
uz vx ux vz
ux vy uy vx
Proof. Optional, see p. 935 in Appendices. (The proof is actually quite simple. It just
involves some tedious algebra.)
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31
31.1
Lines
Describing lines using cartesian equations is secondary school stuff. Well now learn a
second method of describing lines through vector equations. In general, any line can be
described in the form
r = p + v, R,
where r is a generic point on the line, p is some known point on the line, v is a direction
vector of the line, and is a parameter that can take any real value.
Here are some examples to make sense of this.
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Example 283. Consider the line (on a 2D plane) described by the cartesian equation
3x y + 2 = 0. It runs through the point (0, 2). A vector that points in the same direction
as this line is (1, 3). Hence, we can also describe it using the vector equation
r = (0, 2) + (1, 3), R.
This says that the line consists of every point r that can be written as (0, 2) + (1, 3) for
some real number . We call a parameter. As varies, we get different points of
the line. So for example, corresponding to = 0, 1, and 1, the line contains the points
(0, 2) + 0(1, 3) = (0, 2), (0, 2) + 1(1, 3) = (1, 5), and (0, 2)1(1, 3) = (1, 1). Of course, it
also contains infinitely many other points, one for each value of R.
We call (1, 3) a direction vector of the line. Note that this direction vector is not unique,
any scalar multiple thereof, i.e. c(1, 3) with c R, is also a direction vector of the line!
Again, we can either say the line is described by the vector equation r = (0, 2) +
(1, 3). OR, for convenience (but at the cost of some sloppiness), we can also say the line
is the very equation r = (0, 2) + (1, 3).
y 4
Line
Cartesian equation
3x - y + 2 = 0
-4
-2
Vector equation
r = (0, 2) + (1, 3)
-2
-4
Page 306, Table of Contents
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Example 284. Consider the line (on a 2D plane) described by the cartesian equation
x + y 1 = 0. It runs through the point (0, 1). A vector that points in the same direction
as this line is (1, 1). Hence, we can also describe it using the vector equation
r = (0, 1) + (1, 1), R.
This says that the line consists of every point r that can be written as (0, 1) + (1, 1)
for some real number . Corresponding to = 0, 1, and 1, the line contains the points
(0, 1) + 0(1, 1) = (0, 1), (0, 1) + 1(1, 1) = (1, 0), and (0, 1)1(1, 1) = (1, 2).
Line
Cartesian equation
x+y-1=0
y 4
2
The point (0, 1)
x
0
-4
-2
-2
Vector equation
r = (0, 1) + (1, -1)
-4
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Example 285. Consider the line (on a 2D plane) described by the cartesian equation
y 3 = 0. It runs through the point (0, 3). A vector that points in the same direction as
this line is (1, 0). Hence, we can also describe it using the vector equation
r = (0, 3) + (1, 0), R.
This says that the line consists of every point r that can be written as (0, 3) + (1, 0)
for some real number .Corresponding to = 0, 1, and 1, the line contains the points
(0, 3) + 0(1, 0) = (0, 3), (0, 3) + 1(1, 0) = (1, 3), and (0, 3)1(1, 0) = (1, 3).
y 4
Vector equation
r = (0, 3) + (1, 0)
Line
Cartesian equation
y-3=0
x
0
-4
-2
-4
Exercise 121. Rewrite each of the following lines into vector equation form. (a) 5x+y+1 =
0. (b) x 2y 1 = 0. (c) y 4 = 0. (d) x 4 = 0. (Answer on p. 1086.)
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r = p + v, R.
Notice that the LHS of this equation is the generic Point r. And the RHS of the equation
is the Point p minus the Vector v, which equals Point (see p. 270). So LHS and RHS
do indeed match up.
There is another way to describe a line using a vector equation. We can instead write:
2
r = p + v, R,
where now r is the position vector of a generic point r on the line and p is the position
vector of some known point p on the line. So now LHS is a Vector and so too is RHS.
1
Equation = said that the line consists of those points r that could be written as p + v. In
2
contrast, equation = says that the line consists of those points whose position vector r can
be written as p + v. But both equations can equally well describe the very same line. The
difference is a fine and pedantic one and really doesnt matter much.
r = p + v, R; WRONG!
4
or r = p + v, R. WRONG!
3
The LHS of = is a Point while the RHS of = is a Vector. Therefore = cannot possibly be
true.
4
The LHS of = is a Vector while the RHS of = is a Point. Therefore = cannot possibly be
true.
As usual, this is all very pedantic, but can serve as a useful test of your understanding.
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31.2
In the previous section, given the cartesian equation of a line, we worked out its vector
equation. Now given its vector equation, well work out its cartesian equation.
Suppose a line (on a 2D plane) can be described by the vector equation
r = p + v = (p1 , p2 ) + (v1 , v2 ).
where R and v is a non-zero vector.37 And so any point (x, y) on this line must satisfy
x = p1 + v1
and y = p2 + v2 .
The above are the cartesian equations for a line (on a 2D plane)! But wait a minute ...
isnt there supposed to be just one equation? Well, if wed like, we can quite easily combine
them into a single equation by eliminating the parameter . In general:
Fact 34. The line with vector equation r = (p1 , p2 ) + (v1 , v2 ) (for R) is the line with
cartesian equations as given by the 3 cases below.
(1)
x p1 y p2
=
,
v1
v2
if v1 , v2 0;
(2) x = p1 , y is free,
if v1 = 0, v2 0;
(3) x is free, y = p2 ,
if v1 0, v2 = 0;
Some examples:
37
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Example 286. The line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2) + (1, 1), where R
has cartesian equations x = 1 + and y = 2 + .
As varies between and , this pair of equations gives us the points that are on the
line. For example, when = 1, 17, 33, we have the points (2, 3), (18, 20), and (34, 36).
We can eliminate and reduce the above pair of equations into the single cartesian equation
y = x + 1 or
y1 x
= .
1
1
Example 287. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (0, 0)+(4, 5), where
R has cartesian equations x = 4 and y = 5.
As varies between and , this pair of equations gives us the points that are on the
line. For example, when = 1, 17, 33, we have the points (4, 5), (68, 85), and (132, 165).
Eliminating , we can reduce the above pair of equations to y = 1.25x or
x
y
= .
1.25 1
Example 288. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (3, 1)+(0, 2), where
R has cartesian equations x = 3 and y = 1 + 2.
As varies between and , this pair of equations gives us the points that are on the
line. So in fact, the above equations say that x must always be 3 and y is free to vary along
with . For example, when = 1, 17, 33, we have the points (3, 3), (3, 25), and (3, 67).
Hence, the above pair of equations can be reduced to x = 3.
Exercise 122. Rewrite each of the following lines into cartesian equation form. (a) r =
(1, 1) + (3, 2), where R. (b) r = (5, 6) + (7, 8), where R. (c) r = (0, 3) + (3, 0),
where R. (Answer on p. 1086.)
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31.3
y
3
(1, 2, 3)
2
1
x
1
(1, 3, 4)
1
2
3 (1, 1, 2)
Line
r = (1, 2, 3) + (0, 1, 1)
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Example 290. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (0, 0, 0) + (1, 0, 0),
where R. Corresponding to = 0, 1, and 1, the line contains the points (0, 0, 0),
(1, 0, 0), and (1, 0, 0).
y
2
(-1, 0, 0)
1
Line
r = (0, 0, 0) + (1, 0, 0)
x
1
(1, 0, 0)
1
2 (0, 0, 0)
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31.4
We now try to work out the cartesian equation of a line in 3D space. Suppose a line can
be described by the vector equation
r = p + v = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) + (v1 , v2 , v3 ).
where R and v is a non-zero vector.38 And so any point (x, y, z) on this line must satisfy
x = p1 + v1 , y = p2 + v2 , and z = p3 + v3 .
The above are the cartesian equations for a line (in 3D space)! These are exactly analogous
to the cartesian equations (p. 31.2) in the 2D case.
Unlike in the 2D case, it is generally impossible to reduce these equations into a single
cartesian equation. However, we can reduce them into two equations.
Fact 35. The line with vector equation r = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) + (v1 , v2 , v3 ) where R is the line
with cartesian equations as given by the 7 cases below.
(1)
x p 1 y p2 z p3
=
=
v1
v2
v3
if v1 , v2 , v3 0;
(2) x = p1 ,
y p2 z p3
=
,
v2
v3
if v1 = 0, v2 , v3 0;
(3) y = p2 ,
x p1 z p 3
=
,
v1
v3
if v2 = 0, v1 , v3 0;
(4) z = p3 ,
x p1 y p2
=
,
v1
v2
if v3 = 0, v1 , v2 0;
(5) x = p1 , y = p2 , z is free,
if v1 , v2 = 0, v3 0;
(6) x = p1 , z = p3 , y is free,
if v1 , v3 = 0, v2 0;
(7) y = p2 , z = p3 , x is free, if v2 , v3 = 0, v1 0.
Proof. Optional, see p. 937 in the Appendices.
38
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The first two examples are where v1 , v2 , and v3 are non-zero (Case 1 of Fact 35).
Example 291. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 6),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 1 + 4, y = 2 + 5, and
z = 3 + 6.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (5, 7, 9), (13, 17, 21), and (69, 87, 105).
By rearranging each equation so that is on one side, we can reduce these three equations
to just two:
x1 y2 z3
=
=
.
4
5
6
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations.
Example 292. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (0, 0, 0) + (2, 3, 5),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 2, y = 3, and z = 5.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (2, 3, 5), (6, 9, 15), and (34, 51, 85).
By rearranging each equation so that is on one side, we can reduce these three equations
to just two:
x y z
= = .
2 3 5
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations.
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In the case where v1 = 0 (but v2 0 and v3 0), then this is a line that is on the 2D yz
plane where x = p1 .
Example 293. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2, 3) + (0, 5, 6),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 1, y = 2 + 5, and z = 3 + 6.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (1, 7, 9), (1, 17, 21), and (1, 87, 102).
We see that x must always be equal to 1.
By rearranging the second and third equations so that is on one side, we can reduce these
three equations to just two:
y2 z3
=
.
x = 1,
5
6
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations.
Similarly, in the case where v2 = 0 (but v1 0 and v3 0), then this is a line that is on the
2D xz plane where y = p2 .
Example 294. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2, 3) + (4, 0, 6),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 1 + 4, y = 2, and z = 3 + 6.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (5, 2, 9), (13, 2, 21), and (69, 2, 105).
We see that y must always be equal to 2.
By rearranging the first and third equations so that is on one side, we can reduce these
three equations to just two:
x1 z3
=
.
y = 2,
4
6
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations.
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Finally, in the case where v3 = 0 (but v2 0 and v3 0), then this is a line that is on the
2D xy plane where z = p3 .
Example 295. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2, 3) + (4, 5, 0),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 1 + 4, y = 2 + 5, and z = 3.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (5, 7, 3), (13, 17, 3), and (69, 87, 3).
We see that z must always be equal to 3.
By rearranging the first and second equations so that is on one side, we can reduce these
three equations to just two:
x1 y2
=
.
z = 3,
4
5
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations.
We now look at examples where exactly two of v1 , v2 , or v3 are zero (Cases 5, 6, and 7 of
Fact 35).
In the case where v1 = 0 and v2 = 0, but v3 0, then this is a line that runs through the
points (p1 , p2 , ) for R.
Example 296. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2, 3) + (0, 0, 6),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 1, y = 2, and z = 3 + 6.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (1, 2, 9), (1, 2, 21), and (1, 2, 105).
We see that x and y must always be equal to 1 and 2. Hence, the above equations simply
reduce to:
x = 1,
y = 2.
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations. These are the points (1, 2, ), where can be any real.
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Similarly, in the case where v1 = 0 and v3 = 0, but v2 0, then this is a line that runs
through the points (p1 , , p3 ) for R.
Example 297. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2, 3) + (0, 5, 0),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 1, y = 2 + 5, and z = 3.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (1, 7, 3), (1, 17, 3), and (1, 87, 3).
We see that x and z must always be equal to 1 and 3. Hence, the above equations simply
reduce to:
x = 1,
z = 3.
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations. These are the points (1, , 3), where can be any real.
In the case where v2 = 0 and v3 = 0, but v1 0, then this is a line that runs through the
points (, p2 , p3 ) for R.
Example 298. Consider the line described by the vector equation r = (1, 2, 3) + (4, 0, 0),
where R. It can be described by the cartesian equations x = 1 + 4, y = 2, and z = 3.
As varies between and , these 3 equations give us the points that are on the line.
For example, when = 1, 3, 17, we have the points (5, 2, 3), (13, 2, 3), and (69, 2, 3).
We see that y and z must always be equal to 2 and 3. Hence, the above equations simply
reduce to:
y = 2,
z = 3.
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above cartesian
equations. These are the points (, 2, 3), where can be any real.
Exercise 123. Rewrite each of the following vector equation descriptions of lines into
cartesian equations describing the same line. (a) r = (1, 1, 1) + (3, 2, 1), where R.
(b) r = (5, 6, 1) + (7, 8, 1), where R. (c) r = (0, 3, 1) + (3, 0, 1), where R. (d)
r = (9, 9, 9) + (1, 0, 0), where R. (Answer on p. 1087.)
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SYLLABUS ALERT
The 9740 (old) List of Formulae contains the following statement, but not the 9758 (revised)
List of Formulae!
If A is the point with position vector a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and the direction vector b is given
by b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k, then the straight line through A with direction vector b has cartesian
equation
x a1 y a2 z a3
=
=
(= ).
b1
b2
b3
By the way, the above statement printed in the 9740 (old) List of Formulae is false (*gasp*),
because it fails to specify that b1 , b2 , b3 must be non-zero. (The correct statement was just
given as Fact 35.)
Consider for example, the point (0, 0, 0) and the direction vector b given by b = j + k. Then
contrary to the above statement, the straight line through A with direction vector b does
not have cartesian equation
x y z
= = ,
0 1 1
x
is undefined. This is the common mistake to which I devoted an entire chapter
0
(Chapter 2) earlier in this book. This seems like a very pedantic point to make, but dividing
by zero has been the cause of the downfall of many a student (and in this case some folks
at MOE).
because
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In the examples and exercise we just went through, we started with a vector equation of a
line and then wrote down the lines cartesian equations. Now well go the other way round,
starting with the lines cartesian equations, then write down the vector equations.
Example 299. Consider a line described by the cartesian equations
3x 4 2y 18 z 1
=
=
.
6
5
3
In order to directly apply Fact 35, you must make sure that the coefficients on x, y,
and z are all 1! So first rewrite the above into
x 4/3 y 9 z 1
=
=
.
2
2.5
3
And now by Fact 35, we can immediately describe this line by the vector equation r =
(4/3, 9, 1) + (2, 2.5, 3), for R.
Example 300. Consider a line described by the cartesian equations
5x y 13 3z 14
=
=
.
2
6
8
Rewrite the above equations into
x y 13 z 14/3
=
= 8
.
2/5
6
/3
And so by Fact 35, we can immediately describe this line by the vector equation r =
(0, 13, 14/3) + (2/5, 6, 8/3), for R.
Example 301. Consider a line described by the cartesian equations 2x = 17 and 3z = 4.
Rewrite them into x = 8.5 and z = 4/3. And so by Fact 35, we can immediately describe
this line by the vector equation r = (8.5, 0, 4/3) + (0, 1, 0), for R.
Exercise 124. Rewrite each of the following cartesian equation descriptions of lines into
7x 2 0.3y 5 8z
a vector equation describing the same line. (a)
=
= . (b) 2x = 3y = 5z. (c)
5
7
7
3y 1
x 3 5z 2
17x 4 =
= 3z. (d)
=
, 3y = 11. (Answer on p. 1088.)
2
2
7
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31.5
Collinearity
Definition 82. A set of points are said to be collinear if there is some line that contains
all of these points.
Any two points are always collinear simply take the line that passes through both of
them.
In contrast, three points may not be collinear. To check whether three points are collinear,
1. First take the line that passes through two of the points.
2. Then check whether the third point is on this line.
a
a
a, b, and c are
not collinear.
a, b, and c
are collinear.
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Example 302. Are the points a = (1, 2, 3), b = (4, 5, 6), and c = (7, 8, 9) collinear?
First take the line through a and b. The vector from a to b is (3, 3, 3) and the line passes
through a. Hence, the line can be written as r = (1, 2, 3) + (3, 3, 3) ( R).
Then check whether c is on the line: Is there such that c = (7, 8, 9) = (1, 2, 3) + (3, 3, 3)?
Rearranging, we have (6, 6, 6) = (3, 3, 3), which we can write out as:
6 = 3,
6 = 3.
6= 3,
Clearly, all three of the above equations are true if = 2. And so c is also on the line.
Hence, the three points are collinear.
c = (7, 8, 9)
= (-1, 1, 0)
= (3, 3, 3)
e = (0, 1, 0)
b = (4, 5, 6)
a = (1, 2, 3)
d = (1, 0, 0)
Example 303. Are the points d = (1, 0, 0), e = (0, 1, 0), and f = (0, 0, 1) collinear?
First take the line through d and e . The vector from d to e is (1, 1, 0) and the line passes
through d. Hence, the line can be written as r = (1, 0, 0) + (1, 1, 0) ( R).
Then check whether f is on the line: Is there such that f = (0, 0, 1) = (1, 0, 0)+(1, 1, 0)?
Rearranging, we have (1, 0, 1) = (1, 1, 0), which we can write out as:
1 = ,
0= ,
1 = 0.
Clearly, there is no such that the above three equations can be true. And so the point f
is not on the line through d and e. Hence, the three points are not collinear.
Exercise 125. Determine whether each of the following set of three points are collinear. (a)
a = (3, 1, 2), b = (1, 6, 5), and c = (0, 1, 0). (b) a = (1, 2, 4), b = (0, 0, 1), and c = (3, 6, 10).
(Answer on p. 1088.)
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32
Planes
Black vectors
Plane are on the plane
n (a normal
0.5n (Also a
vector)
normal vector)
-n (Also a
normal vector)
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Suppose a plane contains some point p = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) and has a normal vector n = (a, b, c).
Now consider any point r on the plane. We can construct the vector r p.
This vector r p lies on the plane and must therefore be orthogonal to n, the planes normal
vector. So, for any point r that lies on the plane, we have
(r p) n = 0.
q (point not
on the plane)
n is normal to r p ,
but not to q p.
q p (vector not
on the plane)
n (a normal
vector)
p (point on
the plane)
r p (vector
on the plane)
Plane
r1 (point on
the plane)
Now consider any point q that is not on the plane. We can construct the vector q p.
This vector q p does not lie on the plane and must therefore not be orthogonal to n, the
planes normal vector. So, for any point q that does not lie on the plane, we have
(q p) n 0.
Altogether then, we conclude: A point r is on the plane if and only if
Fact 36. Suppose a plane contains point p and has normal vector n. Then the plane
contains exactly those points r such that
(r p) n = 0.
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Recall that a line can be described by the vector equation r = p + v where r is a generic
point on the line and p is a known point on the line. Alternatively, it can also be described
by the vector equation r = p + v, where r is the position vector of r and p is the position
vector of p.
On the previous page, we proved that if a plane that contains point p and has normal vector
n, then it may be described by the vector equation (r p) n = 0, where r is a generic
point on the plane. Similar to a line, the same plane can also be described by the vector
equation (r p) n = 0.
By the distributivity of the scalar product, we have:
(r p) n = 0 r n p n = 0 r n = p n.
Now, p is known (it is the position vector of a point p known to be on the plane). So too
is n (it is the planes normal vector). Thus, p n is simply some known number.
So we can describe the plane even more simply by the vector equation
r n = d,
where d = p n.
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Example 304. Consider a plane that contains the point p = (1, 2, 3) and has normal vector
(1, 1, 0). We compute
1 1
d=pn=
2 1
3 0
= 1 1 + 2 1 + 3 0 = 3.
We thus conclude that the plane may be described by the vector equation r (1, 1, 0) = 3.
This says that the plane contains exactly every point r, whose position vector r satisfies the
above equation. For example, the points r1 = (3, 0, 0), r2 = (0, 3, 5), and r3 = (1, 2, 1) are
on the plane, because their position vectors r1 = (3, 0, 0), r2 = (0, 3, 5), and r3 = (1, 2, 1)
satisfy the above equation, as we can easily verify:
3 1
r1 n =
0 1
0 0
= 3 1 + 0 1 + 0 0 = 3.
0 1
r2 n =
3 1
5 0
= 0 1 + 3 1 + 5 0 = 3.
1 1
r3 n =
2 1
1 0
= 1 1 + 2 1 + (1) 0 = 3.
Lest you be sceptical that a plane could be described so simply, lets verify that two vectors
on the plane are indeed orthogonal to the normal vector n. First consider r2 r1 = (0, 3, 5)
(3, 0, 0) = (3, 3, 5) this is a vector on the plane. We can verify that indeed
3 1
(r2 r1 ) n =
3 1
5 0
= 3 1 + 3 1 + 5 0 = 0.
Next consider p r3 = (1, 2, 3) (1, 2, 1) = (0, 0, 4) this is also a vector on the plane. We
can verify that indeed
0 1
(p r3 ) n =
0 1
4 0
Page 326, Table of Contents
= 0 1 + 0 1 + 4 0 = 0.
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Example 305. Consider a plane that contains the point p = (0, 0, 1) and has normal vector
(2, 1, 1). We compute
0 2
d=pn=
0 1
1 1
= 0 2 + 0 (1) + 1 1 = 1.
We thus conclude that the plane may be described by the vector equation r (2, 1, 1) = 1.
This says that the plane contains exactly every point r, whose position vector r satisfies
the above equation. For example, the points r1 = (1, 1, 0), r2 = (0, 1, 2), and r3 = (1, 2, 1)
are on the plane, because their position vectors r1 = (1, 1, 0), r2 = (0, 1, 2), and r3 = (1, 2, 1)
satisfy the above equation, as we can easily verify:
1 2
r1 n =
1 1
0 1
= 1 2 + 1 (1) + 0 1 = 1.
0 2
r2 n =
1 1
2 1
= 0 2 + 1 (1) + 2 1 = 1.
1 2
r3 n =
2 1
1 1
= 1 2 + 2 (1) + 1 1 = 1.
Lest you be sceptical that a plane could be described so simply, lets verify that two vectors
on the plane are indeed orthogonal to the normal vector n. First consider r2 r1 = (0, 1, 2)
(1, 1, 0) = (1, 0, 2) this is a vector on the plane. We can verify that indeed
1 2
(r2 r1 ) n =
0 1
2 1
= (1) 2 + 0 (1) + 2 1 = 0.
Next consider p r3 = (0, 0, 1) (1, 2, 1) = (1, 2, 0) this is also a vector on the plane.
We can verify that indeed
1 2
(p r3 ) n =
2 1
0 1
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We just learnt how to write down the vector equation of a plane, given a point on the
plane and its normal vector.
We now do the same, but given instead three points on a plane.
Example 306. A plane contains the points a = (1, 2, 3), b = (4, 5, 8), and c = (2, 3, 5).
plane is ab
ac = n = (1, 1, 0).
Since a n = 1, the plane can be described by the vector equation r (1, 1, 0) = 1.
Example 307. A plane contains the points a = (1, 0, 0), b = (0, 1, 0), and c = (0, 0, 1).
the plane is ab
ac = n = (1, 1, 1).
Since a n = 1, the plane can be described by the vector equation r (1, 1, 1) = 1.
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We jnow write down the vector equation of a plane, given two points and a vector on
the plane.
Example 308. A plane contains the points a = (0, 0, 3) and b = (1, 4, 5), and the vector
v = (3, 2, 1).
Both vectors ab = (1, 4, 2) and v = (3, 2, 1) are on the plane. Hence, a normal vector to the
Both vectors ab = (5, 8, 9) and v = (0, 1, 1) are on the plane. Hence, a normal vector to
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32.1
Let n = (a, b, c) be the normal vector of a plane. Let p = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) be a point on the plane.
Then the plane can be described by the vector equation
r n = p n,
where r = (x, y, z) is the position vector of a generic point on the plane. Writing out the
vectors in the above equation explicitly, we have:
x a
y b
z c
or
p1 a
= p b
2
p3 c
This last equation is the cartesian equation description of the same plane. Note, once
again, that d = ap1 + bp2 + cp3 is simply some known number. So this cartesian equation
simply says that the plane contains exactly those points (x, y, z) that satisfy the equation
ax + by + cz = d.
Example 310. The plane with vector equation r (1, 1, 0) = 3 has cartesian equation
x + y = 3.
Example 311. The plane with vector equation r (2, 1, 1) = 1 has cartesian equation
2x y + z = 1.
Example 312. The plane with vector equation r (1, 1, 0) = 1 has cartesian equation
x y = 1.
Example 313. The plane with vector equation r (1, 1, 1) = 1 has cartesian equation
x + y + z = 1.
Example 314. The plane with vector equation r (0, 5, 10) = 30 has cartesian equation
5y 10z = 30.
Example 315. The plane with vector equation r (1, 5, 5) = 18 has cartesian equation
x + 5y 5z = 18.
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Its thus surprisingly easy to go back and forth between a planes vector and cartesian
equations:
r (a, b, c) = d
ax + by + cz = d.
Heres a nice observation: Every plane that contains the origin (0, 0, 0) can be written in
the form ax + by + cz = 0. Conversely, every plane that does not contain the origin can be
written in the form ax + by + cz = 1. Formally:
Fact 37. A plane r n = d contains the origin d = 0.
Proof. Given a plane r n = d, the origin is on the plane (and thus satisfies this equation)
0 n = d = 0.
SYLLABUS ALERT
The 9740 (old) List of Formulae contains the following statement, but not the 9758 (revised)
List of Formulae!
The plane through A with normal vector n = n1 i + n2 j + n3 k has cartesian equation
n1 x + n2 y + n3 z + d = 0
where
d= a n.
Exercise 126. Find the vector and cartesian equations that describe the planes containing
each of the following set of three points: (a) a = (7, 3, 4), b = (8, 3, 4), and c = (9, 3, 7). (b)
a = (8, 0, 2), b = (4, 4, 3), and c = (2, 7, 2). (c) a = (8, 5, 9), b = (8, 4, 5), and c = (5, 6, 0).
(Answer on p. 1089.)
Exercise 127. Write down the vector equations of the planes whose cartesian equations
are as given: (a) 3x + 2y + 5z = 3. (b) 2y + 5z = 3. (c) 5z = 3. (Answer on p. 1090.)
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32.2
Example 318. The plane with vector equation r (1, 0, 1) = 11 or cartesian equation x + z =
11 can be described in an infinite number of ways. For example, the same plane can also
be described by any of the following four equations: r (2, 0, 2) = 22, r (1/11, 0, 1/11) = 1,
2x + 2z = 22, and x/11 + z/11 = 1.
If you talk about the plane r (2, 0, 2) = 22 and I talk about the plane x/11x + z/11z = 1, it
make take us a moment to realise that we are talking about the exact same plane. To save
ourselves such trouble, it may be desirable to describe planes in a standardised form, called
the Hessian normal form.
as our normal vector. However,
This involves simply picking the unit normal vector n
there are two possible unit normal vectors, one pointing up and the other pointing down.
0, so that the RHS of our
We will choose the unit normal vector that ensures that p n
vector or cartesian equation in Hessian normal form is always non-negative.
( 2/2, 0, 2/2). And so the plane can be rewritten in Hessian normal form as r
(8/ 74, 1// 74, 3// 74). Note though that right now, the RHS is negative. So in order
to ensure that d 0 (as required by the Hessian normal form), we need simply reverse the
sign of our unit normal vector that is, we should pick (8/ 74, 1/ 74, 3/ 74) as our
unit normal
then,
can be rewritten
vector.
Altogether
the plane
in Hessian
normal form
as
r (8/ 74, 1/ 74, 3/ 74) = 3/ 74 or (8/ 74) x (1/ 74) y (3/ 74) z = (3/ 74).
Exercise 128. Rewrite each of the following planes vector equation into Hessian normal
form. (a) r (3, 6, 2) = 4. (b) r (1, 2, 2) = 1. (c) r (8, 1, 4) = 0. (Answer on p. 1090.)
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33
Distances
Before we proceed, here are some useful things to remember. A line can be fully determined
by
1. Any two distinct points.
2. Any vector and a point.
Similarly, a plane can be fully determined by
1. Any three distinct points.
2. Any two distinct points and a distinct vector.39
3. Two distinct vectors and a point.
39
If the two points are a and b, then the vector must be distinct from cab, for any c R.
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33.1
Definition 83. The foot of the perpendicular from a point a to a line l is the point b on
the line l that is closest to the point a. The distance between the point a and the line l is
the length of the line segment ab.
Distance
between
a and b
b
p
Note that the line ab must be perpendicular to the line l. Hence the name foot of the
perpendicular.
It is easier to remember how the proof of the following proposition works, than to try to
memorise the proposition itself:
Proposition 8. Given a point a and a line r = p +
v (for R),
2
2 (
v
) ; and
(a) The distance between the point and the line is
pa
pa
v
) v
.
(b) The foot of the perpendicular from the point to the line is the point p + (
pa
Proof. Let b be the foot of the perpendicular from the point to the line.
(a) Pick any known point on the line here the obvious choice is p. Consider the right and base of length
v
(refer
angled triangle bpa it has hypothenuse of length
pa
pa
Page 334, Table of Contents
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to the diagram above). Hence, by the Pythagorean Theorem, the length of line segment ab
(or the distance between the point a and the line l) is:
2
2 (
v
) , as desired.
pa
pa
v
away from the point p, heading in the direction pb.
pa
(b) The point b is a distance
v
pb. There are two possible cases to examine.
pa
Hence b = p +
v
v
v
and
> 0, so that
=
. Altogether then, = becomes b =
Then pb = v
pa
pa
pa
v
v
v
= p + (
) v
, as desired.
p +
pa
pa
v
v
v
=
. Altogether then, = becomes b =
< 0, so that
pa
pa
Then pb =
v and
pa
v
v
) (
) (
p + (
pa
v ) = p + (
pa
v), as desired.
On p. 938 in the Appendices (optional), I give another proof of the above Proposition using
calculus. The idea of this second proof will be illustrated in the last two examples of this
section.
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Example 321. Consider the point a = (1, 2, 3) and the line r = (0, 1, 2) + (9, 1, 3) ( R).
= (1, 1, 1) and so
2 = 12 +12 +12 = 3.
Pick a point on the line say p = (0, 1, 2). We have
pa
pa
Also,
(1, 1, 1) (9, 1, 3)
13
v
=
pa
= .
91
92 + 12 + 32
2
v
) = 169/61. Hence, the length of the side is
pa
And so (
169
=
91
104
=
91
8
1.069.
7
b = (0, 1, 2) +
= (9, 8, 17) .
7
91
91
Not to scale.
a = (1, 2, 3)
Distance between
a and b is 1.069
l
b=
(9, 8, 17)
p = (0, 1, 2)
v
> 0.
Note that in this example, v and pb do point in the same direction and we have
pa
In contrast, in the next example, v and pb will point in opposite directions and we will
v
< 0.
have
pa
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Example 322. Consider the point a = (1, 0, 1) and the line r = (3, 2, 1)+(5, 1, 2) ( R).
= (4, 2, 0) and so
2 = 42 +22 +02 =
Pick a point on the line say p = (3, 2, 1). We have
pa
pa
20. Also,
(4, 2, 0) (5, 1, 2)
22
v
=
pa
= .
30
52 + 12 + 22
v
< 0 and sure enough, v and pb point in the opposite directions.) So
(As noted,
pa
2
v
) = 484/30. Hence, the length of the side is
(
pa
20
484
=
30
116
=
30
58
2.823.
15
(10, 19, 7) .
=
b = (3, 2, 1)
15
30
30
Not to scale.
a = (-1, 0, 1)
Distance between
a and b is 2.823
l
b=
(-10, 9, -7)
p = (3, 2, 1)
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Exercise 129. For each of the following, find (i) the distance between the given point a
and the given line l; and also (ii) the point b on the line that is closest to a. (a) The point
a = (7, 3, 4) and the line l described by r = (8, 3, 4) + (9, 3, 7). (b) The point a = (8, 0, 2)
and the line l described by r = (4, 4, 3) + (2, 7, 2). (c) The point a = (8, 5, 9) and the line l
described by r = (8, 4, 5) + (5, 6, 0). (Answers on pp. 1091, 1092, and 1093.)
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We now learn a second method for finding the foot of a perpendicular and hence the
distance of a point to a line. This second method involves calculus and finding the minimum
point. It also occasionally features on the A-level exams.
Example 323. Consider the point a = (1, 2, 3) and the line r = (0, 1, 2) + (9, 1, 3) ( R).
The distance between a and a generic point r on the line is
RRR
RRR 1 9
a r = RRRR
2 1+
RRR
RRR 3 2 + 3
=
R R
RRRR RRRR 1 9
RRRR = RRRR 1
RR RR
RRRR RRRR 1 3
R R
R
RRRR
RRRR
RR
RRRR
R
(1 9)2 + (1 )2 + (1 3)2 =
912 26 + 3.
To simplify matters, note that minimising 912 26 + 3 is the same as minimising 912
26 + 3. So we might as well look for the minimum point of 912 26 + 3. To this end:
d
set
(912 26 + 3) = 182 26 = 0
d
26 1
= .
182 7
Altogether then, the point b on the line l that is closest to the point a has parameter = 1/7.
So b = (0, 1, 2) + 1/7(9, 1, 3) = 1/7(9, 8, 17).
And the distance between a and l (or equivalently, the length of the line segment ab) is
912 26 + 3 =
1 2
1
91 ( ) 26 ( ) + 3 =
7
7
8
.
7
Of course, these are the same as what we found in Example 321 a few pages ago.
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Example 324. Consider the point a = (1, 0, 1) and the line described by the vector
equation r = (3, 2, 1) + (5, 1, 2) ( R). The distance between a and a generic point r on
the line is
RRR
RRR 1 3 + 5
a r = RRRR
0
2+
RRR
RRR 1 1 + 2
=
R R
RRRR RRRR 4 5
RRRR = RRRR 2
RR RR
RRRR RRRR 2
R R
R
RRRR
RRRR
RR
RRRR
R
44 11
=
.
60
15
302 + 44 + 20 =
11 2
11
30 (
) + 44 (
) + 20 =
15
15
58
.
15
Of course, these are the same as what we found in Example 322 a few pages ago.
Exercise 130. For each of the following, use the second method (calculus) to find (i) the
distance between the given point a and the given line l; and also (ii) the point b on the
line that is closest to a. (a) The point a = (7, 3, 4) and the line l described by r = (8, 3, 4) +
(9, 3, 7). (b) The point a = (8, 0, 2) and the line l described by r = (4, 4, 3) + (2, 7, 2). (c)
The point a = (8, 5, 9) and the line l described by r = (8, 4, 5) + (5, 6, 0). (Answers on p.
1094.)
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33.2
Distance
between
a and b
Plane
p
b
Proposition 9. Given a point a (with position vector a) and a plane given in Hessian
= d,
normal form r n
; and
(a) The distance between the point and the plane is d a n
) n
.
(b) The foot of the perpendicular from the point to the plane is the point a + (d a n
Proof. Let b be the foot of the perpendicular from the point to the line.
(a) Pick any point p on the plane. The length of the line segment ab and hence also the
on
distance between the point and the plane is simply the length of the projection of
ap
n
= (p a) n
= d a n
, as desired.
the planes normal vector, which is simply
ap
n
is pointing in the same direction as pb, then n
= ab. Moreover
=
Case #1 : If n
ap
> 0, so that d a n
= d a n
. Altogether then, = becomes b = a + (d a n
) n
, as
dan
desired.
n
and pb are pointing in opposite directions, then n
= ab. Moreover
= d
Case #2 : If n
ap
< 0, so that d a n
= (d a n
). Altogether then, = becomes b = a(d a n
) (
a n
n) =
) n
, as desired.
a + (d a n
Page 341, Table of Contents
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Example 325. Consider the point a = (1, 2, 3) and the plane described by the vector
equation r (1, 1, 1) = 3.
Convert the vector equation of the plane to Hessian normal form:
3
1 1 1
r ( , , ) = = 3.
3 3 3
3
=
So n
3
= 2 3.
(1, 1, 1), d = 3, and a n
3
= 3 2 3 =
Altogether then, the distance between the point and the plane is d a n
) n
= (1, 2, 3) + ( 3 2 3)
a + (d a n
3
(1, 1, 1) = (0, 1, 2).
3
By the way, notice that in this example, n points in the opposite direction from ab. And
< 0.
n. And moreover, d a n
so ab =
a = (1, 2, 3)
Not to scale.
Plane
p = (0, 1, 2)
Distance
between
a and b
b = (0, 1, 2)
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Example 326. Consider the point a = (0, 0, 0) and the plane described by the vector
equation r (1, 2, 3) = 32.
Convert the vector equation of the plane to Hessian normal form:
2
3
32
1
r ( , , ) = .
14 14 14
14
32
1
= 0.
= (1, 2, 3), d = , and a n
So n
14
14
32
= 0 =
Altogether then, the distance between the point and the plane is d a n
14
32
and the foot of the perpendicular is
14
32
1
16
) n
= (0, 0, 0) + ( 0) (1, 2, 3) = (1, 2, 3).
a + (d a n
7
14
14
By the way, notice that in this example, n points in the same direction as ab. And so
. And moreover, d a n
> 0.
ab = n
a = (0, 0, 0)
Not to scale.
Distance
between
a and b
Plane
p = (4, 5, 6)
b=
(1, 2, 3)
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Exercise 131. For each of the following, find (i) the distance between the given point
a and the given plane P ; and also (ii) the point b on the line that is closest to a. (a)
a = (7, 3, 4), P r (9, 3, 7) = 109. (b) a = (8, 0, 2), P r (2, 7, 2) = 42. (c) a = (8, 5, 9),
P r (5, 6, 0) = 64. (Answers on pp. 1095, 1096, and 1097.)
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34
34.1
Angles
Consider two lines on the 2D cartesian plane that are parallel (and thus either do not
intersect or are identical). We define the angle between them to be 0.
Now consider two lines that intersect (see diagram below). Taking their intersection point
to be the vertex, A and B are, respectively, the acute and obtuse angles between the two
lines. Of course, there is the possibility that the two lines are perpendicular, in which case
A and B are both right (i.e. equal to /2).
So when talking about the angle between two lines, there is some potential for confusion.
Are we talking about angle A or angle B?
By convention, the angle between two lines is the smaller angle. (Also, on the A-level
exams, they are usually quite careful to specifying that they want the acute angle, so that
there is no confusion.)
Page 345, Table of Contents
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If we have the direction vectors of the lines, then we can simply use what we learnt about
the scalar product to compute the angle between them.
Example 327. Consider the lines (on the 2D cartesian plane) r = (1, 3) + (2, 1) and
r = (1, 1) + (1, 3) ( R). The angle between their direction vectors v1 = (2, 1) and
v2 = (1, 3) is given by
= cos1 (
v1 v2
(2, 1) (1, 3)
5
) = cos1 (
) = cos1 ( ) 0.785.
v1 v2
(2, 1) (1, 3)
5 10
y 4
A = 0.785
Vector equation
r = (1, 3) + (2, 1)
2
x
0
-4
-2
Vector equation
r = (-1, -3) + (1, 3)
2
The vector (1, 3)
-2
A = 0.785
The vector (2, 1)
-4
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Example 328. Consider the lines (on the 2D cartesian plane) r = (0, 0) + (2, 3) and
r = (1, 0) + (3, 1) ( R). The angle between their direction vectors v1 = (2, 3) and
v2 = (3, 1) is given by
= cos1 (
(2, 3) (3, 1)
3
v1 v2
) = cos1 (
) = cos1 ( ) 1.837.
v1 v2
(2, 3) (3, 1)
13 10
This is the obtuse angle between the two lines. So the acute angle between the two lines is
A = 1.837 = 1.305.
y 4
Vector equation
r = (0, 0) + (-2, 3)
2
A = 1.305
B = 1.837
x
0
-4
-2
A = 1.305
Vector equation
r = (1, 0) + (3, 1)
-2
-4
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Example 329. Consider the lines (on the 2D cartesian plane) r = (2, 2) + (3, 3) and
r = (1, 1) + (1, 1) ( R). The angle between their direction vectors v1 = (3, 3) and
v2 = (1, 1) is given by
= cos1 (
(3, 3) (1, 1)
6
6
v1 v2
) = cos1 (
) = cos1 ( ) = cos1 ( ) = .
v1 v2
(3, 3) (1, 1)
6
18 2
So the two vectors are parallel. Which means that the two lines are parallel and so by
definition, the angle between the two lines is 0.
y 4
x
0
-4
-2
Vector equation
r = (2, -2) + (3, 3)
-2
Vector equation
r = (1, 1) + (-1, 1)
-4
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Exercise 132. Find the acute angle between each of the following pairs of lines. (a)
r = (1, 2) + (1, 1) and r = (0, 0) + (2, 3) ( R). (b) r = (1, 2) + (1, 5) and
r = (0, 0) + (8, 1) ( R). (c) r = (1, 2) + (2, 6) and r = (0, 0) + (3, 2) ( R). (Answer
on p. 1098.)
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34.2
Visualising lines in 3D space is difficult. Which is why we tackled the 2D case first.
It turns out that we compute angles between two lines in 3D space in exactly the same way
as in the 2D case.
1. If two lines are parallel, then again we define the angle between them to be 0.
2. If two lines intersect, then again we take their intersection point to be the vertex and
take the smaller angle formed to be the angle between the two lines.
On the 2D cartesian plane, the above were the only two possibilities two lines either are
parallel or intersect. In contrast, in 3D space, there is the third possibility that two lines
neither are parallel nor intersect! As well learn in section 35.1, any two lines that
neither are parallel nor intersect are called skew lines.
What is the angle between two skew lines, given that they do not intersect?
3. Given two skew lines, translate one of them so that they intersect. Examine the angle
between the two now-intersecting lines. This is defined to be the angle between the two
skew lines.
The next example illustrates.
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Example 330. Below, the red line and pink line are skew lines, i.e., they neither intersect
nor are parallel. To find the angle between them, translate the red line upwards so that the
new red dotted line intersects the pink line at the purple dot. The angle A is then defined
to be the angle between the two skew lines.
2
1
x
1
1
2
3
z
So once again, given any two lines, the angle between them is simply the angle between
their direction vectors. So again the scalar product comes in handy.
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Example 331. Consider the lines r = (0, 1, 2)+(9, 1, 3) and r = (4, 5, 6)+(3, 2, 1) ( R).
The angle between their direction vectors v1 = (9, 1, 3) and v2 = (3, 2, 1) is given by
= cos1 (
(9, 1, 3) (3, 2, 1)
32
v1 v2
) = cos1 (
) = cos1 ( ) 0.459.
v1 v2
(9, 1, 3) (3, 2, 1)
91 14
(0, 1, 0) (8, 3, 5)
3
v1 v2
) = cos1 (
) = cos1 ( ) 1.879.
v1 v2
(0, 1, 0) (8, 3, 5)
1 98
So the obtuse angle between the two lines is 1.879. And the angle between the two lines is
1.263.
Example 333. Consider the lines r = (1, 3, 3) + (1, 5, 3) and r = (7, 4, 7) + (7, 2, 1)
( R). The angle between their direction vectors v1 = (1, 5, 3) and v2 = (7, 2, 1). Thus,
= cos1 (
v1 v2
(1, 5, 3) (7, 2, 1)
) = cos1 (
) = cos1 (0) 0.5.
v1 v2
(1, 5, 3) (7, 2, 1)
So the two lines are perpendicular and the angle between them is right (i.e. /2).
Exercise 133. Find the angle between each of the following pairs of lines. (a) r = (1, 2, 3)+
(1, 1, 0) and r = (0, 0, 0) + (2, 3, 4) ( R). (b) r = (1, 2, 3) + (1, 5, 6) and r =
(0, 0, 0) + (8, 1, 1) ( R). (c) r = (1, 2, 3) + (2, 6, 7) and r = (0, 0, 0) + (3, 2, 1) ( R).
(Answer on p. 1098.)
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34.3
Fact 38. The angle A between the line r = p + v and the plane r n = d is given by
A = sin1
vn
.
v n
Line
Line
is obtuse
is acute
A = 0.5
Plane
A = 0.5
Plane
Direction
vector of line
Direction
vector of line
Proof. Consider the angle between the lines direction vector and the planes normal
vn
.
vector. By the scalar product, we have cos =
v n
Case #1: If is acute or right, i.e. (0, /2], then the angle A between the line and the
plane is A = /2 (see figure). And so
vn
sin A = sin ( ) = sin ( ) cos sin cos ( ) = cos =
.
2
2
2
v n
Note that if (0, /2], then v n 0, so that v n = v n. Altogether, we indeed have
sin A =
vn
v n
or A = sin1
vn
.
v n
Case #2: If is obtuse or straight, i.e. (/2, ], then the angle A between the line and
the plane is A = 0.5 (see figure). And so
v n
sin A = sin ( ) = sin cos ( ) sin ( ) cos = cos =
.
2
2
2
v n
Note that if (/2, ], then v n < 0, so that v n = v n. Altogether, we indeed have
sin A =
vn
v n
or A = sin1
vn
.
v n
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Example 334. The angle between the line r = (0, 1, 2) + (9, 1, 3) ( R) and the plane
r (1, 1, 1) = 3 is
13
v
n
(9,
1,
3)
(1,
1,
1)
13
sin1
= sin1
= sin1 = sin1 0.906.
v n
(9, 1, 3) (1, 1, 1)
91 3
7 3
Example 335. The angle between the line r = (4, 2, 3) + (1, 0, 1) ( R) and the plane
r (1, 1, 1) = 5 is
sin1
(1, 0, 1) (1, 1, 0)
1
vn
= sin1
= sin1 = sin1 (1/2) = /6.
v n
(1, 0, 1) (1, 1, 0)
2 2
Example 336. The angle between the line r = (5, 5, 5) + (1, 0, 1) ( R) and the plane
r (0, 1, 0) = 3 is
sin1
(1, 0, 1) (0, 1, 0)
vn
= sin1
= sin1 0 = 0.
v n
(1, 0, 1) (0, 1, 0)
Exercise 134. Find the angle between the given line and plane. (a) r = (1, 2, 3) +
(1, 1, 0) ( R) and r (3, 4, 5) = 0. (b) r = (1, 2, 3) + (0, 2, 6) ( R) and r (1, 3, 5) = 2.
(c) r = (1, 2, 3) + (1, 9, 8) ( R) and r (2, 8, 2) = 3. (Answer on p. 1099.)
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34.4
Given two planes P1 and P2 , the angle between them is simply the angle between any two
vectors v1 and v2 on the two planes.
n1
v2
n2
Angle between
the two planes
normal vectors
Angle between
the two planes
P2
v1
P1
But the normal vector n1 of the first plane is orthogonal to v1 ; similarly, the normal vector
n2 of the second plane is orthogonal to v2 . And so the angle between v1 and v2 is equal to
the angle between n1 and n2 .
Altogether then, the angle between two planes is simply the angle between their normal
vectors.
Again, there are two possible angles by convention, we take the smaller one.
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Example 337. Consider the planes r (1, 1, 1) = 12 and r (1, 1, 0) = 1. The angle
between the two planes is:
= cos1 (
= cos1 (
n1 n2
)
n1 n2
(1, 1, 1) (1, 1, 0)
)
(1, 1, 1) (1, 1, 0)
2
2
= cos1 ( ) = cos1 ( )
3 2
6
2.526.
This is the obtuse angle. So the acute angle between the two planes is 2.526 = 0.615
radian.
Example 338. Consider the planes r (2, 1, 3) = 26 and r (3, 0, 5) = 25. The angle
between the two planes is
= cos1 (
= cos1 (
n1 n2
)
n1 n2
(2, 1, 3) (3, 0, 5)
)
(2, 1, 3) (3, 0, 5)
9
= cos1 ( ) 1.146.
14 34
Exercise 135. Find the angle between the two given planes. (a) r (1, 2, 3) = 1 and
r (3, 4, 5) = 2. (b) r (1, 2, 3) = 3 and r (5, 1, 1) = 4. (c) r (1, 1, 8) = 5 and r (3, 0, 10) = 6.
(Answer on p. 1100.)
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35
Definition 85. Two lines are parallel if their direction vectors can be written as scalar
multiples of each other.
Example 339. The lines r = (0, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) and r = (4, 17, 0) + (1, 0, 0) ( R) are
not parallel, because (0, 1, 0) cannot be written as a scalar multiple of (1, 0, 0).
Example 340. The lines r = (8, 1, 1) + (3, 6, 9) and r = (4, 5, 6) + (1, 2, 3) ( R) are
parallel, because (3, 6, 9) = 3(1, 2, 3).
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Definition 86. A set of points are coplanar if there is some plane that contains all of these
points.
Any two points are always coplanar indeed, they are collinear (p1 and p2 in the figure
below). Three points are also always coplanar, although they may not be collinear (p1 , p2 ,
and p3 in the figure below). But four points may not be coplanar (p1 , p2 , p3 , and p4 in the
figure below).
Line 2
Two points are coplanar. They
also lie on the same line.
p1
Plane
p3
p2
Line 1
p4
Definition 87. Two lines are coplanar if there is some plane on which both lie. Two lines
that are not coplanar are called skew lines.
Example 341. In the figure above, Line 1 and Line 2 are skew lines. Line 1 lies on the
plane illustrated. Line 2 cuts through the plane and does not intersect Line 1.
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How do we determine whether two lines l1 and l2 are coplanar or skew? Well,
1. If they are parallel, then obviously we can construct a plane that contains both lines.
And so the two lines are coplanar.
2. If they are not parallel and they lie on the same plane, then they must intersect. This
is just the familiar fact you learnt in primary school two non-parallel lines on the
plane must definitely intersect.
Altogether we conclude:
Fact 39. Two lines are coplanar if and only if they (i) are parallel; OR (ii) intersect.
Equivalently, two lines are skew if and only if they (i) are not parallel; AND (ii) do not
intersect.
Example 342. Consider the lines r = (8, 1, 1)+(3, 6, 9) and r = (4, 5, 6)+(1, 2, 3) ( R).
The direction vector of one can be written as the scalar multiple of the other, so they are
parallel. Hence, they are also coplanar; or equivalently, they are not skew.
Example 343. Consider the lines r = (0, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) and r = (4, 17, 0) + (1, 0, 0)
( R). The direction vector of one cannot be written as the scalar multiple of the
other, so they are not parallel. If they intersect, then there are reals and such that
(0, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) = (4, 17, 0) + (1, 0, 0), or
0 = 4 + , = 17, and 0 = 0.
= 17, = 4 solves the above equations. (What does this mean? This means that the
first line goes through the point (0, 0, 0) + (0, 1, 0) = (0, 17, 0) and the second line also goes
through the same point (4, 17, 0) + (1, 0, 0) = (0, 17, 0).)
The two lines intersect at (0, 17, 0). And so they are coplanar or equivalently, they are
not skew.
If wed like, we can easily find the plane on which these two lines lie. Remember: All
we need are two distinct vectors and a point to determine a plane. We already have two
distinct vectors, namely the direction vectors of the two lines. Using these, we can find
a normal vector for the plane namely (0, 1, 0) (1, 0, 0) = (0, 0, 1). Noting also that
the origin is on the first line and therefore on the plane, we conclude that the plane is
r (0, 0, 1) = 0.
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Example 344. Consider the lines r = (0, 1, 2)+(9, 1, 3) and r = (4, 5, 6)+(3, 2, 1) ( R).
They are not parallel. Lets see if they have an intersection point. If they intersect, then
there are reals and such that (0, 1, 2) + (9, 1, 3) = (4, 5, 6) + (3, 2, 1), or
1
9 = 4 + 3, 1 + = 5 + 2, and 2 + 3 = 6 + .
3
Exercise 136. Determine whether each of the following pairs of lines is coplanar or skew.
If they are coplanar, find the plane that contains both of them. (a) r = (8, 1, 5) + (3, 2, 1)
and r = (1, 2, 3) + (5, 6, 7) ( R). (b) r = (0, 0, 6) + (3, 9, 0) and r = (1, 1, 1) + (1, 3, 0)
( R). (c) r = (6, 5, 5) + (1, 0, 1) and r = (8, 3, 6) + (0, 1, 1) ( R). (Answer on p. 1101.)
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35.2
Definition 88. A line with direction vector v and a plane with normal vector n are parallel
if v n = 0 (i.e. v and n are perpendicular).
The above definition makes sense, because if the line is perpendicular to the planes normal
vector, then the line must be parallel to the plane itself.
Fact 40. Given a plane and a line, there are three possible cases (illustrated below):
1. The line and plane are parallel and do not intersect at all.
2. The line and plane are parallel and the line lies completely on the plane.
3. The line and plane are not parallel and intersect at exactly one point.
Line 1
Line 3
Plane
Line 2
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Example 345. Consider the line r = (3, 5, 5)+(9, 1, 3) ( R) and the plane r(1, 1, 1) = 3.
We have (9, 1, 3) (1, 1, 1) = 13 0 and so they are not parallel.
They must therefore intersect at exactly one point. Lets find it.
Plug in a generic point of the line into the equation for the plane: [(3, 5, 5) + (9, 1, 3)]
(1, 1, 1) = 3 3 + 9 + 5 + + 5 + 3 = 3 13 + 13 = 3 = 10/13. So the
intersection point is (3, 5, 5) 10/13(9, 1, 3).
Example 346. Consider the line r = (3, 5, 5) + (9, 1, 3) ( R) and the plane r (1, 0, 3) =
6. We have (9, 1, 3) (1, 0, 3) = 0 and so they are parallel.
There are two possibilities. Either they do not intersect at all OR the line lie completely
on the plane.
The point (3, 5, 5) is on the line but is not on the plane, as we can easily verify (3, 5, 5)
(1, 0, 3) = 12 6. And so the line and plane do not intersect at all.
Example 347. Consider the line r = (3, 5, 3) + (9, 1, 3) ( R) and the plane r (1, 0, 3) =
6. We have (9, 1, 3) (1, 0, 3) = 0 and so they are parallel.
There are two possibilities. Either they do not intersect at all OR the line lie completely
on the plane.
The point (3, 5, 3) on the line is also on the plane: (3, 5, 3) (1, 0, 3) = 6. Since they are
parallel and share at least one intersection point, it must be that the line lies completely
on the plane.
Exercise 137. Determine whether the given line and plane are (i) parallel but do not
intersect; (ii) parallel with the line lying completely on the plane; or (iii) intersect at
exactly one point. (a) r = (4, 5, 6) + (2, 3, 5) ( R) and r (10, 0, 4) = 26. (b) r =
(5, 5, 6) + (2, 3, 5) ( R) and r (10, 0, 4) = 26. (c) r = (4, 5, 6) + (2, 3, 5) ( R) and
r (10, 0, 3) = 26. (Answer on p. 1102.)
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35.3
Definition 89. Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors can be written as scalar
multiples of each other.
(Note that an alternative definition is this: Two planes are parallel if they do not intersect.
We will show that these two definitions are equivalent.)
Imagine that two planes intersect at some line, which well call the intersection line.
Since this intersection line is on both planes, it must also be perpendicular to the normal
vectors of both planes. In other words, it must have direction vector n1 n2 . The next
fact is thus not surprising (although actually proving it takes a little work).
Fact 41. Two non-parallel planes with normal vectors n1 and n2 intersect at all if and only
if they intersect along a line with direction vector n1 n2 (i.e. the line is perpendicular to
both n1 and n2 ).
Fact 42. Given two planes, there are three possible cases:
1. The two planes are parallel and exactly identical.
2. The two planes are parallel and do not intersect at all.
3. The two planes are not parallel and share an intersection line with direction vector
n1 n2 (where n1 , n2 are the normal vectors of the plane).
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Example 348. In the figure below, planes P1 and P2 are parallel and do not intersect at
all. Planes P2 and P3 are not parallel and share an intersection line with direction vector
n2 n3 .
n2
P3
n3
P2
Intersection line
of P2 and P3
n2 n3
P1
Note that analogous to our study of two lines, if two planes are parallel, then either (i) they
do not intersect at all; or (ii) they are identical.
So if two planes are parallel and you can prove that they share at least one intersection
point, then it must be that the two planes are identical.
Conversely, if two planes are parallel and you can prove that there is at least one point
on one plane that is not on the other plane, then it must be that they do not intersect
at all.
And in the case where they are not parallel, to find the intersection line, simply find a point
p where the two planes intersect. Then the intersection line is simply r = p + (n1 n2 )
( R).
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7x + y + z = 42,
x + y + 2z = 6.
There are infinitely many points where the two planes intersect. So why not we look for an
intersection point where x = 0. Ill call this the plug in x = 0 trick.
2
In which case = minus = yields z = 36 and y = 78. Hence, the intersection line is r =
(0, 78, 36) + (1, 13, 6) ( R).
x + y + z = 12,
x y = 1.
2
Again, we can play the plug in x = 0 trick. In which case = says that y = 1 and now from
1
=, we have z = 11. And so (0, 1, 11) is an intersection point of the two planes. Hence, the
intersection line is r = (0, 1, 11) + (1, 1, 0) ( R).
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You can use the plug in x = 0 trick whenever the intersection line has direction vector
with a x-coordinate that is not equal to 0.
But the plug in x = 0 trick may not work if the intersection line has direction vector
with x-coordinate equal to 0.
y + 3z = 0,
x + y + 3z = 2.
Here the direction vector of the intersection line has x-coordinate 0. So the plug in x = 0
1
2
trick might not work. And indeed it doesnt, because if we plug in x = 0, then = and = are
contradictory.
So lets try the plug in y = 0 trick instead, which I know will work because the ycoordinate of the direction vector of the interesction line is non-zero (its 3). Then from
1
2
= we have z = 0 and now from = we have x = 2. And so (2, 0, 0) is an intersection point
of the two planes. Hence, the intersection line is r = (2, 0, 0) + (0, 3, 1) ( R).
Alternatively, we could also have used the plug in z = 0 trick instead, which again I
know will work because the z-coordinate of the direction vector of the interesction line is
1
2
non-zero (its 1). Then from = we have y = 0 and now from = we have x = 2. And so again
we find that (2, 0, 0) is an intersection point of the two planes. And so again we would
have concluded that the intersection line is r = (2, 0, 0) + (0, 3, 1) ( R).
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Exercise 138. Determine whether the given pair of planes are parallel and identical, parallel and do not intersect, or are not parallel. If they are not parallel, determine also their
intersection line. (a) r(4, 9, 3) = 61 and r(1, 1, 2) = 19. (b) r(1, 1, 0) = 4 and r(1, 6, 8) = 60.
(c) r (4, 4, 8) = 56 and r (1, 1, 2) = 12. (d) r (4, 4, 8) = 48 and r (1, 1, 2) = 12. (Answer on
p. 1103.)
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35.4
SYLLABUS ALERT
The relationship between three planes is included in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the
9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip this section if youre taking 9758.
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1. All 3 planes are parallel to each other. There are 3 possible sub-cases:
(a) All 3 planes are identical.
(b) Only 2 planes are identical.
(c) No 2 planes are identical.
P1 , P2 , P3
3 parallel,
identical planes
P3
P2
P3
P1
P1 , P2
3 parallel planes,
where P1 and P2
are identical
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2. Two planes are parallel to each other, but the 3rd plane is not parallel to either
of the first 2 planes. There are 2 possible sub-cases:
(a) The first 2 planes are identical. And so here we are really back to the situation of
two non-parallel planes, which we already covered in detail in the previous section.
They intersect along a line.
(b) The first 2 planes are not identical. And so the non-parallel plane intersects each
of the other two planes along a separate line of intersection.
P3
P3
P2
P1
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3. No 2 planes are parallel. Each pair of planes intersects along a line. There are thus
three intersection lines (though possibly some may be identical). It is possible to prove
(but we wont do so in this book) that there are only 3 possible sub-cases:
(a) None of the intersection lines intersect with each other. That is, each pair of planes
simply intersects along some distinct intersection line.
(b) All 3 intersection lines are identical. So all 3 planes intersect along the same intersection line.
(c) The 3 intersection lines and thus all 3 planes intersect at a single point.
To determine which of the above sub-cases were in, we must determine the relation between
each pair of intersection lines. This is tedious, but nothing new.
P3
P1
P1
P3
P1
P2
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Exercise 139. What is the relationship between the 3 planes P1 , P2 , and P3 , given by
r (1, 0, 1) = 1, r (0, 1, 1) = 1, and r (1, 1, 0) = 2? (Answer on p. 1104.)
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Part IV
Complex Numbers
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36
Well start by defining the imaginary unit, then work our way to complex numbers.
Definition 90. The imaginary unit, denoted i, is a number that satisfies i2 = 1.
Using the imaginary unit, we can construct other purely imaginary numbers:
Definition 91. A purely imaginary number is any real, non-zero multiple of the imaginary
unit. That is, a purely imaginary number is any bi, where b R with b 0.
(We specify that b 0 because 0i = 0 is not a purely imaginary number, but a real number.)
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The set of reals is a proper subset of the set of complex numbers formally,
Fact 43. R C.
Proof. Every element a R can be written as a + 0i and is thus an element of C. So R is a
subset of C. Moreover R is not equal to C, because for example 3 + 7i C but 3 + 7i R.
Altogether then, R is a proper subset of C.
Complex numbers are thus the extension of the concept of real numbers. On the next page
is a modified version of our taxonomy of numbers from p. 39, with the complex numbers
fleshed out:
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Complex Numbers
Real Numbers
Impure Imaginary
Numbers
Imaginary Numbers
Purely Imaginary
Numbers
The Imaginary Unit
Exercise 140. Fill in the following table. The first column has been done for you. (Answer
on p. 1105.)
Is this ...
13 2i
A complex number?
Yes
A real number?
No
An imaginary number?
Yes
A purely imaginary number?
No
The imaginary unit?
No
3i 0 4 4 + 2i i
3
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36.1
Definition 95. Given a complex number z = a + bi, its real part is a and is denoted Re(z).
Similarly, its imaginary part is b and is denoted Im(z).
Exercise 141. Exactly two of the following complex numbers are identical. Find out which
two. (Answer on p. 1105.)
1
2
a=
i,
2
2
3
1
b = i,
2
2
c = sin sin i,
3
3
d=
cos ( ) i.
2
4
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37
The familiar arithmetic operations work the same way on imaginary numbers as they do
on real numbers. Addition and subtraction are especially simple.
37.1
In general,
Fact 44. If z = (a, b) and w = (c, d), then
z + w = (a + c, b + d),
z w = (a c, b d).
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37.2
Multiplication
Below are listed the powers of i. Note that the cycle repeats after every fourth power,
because i4 = 1.
i = i,
i2 = i i = 1,
i3 = i i2 = i,
i4 = i i3 = 1,
i5 = i i4 = i,
i6 = i i = 1,
i7 = i i2 = i,
i8 = i i3 = 1,
i9 = i i8 = i,
i10 = i i = 1,
i11 = i i2 = i,
i12 = i i3 = 1,
etc.
Example 369. Let z = i and w = 1 + i. Then zw = i (1 + i) = i 1 + i i = i 1.
Example 370. Let z = 2 + i and w = 3i. Then
zw = (2 + i) (3i) = (2) (3i) + i (3i)
= 6i + 3i2 = 6i + 3(1) = 3 6i.
Example 371. Let z = 2 i and w = 1 + i. Then
zw = (2 i)(1 + i) = 2 + 2i + i i2
= 2 + 3i i2 = 2 + 3i (1) = 1 + 3i.
Example 372. Let z = 3 + 2i and w = 7 + 4i. Then
zw = (3 + 2i)(7 + 4i) = 21 + 12i 14i + (2i)(4i)
= 21 2i + 8i2 = 21 2i + 8 (1) = 29 2i.
In general,
Fact 45. If z = (a, b) and w = (c, d), then
zw = (ac bd, ad + bc) .
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37.3
Division
Recall that to rationalise a surd in the denominator (section 5.2), we used a trick involving
conjugate pairs.
Example 373.
(
(1
3
3
5)
5 1)
3
3
1 5
=
=
=
.
15
4
1+ 5 1+ 5 1 5
1i
1
1
1i
1i
=
= 2 2=
= 0.5 0.5i.
1+i 1+i 1i 1 i
1+1
1 1 i i i
=
=
=
= i.
i i i i2 1
(b)
(c)
1
1
1+i
1+i
1+i
=
= 2 2=
= 0.5 + 0.5i.
1i 1i 1+i 1 i
1+1
In general,
Fact 46. If z = (a, b), then
z = (a, b),
zz = a + b ,
1 1 z
z
a
b
= = 2 2 = ( 2 2, 2 2).
z z z
a +b
a +b a +b
Exercise 146. For each of the following z, write down its conjugate z and hence compute
its reciprocal (i.e. 1/z). (a) z = 5 + 2i. (b) z = 3 i. (c) z = 1 + 2i. (Answer on p. 1106.)
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(b)
2 + i 2 + i 3i 6i 3i2 6i + 3
=
=
=
.
3i
3i
3i
9i2
9
3 + i 3 + i 1 + i (3 + i)(1 + i) 3 + 3i + i + i2 2 + 4i
=
=
=
=
= 1 + 2i.
1i 1i 1+i
12 i2
1+1
2
(c)
1+i
1 + i 3 + 2i 3 + 2i + 3i + 2i2 1 + 5i
=
=
=
.
3 2i 3 2i 3 + 2i
9+4
13
(d)
2 i 1 i 2 2i + i + i2 3 i
2i
=
=
=
= 1.5 0.5i.
1 + i 1 + i 1 i
1+1
2
(e)
3 + 2i
3 + 2i 7 4i 21 12i 14i 8i2 13 26i
=
=
=
= 0.2 0.4i.
7 + 4i 7 + 4i 7 4i
49 + 16
65
(f)
=
=
.
2 + i
2 + i 2 i
22 2 i 2
4 + 2
In general,
Fact 47. If z = (a, b) and w = (c, d) with w 0, then
z z w
zw
ac + bd bc ad
= = 2
=
(
,
).
w w w
c + d2
c2 + d2 c2 + d2
Exercise 147. Rewrite each of the following fractions into the form a + bi. (a)
2 3i
11 + 2i
2 i
3
7 2i
. (d)
. (c)
. (e)
. (f)
. (Answer on p. 1107.)
1+i
i
2+i
5+i
3 2i
1 + 3i
. (b)
i
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38
38.1
b2 4ac
.
2a
b2 4ac 3 1
=
= 1, 2.
2a
2
Now, armed with our new concept of imaginary numbers, we can completely dispense with
the requirement that b2 4ac 0. We can simply say that ax2 + bx + c = 0 ALWAYS has
complex roots, given by
x=
b2 4ac
.
2a
Example 377. Consider the equation x2 2x+2 = 0. Its discriminant is negative: b2 4ac =
(2)2 4(1)(2) = 4 < 0. It has two imaginary (and thus also complex) roots, given by
x=
b2 4ac 2 4
4 1
2i
=
=1
= 1 = 1 i.
2a
2
2
2
Notice that 1 + i was a root to the given quadratic equation. And interestingly enough, so
too was 1 i.
It turns out that in general, a quadratic equation with real coefficients has roots that come
in conjugate pairs. That is, if x + yi is a root, then so too is its conjugate x yi. 40 More
examples:
40
This is not terribly surprising if you examine the general solution for the quadratic equation the b2 4ac bit corresponds precisely to the imaginary part.
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Example 378. Consider the equation 3x2 +x+1 = 0. Its discriminant is negative: b2 4ac =
(1)2 4(3)(1) = 11 < 0. It has two imaginary (and thus also complex) roots, given by
x=
b2 4ac 1 11
11 1
11
1
1
=
=
=
i.
2a
6
6
6
6
6
Exercise 148. Find the roots for each of the following quadratic equations. (a) x2 +x+1 = 0.
(b) x2 + 2x + 2 = 0. (c) 3x2 + 3x + 1 = 0. (Answer on p. 1108.)
Exercise 149. If 1 i is a root to the quadratic equation x2 + bx + c = 0 (where b and c are
both real), then what are b and c? (Answer on p. 1108.)
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38.2
Example 383. x3 6x2 + 12x 8 = 0 has three (repeated) solutions, namely 2, 2, and 2.
We call 2 a multiple root (indeed a triple root).
41
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The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra can be useful even if we have no idea how to find
the solutions to an equation.
Example 384. x17 + 3x4 2x + 1 is a polynomial of degree 17. I may not know what the
solutions to x17 + 3x4 2x + 1 = 0 are, but I know from the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
that there MUST be 17 solutions (though some may possibly be repeated).
+x 6
+x
+0 6
+0 6
0.
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x=
22 4(1)(5)
= 1 1 5 = 1 4 = 1 2i.
2
Altogether then,
x3 3x2 5x 25i = (x 5) (x2 + 2x + 5) = (x 5) [x (1 + 2i)] [x (1 2i)] .
So the three zeros of the polynomial are 5 and 1 2i.
Exercise 150. Each of the following polynomials has 1 as a zero. Find the other zeros.
(a) x3 + x2 2. (b) x4 x2 2x + 2. (Answer on p. 1109.)
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38.3
2
2
2
2
Example 390.
+
i solves x2 = i. However, its conjugate
Exercise 151. Each of the following polynomials has 2 3i as a zero. Find the other zeros.
(a) x4 6x3 + 18x2 14x 39. (b) 2x4 + 21x3 93x2 + 229x 195. (Answer on p. 1110.)
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39
The complex plane (or Argand diagram) gives us a nice geometric interpretation: The
complex numbers are simply points on the plane. The real axis is the horizontal
or x-axis. The imaginary axis is the vertical or y-axis.
Example 392. In the figure below, marked in red are the real numbers 3, 0, , and 2,
which may be written in ordered pair notation as (3, 0), (0, 0), (, 0), (2, 0). Points on
the horizontal axis are real numbers.
In blue are the purely imaginary numbers 4i and 3i, which may be written in ordered pair
notation as (0, 4) and (0, 3). Points on the vertical axis are purely imaginary numbers.
In green are the impure imaginary numbers 1 + i, 3 + 2i, 1 3i, and 4 i, which may
be written in ordered pair notation as (1, 1), (3, 2), (1, 3), and (4, 1). Points not on
either axis are impure imaginary numbers.
4
3
2
1
x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
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For our purposes, well regard the complex plane C as being exactly identical to the cartesian
plane {(x, y) x R, y R}. Both are represented graphically as a two-dimensional plane.
The only difference is that we interpret points on each plane differently: Points on the
complex plane are complex numbers, while points on the cartesian plane are ordered pairs
of real numbers.42
Exercise 152. Illustrate the complex numbers 1, 3, 2i, 1 + 2i, and 1 3i on a single
Argand diagram. (Answer on p. 1111.)
42
The differences between C and R2 in fact run deeper. See e.g. this discussion..
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39.1
To write a complex number in standard form i.e. z = x + iy, we need only two pieces
of information: its real part (x) and its imaginary part (y).
We now write a complex number in polar form. Again, we need only two pieces of
information: the modulus, denoted z, and the argument, denoted arg z. Informally, the
modulus is the length of the position vector of z; the argument is the angle the position
vector of z makes with the positive x-axis.
Example 393. The complex number 3 = (3, 0) has modulus 3 = 3 and argument
arg 3 = . The complex number 4i = (0, 4) has modulus 4i = 4 and argument
arg
(4i) =
2
2
/2. The complex number 3 + 3i = (3, 3), has modulus 3 + 3i = 3 + 3 = 3 2 and
argument arg(3 + 3i) = /4.
4
3 + 3i = (3, 3)
3
2
1
-3 = (-3, 0)
x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
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In contrast, it is tricky to write down a formal definition of the argument function. One
problem is this: Angles are periodic.
Example 394. Consider again the complex number 3 + 3i = (3, 3). The angle it makes
with the positive x-axis is /4.
But angles are periodic. Equivalently, angles come full circle 2 radians. So it would make
just as much sense to say that the angle is 9/4. Or 17/4. Or 7/4. Or indeed any
/4 + 2k, where k is any inteer.
To overcome this problem, we shall somewhat arbitrarily choose (, ] as our principal
values. Thus, arg(3 + 3i) shall be uniquely defined to be the value /4 and nothing else.
Another problem is this: We are tempted to simply define arg(x + yi) = tan1 (y/x). Unfortunately, the tan1 function has codomain ge (/2, /2). Whereas, as we just decided,
arg should have codomain (, ]. To overcome this, altogether, the argument function is
defined as follows:
Definition 97. The argument function has domain C, codomain (, ], and mapping
rule as given below:
tan1 (y/x) ,
Undefined,
/2,
arg z =
/2,
tan1 (y/x) + ,
tan (y/x) ,
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y
arg z =
arg z =
x
arg z =
If x > 0 (top-right and bottom-right quadrants), then define arg(x + yi) = tan1 (y/x).
The green point in the figure above illustrates. The angle that the position vector of the
green (x, y) makes with the positive x-axis is indeed simply tan1 (y/x).
If x = 0, y = 0 (the origin), then arg(x + yi) is undefined. In other words, we leave arg 0
undefined.43
If x = 0, y > 0 (positive vertical axis), then define arg(x + yi) = arg(yi) = /2.
If x = 0, y < 0 (negative vertical axis), then define arg(x + yi) = arg(yi) = /2.
If x < 0, y 0 (top-left quadrant plus the negative horizontal axis), then define arg(x +
yi) = tan1 (y/x) + .
The red point illustrates. The angle its position vector makes with the negative x-axis
is tan1 (y/x). And so arg(x + yi) = tan1 (y/x). Observe that tan1 (y/x) =
tan1 (y/ x) = tan1 (y/x). Thus, arg(x + yi) = tan1 (y/x) = tan1 (y/x) + .
If x < 0, y < 0 (bottom-left quadrant), then define arg(x + yi) = tan1 (y/x) .
The blue point illustrates. The angle its position vector makes with the negative x-axis is
tan1 (y/x). And so arg(x + yi) = tan1 (y/x) . Observe that (y/x) = (y/ x) =
(y/x). Thus, arg(x + yi) = tan1 (y/x) = tan1 (y/x) .
43
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Exercise 153. Compute the modulus and argument of 4, 3, 2i, 1+2i, and 13i. Illustrate
these numbers and their arguments on a single Argand diagram. (Answer on p. 1112.)
Exercise 154. Where on the complex plane must a complex number be, if its argument is
... (a) Positive? (b) Negative? (c) 0? (d) ? (e) ? (f) > ? (g) < ? (Answer on p.
2
2
2
2
1113.)
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Armed with the modulus and the argument, we have a nice geometric interpretation:
Fact 49. Let z be a complex number with z = r and arg z = . Then z = r (cos + i sin ).
We call r (cos + i sin ) the polar form representation of z.
y
z = r (cos + i sin ) = (r cos , r sin )
r
r sin
x
r cos
2
2
3
Example 396. For z = 1 + 3i = (1, 3), z = 12 + 32 = 10 and arg z tan1 1.249. So in
1
7
Example 397. For z = 4 + 7i = (4, 7), z = (4)2 + 72 = 65 and arg z = tan1
+
4
Exercise 155. Rewrite each of the following complex numbers in polar form: 1, 3, 2i,
1 + 2i, and 1 3i. (Answer on p. 1113.)
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39.2
Fact 50. Let z be a complex number with z = r and arg z = . Then z = rei .
2
Example 398. The number z = 5 2i = (5, 2) has modulus 52 + (2) = 29 and
2 + 32 =
Example 399. The number z = 1 + 3i = (1, 3) has
modulus
1
10 and argument
i(1.249)
1
tan (3/1) 1.249. Hence, we can also write z = 10e
.
Exercise 156. Rewrite each of the following complex numbers in exponential form: 1, 3,
2i, 1 + 2i, and 1 3i. (Answer on p. 1113.)
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40
Now that we know how to write complex numbers in polar and exponential forms, the
arithmetic of complex numbers becomes even easier.
40.1
Fact 51. Product of two complex numbers. Let z and w be complex numbers. Then
zw = z w ,
and
Here is an alternative quicker proof of the above fact, using the exponential form.
Proof. Let z = rei and w = sei . Then zw = rsei(+) . This is the complex number with
modulus rs and which makes an angle + with the positive x-axis.
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2
z = 52 + (2) = 29, and arg z = tan1 (2/5),
w = 12 + 32 = 10,
and arg w = tan1 (3/1),
zw = 29 10 = 290, and
arg (zw) = tan1 (2/5) + tan1 (3/1) + 2k 0.869 + 2k = 0.869 (k = 0).
Notice that here arg z + arg w 0.869 (, ]. So arg z + arg w is already a principal
value and we can simply set k = 0 or arg(zw) = arg z + arg w.
2
3
290 cos [tan1
+ tan1 ] = 11,
5
1
and
2
3
290 sin [tan1
+ tan1 ] = 13.
5
1
(4)2 + 72 =
65, and
zw = 65 37 = 2405, and
arg (zw) = tan1 [7/ (4)] + + tan1 (6/1) + 2k 0.684 + 2k = 0.684 (k = 0).
Notice that here arg z + arg w 0.684 (, ]. So arg z + arg w is already a principal
value and we can simply set k = 0 or arg(zw) = arg z + arg w.
7
6
2405 cos [tan1
+ + tan1 ] = 38,
4
1
and
7
6
2405 sin [tan1
+ + tan1 ] = 31.
4
1
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(3)2 + 42 = 5,
and arg z = tan1 [4/ (3)] + ,
zw = 5 29,
arg (zw) = (tan1
and
2
4
+ ) + (tan1
+ ) + 2k 4.975 + 2k = 1.308 (k = 1).
3
5
2
2
4
4
5 29 cos [tan1
+ + tan1 ] = 7 and 5 29 sin [tan1
+ + tan1 ] 26.
3
5
3
5
And indeed zw = (3 + 4i)(5 + 2i) = 7 26i.
Exercise 157. Write down zw in polar and exponential forms, for each of the following
pair of z and w. (a) z = 1, w = 3. (b) z = 2i, w = 1 + 2i. (c) z = 1 3i, w = 3 + 4i. (Answer
on p. 1114.)
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40.2
Fact 52. Ratio of two complex numbers. Let z and w be complex numbers. Then
z
z
=
,
w w
and
arg
z
= arg z arg w + 2k,
w
r
[cos ( ) + i sin ( )] .
s
This is the complex number with modulus r/s and argument + 2k (where k is the
unique integer such that + 2k (, ]).
Here is an alternative quicker proof of the above fact, using the exponential form.
Proof. Let z = rei and w = sei . Then z/w = ei() (r/s). This is the complex number
with modulus r/s and argument + 2k (where k is the unique integer such that
+ 2k (, ]).
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29,
arg z = tan1
z
= 2.9,
w
zw
2
,
5
w =
3
arg w = tan1 .
1
10,
2
3
z
tan1 + 2k 1.630 (k = 0).
arg ( ) = tan1
w
5
1
z
=
w
65,
arg z = tan1
7
+ ,
4
w =
37,
arg w = tan1
6
.
1
z
65
7
6
, arg ( ) = tan1 +tan1 +2k 3.496+2k 2.788 (k = 1).
37
w
4
1
z
65
65 i(2.788)
w
37
37
z
5
= ,
w
29
arg z = tan1
4
+ ,
3
w =
29,
arg w = tan1
2
+ .
5
z
4
2
arg ( ) = tan1
tan1
+ 2k 0.547 + 2k = 0.547 (k = 0).
w
3
5
z
5
5
[cos (0.547) + i sin (0.547)] = ei(0.547) .
w
29
29
z
in polar and exponential forms, for each of the following
w
pairs of z and w. (a) z = 1, w = 3. (b) z = 2i, w = 1 + 2i. (c) z = 1 3i, w = 3 + 4i. (Answer
on p. 1114.)
Exercise 158. Write down
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40.3
Fact 53 expresses the sine and cosine functions as weighted sums of the exponential functions. It is not in the syllabus, but made a sudden first-time appearance on the 2015 A-level
exams (Exercise 356), just to screw students over.
ei + ei
ei ei
and sin =
.
2
2i
Proof. By the Euler Formula, ei = cos +i sin . Moreover, ei = cos ()+i sin () = cos
i sin , where the second equality uses the properties cos x = cos(x) and sin(x) = sin x.
Hence,
The 2015 question was about the sum (or difference) of two complex numbers that
have the same modulus. Heres a similar example:
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Example 407. Let z = 5ei and w = 5e0.4i . What, exactly, are the modulus and arguments
of z + w and z w?
Without the above fact, its not obvious. With the above fact, its easy. First, observe that
0.7 is the average of 1 and 0.4. Then factorise 5ei + 5e0.4i into a form where we can exploit
the above fact. Like so:
z + w = 5ei + 5e0.4i = 5e0.7i (e0.3i + e0.3i ) = 5e0.7i 2 cos(0.3),
where the last = uses Fact 53. And thus:
arg (z + w) = arg [5e0.7i 2 cos(0.3)]
= arg 5 + arg (e0.7i ) + arg 2 + arg [cos(0.3)] + 2k
= 0 + 0.7 + 0 + 0 + 2k = 0.7 (k = 0).
z + w = 5e0.7i 2 cos(0.3) = 5 e0.7i 2 cos(0.3)
= 5 1 2 cos(0.3) = 10 cos(0.3).
Altogether then, z + w = 10 cos(0.3)ei(0.7) .
We can play a similar trick to figure out the modulus and argument of z w:
z w = 5ei 5e0.4i = 5e0.7i (e0.3i e0.3i ) = 5e0.7i 2i sin(0.3).
where again the last = uses Fact 53. And thus:
arg (z w) = arg [5e0.7i 2i sin(0.3)]
= arg 5 + arg (e0.7i ) + arg 2 + arg i + arg [sin(0.3)] + 2k
= 0 + 0.7 + 0 + 0.5 + 0 + 2k = 0.8 (k = 1),
z w = 5e0.7i 2i sin(0.3) = 5 e0.7i 2 i sin(0.3)
= 5 1 2 1 sin(0.3) = 10 sin(0.3).
Altogether then, z w = 10 sin(0.3)ei(0.8) .
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In general,
Fact 54.
ei + ei = 2 cos
i( + +2k)
e 2
2
and
ei ei = 2 sin
i( ++ +2m)
e 2
,
2
Exercise 159. Let z = 3ei(0.2) and w = 3ei(0.9) . By mimicking the steps in Example 407,
find z + w and z w in exact polar and exponential forms. (Answer on p. 1115.)
SYLLABUS ALERT
If youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam, you are done with Part IV: Complex Numbers.
The remaining chapters in Part IV covers the following, which are on the 9740 (old) syllabus
but not on the 9758 (revised) syllabus:
geometrical effects of conjugating a complex number and of adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing two complex numbers
loci such as z c r, z a z b and arg (z a) =
use of de Moivres theorem to find the powers and nth roots of a complex number.
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41
In secondary school, we learnt to do some geometry using cartesian equations. And in Part
III (Vectors), we learnt to do some geometry using vector equations. Now, well learn to
do some geometry using complex equations!
41.1
Given two complex numbers z = x + iy and w = a + ib, their sum is simply the complex
number z + w = (x + a) + (y + b)i.
We already know how to interpret z = (x, y) and w = (a, b) as points on the plane. This
gives us a nice geometric interpretation: z +w = (x+a, y +b) is likewise a point on the plane.
We can also interpret z = (x, y) and w = (a, b) as position vectors. And thus as usual, the
sum of two vectors is itself a vector: z + w = (x + a, y + b).
z + w = (x + a, y + b)
z = (x, y)
z+w
w = (a, b)
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Similarly, their difference z w is simply the point (x a, y b). This corresponds to the
vector z w = (x a)i + (y b)j.
z = (x, y)
z - w = (x - a, y - b)
z-w
w = (a, b)
x
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41.2
With sums and differences, there was an exact analogy to vectors. In contrast, with products
and ratios of complex numbers, there is no analogy to vectors. In particular, the
product of two complex numbers has nothing to do with the scalar product or vector
product of their position vectors.
Nonetheless, we do have nice geometric interpretations. We already know from Fact 51
that the product of two complex numbers z and w is simply the complex number zw with
1. zw = z w; and
2. arg (zw) = arg z + arg w + 2k, where k = 1, 0, 1 ensures that arg z + arg w + 2k (, ].
So geometrically, to get zw, we take z and
1. First multiply its length by a factor equal to the length of w;
2. Then rotate it anti-clockwise by the angle arg w.
y
zw = (ac - bd, ad + bc)
z = (a, b)
w = (c, d)
x
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Similarly, we already know from Fact 51 that the ratio of complex numbers z to w is simply
the complex number z/w with
1. z/w = z / w; and
2. arg (z/w) = arg z arg w +2k, where k = 1, 0, 1 ensures that arg z arg w +2k (, ].
So geometrically, to get z/w, we take z and
1. First compress its length by a factor equal to the length of w;
2. Then rotate it anti-clockwise by the angle arg w. (Or equivalently, clockwise by the
angle arg w.)
z = (a, b)
w = (c, d)
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41.3
and
z = (x, y)
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42
A locus (plural: loci) is a set of points that satisfy some condition (or conditions). Weve
actually already encountered plenty of loci in Part I (Functions and Graphs), so this is
nothing new. This chapter reviews loci involving cartesian equations (and inequalities).
The goal is to prepare you for the next chapter, where we look at loci involving complex
equations (and inequalities).
42.1
Circles
Example 408. {(x, y) x2 + y 2 = 1} is the set of all points (x, y) in the cartesian plane that
satisfy the condition x2 + y 2 = 1. Graphically, this locus describes describing the unit circle
centred on the origin. (To be clear, it includes only the circumference of the circle.)
{(x, y): x2 + y2 = 1}
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Example 409. The locus {(x, y) x2 + y 2 1} describes the entire interior of the unit circle
centred on the origin, including the circumference of the circle.
{(x, y):
x2
y2
1}
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Example 410. The locus {(x, y) x2 + y 2 < 1} describes the entire interior of the unit circle
centred on the origin, excluding the circumference of the circle.
{(x, y):
x2
y2
< 1}
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Example 411. The locus {(x, y) x2 + y 2 1} describes everything outside the unit circle
centred on the origin, including the circumference of the circle.
{(x, y): x2 + y2 1}
x
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Example 412. The locus {(x, y) x2 + y 2 > 1} describes everything outside the unit circle
centred on the origin, excluding the circumference of the circle.
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42.2
Lines
{(x, y): y = x}
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Example 414. The locus {(x, y) y x} describes the set of all points under the line
y = x, including the line itself. It contains literally half the plane, so we call this a halfplane. We can also specify that this is a closed half-plane the word closed means that
it includes also the line y = x.
Graphically, the locus {(x, y) y < x} describes the set of all points under the line y = x,
excluding the line itself. This is an open half-plane. The word open means that it
excludes the line y = x.
y
y
{(x, y): y x }
Example 415. Graphically, the locus {(x, y) y x} describes the set of all points above
the line y = x, including the line itself. Again, this is a closed half-plane.
Graphically, the locus {(x, y) y > x} describes the set of all points above the line y = x,
but excluding the line itself. Again, this is an open half-plane.
y
{(x, y): y x}
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The locus of points that are equidistant to two points is simply a line.
Example 416. Let (a, b) and (c, d) be points. The locus of points that are equidistant to
(a, b) and (c, d) is the line illustrated below. This is because if you pick any point (e.g. P )
on the line, it is indeed equidistant to (a, b) and (c, d). And if you pick any point (e.g. Q)
not on the line, it must be either closer to (a, b) or closer to (c, d) in this case, Q is
closer to (a, b) than to (c, d).
y
P
Any point on the
line is equidistant
to the two points.
(a, b)
x
(c, d)
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Let (a, b) and (c, d) be points. We now prove that the locus {(x, y) (x a, y b) =
(x c, y d)} simply describes a line:
(x a, y b) = (x c, y d)
(x a)2 + (y b)2 = (x c)2 + (y d)2
x2 2ax + a2 + y 2 2by + b2 = x2 2cx + c2 + y 2 2dy + d2
2ax + a2 2by + b2 = 2cx + c2 2dy + d2
Exercise 162. (a) Find the cartesian equation of the line that is equidistant to the points
(1, 4) and (5, 0).
(b) Describe in words the set {(x, y) (x 17, y 3) = (x + 2, y + 11)}. Then rewrite the
cartesian equation (x 17, y 3) = (x + 2, y + 11) into the form ay + bx + c = 0. (Answer
on p. 1120.)
44
If wed like, we can further simplify this equation. If d b 0, then it can be rewritten as
y=
c2 + d2 (a2 + b2 )
ac
x+
.
db
2(d b)
x=
c2 + d2 (a2 + b2 )
2(c a)
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42.3
2
2
2 2
{(x, y) x2 + y 2 = 1, y = x} = {(
,
),(
,
)}.
2
2
2 2
{(x, y): y = x}
{(x, y): x2 + y2 = 1}
{(x, y): y = x, x2 + y2 = 1}
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Example 418. {(x, y) x2 + y 2 1, y = x} is the portion of the line y = x that is within the
interior of the circle, including the endpoints. It is illustrated in green in the figure below.
{(x, y): y = x}
{(x, y): x2 + y2 1}
{(x, y): y = x, x2 + y2 1}
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Example 419. The locus {(x, y) x2 + y 2 > 1, y > x} describes the region above both the
circle x2 + y 2 = 1 and y = x, excluding the circumference of the circle and the line. It is
illustrated in green in the figure below.
{(x, y): y = x}
x
{(x, y): x2 + y2 = 1}
Exercise 163. Sketch on a cartesian plane the locus {(x, y) x2 + y 2 = 1, x > 0}. (Answer
on p. 1121.)
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43
Circles
On an Argand diagram (or complex plane), the locus {z C z = 1} simply describes the
unit circle centred on the origin, as we now prove:
y
{z : |z | = 1} = {(x, y): x2 + y2 = 1}
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Exercise 164. (a) Prove that the locus {z C z = r} describes the circle of radius r
centred on the origin.
(b) Let c be some fixed complex number. Prove that the locus {z C z c = r} is the
circle of radius r centred on the point c.
(c) What does the locus {z C z c r} describe?
(d) What does the locus {z C z c < r} describe? (Answer on p. 1122.)
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43.2
Lines
Let b and c be fixed complex numbers. The equation z c = z b is simply the condition
that z is equidistant to b and c.
Hence, the locus {z C z c = z b} simply describes the points that are equidistant to
b and c. And as we showed earlier, such a locus is simply a line.
y
d
Any point on the
line is equidistant
to the two points.
b
x
c
{z : |z b | = |z c |}
Exercise 165. Let b and c be fixed complex numbers. What is the locus of complex
numbers z that satisfy each of the following inequalities? (a) z c z b. (b) z c <
z b. (c) z c z b. (d)z c > z b. (Answer on p. 1122.)
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43.3
Rays
The locus {z C arg z = } describes the set of points z whose argument is . It is thus
the ray (or half-line) which starts from but excludes the origin and which makes an angle
with the positive x-axis. The figure below illustrates.
The point A is in the locus, because indeed arg A = . In contrast, the point B is not in
the locus, because its argument is not arg B .
Note importantly that points along the dotted red ray, such as C, are not in the locus,
because arg C = .
Moreover, the origin is not in the locus, because arg 0 is undefined.
{z : arg z = }
x
C
If we really wanted to, we could rewrite the complex equation arg z = into cartesian form.
But it turns out that in this case, the cartesian form is more complicated. And so well
just stick with the equation arg z = .
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Let a be a complex number. Then the graph of arg (z a) = is simply the translation of
the graph of arg z = . And so arg (z a) = is the ray (or half-line) which starts from
but excludes the point a and which makes an angle with the positive x-axis.
The point b is in the locus, because indeed arg(b a) = . In contrast, the point c is not in
the locus, because its argument is not arg(c a) .
Note importantly that points along the dotted red ray, such as d, are not in the locus,
because arg(d a) = .
Moreover, the point a is not in the locus, because arg(a a) = arg 0 is undefined.
{z : arg (z a) = }
b
a
d
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The 9740 syllabus doesnt mention loci of the form arg z . Unfortunately, such loci
have occasionally appeared on the A-level exams,45 which means you have to learn it.
The locus arg z is simply the region bounded by (and including) the rays arg z =
and arg z = .
{z : arg z = }
{z : arg z = }
45
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43.4
Definition 98. A chord is a line segment connecting any two points on a circles circumference.
Here are a few properties of the circle (which you are supposed to still remember from
O-levels) and which would definitely have been useful in some complex loci questions in
the past ten years A-levels.
Fact 56. Let A be a point exterior to a circle. Let B and C be the points at which the
tangents from A touch the circle. Let O be the centre of the circle.
(a) The line through A and O (i) bisects the angle BAC; (ii) is the perpendicular bisector
of the chord BC; and (iii) passes through the points D and E, which are the points on the
circle that are respectively that closest to and furthest from A.
(b) The lengths AB and AC are equal.
(c) The angles OBA and OCA are right.
Perpendicular
bisector of chord
B
Chord
E
O
Tangents C
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Example 420. The complex number z satisfies the equation z + 4 + 2i = 1. (a) What are
the maximum and minimum possible values of z? (b) For what values of z is z maximised
and minimised?
z + 4 + 2i = 1 describes a unit circle centred on the point C = (4, 2). Even if not asked
for, you should make a quick sketch to help yourself see better.
By the above fact, z is maximised at F and minimised at N , where F and N lie on the
line through the origin and the circles centre.
2
1
4
or CA = . And AN = . Hence,
5
5
5
2
1
N = (4 + , 2 + )
5
5
1
2
Symmetrically, F = (4 , 2 ).
5
5
y
O
|z + 4 + 2i | = 1
U
N
F
D
y = 0.5 x
(Line through the
origin and the
centre of the circle.)
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The angle COU is sin1 (1/ 20). Hence, arg U = +COU = tan1 0.5sin1 (1/ 20).
19. Altogether then D = 19 and arg D = tan1 0.5 + sin1 (1/ 20).
Symmetrically, we also have U = 19 and arg U = sin1 0.5 + tan1 (1/ 20).
(Figure reproduced for convenience.)
y
O
|z + 4 + 2i | = 1
U
N
F
D
y = 0.5 x
(Line through the
origin and the
centre of the circle.)
Exercise 167. The complex number z satisfies the equation z 2 2i = 1. (a) What are
the maximum and minimum possible values of z? (b) For what values of z is z maximised
and minimised? (c) What are the maximum and minimum possible values of arg z? (d)
For what values of z is arg z maximised and minimised? (Answer on p. 1123f.)
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44
De Moivres Theorem
n
n 1
Proof. (cos + i sin ) = (ei ) = ei(n) = cos (n) + i sin (n), where = and = use the Euler
2
Formula (Theorem 6) and = uses the law of exponents (xa ) = xab , which applies even when
a is imaginary.
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44.1
2,
arg z =
+ 2k =
(k = 0),
4
4
2
z 2 = ( 2) = 2,
arg z 2 = 2 ( ) + 2k =
(k = 0),
4
2
z 3 = ( 2) = 2 2,
3
arg z 3 = 3 ( ) + 2k =
(k = 0),
4
4
4
z 4 = ( 2) = 4,
arg z 4 = 4 ( ) + 2k = (k = 0),
4
z 5 = ( 2) = 4 2,
(k = 1),
arg z 5 = 5 ( ) + 2k =
4
4
etc.
z11
32 y z10
16
z12
-64
z9
z3 z2
z8
z
x
0
-16 z5 0
16
7
z
6
z
-16
z4
-48
-32
-32
-48
z13
-64
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12 + 0.42 = 1.16,
z 2 = 1.16,
z 3 = 1.16 1.16,
z 4 = 1.162 ,
z 5 = 1.162 1.16,
etc.
The powers of z = 1 + 0.4i, up to the 14th, are illustrated in the figure below.
z5
z6
z4
z3
y
z2
z1
z
z7
z8
z14
z9
z13
z10
z12
z10
z11
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Exercise 169. (a) Given z = 3 4i, find z and arg z. Hence find z 7 and arg z 7 . Write
down (3 4i)7 in exponential form.
(b) Given z = 5 + 12i, find z and arg z. Hence find z 8 and arg z 8 . Write down (5 + 12i)8
in exponential form. (Answer on p. 1125.)
Exercise 170. For each of the given values of z, compute z 10 , expressing your answer in
all three forms (polar, exponential, and standard). (a) z = 1 i. (b) z = 2 + i. (c) z = 1 3i.
(Answer on p. 1126.)
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44.2
Example 423. What are the roots to the equation z 3 = 1 + i? That is, for what values of
z is the given equation true?
A nave application of de Moivres Theorem might suggest that
z 3 = 21/2 and arg z 3 = /4
1/3
z = (21/2 )
This is not incorrect, but it gives us only one root to the equation z 3 = 1 + i, namely
z = 21/6 ei(/12) .
In contrast, the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra tells us that since the equation z 3 = 1 + i
involves a degree-3 polynomial, it should have 3 roots. Weve just found one root. How do
we find the other two?
The trick is to recognise that z 3 = 21/2 ei/4 can also be written as z 3 = 21/2 ei(/4+2k) ,
for any integer k. This is because if you plug in any integer k, you will always get
21/2 ei(/4+2k) = 21/2 ei(/4) . The reason is that ei(2) = 1.
1/3
1/3
We then have z = (z 3 ) = [21/2 ei(/4+2k) ] = 21/6 ei(/4+2k)/3 , for any integer k. Now in
contrast to before, different integers k will yield us distinct values for z = 21/6 ei(/4+2k)/3 .
In particular, if we pick values of k so that the values of (/4 + 2k) /3 are principal values,
that is, if we pick k = 0, 1, we have
z = 21/6 ei(/12) ,
21/6 ei(11/12) ,
21/6 ei(7/12) .
Observe that beautifully enough, the roots of the equation z 3 = 1 + i lie on a circle in
particular, the circle of radius 21/6 centred on the origin. Moreover, each root can be
2
obtained by rotating another root
radians about the origin.
3
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z n
arg z n + 2k
In general, given z , we have z =
and arg z =
, where k are those integers
n
n
n
arg z
such that arg z =
+ 2k (, ].
n
n
The annoying part is to figure out the appropriate values of k. So heres how to do it:
1. If n is odd, then simply pick k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
0, 1, 2, . . . , 7.)
n1
. (E.g., if n = 15, then pick k =
2
n
2. If n is even AND arg z n > 0, then simply pick k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , . (E.g., if n = 16 and
2
arg z n > 0, then pick k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 7, 8.)
n
3. If n is even AND arg z n 0, then simply pick k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , . (E.g., if n = 16 and
2
arg z n 0, then pick k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 7, 8.)
You can easily verify that in each case, we do indeed have n roots (just count them). See
Fact 90 in the Appendices for a proof (or explanation) of why the above values of k ensure
that we have k distinct principal values for arg z.
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,
13 e
(12/5)+2k]/4
, for k Z.
(k = 0),
(k = 1),
(k = 1),
(k = 2).
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5
e
,
5
e
,
(k
=
0),
1/7
i[tan
(4/3)+2]/7
5 e
,
(k = 1),
5
e
,
5
e
,
(k
=
2),
5
e
,
5
e
,
(k
=
1),
1
1/7
i[tan
(4/3)4]/7
5 e
,
(k = 2),
5
e
,
5
e
,
(k
=
3),
,
5 e
(m = 0),
(m = 1),
(m = 2),
(m = 3),
(m = 1),
(m = 2),
(m = 3),
(m = 4).
x
/
Notice that the eight possible values of w are on a circle whose radius is just slightly shorter
than the red circle. (Only the red circle is illustrated.)
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Exercise 171. Find the roots of each of the following equations. (a) z 10 = 1 i. (b)
z 11 = 2 + i. (c) z 12 = 1 3i. (Answer on p. 1127.)
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Part V
Calculus
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45
Part I already covered differentiation. This chapter merely ties up some loose ends.
45.1
The Inverse Function Theorem (IFT) simply says that The change in y caused by a small
unit change in x (dy/dx) is the inverse of the change in x caused by a small unit change
in y (dx/dy).46 That is,
dy 1
= .
dx dx
dy
Example 426. Suppose that adding 1 g of Milo (the x-variable) to a cup of water increases
the volume of water by 2 cm3 (the y-variable). That is, dy/dx = 2 cm3 g-1 .
Then dx/dy = 0.5 g cm-3 . That is, if instead we had wanted to increase the volume of water
by 1 cm3 , we should have added 0.5 g of Milo to the water.
dy
dx
1
= cos x
=
.
dx
dy cos x
dy
dx
. Hence write down
. (You may leave
dx
dy
your answers expressed in terms of x and y.) (Answer on p. 1128.)
46
This is informal. For the formal statement of the IFT (optional), see p. 969 in the Appendices.
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45.2
Informal Fact.
dx
dy dy dx
=
(provided
0).
dx dt dt
dt
Here is an informal proof of the above informal fact. By the Chain Rule,
dy 1 dy dt
=
.
dx dt dx
By the IFT,
dt 2 1
= .
dx dx
dt
2
dy
.
dx t=0
dy dy dx 6t5 1
=
=
.
dx dt dt 5t4 1
dy
= 1. It would be much more difficult (perhaps even impossible) if instead we first
dx t=0
dy
tried to express y in terms of x, then compute
.
dx
So
dy
. (Answer on p. 1128.)
dx
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45.3
Fact 58. Given a line with slope m, its perpendicular has slope
1
.
m
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45.4
Example 430. Sand is being unloaded onto a flat surface at a steady rate of 0.01 m3 s-1 .
Assume that the unloaded sand always forms a perfect cone with equal height and base
diameter. Find the rate at which the area of the base of the cone increasing at the instant
t = 20 s.
1
First, recall that a cone has volume V = r2 h, where r is the radius of the base and h is
3
the height. Since the base diameter equals the height (or h = 2r), we can rewrite this as
2
d
dV
dr
V = r3 . Applying , we have
= 2r2 .
3
dt
dt
dt
The base area is A = r2 . So the rate at which the base area is increasing is
dA
dr dV
= 2r =
r.
dt
dt dt
dV
= 0.01 at all times.
dt
3V 1/3
0.3 1/3
V t=20 = 20 0.01 = 0.2, so that rt=20 = ( )
= ( ) . Altogether then,
t=20
2
dA
0.3 1/3
= 0.01 ( ) = 0.0219 m2 s1 .
dt t=20
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Exercise 175. (Answer on p. 1129.) Illustrated below is a cone with lateral l, base radius
r, and height h. You are given that such a cone has total external surface area (excluding
1
the base) rl and volume r2 h.
3
d2 A 9 h4 A2 ( h3 )
=
.
dh2 4
A3
d2 A
. Replace A2 with the expression for A that you found
dh2
in (c). Now fully expand this numerator. Observe that it is a quadratic and prove that it
is always positive.
(g) Hence conclude that the stationary point we found is indeed the global minimum.
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45.5
Example 431. Define f [0, 2] R by x xsin (0.5x). We can easily find the minimum
point of f analytically:
df
= 1 cos ( x) = 0
dx
2
2
2
cos ( x) =
2
x=
2
2
cos1 0.560664181.
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
After Step 5.
After Step 6.
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After Step 8.
After Step 9.
4. Press the blue 2ND button and then CALC (which corresponds to the TRACE
button). This brings up the CALCULATE menu.
5. Press 3 to select the minimum option. This brings you back to the graph, with a
cursor flashing. Also, the TI84 prompts you with the question: Left Bound?
TI84s MINIMUM function works by you first choosing a Left Bound and a Right
Bound for x. TI84 will then look for the minimum point within your chosen bounds.
6. Using the < and > arrow keys, move the blinking cursor until it is where you want your
first Left Bound to be. For me, I have placed it a little to the left of where I believe
the minimum point to be.
7. Press ENTER and you will have just entered your first Left Bound.
TI84 now prompts you with the question: Right Bound?.
8. So now just repeat. Using the < and > arrow keys, move the blinking cursor until it is
where you want your first Right Bound to be. For me, I have placed it a little to the
right of where I believe the minimum point to be.
9. Again press ENTER and you will have just entered your first Right Bound.
TI84 now asks you: Guess? This is just asking if you want to proceed and get TI84 to
work out where the minimum point is. So go ahead and:
10. Press ENTER . TI84 now informs you that there is a Zero at X = .56066485,
Y = .2105137 and places the cursor at precisely that point. This is our desired
minimum point.
(Notice theres a slight error, because the TI84 uses slightly-imprecise numerical methods.
Analytically, we found that the minimum point was x 0.560664181, while the TI84 claims
it is X = .56066485.)
Page 448, Table of Contents
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45.6
This example will also illustrate how to graph parametric equations on the TI84.
Example 432. The curve C has parametric equations x = t5 + t and y = t6 t, t R. Well
find dy/dx using our TI84, even though this is easily found analytically:
t=1
dy
6t5 1
5
= 4
= .
dx t=1 5t + 1 t=1 6
After Step 1.
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
After Step 5.
After Step 6.
After Step 7.
After Step 8.
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dy
,
Actually, the last few steps were really not necessary, if all we wanted was to find
dx t=1
as we do now:
7. Press the blue 2ND button and then CALC (which corresponds to the TRACE
button). This brings up the CALCULATE menu, which once again looks a little different
under the current parametric setting.
8. Press 2 to select the dy/dx option. This brings you back to the graph.
Nothing seems to be happening. But now, simply ...
9. Press 1 and now the bottom left of the screen changes to display T = 1.
10. Hit ENTER . What youve just done is to ask the calculator to calculate
point where t = 1. The calculator tells you that dy/dx = .83333528.
dy
at the
dx
dy 5
Again, theres a slight error the exact correct answer is
= = 0.8333..., so again the
dx 6
TI84 is a tiny bit off.
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46
Power Series
ai xi = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . ,
i=0
1
.
1x
For H2 Maths, the only power series well be interested in is called the Maclaurin series.
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46.2
Maclaurin Series
1 2 1 3
x2 x2
x + x + = 1 + x +
+
+ ...
2!
3!
2! 3!
M1 (x) = 1 + x,
M2 (x) = 1 + x +
x2
,
2!
M3 (x) = 1 + x +
x2 x3
+ .
2! 3!
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Exercise 176. Write down the third-order Maclaurin series for each of the following functions: (Answer on p. 1130.)
(a) f R R defined by x (1 + x)n ,
(b) g R R defined by x sin x,
(c) h R R defined by x cos x,
(d) i R R defined by x ln(1 + x).
Remark 8. The A-level syllabuses make no mention of the Taylor series and so we wont
talk about it. But just so you know, the Maclaurin series is simply a special case of the
Taylor series specifically, it is the Taylor series about 0.
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46.3
The Maclaurin series is simply an (infinite) series. And as we saw in Part II, an infinite
series may or may not be convergent.
The following is very powerful theorem:
Informal Theorem. If f satisfies a nice property at a, then M (a) converges to
f (a). That is, M (a) = f (a).
(See section 971 in the Appendices for a more thorough and formal discussion of this
theorem.)
This table is in the List of Formulae you get, so no need to memorise.
f (x)
f (0)
xf (0)
x2
f (0)
2!
...
xn (n)
f (0)
n!
...
(1 + x)n
nx
n(n 1) 2
x
2!
...
n(n 1) . . . (n r + 1) r
x
r!
...
(x < 1)
ex
x2
2!
...
xr
r!
...
(all x)
sin x
x3
3!
x5
5!
...
(1)r x2r+1
(2r + 1)!
...
(all x)
cos x
x2
2!
x4
4!
...
(1)r x2r
(2r)!
...
(all x)
ln(1 + x)
x2
2
x3
3
...
(1)r+1 xr
r
...
(1 < x 1)
1. The first row of the above table says that if x is a value at which the function f satisfies
the nice property, then f (x) is equal to the Maclaurin series of f at x.
2. The second row says that g R R by x (1 + x)n satisfies the nice property for all
n(n 1) 2
x (1, 1). Thus, for all x (1, 1), we have (1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
x + . . . We
2!
say that (1, 1) is the range of values for which g has a convergent Maclaurin
series.47
3. The third row says that h R R by x ex satisfies the nice property for all x R.
x2
Thus, for all x R, we have ex = 1 + x +
+ . . . We say that R is the range of values
2!
for which h has a convergent Maclaurin series.
47
We should be careful to state that if n < 0, then the domain should be restricted to exclude 0.
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4. The fourth row says that i R R by x sin x satisfies the nice property for all x R.
x3 x5
Thus, for all x R, we have sin x = x + . . . We say that R is the range of values
3! 5!
for which i has a convergent Maclaurin series.
5. The fifth row says that j R R by x cos x satisfies the nice property for all x R.
x2 x4
Thus, for all x R, we have cos x = 1 + . . . We say that R is the range of values
2! 4!
for which j has a convergent Maclaurin series.
6. The sixth row says that k (1, ) R by x ln(1 + x) satisfies the nice property for
x2 x3
all x (1, 1]. Thus, for all x (1, 1], we have ln(1 + x) = x + . . . We say that
2
3
(1, 1] is the range of values for which k has a convergent Maclaurin series.
In the syllabus, these five particular Maclaurin series are called standard series.
x2 x3
+ + . . . for all x R.
2! 3!
Instead, we will merely verify that this equation is plausible, for x = 0, 1, 5. (Try these
out yourself using the sheet Maclaurin series at the usual link.)
Example 437. Here we will not rigorously prove that ex = 1 + x +
1 1
M3 (1) = 1 + 1 + + = 2.67, ..., M7 (1) 2.718. It appears that Mn (1) 2.718 for all n 7.
2 6
So it does appear plausible that e1 = M (1).
25
For x = 5, we have ex = e5 148.413. And M0 (5) = 1, M1 (5) = 1 + 5 = 6, M2 (5) = 1 + 5 +
=
2
1
25 125
= 39 , ..., M18 (5) 148.413. It appears that Mn (5) 148.413
18.5, M3 (1) = 1 + 5 + +
2
6
3
for all n 18. So it does appear plausible that e5 = M (5).
Exercise 177. (Tedious, use the sheet named Maclaurin series at the usual link.) Verify
x3 x5
that for x = 0, , 2, it is similarly plausible that sin x = x
+ . . . (Answer on p.
2
3! 5!
1131.)
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46.4
One important practical use of Maclaurin series is that finite-order Maclaurin series can be
used as approximations.
Example 438. Consider h R R defined by x ex . We have h(1) = e 2.718.
The 0th-order Maclaurin series is a pretty terrible approximation: M0 (1) = 1. The 1st-order
Maclaurin series is slightly better: M1 (1) = 1 + x = 1 + 1 = 2. The 2nd-order Maclaurin series
is even better: M2 (1) = 1 + x + 0.5x2 = 1 + 1 + 0.5 = 2.5. The 3rd-order Maclaurin series is
I emphasise the phrase tends to be, because the approximation can sometimes get worse
before it gets better, especially if were looking at a value that is far from 0. The next
example illustrates.
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The 0th-order Maclaurin series gets it exactly right. But each subsequent finite-order
Maclaurin series then drifts ever further from 0! Having computed the 5th- and 6th-order
Maclaurin series, it certainly does not look like the approximations will get any better. Yet
if we perservere, we find that
M7 (2) = M8 (2) 30.159,
M15 (2) =M16 (2) 0.093, M17 (2) =M18 (2) 0.011,
...
Indeed, Mn (2) 0.000 for all n 21. So it does indeed look like the Maclaurin series for
sin x converges. Graphed below are sin x and M21 (x). We see that M21 (x) almost perfectly
approximates sin x for x [7, 7]. But for larger values, M21 (x) veers far away from sin x.
x
-12
-7
-2
12
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If a is not within the range of values for which the Maclaurin series for the function f
converges, then M (a) f (a). That is, the (infinite) Maclaurin series does not converge.
Hence, there is no reason to expect that Mi (a) f (a) (i.e. that any finite-order Maclaurin
series will serve as a good approximation). Example to illustrate.
Example 440. Consider k R R defined by x ln(1 + x). The range of values for which
the Maclaurin series converges is (1, 1]. Suppose we pick x = 2, which is certainly outside
this range. Then we have k(2) = ln 3 1.099. Lets see what the finite-order Maclaurin
series look like:
M0 (2) = 0,
M1 (2) = 2,
1
M4 (2) = 1 ,
3
M5 (2) = 5
M8 (2) = 19.314,
M9 (2) = 37.575,
1
,
15
M2 (2) = 0,
2
M3 (2) = 2 ,
3
M6 (2) = 5.6,
M7 (2) 12.686,
Unlike before, further perserverance will not pay off here. Indeed, the Maclaurin series will
grow without bound. For example, M50 (2) 14.9 trillion! The Maclaurin series simply
does not converge for x = 2. So there is no reason to expect any finite-order Maclaurin
series to be a good approximation.
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46.5
Informally, if two power series converge, then so too does their product; and to get this
product, simply multiply the two series together as if they were finite polynomials.48
1
1 3
x + . . . and cos x = 1 + 0 x2 + 0 + . . . .
3!
2!
Thus, for all x R, we have sin x cos x = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + . . . , where
Example 441. For all x R, sin x = 0 + 1x + 0
Constant Term
c0 = 0 1 = 0,
Coefficient on x
c1 = 0 0 + 1 1 = 1,
Coefficient on x2
1
c2 = 0 ( ) + 1 0 + 0 1 = 0,
2!
Coefficient on x3
1
2
1
c3 = 0 0 + 1 ( ) + 0 0 + ( ) 1 =
2!
3!
3
The next example illustrates that one must be careful about when the Maclaurin series is
convergent:
48
This assertion is formally stated and proven at Fact 97 in the Appendices (optional).
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1
Example 442. For all x R, we have sin x = 0 + 1x + 0 x3 + . . . For all x (1, 1],
3!
1 2 1 3
we have ln(1 + x) = 1x x + x + . . . And so for x (1, 1], we have sin x ln(1 + x) =
2
3
c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + . . . , where
Constant Term
c0 = 0 0 = 0,
Coefficient on x
c1 = 0 1 + 1 0 = 0,
Coefficient on x2
1
c2 = 0 ( ) + 1 1 + 0 0 = 1,
2
Coefficient on x3
c3 = 0
1
1
1
1
+ 1 ( ) + 0 1 + ( ) 0 =
3
2
3!
2
1
1
And so sin x ln(1 + x) = 0 + 0x + 1x2 + ( ) x3 + = x2 x3 + . . . , for x (1, 1] this set
2
2
is simply the intersection of R and (1, 1], which are respectively the ranges of values on
which the Maclaurin series for sin x and ln x converge.
The expression on the RHS is, of course, simply also the Maclaurin series for sin x ln(1 + x).
You are asked to show this in Exercise 178.
Exercise 179. Let f R R be defined by x sin x ln(1+x). Evaluate f (0), f (0), f (0),
and f (3) (0). Hence, write down the 3rd-order Maclaurin series for f and verify that this is
consistent with what we found in Example 442. (Answer on p. 1132.)
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46.6
(x2 )
(x2 )
Thus, f (g(x)) = e = 1 + x +
+
+ . . . for all g(x) R. Equivalently,
2!
3!
2
x2
x4 x6
+
+ . . . for all x R.
f (g(x)) = e = 1 + x +
2! 3!
x2
In the case where g also has a convergent Maclaurin series, we can likewise also simply
plug in the Maclaurin series for g.50 Example:
49
50
For a more careful and formal version of this assertion, see Fact 98 in the Appendices (optional).
Again, for a more careful and formal version of this assertion, see Fact 99 in the Appendices (optional).
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f (g(x)) =
Find the general term for a Maclaurin series is explicitly excluded from the A-level syllabuses. Usually youll just have to write down the first few terms.
Method #2 (direct method). Let h(x) = 1/(1 + sin x). We have h(0) = 1. We also have
R
R
cos x RRRR
dh RRRR
R =
= 1,
2 RRR
dx RRRR
R
(1
+
sin
x)
RRx=0
Rx=0
R
R
R
2
(1 + sin x) sin x + 2 cos2 x RRRR
d2 h RRRR
(1 + sin x) sin x + 2 cos2 x(1 + sin x) RRRR
RRR =
RRR
R =
4
3
dx2 RRRR
R
RRR
(1
+
sin
x)
(1
+
sin
x)
R
Rx=0
Rx=0
x=0
R
sin x + 2 sin2 x RRRR
=
RR = 2,
3
(1 + sin x) RRRRx=0
3
2
R
(1 + sin x) (cos x 2 sin x cos x) (sin x + 2 sin2 x) 3 (1 + sin x) cos x RRRR
d3 h RRRR
RRR
R =
6
RRR
dx3 RRRR
(1 + sin x)
Rx=0
Rx=0
1231
=
= 5.
1
Thus,
2
5
5
1
= 1 + (1)x + x2 + x3 + = 1 x + x2 x3 + . . .
1 + sin x
2!
3!
6
In the above example, I gave two methods. Use whichever seems to be easier or quicker.
Heres another example:
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Example 446. Write down the Maclaurin series for sec x up to the 4th-order term.
Method #1 (composition method).
x2 x4
1
1
=
[1
(
sec x =
=
+ . . . )]
cos x 1 x2!2 + x4!4 . . .
2! 4!
x2 x4
x2 x4
=1+(
+ ...) + (
+ ...) + ...
2! 4!
2! 4!
1
1 2
x2 5x4
x2
4
+ x [ + ( ) ] + = 1 +
+
+ ...
=1+
2!
4!
2!
2
24
Method #2 (direct method). Let f (x) = sec x. Then f (0) = sec 0 = 1. And
f (x) = sec x tan x
f (0) = 0,
f (0) = 1,
f (3) (0) = 0,
f (4) (0) = 5.
1 2 0 3 5 4
x2 5x4
sec x = 1 + 0x + x + x + x + = 1 +
+
+ ...
2!
3!
4!
2! 24
Exercise 180. Write down the third-order Maclaurin series for sin [ln(1 + x)]. State also
the range of values for which the Maclaurin series converges. (Answer on p. 1132.)
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46.7
f (i) (0)
.
i!
f (0) = 2!a2 ,
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47
Definition 102. Given functions f and F , we call F an indefinite integral (or antiderivative
or primitive) of f if for all x in the domain of f ,
F (x) = f (x),
In Leibnizs notation, we may write
F = f (x) dx or more simply F = f dx.
The statement F = f dx is thus completely equivalent to the statement F = f .
Example 447. Consider the functions f, F R R defined by f (x) = 2x and F (x) = x2 .
We see that F is an indefinite integral of f , because F (x) = 2x = f (x) for all x. We can
equivalently say that f is the derivative of F . We can also write
F = f dx or
dF
= f.
dx
The statement the value of F at 5 is 25 can be written as F (5) = 25. It can also be
written as
f dxx=5 = 25 or
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Example 448. The following two expressions are equal because i on the LHS and r on the
RHS are simply dummy variables.
n
i=1
r=1
i = r.
Similarly, the statement F = f (x) dx is equivalent any of the following three statements,
because the letters x, a, b, c, etc. are merely dummy variables:
F = f (a) da,
or F = f (b) db,
or F = f (c) dc.
So the statement the value of F at 5 is 25 can also be written F (5) = 25 or any of the
following four statements:
f (x) dxx=5 = 25, f (a) daa=5 = 25,
f (b) dbb=5 = 25,
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47.1
In general:
Fact 59. If F is an indefinite integral of f , then so too is G defined by G(x) = F (x) + C,
for any C R.
We call C the constant of integration.
Proof. Since F (x) = f (x) for all x, we also have G (x) = F (x) + C = F (x) + 0 = f (x) for
all x. And so by definition, G is also an indefinite integral of f .
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47.2
Formally:
Fact 60. If F and G are both indefinite integrals of f , then there exists some C R such
that F (x) = G(x) + C for all x.
Proof. Since F and G are both indefinite integrals of f , by definition, F (x) = G (x) for all
x. And thus (F G) (x) = 0 for all x. But the only functions whose derivative is always 0
are constant functions.51 Thus, F (x) G(x) = C, for all x, for some C R.
51
The alert reader will note that this assertion has not actually been proven in this textbook. Well simply take it for granted
that the only functions whose derivative is 0 are constant functions.
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48
Integration Techniques
As before with our notation for differentiation, lets be clear (pedantic). To take an example,
the notation
sin x dx = cos x + C
is simply shorthand for the following long-winded statement:
Consider a function with mapping rule x sin x.
Its indefinite integrals are functions, all of which
have the mapping rule x cos x + C.52
52
This shorthand statement fails to to mention the domain and codomains of the function and its indefinite integral. However,
the careful writer will of course have specified these nearby.
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48.1
x dx
kx + C,
xn+1
=
+ C,
n+1
1
x dx = ln x + C,
x
e dx
(x 0 if n < 0)
(x 0)
sin x dx
= cos x + C,
cos x dx
= sin x + C,
f (x) g(x) dx = F + G + C,
ex + C,
kf (x) dx
kF + C,
ln x + C,
ln x + C =
ln (x) + C,
Thus,
(ln x + C) =
dx
x
And so indeed
for x 0,
for x < 0.
for x 0,
1
,
x
for x < 0.
d
(ln x + C) = x1 for all x 0.
dx
You are asked to prove the remaining rules of integration in Exercise 182.
Exercise 182. Prove the remaining rules of integration listed in Proposition 10. (Answer
on p. 1134.)
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48.2
No need to memorise the following rules of integration, because the List of Formulae contains a (slightly less general) version.
Proposition 11. Let a 0. Then
(a)
(b)
1
x2 + a2 dx
1
dx =
2
a x2
1
x
tan1 ( ) + C,
a
a
x
sin1 ( ) + C,
a
for x < a,
(c)
1
x2 a2 dx
1
xa
ln
+ C,
2a
x+a
for x a,
(d)
1
a2 x2 dx
1
a+x
ln
+ C,
2a
ax
for x a,
(e)
tan x dx
ln sec x + C,
(f)
cot x dx
ln sin x + C,
(g)
csc x dx
= ln csc x + cot x + C,
(h)
sec x dx
ln sec x + tan x + C,
,
2
,
2
=
dx
x +1
dx a
a
a ( x )2 + 1 a
a
a
1
1
x
. So indeed 2
dx = tan1 ( ) + C.
2
2
2
x +a
x +a
a
a
(a) By Corollary 2,
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
xa
0.
x+a
d 1
xa
d 1
xa
1 d
( ln
+ C) =
( ln
+ C) =
[ln(x a) ln(x + a)]
dx 2a
x+a
dx 2a x + a
2a dx
1
1
1
1 x + a (x a) 1 2a
1
=
(
)=
=
=
,
2a x a x + a
2a (x a) (x + a) 2a x2 a2 x2 a2
1
1
xa
so that indeed 2
dx
=
ln
+ C.
x a2
2a
x+a
Case #2:
xa
< 0.
x+a
xa
d 1
ax
1 d
d 1
( ln
+ C) =
( ln
+ C) =
[ln(a x) ln(x + a)]
dx 2a
x+a
dx 2a x + a
2a dx
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
=
(
)=
(
)= 2
,
2a a x x + a
2a x a x + a
x a2
1
xa
1
so that again 2
dx =
ln
+ C.
2
x a
2a
x+a
(e) Let x not be an odd integer multiple of /2, so that sec x 0.
Case #1: sec x 0.
d
d
sec x tan x
(ln sec x + C) =
(ln sec x + C) =
= tan x,
dx
dx
sec x
so that indeed tan x dx = ln sec x + C.
Case #2: sec x < 0.
d
sec x tan x
d
(ln sec x + C) =
[ln ( sec x) + C] =
= tan x,
dx
dx
sec x
so that again tan x dx = ln sec x + C.
Exercise 183. Prove the remaining rules of integration listed in Proposition 11. (Answers
on pp. 1135, 1136, 1137, and 1138.)
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48.3
Trigonometric Functions
The following indefinite integrals are NOT on the List of Formulae and you are definitely
required to know how to derive them on your own!
Fact 61. Let m, n R. Then
(a)
2
sin x dx
1
sin 2x
x
+ C,
2
4
(b)
2
cos x dx
sin 2x
1
x+
+ C,
2
4
(c)
2
tan x dx
tan x + x + C,
(d)
(e)
sin(mx) sin(nx) dx =
} + C,
2
mn
m+n
(f)
cos(mx) cos(nx) dx =
1 cos 2x
1
sin 2x
dx = x
+ C.
2
2
4
You are asked to prove the remaining rules of integration in Exercise 184.
Exercise 184. Prove the remaining rules of integration listed in Fact 61. (Answer on p.
1139.)
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48.4
The method of integration by substitution (IBS) is the Chain Rule in reverse. Before
we explain why it works, here are two examples of how it works.53
cos x
. Next, observe that
Example 451. Lets find cot x dx. First, observe that cot x =
sin x
d
du
sin x = cos x. Let u = sin x (this is our substitution), so that we also have
= cos x.
dx
dx
So:
cos x
1 du
cot
x
dx
=
dx
=
sin x
u dx dx.
So far, nothing unusual has happened. Now were going to do something strange, which is
to take that last expression and merrily cancel out the dxs:
1 du
1
u dx dx = u du + C1 .
du
is NOT a fraction? So why are we
Didnt we repeatedly insist earlier that the derivative
dx
allowed to merrily cancel out the dxs!? Shortly well explain why this move is legitimate.
For now, let us blindly perservere:
1
u du + C1 = ln u + C = ln sin x + C.
Another example, before we explain why exactly we can merrily cancel out the dxs:
du
Example 452. Lets find 2x cos x2 dx. Let u = x2 , so that we also have
= 2x. Now,
dx
du
2
2x cos x dx = dx cos u dx.
Again, we merrily cancel out the dxs and write:
du
2
dx cos u dx = cos u du + C1 = sin u + C = sin x + C.
53
Actually we secretly already used this method a few times above, though not very explicitly.
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We now explain why it is OK to merrily cancel out the dxs. In fact, saying that we
merrily cancel out the dxs is merely a mnemonic (memory device). We are not actually
cancelling out the dxs. Instead, we are appealing to the following result:
Theorem 9. Let f D R be any continuous function. Let u be a real-valued differentiable
function. Assume Range(u) D, so that the composite function f u exists. Then
du
f dx dx = f du + C.
dP 1
du
dQ 2
du
dx and Q = f du. In other words,
=f
and
= f.
Proof. Let P = f
dx
dx
dx
du
2
dQ dQ du 3
du
=
=f .
dx du dx
dx
du
. And so
dx
by Fact 60 (uniqueness of the indefinite integral up to a constant), P and Q must be equal
(or differ by at most a constant). That is, P = Q + C or
1
Examining = and =, we see that P and Q are both indefinite integrals for f
du
f dx dx = f du + C.
The above result says that when doing integration, we are allowed to merrily do two
things:
du
du
dx with du (cancel out the dxs from
dx to get du);
dx
dx
du
dx
du
2. Replace du with
dx (multiply du by
= 1 to get
dx).
dx
dx
dx
1. Replace
Of course, we are not actually doing any such things as cancelling out the dxs or muldx
tiplying by
= 1 these are merely mnemonics. Instead, all we are doing is appealing
dx
to the above theorem.54
Lets try more examples, now that we have a better understanding of how this works:
54
dy
dx
dy
= 1/ . The IFT is true NOT because
and
dx
dy
dx
dx
dy
dx
are fractions. Nonetheless, as a convenient mnemonic, we can pretend that the IFT holds because
and
are
dy
dx
dy
fractions even though strictly speaking, such thinking is wrong.
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du
Example 453. Lets find esin x cos x dx. Let u = sin x, so that we also have
= cos x.
dx
Now we can write
du
1
sin x
cos x dx = eu dx = eu du + C1 = eu + C = esin x + C,
e
dx
1
where = uses Theorem 9. Purely as a mnemonic, we may think of this step = as cancelling
out the dxs, even though strictly speaking, we are doing no such thing; instead, we are
appealing to Theorem 9.
50
Example 454. Lets find (x3 + 5x2 3x + 2) (3x2 + 10x 3) dx. One method would
be to fully expand the integrand to get a 152nd-degree polynomial, then integrate this
polynomial term-by-term. This is doable, but absurdly tedious.
A better method is to observe that 3x2 + 10x 3 =
x3 + 5x2 3x + 2. Then we can write
d
(x3 + 5x2 3x + 2). Thus, let u =
dx
50
3
2
2
50 du
(x + 5x 3x + 2) (3x + 10x 3) dx = u dx dx
51
u51
(x3 + 5x2 3x + 2)
= u du + C1 =
+C =
51
51
1
50
+ C,
In the next three examples, we go in the opposite direction. That is, instead of cancelling
dx
out the dxs as was done in the previous few examples, we instead multiply by
= 1.
dx
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Example 455. Lets find
1 u2 du. Well use the substitution u = sin x. Note that
du
2
1 u = 1 sin2 x = cos x. Moreover,
= cos x. So
dx
dx
du
1
1 u2 du = cos x du = cos x du = cos x dx + C1
dx
dx
sin 2x
2 1
= cos x cos x dx + C1 = cos2 x dx + C1 = x +
+ C,
2
4
1 1
2 sin x cos x sin1 u + u 1 u2
= sin u +
=
,
2
4
2
1
2
2
[ 12 (u3 1)]
x2
(u3 1)
(u3 1) du
dx =
dx =
dx =
dx
3
3
4u
4u du
1 + 2x
u3
2
(u3 1) dx
(u3 1) 3 2
3u (1 2u3 + u6 )
=
du + C1 =
( u ) du + C1 =
du + C1
4u du
4u
2
8
1
3
3 u2 2u5 u8
3 2 1 2u3 u6
4
7
u
2u
+
u
du
+
C
=
(
+
)
+
C
=
u (
+ )+C
1
8
8 2
5
8
8
2
5
8
3
2(1 + 2x) (1 + 2x)2
2/3 1
= (1 + 2x) [
+
]+C
8
2
5
8
3
20 16 32x + 5 + 20x + 20x2
3
20x2 12x + 9
+ C = (1 + 2x)2/3
+ C,
= (1 + 2x)2/3
8
40
8
40
1
where = uses Theorem 9. (The last line is just further simplification, which is nice but not
necessary.)
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1
Example 457. Lets find
dx. Well use the substitution u = tan x or x =
1 + 3 cos2 x
tan1 u. Note that
cos2 x =
So
1
1+
3
1+u2
dx =
1
1
1
=
=
2
sec2 x 1 + tan x 1 + u2
1
1+
3
1+u2
and
dx
1
=
.
du 1 + u2
du
1
1 dx
1
1
dx =
du + C1 =
du + C1
3
3
du
1 + 1+u2 du
1 + 1+u2 1 + u2
1
1
1
2 1
1 u
1 tan x
du
+
C
=
du
+
C
=
tan
(
)
+
C
=
tan
(
) + C,
1
1
1 + u2 + 3
22 + u2
2
2
2
2
=
1
du
2
= 1) and = uses Proposition 11.
du
Usually, the hard part is to figure out the appropriate substitution to make. Fortunately,
in the A-level exams, youll always be told what substitution to make.
Exercise 185. (Answers on pp. 1140 and 1141.) (a) (i) Use the substitution x = 3 sec u
9
to find
dx.
x2 x2 9
9
9
1
(iii) Show that sin (sec1 y) = 1 2 . Then explain why your answers in (i) and (ii) are
y
consistent.
x3
3
tan u to find
dx.
3/2
2
(4x2 + 9)
x3
2
(ii) Now use instead the substitution u = 4x + 9 to find
dx.
3/2
(4x2 + 9)
1
(iii) Show that cos (tan1 y) =
. Then explain why your answers in (i) and (ii) are
1 + y2
consistent.
(b) (i) Use the substitution x =
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48.5
u v
x
x
x
x
x
x
x e dx = uv u v dx = xe e dx = xe e = e (x 1).
2 x
2 x
x
x e dx = uv u v dx = x e 2xe dx
= x2 ex 2ex (x 1) = ex (x2 2x + 2). (Use the previous example.)
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49
The problem of finding the definite integral is the problem of finding the area under a curve.
The problem of finding the derivative is the problem of finding the slope of the tangent.
The two Fundamental Theorems of Calculus (FTCs) show that, surprisingly enough, these
two problems are intimately (indeed inversely) related.
This chapter is a largely-informal discussion of the intuition behind the FTCs.
49.1
Given a continuous real-valued function f , its area function is denoted A and is, informally, defined by the mapping A(c) = Area bounded by the graph of f , the horizontal
axis, and the vertical lines x = 0 and x = c.
Example 460. Graphed below is the continuous function f R+0 R defined by f (x) =
x + 1.
The area A(6) is highlighted in red. It is the area bounded by the graph of f , the horizontal
axis, and the vertical lines x = 0 and x = 6.
Using a graphing calculator, A(6) = 15.79795897... Is there a way I can figure this out
without a graphing calculator? Heres one possible approach lets approximate the area
by using three rectangles.
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x
-1
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x
-1
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-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Analogously, to calculuate the Upper Sum SU 6 , we give the first rectangle height of f (1),
the second f (2), ..., the sixth f (6). So each rectangle has, respectively, area 1 f (1),
1 f (2), ..., and 1 f (6). Hence, SU 6 = f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + f (4) + f (5) + f (6) 16.832.
Once again, A(6) has lower and upper bounds SL6 and SU 6 . That is, 14.382 SL6 A(6)
SU 6 16.832.
You can see where this is going. We can get ever better lower and upper bounds, by
increasing the number of rectangles we use.
(... Example continued on the next page ... )
Page 484, Table of Contents
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Exercise 187. Continuing with the above example, find SL12 and SU 12 . Hence give lower
and upper bounds for A(6). (Answer on p. 1143.)
x
-1
It appears then that we need to do more maths to figure out how to add up all these
infinitely-many, infinitely-slim rectangles. ... But it turns out though that there is an
absolutely-fantastic shortcut we can use.
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49.2
Given a function f , we sketched an idea of how to find its area function A approximate
the area under the curve using infinitely-many, infinitely-slim rectangles and add up the
total area of these rectangles. This though was merely a sketch of an idea. How do we go
about adding up the area of these infinitely-many, infinitely-slim rectangles? Easier said
than done!
It turns out though that well take an entirely different approach. Strangely enough, instead
of finding the area function A, we shall try to find the the area functions derivative
A . This seems utterly bizarre. If we dont know what A is in the first place, how could
we possibly figure out what A is? This is analogous to asking someone, who has no idea
where Singapore is, to find the Singapore Flyer!
But surprisingly, it turns out to be much easier to find A than it is to find A! Well recycle
the example from the last section:
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Example 460 (continued from the previous section). Pick some x thats just a little
larger than 6. A(x) is the area bounded by the graph of f , between the vertical lines x = 0
and x = 6. And so A(x) is just slightly larger than A(6).
x
-1
Consider the thin green vertical strip. This green strip is roughly rectangular in shape
its left, right, and bottom edges are all straight. Only its upper edge is not straight.
This green strips area is exactly A(x) A(6). Moreover, we know that its base is x 6, its
left side is f (6), and its right side is f (x). Hence,
(... Example continued on the next page ...)
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A(x) A(6)
< f (x).
x6
Now consider what happens if we pick another x that is slightly smaller but still larger
than 6. Then the above pair of inequalities will still hold. Indeed, for all x > 6, the above
pair of inequalities hold. If we let x approach 6, the above pair of inequalities becomes
A(x) A(6)
lim f (x).
x6
x6
x6
(For why the strict inequalities < became weak inequalities , either you simply trust me
or see Fact 7 in the Appendices.)
Of course, lim f (6) is simply f (6). And by the continuity of f , lim f (x) = f (6). Hence,
x6
x6
A(x) A(6)
f (6),
x6
x6
f (6) lim
A(x) A(6)
= f (6). But wait a second ...
x6
x6
A(x) A(6)
lim
? It is simply the value of the derivative of A at 6!!
x6
x6
which means of course that lim
what is
A(x) A(6)
Def
A (6) = lim
.
x6
x6
We thus conclude that astonishingly enough, A (6) = f (6). And this is more generally true
given a continuous function f , the derivative of its area function is simply the original
function itself! This is the First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
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Note that earlier we defined the area function so that we started counting the area from
x = 0 (vertical axis). But this was just to keep the above arguments and diagrams simple.
It makes no difference if we start counting the area from any other x = a instead.
Theorem 11. (First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus [FTC1], informal statement.) Let f be a real-valued continuous function with area function A. Then A = f .
In words, the FTC1 says that the area function of a continuous function is simply
the function itself ! Equivalently, an indefinite integral (or antiderivative) of a
continuous function is the area function.55
Exercise 188. Why did I use the indefinite article an, rather than the definite article the,
in the last sentence above? (Answer on p. 1143.)
Velocity (ms-1)
Time (s)
0
55
For a formal, rigorous statement of FTC1 and its proof, see section 88.17 in the Appendices.
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49.3
p f (x) dx is the area under under the graph of f , between p and q. (Compare this to the
q
area function: A(k) is the area under the graph of f , between 0 and k.) We call
the definite (or Riemann) integral of f between p and q.
56
f (x) dx
y
x
0
IMPORTANT REMARK
q
The indefinite integral f dx and the definite integral f dx have very similar
p
names and notation. But do not make the mistake of believing that weve simply defined
them so that theyre similar we have not.
The indefinite integral f (x) dx is an antiderivative of f . (It is also a function.)
b
The definite integral f (x) dx is the area under the graph of f , between a and b. (It
a
is also a number.)
A priori, there is no reason whatsoever to believe that some antiderivative of f and
some area under the graph of f have anything in common.
It is the two FTCs that establish the connection between the two. This is what makes the
FTCs remarkable and surprising.
And it is because of this connection that we give these two distinctly-defined mathematical
objects such similar names and notation.
56
For the formal definition of the definite integral, see section 88.17 in the Appendices.
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49.4
Thus, f dx = A(q) A(p). From this and also with the aid of the FTC1, we can easily
p
prove the FTC2.
Theorem 12. (The Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus [FTC2].) Let f
[a, b] R be a continuous function and p, q [a, b]. Then
q
p f dx = f dxx=q f dxx=p .
Proof. By Theorem 11, the area function A is an indefinite integral of f . And so by
Fact 60, A and f dx differ by at most a constant. That is, for all r [a, b], we have
A(r) = f dx
x=r
+ C. Hence,
q
p f dx = A(q) A(p)
= [ f dx
x=q
= f dx
x=q
+ C] [ f dx
f dx
x=p
+ C]
x=p
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50
Definite Integrals
To repeat:
The indefinite integral f dx is an antiderivative of f .
b
a f dx = f dxx=b f dxx=a ,
b
To compute f dx, one method would have been to painfully add up the area of the
a
infinitely-many infinitely-slim rectangles. Thanks to the FTCs, we have a wonderful
alternative method that is much easier:
1. Find any indefinite integral of f .
2. The difference of the values of this indefinite integral at b and a is our desired area.
We can simply apply all the rules of integration we learnt earlier.
b
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50.1
Example 463. Find the exact area bounded by the curve y = x2 and the horizontal lines
y = 1 and y = 2.
Its always helpful to make a quick sketch (given below). Our desired area is labelled A
below. To find a desired area, there are usually multiple methods, some quicker than others.
3 1
x
1
2
2
2
21
2
.
2 x dx = [ 3 ] = 3 ( 3 ) =
3
2
1
By symmetry, D has the same area as B. C has area 1 2. Hence, A has area
2 21
4
2 21
+2+
) = (2 2 1) .
A + B + C + D (B + C + D) = 4 2 (
3
3
3
Method #2. The right branch of the parabola y = x2 has equation x = y. The right half
y=2
y=2
2
2
2
4
x dy =
of the area A is
y dy = [y 3/2 ]1 = (2 2 1). Hence, A = (2 2 1).
3
3
3
y=1
y=1
y
y=2
A
y=1
B
x
-2
-1
Exercise 189. Find the exact area bounded by the curve y = x3 , the horizontal lines y = 1
and y = 2, and the vertical axis. (Answer on p. 1144.)
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50.2
Example 464. Find the area A bounded by the curve y = x2 and the line y = x + 1.
1 5
.
By the quadratic formula, the curve and line intersect at the points x =
2
(1+ 5)/2
(1+ 5)/2
3
x
x2
2
(15)/2 x + 1 x dx = [ 2 + x 3 ]
(1 5)/2
3
3
2
(1 + 5)2
(1 + 5) (1 5)
(1 5)
1
+
5
1
=
23
2
3 23
23
2
3 23
6 + 2 5 1 + 5 16 + 8 5
6 2 5 1 5 16 8 5
=[
+
][
+
]
8
2
24
8
2
24
3 5 1 5 2 5
7+5 5 75 5 5 5
3+ 5 1+ 5 2+ 5
+
][
+
]=
=
.
=[
4
2
3
4
2
3
12
12
6
A
x
Exercise 190. Find the exact area bounded by the curve y = sin x and the line y = 0.5, for
x (0, /2).(Answer on p. 1145.)
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50.3
1 5
. So
By the quadratic formula, the curves intersect at x =
2
A=
0.5(1+ 5)
0.5(1 5)
1 x2 (x2 2x 1) dx = 2
0.5(1+ 5)
0.5(1 5)
1 x2 + x dx
5 5
+ ]
=
,
= 2 [x
3
2 0.5(15)
3
x3
0.5(1+ 5)
2
x
where weve simply recycled our tedious calculations from the previous example.
x
A
Exercise 191. Find exact area bounded by the curves y = 2 x2 and y = x2 + 1. (Answer
on p. 1145.)
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50.4
8
8
32
x3
.
x 4 dx = [ 4x] = ( 8) ( + 8) =
3
3
3
3
2
2
But of course, an area is simply a magnitude, so well take the absolute value and conclude
32
that the desired area is .
3
x
A
Exercise 192. Find the exact area bounded by x4 16 and the x-axis. (Answer on p.
1146.)
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50.5
Example 467. Consider the curve described by the equations x = t3 2 and y = 4t5 . Find
the exact area bounded by the curve, the lines x = 2 and x = 1, and the horizontal axis.
It helps to graph this curve on your graphing calculator:
x=1
x=1
t=1
3t8
(4 t ) 3t dt = [4t
] = 4.
8 0
5
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50.6
Example 468. Consider the line y = 1. Rotate it about the x-axis to form an (infinite)
3D cylinder. Now consider the finite portion of the cylinder between x = 1 and x = 2. By a
primary school formula, its volume is Base Area Height = 12 (2 1) = .
Height
Radius
Volume
We can also compute this same volume using integration. The intuition is that were adding
up infinitely-many infinitely-thin circle-shaped slices, laid on their sides, from x = 1 to x = 2
(left to right). The face of each of these circles has area y 2 . In this particular example, y
is constant (simply 1). Thus, the total volume is
1
y 2 dx =
2
1
dx = [x]1 = .
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Example 469. Rotate the line y = 3x about the x-axis to form an infinite double cone.
Consider the finite portion of the cone between x = 0 and x = 2. By the formula for the
1
1
volume of a cone, we know its volume is r2 h = 62 2 = 24.
3
3
We can also compute this same volume using integration. Again, the intuition is that were
adding up infinitely-many infinitely-thin circle shaped slices, from x = 0 to x = 2. Again,
the face of each of these circles has area y 2 . In this particular example, y = 3x. Thus, the
total volume is
2
0 y dx = 0
x3
(3x) dx = 9 [ ] = 24.
3 0
2
Height
Radius
Volume
Now consider instead the finite portion of the cone between x = 3 and x = 5. This looks
like a pedestal tilted sideways (not illustrated). We can easily compute its volume using
integration:
5
3 y dx = 3
x3
(3x) dx = 9 [ ] = 294.
3 3
2
Computing its volume using geometric formulae is possible, if slightly more tedious. The
1
1
finite portion of the cone between x = 0 and x = 3 is V1 = r2 h = 92 3 = 81. The finite
3
3
1 2
1
portion of the cone between x = 0 and x = 5 is V2 = r h = 152 5 = 375. Hence, the
3
3
desired volume is V = V2 V1 = 375 81 = 294.
Page 499, Table of Contents
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We can just as easily find the volume of rotation about the y-axis.
Example 470. Consider the curve y = x2 . Find its volume of rotation about the y-axis,
from y = 0 and y = 5.
In this case, there are no familiar geometric formulae we can apply. So we really just have
to compute this same volume using integration. Again, the intuition is that were adding up
infinitely-many infinitely-thin circle-shaped slices, but this time these circle-shaped slices
are stacked from bottom to top, from y = 0 to y = 5. The face of each of these circles has
area x2 , where in this particular example, x2 = y. Thus, the total volume is
5
0 x dy = 0
y2
y dy = [ ] = 12.5.
2 0
Volume
Exercise 194. Compute the volume of rotation of y = sin x about the x-axis from x = 0 to
x = . (Answer on p. 1146.)
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50.7
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
After Step 5.
After Step 6.
After Step 7.
After Step 8.
After Step 9.
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51
Differential Equations
51.1
dy
= f (x)
dx
dy
= f (x) is simply equivalent to y = f dx.
dx
x3
dy
2
2
= x . Easy: y = x dx = +C, where as usual C is the constant
Example 472. Solve
dx
3
of integration.
This is the general solution to the given differential equation. It is general because C is
free to vary and so there are many possible solutions for y.
However, suppose we are given also an additional piece of information: x = 0 y = 1.
Such information is often called an initial condition. Heres why. It might be that y is
the number of bats in a cave and x is time. Then the initial condition tells us that at time
x = 0 (i.e. initially), there is y = 1 bat in the cave. Over time, the bats in the cave grow
dy
= x2 .
according to the differential equation
dx
03
+ C. We thus find that C = 1.
With the initial condition x = 0 y = 1, we have 1 =
3
x3
We thus have that y =
+ 1. This is the particular solution to the given differential
3
equation (with given initial condition).
dy
= sin x.
dx
dy
= ex sin x. Find also the particular solution,
dx
if given also the intial condition x = 0 y = 1. (Answer on p. 1147.)
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51.2
dy
= f (y)
dx
dy
1
dx
1
= f (y), rearrange to get
=
(for f (y) 0). Equivalently, x =
dy.
dx
f (y) dy
f (y)
dy
= y2.
dx
dx
1
1
1
Rearrange to get
= 2 (for y 2 0 or y 0). Hence, x = 2 dy =
+ C (for y 0).
dy y
y
y
This is the general solution to the given differential equation.
We will often be asked to express y in terms of x. If so, we can easily rearrange to get
1
y=
(for x C). This is also the general solution to the given differential equation!
C x
If given also the initial condition x = 0 y = 1, then we have
1=
1
C = 1.
C 0
1
is the particular solution to the given differential equation (with given
1x
initial condition).
Thus, y =
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dy
= sin y.
dx
dx
1
Rearrange to get
=
= csc y (for y not an integer multiple of ). Hence, by Proposidy sin y
tion 11, x = csc y dy = ln csc y + cot y + C (for y not an integer multiple of ). This is
the general solution for the given differential equation.
2 cos2 (y/2)
cos(y/2)
y
1 + cos y
=
=
= cot
sin y
2 sin(y/2) cos(y/2) sin(y/2)
2
That is, for each given value of x, there are infinitely-many possible values of y (one for
each integer m).
But now suppose we have the initial condition x = 3 y =
3 = ln csc
+ cot + C = ln 1 + C = C,
2
2
so that C = 3. We may write y = 2 (cot1 e3x + 2m). Moreover, plugging in the same
values for x and y, we see that
dy
= y 2 + 1. Find also the particular solution,
dx
given also the initial condition x = 0 y = 1. (Answer on p. 1147.)
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51.3
d2 y
= f (x)
dx2
d2 y
dy
=
f
(x)
is
equivalent
to
=
f dx which in turn is equivalent to y = ( f dx) dx.
dx2
dx
d2 y
= x2 .
2
dx
dy
x3
x3
x4
2
=
x dx =
+ C1 . Next, y =
+ C1 dx =
+ C1 x + C2 . This is the general
dx
3
3
12
solution to the given differential equation.
If given the initial conditions x = 0 y = 1 and x = 1 y = 2, then we have
1=
04
+ 0C1 + C2
12
14
2=
+ 1C1 + 1
12
Hence y =
C2 = 1,
C1 =
11
.
12
x4 11
+ x + 1 is the particular solution.
12 12
d2 y
= sin x.
dx2
dy
=
sin x dx = cos x + C1 . Next, y = cos x + C1 dx = sin x + C1 x + C2 . This is the
dx
general solution to the given differential equation.
If given the additional pieces of information that x = 0 y = 1 and x = y = 2,
then we we have
1 = sin 0 + 0C1 + C2
2 = sin + C1 + 1
C2 = 1,
1
C1 = .
1
Hence y = sin x + x + 1 is the particular solution.
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d2 y
= ex sin x. Find also the particular solution,
2
dx
given also that x = 0 y = 1.(Answer on p. 1148.)
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51.4
Word Problems
x2
x
dx =
+ C.
k
k
Further rearranging,
we have x = k(t C), where of course the negative root may be
rejected. Hence, x = k(t C).
Suppose we are also given that t = 0 x = 1 and t = 1 x = 2. Then we have
a
1=
a
k(C) and 2 =
k(1 C).
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Exercise 198. Follow these steps to find the escape velocity (of an object from Earth).
(Answer on p. 1149.)
(a) The law of gravitation states that the force of attraction F between two point masses
M and m is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance r between them. Write down this law in the form of an equation.
Your answer should contain a constant name this constant G (this is the gravitational
constant).
Momentum is defined as the product of mass m and velocity v. Newtons Second Law of
Motion states that force is the rate of change of momentum.
(b) (i) Write down Newtons Second Law in the form of an equation.
(ii) Assume that mass m is constant. Explain why F = m
dv
.
dt
Now suppose M and m are, respectively, the masses of the Earth and a small ball. Assume
that
The Earth is a perfect sphere with radius R m.
You can treat the Earth as a single point with its mass concentrated at the centre of
the sphere. Thus, the initial distance between the Earths centre of mass and the ball is
R + x m.
Upwards (away from the Earth) is the positive direction and downwards (towards the
centre of the Earth) is the negative direction.
The Earth is immobile.
There is no air resistance or any other form of friction.
(c) The small ball is initially held at rest, x m above the surface of the Earth. It is then
GM
dv
released. Let v be the velocity of the ball. Explain why 2 = . (In particular, explain
r
dt
why there is a negative sign.)
(... Exercise continued on the next page ...)
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R
GM
dv
dr
=
R+x r2
R+x dt dr.
Let vs be the velocity at which the ball hits the surface of the Earth.
(d) (i) Show that the LHS of the above equation is equal to GM (
1
1
+
).
R R+x
vs2
(ii) Show that the RHS of the above equation is equal to . (Hint 1: Use Integration by
2
dr
substitution. Hint 2: What is ?)
dt
1
1
(iii) Hence show that vs = 2GM (
). Again, explain why vs is negative.
R R+x
Suppose instead that the small ball is initially at rest on the surface of the earth. It is then
propelled upwards at a velocity V .
(e)
Explain why the ball will reach a maximum height of x m, where V
1
1
), before falling back down to the earth.
2GM (
R R+x
(f) The escape velocity ve is the velocity with which we must propel the ball
upwards
2GM
(from its initial resting position on the surface of the earth). Explain why ve =
.
R
(g) Given that G = 6.6741011 m3 kg-1 s-2 , M = 5.9721024 kg, and R = 6, 371 km, compute
2GM
(express your answer in km s-1 , correct to 4 significant figures).
R
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51.5
SYLLABUS ALERT
This is in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip
this section if youre taking 9758.
dy
x3
2
2
Example 479. The general solution to
= x is y = x dx =
+ C.
dx
3
The corresponding family of solution curves is the set of equations {y =
This family is illustrated below.
x3
+ C C R}.
3
Exercise 199. Sketch five members of the family of solution curves for
that x = 0 y = 1. (Answer on p. 1151.)
d2 y
= x, given also
dx2
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Part VI
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52
How many arrangements or permutations are there of the three letters in CAT? For
example, one possible permutation of CAT is TCA.
To solve this problem, one possible method is the method of enumeration. That is,
simply list out (enumerate) all the possible permutations.
ACT,
ATC,
CAT,
CTA,
TAC,
TCA.
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52.1
Of course, the AP generalises to cases where there are more than just 2 areas. It may
seem a little silly, but just to illustrate, lets use the AP to tackle the CAT problem:
57
See section 89.1 in the Appendices (optional) for a more precise statement of the AP.
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Example 481. Problem: How many permutations are there of the letters in the word CAT?
We can divide the possibilities into three cases:
Case #1. First letter is an A. Then the next two letters are either CT or TC 2
possibilities.
Case #2. First letter is a C. Then the next two letters are either AT or TA 2 possibilities.
Case #3. First letter is a T. Then the next two letters are either AC or CA 2 possibilities.
Altogether then, by the AP, there are 2 + 2 + 2 = 6 possibilities. That is, there are 6 possible
permutations of the letters in CAT. These are illustrated in the tree diagram below.
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The next exercise is very simple and just to illustrate again the AP.
Exercise 200. Without retracing your steps, how many ways are there to get from the
Starting Point to the River (see figure below)? (Answer on p. 1152.)
Exercise 201. How many permutations are there of the letters in the word DEED? Illustrate your answer with a tree diagram similar to that given in the CAT example above.
(Answer on p. 1152.)
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52.2
Example 482. For lunch today, I can either have prata or horfun. For dinner tonight, I
can have McDonalds, KFC, or Pizza Hut.
Enumeration shows that I have a total of 6 possible choices for my two meals today:
(Prata, McDonalds), (Prata, KFC), (Prata, Pizza Hut),
(Horfun, McDonalds), (Horfun, KFC), (Horfun, Pizza Hut).
Alternatively, we can use the Multiplication Principle (MP). I have 2 choices for lunch
and 3 choices for dinner. Hence, for my two meals today, I have in total 2 3 = 6 possible
choices.
Heres an informal statement of the MP:58
The Multiplication Principle (MP). I have to choose two destinations, one from each
of two possible areas. At area #1, there are p possible destinations to choose from. At area
#2, there are q possible destinations to choose from.
The Multiplication Principle (AP) simply states that I have, in total, p q different choices.
(The MP is sometimes also called the Fundamental or First Principle of Counting
or the Rule of Product or the Sequential Rule.)
Of course, the MP generalises to cases where there are more than just 2 areas. Heres an
example where we have to make 3 decisions:
58
See section 89.1 in the Appendices (optional) for a more precise statement of the MP.
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Example 483. For breakfast tomorrow, I can have sharks fin or birds nest (2 choices).
For lunch tomorrow, I can have black pepper crab or curry fishhead (2 choices). For dinner
tomorrow, I can have an apple, a banana, or a carrot (3 choices). By the MP, for tomorrows
meals, I have a total of 2 2 3 = 12 possible choices. We can enumerate these (Ill use
abbreviations):
More examples:
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Example 484. Problem: How many four-letter words can be formed using the letters in
the 26-letter alphabet?
Lets rephrase this problem so that it is clearly in the framework of the MP. We have 4
blank spaces to be filled:
_ _ _ _.
1 2 3 4
These 4 blanks spaces correspond to 4 decisions to be made. Decision #1: What letter to
put in the first blank space? Decision #2: What letter to put in the second blank space?
Decision #3: What letter to put in the third blank space? Decision #4: What letter to
put in the fourth blank space?
How many choices have we for each decision?
For Decision #1, we can put A, B, C, ..., or Z. So we have 26 choices for Decision #1.
For Decision #2, we can again put A, B, C, ..., or Z. So we again have 26 choices for
Decision #2.
We likewise have 26 choices for Decision #3 and also 26 choices for Decision #4.
Altogether then, by the MP, there are 26 26 26 26 = 264 = 456, 976 ways to make our
four decisions.
Solution: There are 264 = 456, 976 possible four-letter words that can be formed using the
26-letter alphabet.
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Example 485. One 18-sided die has the numbers 1 through 18 printed on each of its sides.
Another six-sided die has the letters A, B, C, D, E, and F printed on each of its sides. We
roll the two dice. How many distinct possible outcomes are there?
Again, lets rephrase this problem in the framework of the MP. Consider 2 blank spaces:
_ _.
1 2
These 2 blank spaces correspond to 2 decisions to be made. Decision #1: What number to
put in the first blank space? Decision #2: What letter to put in the second blank space?
Again we ask: How many choices have we for each decision?
For Decision #1, we can put 1, 2, 3, ..., or 18. So we have 18 choices for Decision #1.
For Decision #2, we can put A, B, C, D, E, or F. So we have 6 choices for Decision #2.
Altogether then, by the MP, there are 18 6 = 108 ways to make our two decisions. In other
words, there are 108 possible outcomes from rolling these two dice.
(If necessary, it is tedious but not difficult to enumerate them: 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F,
2A, 2B, ..., 17E, 17F, 18A, 18B, 18C, 18D, 18E, and 18F.)
Exercise 202. A club as a shortlist of 3 men for president, 5 animals for vice-president,
and 10 women for club mascot. How many possible ways are there to choose the president,
the vice-president, and the mascot? (Answer on p. 1153.)
Exercise 203. (Answer on p. 1153.) The highly-stimulating game of 4D consists of selecting a four-digit number, between 0000 and 9999 (so there are 10, 000 possible numbers).
Your mother tells you to go to the nearest gambling den (also known as a Singapore Pools
outlet) to buy any three numbers, subject to these two conditions:
The four digits in each number are distinct.
Each four-digit number is distinct.
How many possible ways are there to fulfil your mothers request?
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52.3
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Example 487. Problem: How many integers between 1 and 20 are divisible by 2 or 5?
There are 10 integers divisible by 2, namely 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20.
There are 4 integers divisible by 5, namely 5, 10, 15, and 20.
There are 2 integers divisble by BOTH 2 and 5, namely 10 and 20.
Hence, by the IEP, there are 10 + 4 2 = 12 integers that are divisible by either 2 or 5.
(These are namely 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18, and 20.)
Exercise 204. (Answer on p. 1154.) The food court has 4 types of cuisine: Chinese,
Indonesian, Korean, and Western. The hawker centre has 3: Chinese, Malay, and Western.
A restaurant has 3: Chinese, Japanese, or Malay.
In total, how many different types of cuisine are there? Illustrate your answer with a Venn
diagram.
59
See section 89.1 in the Appendices (optional) for a more precise statement of the IEP.
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52.4
Exercise 205. There are 10 Southeast Asian countries, of which 3 (Brunei, Indonesia, and
the Philippines) are not on the mainland. How many mainland Southeast Asian countries
are there that a European tourist can visit? (Answer on p. 1154.)
60
See section 89.1 in the Appendices (optional) for a more precise statement of the CP.
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53
In this chapter, well use the MP to generate several more methods of counting.
But first, some notation you should find familiar from secondary school:
Definition 103. Let n Z+0 . Then n-factorial, denoted n!, is defined by n! = n(n1) 1
for n 1 and 0! = 1.
Example 489. 0! = 1, 1! = 1, 2! = 2 = 2, 3! = 3 2 1 = 6, 4! = 4 3 2 1 = 24,
5! = 5 4 3 2 1 = 120.
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Example 490. Problem: How many permutations (or arrangements) are there of the three
letters in the word CAT?
Lets rephrase this problem in the framework of the MP. Consider three blank spaces:
_ _ _.
1 2 3
These 3 blank spaces correspond to 3 decisions to be made. Decision #1: What letter to
put in the first blank space? Decision #2: What letter to put in the second blank space?
Decision #3: What letter to put in the third blank space?
Again we ask: How many choices have we for each decision?
For Decision #1, we can put C, A, or T. So we have 3 choices for Decision #1.
Having already used up a letter in Decision #1, we are left with two letters. So we have 2
choices for Decision #2.
Having already used up a letter in Decision #1 and another in Decision #2, we are left
with just one letter. So we have only 1 choice for Decision #3.
Altogether then, by the MP, there are 321 = 3! = 6 possible ways of making our decisions.
This is also the number of ways there are to arrange the three letters in the word CAT.
Lets now try the UNPREDICTABLY problem.
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Example 491. Problem: How many ways permutations are there of the 13 letters in the
word UNPREDICTABLY?
Again, lets rephrase this problem in the framework of the MP. Consider 13 blank spaces:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
These 13 blanks spaces correspond to 13 decisions to be made. Decision #1: What letter
to put in the first blank space? Decision #2: What letter to put in the second blank space?
... Decision #13: What letter to put in the 13th blank space?
Again we ask: How many choices have we for each decision?
First an important note: In the word UNPREDICTABLY, no letter is repeated. (Indeed,
UNPREDICTABLY is the longest common English word without any repeated letters.)
For Decision #1, we can put U, N, P, R, E, D, I, C, T, A, B, L, or Y. So we have 13 choices
for Decision #1.
For Decision #2, having already used up a letter in Decision #1, we are left with 12 letters.
So we have 12 choices for Decision #2.
For Decision #3, having already used up a letter in Decision #1 and another letter in
Decision #2, we are left with 11 letters. So we have 11 choices for Decision #3.
For Decision #13, having already used up a letter in Decision #1, another in Decision #2,
another in Decision #3, ..., and another in Decision #12, we are left with one letter. So
we have 1 choice for Decision #13.
Altogether then, by the MP, there are 13 12 2 1 = 13! = 6, 227, 020, 800 possible
ways of making our decisions. This is also the number of ways there are to arrange the 13
letters in the word UNPREDICTABLY.
The next fact simply summarises what should already be obvious from the above examples:
Fact 62. There are n! possible permutations of n distinct objects.
This is informal because, amongst other omissions, we havent yet given a precise definition of the term permutation.
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Consider n empty spaces. We are to fill them with the n distinct objects.
_ _ _ . . . _.
1 2 3
n
For space #1, we have n possible choices. For space #2, we have n 1 possible choices
(because one object was already placed in space #1). ... And finally for space #n, we have
only 1 object left and thus only 1 choice. By the MP then, there are n (n 1) 1 = n!
possible ways of filling in these n spaces with the n distinct objects.
Example 492. The word COWDUNG has seven distinct letters. Hence, there are 7! = 5040
permutations of the letters in the word COWDUNG.
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53.1
In the previous section, we saw that there are 3! permutations of the three letters in the
word CAT and 13! permutations of the 13 letters in the word UNPREDICTABLY. We
made an important note: In each of these words, there was no repeated letter.
We now consider permutations of a set where some elements are repeated.
Example 493. How many permutations are there of the three letters in the word SEE?
A nave application of the MP would suggest that the answer is 3! = 6. This is wrong.
Enumeration shows that there are only 3 possible permutations:
EES,
ESE,
SEE.
To see why a nave application of the MP fails, set up the problem in the framework of the
MP. Consider 3 blank spaces:
_ _ _.
1 2 3
These 3 blanks spaces correspond to 3 decisions to be made. Decision #1: What letter to
put in the first blank space? Decision #2: What letter to put in the second blank space?
Decision #3: What letter to put in the third blank space?
Again we ask: How many choices have we for each decision?
For Decision #1, we can put E or S. So we have 2 choices for Decision #1.
But now the number of choices available for Decision #2 depends on what we chose for
Decision #1! (If we chose E in Decision #1, then we again have 2 choices for Decision
#2. But if instead we chose S in Decision #2, then we now have only 1 choice for Decision
#2.) This violates the implicit but important assumption in the MP that the number of
choices available in one decision is independent on the choice made in the other decision.
Hence, the MP does not directly apply.
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EES,
EES,
ESE,
ESE,
SEE,
SEE.
in SEE.
Hence, when we do not distinguish between the two Es, there are only half as many possible
permutations.
We next consider permutations of SASS.
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Example 494. How many permutations are there of the four letters in the word SASS?
The answer is 4!/3! = 4. Lets see why.
and S,
then wed
If we distinguish between the three Ss, perhaps by calling them S, S,
S.
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Example 495. How many permutations are there of the four letters in the word DEED?
Answer:
4!
.
2!2!
In the numerator, the 4! corresponds to the total of 4 letters. In the denominator, the 2!
corresponds to the 2 Ds and the 2! corresponds to the 2 Es. Where do these numbers
come from?
Let x be the number of permutations of DEED (i.e. x is our desired answer).
If we distinguish between the two Ds, then wed increase by 2!-fold the number of possible
permutations, to x 2!. If, in addition, we distinguish between the 2 Es, then wed increase
again by 2!-fold the number of possible permutations, to x 2! 2!. But we know that if all
4 letters are distinct, then there are 4! possible permutations. Therefore,
x 2! 2! = 4!
Rearrangement yields the answer:
x=
4!
= 6.
2!2!
You can go back and check that this answer is consistent with our answer for Exercise 201
(above).
We next consider permutations of ASSESSES.
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Example 496. Problem: How many permutations are there of the eight letters in the word
ASSESSES?
Answer:
8!
.
2!5!
In the numerator, the 8! corresponds to the total of 8 letters. In the denominator, the 2!
corresponds to the 2 Es and the 5! corresponds to the 5 Ss. Where do these come from?
Let y be the number of permutations of ASSESSES (i.e. y is our desired answer).
If we distinguish between the two Es, then wed increase by 2!-fold the number of possible
permutations, to y 2!. If, in addition, we distinguish between the 5 Ss, then wed increase
again by 5!-fold the number of possible permutations, to y 2! 5!. But we know that if all
8 letters are distinct, then there are 8! possible permutations. Therefore,
y 2! 5! = 8!
Rearrangement yields the answer:
y=
8!
.
2!5!
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In general,
Fact 63. Consider n objects, only k of which are distinct. Let r1 , r2 , . . . , and rk be the
numbers of times the 1st, 2nd, . . . , and kth distinct objects appear. (So r1 + r2 + + rk = n.)
Then the number of possible ways to permute these n objects is
n!
.
r1 !r2 ! . . . rk !
More examples:
Example 497. How many permutations are there of the six letters in the word BANANA?
We have three distinct letters B, A, and N. The letter B appears 1 time. The letter A
appears 3 times. The letter N appears 2 times. Hence, by the above Fact, the number of
possible permutations of these 6 letters is
6!
= 60.
1!3!2!
Of course, 1! is simply equal to 1. So for the denominator, we shall usually not bother to
write out any 1!. So we will normally instead write that the number of permutations of
BANANA is:
6!
= 60.
3!2!
Example 498. How many permutations are there of the 11 letters in the word MISSISSIPPI?
We have four distinct letters M, I, S, and P. The letter M appears 1 time. The letter I
appears 4 times. The letter S appears 4 times. The letter P appears 2 times. Hence, by
the above Fact, the number of possible permutations of these 11 letters is
11!
= 34, 650.
4!4!2!
Exercise 207. There are 3 identical white tiles and 4 identical black tiles. How many ways
are there of arranging these 7 tiles in a row? (Answer on p. 1155.)
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53.2
Circular Permutations
Informal Definition. Two circular permutations are equivalent if one can be transformed
into another by means of a rotation.
Example 499. There are 3! = 6 (linear) permutations of CAT. That is, there are 3! = 6
possible ways to fill them into these 3 linearly-arranged spaces:
___
1 2 3
In contrast, there are only 2! = 2 circular permutations of CAT. That is, there are only
2! = 2 possible ways to fill them into these 3 circularly-arranged spaces:
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The three seemingly-different arrangements above are considered to be the same circular
permutation. This is because any arrangement is simply a rotation of another. Take the
left red arrangement, rotate it clockwise by one-third of a circle to get the middle green
arrangement. Repeat the rotation to get the right blue arrangement.
The second and only other circular arrangement of CAT is shown below. Again, these
three seemingly-different arrangements are considered to be the same circular permutation.
This is because any arrangement is simply a rotation of another. Take the left black arrangement, rotate it clockwise by one-third of a circle to get the middle pink arrangement.
Repeat the rotation to get the right orange arrangement.
Note importantly, that the arrangement (or three arrangements) below cannot be rotated
to get the arrangement (or three arrangements) above. Hence, the arrangement below is
indeed distinct from the arrangement above.
It turns out that in general, if we have n distinct objects, there are (n 1)! ways to arrange
them in a circle. So here there are only (3 1)! = 2! = 2 ways to arrange CAT in a circle.
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In general:
Fact 64. n distinct objects have (n 1)! circular permutations.
Proof. Given n distinct objects, any 1 circular permutation can be rotated n times to obtain
n distinct (linear) permutations. Hence, there are n times as many (linear) permutations
as there are circular permutations.
But we already know that there are n! (linear) permutations of n distinct objects. Hence,
there are n!/n = (n 1)! circular permutations of n distinct objects.
Exercise 208. How many ways are there to seat 10 people in a circle? (Answer on p.
1155.)
Note that if there are repeated objects, then the problem is considerably more difficult. See
Section 89.2 in the Appendices for a brief discussion.
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53.3
Partial Permutations
Example 500. Using the 26-letter alphabet, how many 3-letter words can we form that
have no repeated letters? This, of course, is simply the problem of filling in these 3 empty
spaces using 26 distinct elements. For space #1, we have 26 possible choices. For space
#2, we have 25. And for space #2, we have 24.
___
1 2 3
By the MP then, the number of ways to fill the three spaces is 26 25 24. This is also the
number of three-letter words with no repeated letters.
Problems like the above example crop up often enough to motivate a new piece of notation:
Definition 104. Let n, k be positive integers with n k. Then P (n, k), read aloud as n
permute k, is defined by
P (n, k) =
n!
.
(n k)!
P (n, k) answers the following question: Given n distinct objects and k spaces (where
k n), how many ways are there to fill the k spaces?
Just so you know, P (n, k) is also variously denoted nP k, Pkn , n Pk , etc., but well stick solely
with the P (n, k) in this textbook.
Example 536 (continued from above). The number of 3-letter words without repeated
letters is simply P (26, 3) = 26!/23! = 26 25 24.
Example 501. Problem: Using the 22-letter Phoenician alphabet, how many 4-letter words
can we form that have no repeated letters?
This, of course, is simply the problem of filling in these 4 empty spaces using 22 distinct
elements. So the answer is P (22, 4) = 22!/18! = 22 20 19 18 words.
Exercise 209. Out of a committee of 11 members, how many ways are there to choose a
president and a vice-president? (Answer on p. 1155.)
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53.4
Example 502. At a dance party, there are 7 heterosexual married couples (and thus 14
people in total). Problem #1. How many ways are there of arranging them in a line, with
the restriction that every person is next to his or her partner?
Think of there as being 7 units (each unit being a couple). There are 7! ways to arrange
these 7 units in a line. Within each unit, there are 2 possible arrangements. Hence, in
total, there are 7! 27 possible arrangements.
Problem #2. Repeat the above problem, but now for a circle, rather than a line.
There are 6! ways to arrange the 7 units in a circle. Within each unit, there are 2 possible
arrangements. Hence, in total, there are 6! 27 possible arrangements.
Problem #3. How many ways are there of arranging them in a circle, with the restriction
that every man is to the right of his wife?
There are 6! ways to arrange the 7 units in a circle. Within each unit, there is only 1
possible arrangement. Hence, in total, there are 6! possible arrangements.
Example 503. (I assume youre familiar with the standard 52-card deck.)
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For space #2, having picked a card of suit X for space #1, we must pick a card from some
other suit Y. And so there are only 39 possible choices (we have three suits available
thats 3 13 = 39).
For space #3, having picked a card of suit Y for space #2, we must pick a card from some
other suit Z. Note that suit Z can be the same as suit X. And so there are 38 possible choices
(we have three suits available, less the card used for space #1 thats 3 13 1 = 38).
Altogether then, there are 52 39 38 possible arrangements.
Problem #2. Repeat the above problem, but now for a circle, rather than a line.
One subtle thing is that, in addition to space #1 being of a different suit from space #2
and space #2 being of a different suit from space #3, we must also have that space #3 is
of a different suit from space #1. Thus, there are 52 39 26 possible ways to fill in these
three spaces, if they were in a line.
Since they are instead in a circle, there are 52 39 26 3 possible ways to arrange three
cards in a circle, with the condition that no two cards of the same suit are next to each
other.
Exercise 210. (Answer on p. 1155.) There are 4 brothers and 3 sisters. In how many
ways can they be arranged ...
(a) in a line, without any 2 brothers being next to each other?
(b) in a line, without any 2 sisters being next to each other?
(c) in a circle, without any 2 brothers being next to each other?
(d) in a circle, without any 2 sisters being next to each other?
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54
P (n, k) is the number of ways we can fill k (ordered) spaces using n distinct objects.
In contrast, C(n, k) is the number of ways of choosing ose k out of n distinct objects.
Equivalently, it is the same problem of filling k spaces using n distinct objects, except
that now order does not matter.
Example 504. Suppose we have a committee of 13 members and wish to select a president
and a vice-president. This is equivalent to the problem of filling in 2 spaces, given 13
distinct objects.
__
1 2
The answer is thus simply P (13, 2) = 13 12.
Suppose instead that we want to choose two co-presidents. How many ways are there of
doing so?
This is simply the same problem as before again we want to fill in 2 spaces, given 13
distinct objects. The only difference now is that the order of the 2 chosen objects
does not matter. So the answer must be that there are P (13, 2)/2! ways of choosing the
two co-presidents.
Example 505. How many ways are there of choosing 5 cards out of a standard 52-card
deck?
_____
1 2 3 4 5
First, how many ways are there to fill 5 spaces using 52 distinct objects (where order
matters)? Answer: P (52, 5) = 52 51 50 49 48 = 311, 875, 200.
And so if we dont care about order, we must adjust this number by dividing by 5! to get
P (52, 5)/5! = 2, 598, 960. So the answer is that to choose 5 cards out of a 52-card deck,
there are 2, 598, 960 ways.
The above examples suggest that, in general, to choose k out of n given distinct objects,
there are P (n, k)/k! possible ways. This motivates the following definition:
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Definition 105. Let n, k be positive integers with n k. Then C(n, k), read aloud as n
choose k, is defined by
C(n, k) =
n!
P (n, k)
=
.
k!
(n k)!k!
It turns out that C(n, k) appears so often in maths that it has many alternative notations
n
one of the most common is
.
k
n choose k also has several names, such as the combination, the combinatorial
number, and even the binomial coefficient. Shortly, well see why the name binomial
coefficient makes sense.
Exercise 211 gives an alternate expression for C(n, k) which youll often find very useful.
Exercise 211. Show that C(n, k) =
1157.)
n (n 1) (n 2) (n k + 1)
. (Answer on p.
k!
Exercise 212. Compute C(4, 2), C(6, 4), and C(7, 3). (Answer on p. 1157.)
Exercise 213. We wish to form a basketball team, consisting of 1 centre, 2 forwards, and
2 guards. We have available 3 centres, 7 forwards, and 5 guards. How many ways are there
of forming a team? (Answer on p. 1157.)
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Example 506. We have a group of 100 men. 70 are needed for a task. The number of
ways to choose these 70 men is:
C(100, 70) =
100!
.
30!70!
This is the same as the number of ways to choose the 30 men that will not be used for the
task:
C(100, 30) =
100!
.
70!30!
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54.1
Pascals Triangle
Pascals Triangle consists of a triangle of numbers. If we adopt the convention that the
topmost row is row 0 and the leftmost term of each row is the 0th term, then the nth row,
k th term is the number C(n, k):
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
3
6
10
15
21
1
1
4
10
20
25
1
5
15
35
1
6
21
1
7
It turns out that beautifully enough, each term is equal to the sum of the two terms above
it. The next exercise asks you to verify several instances of this:
Exercise 214. Verify the following: (a) C(1, 0) + C(1, 1) = C(2, 1); (b) C(4, 2) + C(4, 3) =
C(5, 3); (c) C(17, 2) + C(17, 3) = C(18, 3). (Answer on p. 1157.)
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54.2
Poincars quote is especially true in combinatorics. In this section, well learn why C (n, k)
can be called the combination and also the binomial coefficient.
Verify for yourself that the following equations are true:
(1 + x)0 = 1,
(1 + x)1 = 1 + x,
(1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x + x2 ,
(1 + x)3 = 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3 ,
(1 + x)4 = 1 + 4x + 6x2 + 4x3 + x4 ,
(1 + x)5 = 1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + 5x4 + x5 ,
(1 + x)6 = 1 + 6x + 15x2 + 20x3 + 15x4 + 6x5 + x6 ,
(1 + x)7 = 1 + 7x + 21x2 + 35x3 + 35x4 + 21x5 + 7x6 + x7 .
Each of the expressions on the RHS is called a binomial series. Each can also be called
the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n .
Notice anything interesting? No? Try this exercise:
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
. Compare
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
these to the coefficients of the binomial expansion of (1+x)7 . What do you notice? (Answer
on p. 1158.)
It turns out that somewhat surprisingly, the coefficients of the binomial expansions of
n n
n
(1 + x)n are simply
,
, ...
. As an additional exercise, you should verify for
0 1
n
yourself that this is also true for n = 0 through n = 6.
There are several ways to explain why the combinatorial numbers also happen to be the
binomial coefficients. Here well give only the combinatorial explanation:
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Altogether then, the coefficient on x0 is C(2, 0) (choose 0 of the xs), that on x1 is C(2, 1)
(choose 1 of the xs), and that on x2 is C(2, 1) (choose 2 of the xs). That is:
(1 + x)2 =
2 0 2 1 2 2
x +
x +
x = 1 + 2x + x2 .
0
1
2
Exercise 216. (Answer on p. 1158.) Mimicking what was just done above, explain why
(1 + x)3 =
3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3
x +
x +
x +
x.
0
1
2
3
i
0
1
2
n
i=0
n
(x + y)n =
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54.3
By plugging x = 1, y = 1 into the last fact, we see that (1 + 1) = 2n is the sum of the terms
in the nth row of Pascals triangle:
Fact 68. Let n Z+ . Then
n
n n n n
.
+ +
+
+
=
n
i=0 i 0 1 2
n
2 =
n
Theres a nice combinatorial interpretation of the above fact (Poincars quote at work
again).
Consider the set S = {A, B}. S has 22 = 4 subsets: = {}, {A}, {B}, and S = {A, B}.
Now consider the set T = {A, B, C}. T has 23 = 8 subsets: = {}, {A}, {B}, {C}, {A, B},
{A, C}, {B, C}, and T = {A, B, C}.
In general, if a set has n elements, how many subsets does it have? We can couch this in
the framework of the Multiplication Principle this is really a sequence of n decisions of
whether or not to include each element in the subset. There are 2 choices for each decision.
Thus, there are 2n choices altogether. In other words, using a set of n elements, we can
form 2n subsets.
But of course, this must in turn be equal to the sum of the following:
C (n, 0) ways to form subsets with 0 elements;
C (n, 1) ways to form subsets with 1 element;
C (n, 2) ways to form subsets with 2 elements;
...
C (n, n) ways to form subsets with n elements.
Thus,
2n =
n n n
n
+
+
+ +
.
0 1 2
n
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7 7 7
7
+
+
+ +
. (Answer on p. 1158.)
0 1 2
7
Exercise 218. Using what youve learnt, write down (3 + x)4 . (Answer on p. 1159.)
Exercise 219. (Answer on p. 1159.) (a) The Tan family has 4 sons and the Wong family
has 3 daughters. Using the sons and daughters from these two families, how many ways
are there of forming 2 heterosexual couples?
(b) The Lee family has 6 sons and the Ho family has 9 daughters. Using the sons and
daughters from these two families, how many ways are there of forming 5 heterosexual
couples?
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55
Probability: Introduction
55.1
Mathematical Modelling
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Weve secretly always been using mathematical modelling; we just havent always been
terribly explicit about it. The foregoing discussion was placed here, because with probability
and statistical models, we want to be especially clear about that we are doing mathematical
modelling.
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55.2
Real-world scenarios often involve chance. We can model such scenarios mathematically. For this purpose, well use a mathematical object named the experiment, typically
denoted E.62
An experiment E = (S, , P) is an ordered triple63 composed of three objects, called the
sample space S, the event space (upper-case sigma), and the probability function
P, where
The sample space S is simply the set of possible outcomes.
An event is simply any set of possible outcomes. In turn, the event space is simply
the set of all events.
The probability function P simply assigns to each event some probability between 0
and 1. This probability is interpreted as the likelihood of that particular event occurring.
Examples:
62
63
An experiment is often instead called a probability triple or probability space or (probability) measure space.
Previously, in the only ordered triples we encountered, the three terms were always simply real numbers. Here however,
the first two terms are sets and the third is a function. Nonetheless, this is all the same an ordered triple, albeit a more
complicated one.
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Example 508. We model a coin-flip with the experiment E = (S, , P). What are the
sample space S, the event space , and the probability function P?
1. S = {H, T }.
The sample space is simply the set of possible outcomes.
The choice of the sample space belongs to Step #1 (Formulate a mathematical model) in
the process of mathematical modelling. It is subjective and open to disagreement.
For example, John (another scientist) might argue that the coin sometimes lands exactly
on its edge. This is exceedingly unlikely but nonetheless possible one empirical estimate
is that the US 5-cent coin has probability 1 in 6000 of landing on its edge when flipped
(source). So John might denote this third possible outcome X and his sample space would
instead be S = {H, T, X}.
2. Event space = {, {H}, {T }, {H, T }}.
An event is simply any subset of S. In other words, an event is simply some set of possible
outcomes. So here, {H} is an event. So too is {T }. But there are also two other events,
namely = {} (this is the event that never occurs) and S = {H, T } (this is the event that
always occurs).
The event space is simply the set of events. In other words, the event space is the set of
all subsets of S.*
As we saw in Section 54.3, given any finite set S, there are 2S possible subsets of S. In
general, given a finite sample space S, the corresponding event space always simply
contains 2S events. And so here, since there are 2 possible outcomes, there are, altogether,
22 = 4 possible events.
If the real-world outcome of the coin flip is Heads, then our interpretation (in terms of our
model) is that the events {H} and {H, T } occur. If the real-world outcome of the coin
flip is Tails, then our interpretation (in terms of our model) is that the events {T } and
{H, T } occur.
The event never occurs, whatever the real-world outcome is. And the event S = {H, T }
always occurs, whatever the real-world outcome is.
(... Example continued on the next page ...)
*Provided S is finite. If S is infinite, then this sentence must be modified slightly but this is well beyond the scope of the A-levels.
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P(S) = 1.
The mathematical modeller has no freedom over the domain and codomain R of the
probability function. However, she does have freedom to choose the mapping rule she
deems most appropriate. Hence, the act of choosing the mapping rule belongs to Step #1
(Formulation) in the process of mathematical modelling.
So here, if told that heads and tails are equally likely (or that the coin is unbiased or
fair), the mathematical modeller would naturally choose to assign probability 0.5 to each
of the events {H} and {T }.
John, who chooses S = {H, T, X} as his sample space, might instead assign probability
1/6000 to the event {X} and probability 5999/12000 to each of the events {H} and {T }.
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A A
=
.
S
6
In words, given any event A, its probability P(A) is simply the number of elements it
contains, divided by 6.
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Exercise 220. (Answers on pp. 1160, 1161, and 1162.) Consider each of the following
real-world scenarios.
(a) You pick, at random, a card from a standard 52-card deck.
(b) You flip two fair coins.
(c) You roll two fair dice.
Model each of the above real-world scenarios as an experiment, by following steps (i) - (iii):
(i) Write down the appropriate sample space S.
(ii) How many possible events are there? Hence, how many elements does the event space
contain? If it is not too tedious, write out in full.
(iii) What are the domain and codomain of the probability function P? Write down the
probabilities of any three events. Given any event A , what is P(A)?
(iv) In each scenario, explain briefly how John, another scientist, might justify choosing a
different sample space, event space, and probability function.
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55.3
An axiom (or postulate) is a statement that is simply accepted as being true, without
justification or proof.
Example 510. Euclids parallel axiom says that Two non-parallel lines in the plane
eventually intersect. Historically, this axiom was accepted as a self-evident truth, without need for justification or proof.
However, in the 19th century, mathematicians discovered non-Euclidean geometries, in
which the parallel axiom did not hold. These turned out to have significant implications
for maths, philosophy, and physics.
The above example illustrates that an axiom is not an eternal and immutable truth. Instead,
it is merely a statement that some mathematicians tentatively accept as being true. Having
listed a bunch of axioms, mathematicians then study their implications.
In probability theory, we impose three axioms on the probability function. These can be
thought of as restrictions on what the probability function looks like. Informally:
1. Probabilities cant be negative.
2. The probability of an outcome occurring is 1.
3. The probability that one of two disjoint events occurs is the sum of the their individual
probabilities.
Formally:
Definition 107. We say that a function P satisfies the three Kolmogorov axioms if:
1. Non-Negativity Axiom. For any event E S, we have P(E) 0.
2. Normalisation Axiom. P(S) = 1.
3. Additivity Axiom. Given any two disjoint events E1 , E2 S, we have P (E1 E2 ) =
P (E1 ) + P (E2 ).*
*This additivity axiom is actually not quite the correct third Kolmogorv axiom. Strictly speaking, we want instead a countable-additivity
In case youve forgotten, two sets are disjoint if they have no elements in common.
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55.4
Obviously, P() = 0 (the probability that the empty event occurs is 0). Previously, youve
probably taken this and other obvious properties for granted. Now well prove that they
follow from the Kolmogorov axioms.
Recall that given any set A, its complement Ac (sometimes also denoted A ) is defined to
be everything else more precisely, Ac is the set of all elements that are not in A.
Proposition 12. Let P be a probability function and A, B be events. Then P satisfies the
following properties:
1. Complements. P(A) = 1 P (Ac ).
2. Probability of Empty Event is Zero. P() = 0.
3. Monotonicity. If B A, then P(B) P(A).
4. Probabilities Are At Most One. P(A) 1.
5. Inclusion-Exclusion. P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B).
You may recognise that the Complements and the Inclusion-Exclusion properties are analogous to the CP and IEP from counting.
Proof. 1. Complements. By definition, A Ac are disjoint. And so by the Additivity
Axiom, P(A) + P(Ac ) = P(A Ac ).
Also by definition, A Ac = S. And so P(A Ac ) = P(S).
By the Normalisation Axiom, P(S) = 1.
Altogether then, P(A) + P(Ac ) = P(A Ac ) = P(S) = 1. Rearranging, P(A) = 1 P (Ac ), as
desired.
The remainder of the proof is continued on p. 989 in the Appendices.
Venn diagrams are helpful for illustrating probabilities. Those below help to illustrate the
four of the above five properties.
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Exercise 221. Prove each of the following properies and illustrate with a Venn diagram:
(a) If two events A and B are mutually exclusive, then P(A B) = 0. (b) Let A, B, and
C be events. Then P(A B C) = P(A) + P (Ac B) + P (Ac B c C). (Answer on p.
1163.)
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56
Example 511. Flip three fair coins. Model this as an experiment E = (S, , P), where
The sample space is S = {HHH, HHT, HT H, HT T, T HH, T HT, T T H, T T T }.
The event space has 28 = 256 elements.
The probability function P R has mapping rule
1
P(HHH) = P(HHT ) = = P(T T T ) = ,
8
and more generally, for any event A , P(E) =
A
.
8
Problem: Suppose there is at least 1 tail. Find the probability that there are at least 2 heads.
There are 7 possible outcomes where there is at least 1 tail: HHT , HT H, HT T , T HH,
T HT , T T H, and T T T . Each is equally likely to occur. Of these, 3 outcomes involve at
least 2 heads (HHT , HT H, and T HH). Thus, given there is at least 1 tail, the probability
that there are at least 2 heads is simply 3/7.
The above analysis was somewhat informal. Here is a more formal analysis.
Let A be the event that there are at least 2 heads: A = {HHT, HT H, T HH, HHH}.
Let B
be the event that there
{HHT, HT H, HT T, T HH, T HT, T T H, T T T }.
is
at
least
tail:
A B is thus the event that there are at least 2 heads and 1 tail:
{HHT, HT H, T HH}.
A B =
P(A B) 3/8 3
=
= .
P(B)
7/8 7
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P(A B) 0.2 1
=
= .
P(B)
0.6 3
P(A B)
.
P(B)
Exercise 222. Roll two dice. Given that the sum of the two dice rolls is 8, what is the
probability that we rolled at least one even number? (Answer on p. 1164.)
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56.1
Proof. By definition,
P (AB) =
P (A B)
P(B)
and P (BA) =
Thus, P (AB) =
P (B A)
.
P(A)
P (A)
P (BA) .
P(B)
to
Formally:
Definition 109. The conditional probability fallacy (CPF) is the mistaken belief that
is always true.
P (AB) = P (BA)
The CPF is also known as the confusion of the inverse or the inverse fallacy. In
different contexts, it is also known variously as the base-rate fallacy, false-positive
fallacy, or prosecutors fallacy.
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Example 513. Suppose the following statement is true: If Mary has ebola, then Mary
will probably vomit today. Formally, we might write P (VomitEbola) = 0.99.
Mary vomits today. One might then reason, Since P (VomitEbola) = 0.99, by the CPF,
we also have P (EbolaVomit) = 0.99. Thus, Mary probably has ebola.
Formally, this reasoning is flawed because P(Vomit) is probably much larger than P(Ebola).
Thus, P (VomitEbola) is probably much larger than P (EbolaVomit).
Informally, the reasoning is flawed because:
Ebola is extremely rare, so it is extremely unlikely that Mary has ebola in the first place.
Besides ebola, there are many other alternative explanations for why Mary might have
vomitted. For example, she might have had motion sickness or food poisoning.
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Example 514. Sally buys a 4D ticket every week. One day, she wins the first prize. To
her astonishment, she wins the first prize again the following week.
Her jealous cousin Ah Kow makes a police report, based on the following erroneous reasoning:
Without cheating, the probability that Sally wins the first prize two weeks in a row is 1 in
100 million. Given that she did win first prize two weeks in a row, the probability that she
didnt cheat must likewise be 1 in 100 million. In other words, there is almost no chance
that Sally didnt cheat.
Lets rephrase Ah Kows reasoning more formally. Let A and B be the events Sally
wins the first prize two weeks in a row and Sally didnt cheat, respectively. We know
that P (AB) = 0.00000001. By the CPF, we have P (AB) = P (BA). Hence, P (BA) =
0.00000001. Equivalently, there is probability 0.99999999 that Sally cheated.
Formally, this reasoning is flawed because P(B) is probably much larger than P (A). Thus,
P (BA) is probably much larger than P (AB).
Informally, the reasoning is flawed because:
Cheating in 4D is extremely rare (and difficult), so it is extremely unlikely that Sally
cheated in the first place.
Besides cheating, there are many other alternative explanations for why there exists an
individual who won first prize two weeks in a row.
One important alternative explanation is that so many individuals buy 4D tickets regularly
that there will invariably be someone as lucky as Sally. Suppose that only 100, 000 Singaporeans (less than 2% of Singapores population) buy one 4D number every week. Then
wed expect that about once every 20 years, one of these 100, 000 Singaporeans will have
the fortune of winning the first prize on consecutive weeks. Rare, but hardly impossible.
The next example uses concrete numbers to illustrate how large the discrepancy between
P (AB) and P (BA) can be.
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1
,
1000000
P (S C ) =
999999
,
1000000
P (+S) = 0.99,
P (S) = 0.01,
P (S C ) = 0.99,
P (+S C ) = 0.01.
The test result returns positive (i.e. it says that the randomly-chosen person has smallpox).
What is the probability that this person actually has smallpox?
In words, it is easy to confuse the probability of a positive test result conditional on having
smallpox with the probability of having smallpox conditional on a positive test result.
Formally, this is the CPF. One starts with P (+S) = 0.99 and confusedly concludes that
P (S+) = 0.99 this person almost certainly has smallpox.
In fact, as we now show, despite testing positive, the person is very unlikely to have small1
P (S+) =
P (S +) P (S) P (+S)
P (S) P (+S)
=
=
P (+)
P (+)
P (+ S) + P (+ S C )
P (S) P (+S)
P (S) P (+S) + P (S C ) P (+S C )
1
1000000 0.99
1
999999
1000000 0.99 + 1000000 0.01
= 0.00009899029
1
.
10, 000
This example illustrates how far off the CPF can lead one astray.
Now an actual, real-world example:
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Example 516. The British mother who murdered her two babies. In 1996, Sally
Clarks first-born died suddenly within a few weeks of birth. In 1998, the same happened
to her second child. Clark was then arrested on suspicion of murdering her babies.
At her trial, an expert witness claimed that in an affluent, non-smoking family such as
Sally Clarks, the probability of an infant suddenly dying with no explanation was 1/8543.
Hence, he concluded, the probability of two sudden infant deaths in the same family was
2
(1/8543) or approximately 1 in 73 million.
The expert then committed the CPF. He argued that since
P (Two babies suddenly dieMother did not murder babies) =
1
,
73, 000, 000
1
.
73, 000, 000
This erroneous reasoning led to Sally Clark being convicted for murdering her two babies.
(Some of you may have noticed that the expert actually also made another mistake. But
well examine this only in the next chapter.)
It turns out that not only laypersons and court prosecutors commit the CPF. As well see
later, even academic researchers also often commit the CPF, when it comes to interpreting
the results of a null hypothesis significance test (Chapter 72).
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56.2
Think about it (set aside this book) before reading the answer below.
We already know that one child is a boy. So intuition might suggest that obviously,
P (Both boys) = P (The other child is a boy) = 0.5.
Intuition would be wrong. Intuition goes astray by failing to recognise that there are three equally likely ways that a family
with two children can have at least one boy: BB, BG, or GB. The answer is in fact 1/3:
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
4
1
= .
3
Next is a variant of the above Martin Gardner problem. This variant was first presented
in 2010.
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Example 518. Consider all the families in the world that have two children, of whom at
least one is a boy born on a Tuesday. Randomly pick one of these families. What is the
probability that both children in this family are boys?
Those familiar with the previous problem might think, Well, this is exactly the same as
the two-boys problem, except with an obviously-irrelevant bit of information about the boy
being born on a Tuesday. So the answer must be the same as before: 1/3.
It turns out though that, surprisingly, the Tuesday bit of information makes a big difference.
The answer is 13/27 = 0.481. This is much closer to 0.5 than to 1/3!
Consider all the two-child, at-least-one-boy-born-on-a-Tuesday families in the world. The
four mutually-exclusive possibilities are
Child #1
Child #2
BT B
P (BT B) =
1 1
7
=
14 2 196
BT G
Girl
P (BT G) =
7
1 1
=
14 2 196
P (BN BT ) =
P (GBT ) =
GBT
Probability
6 1
6
=
14 14 196
7
1 1
=
2 14 196
Altogether then, amongst two-child families with at least one boy born on a Tuesday, the
proportion that have two boys is
P (BB At least one Tuesday boy)
=
P (BT B) + P (BN BT )
P (BT B) + P (BT G) + P (BN BT ) + P (GBT )
7
196
7
196
7
196
6
+ 196
13
6
7 = 27 .
+ 196 + 196
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57
Probability: Independence
Informally, two events A and B are independent if the probability that both occur is
simply the product of the probabilities that each occurs. Independence is thus analogous
to the MP from counting. Formally:
Definition 110. Two events A, B are independent if
P(A B) = P(A)P(B).
There is a second, equivalent perspective of independence. Informally, two events A and B
are independent if the probability that A occurs is independent of whether B has occurred.
Formally:
Fact 70. Suppose P(B) 0. Then A, B are independent events P(AB) = P(A).
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Example 519. Flip two fair coins. Model this with the usual experiment, where
S = {HH, HT, T H, T T },
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Example 520. Flip a fair coin and roll a fair die. This can be modelled by an experiment,
where
S = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6, T 1, T 2, T 3, T 4, T 5, T 6} .
consists of 212 events.
P(A) = A/12, for any event A .
Now consider the event Heads E1 = {H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, H6}, and the event Roll an
odd number E2 = {H1, H3, H3, T 1, T 3, T 5}. These two events E1 and E2 are independent,
as we now verify:
P (E1 E2 ) =
P (E1 E2 ) 3/12 1
=
= = P (E1 ) .
P (E2 )
6/12 2
More broadly, we can even say that the coin flip and die roll are independent. Informally,
this means that the outcome of the coin flip has no influence on the outcome of the die roll,
and vice versa.
The idea of independence is a little tricky to illustrate on a Venn diagram. Ill try anyway.
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Example 521. The Venn diagram below illustrates a sample space with 100 equally likely
outcomes (represented by 100 small squares). The event A is highlighted in red. The event
B is highlighted in blue.
P(A) = 0.2 (A is made of 20 small squares). P(B) = 0.1 (B is made of 10 small squares).
The event A B, coloured in green, is made of 2 small squares, so P(A B) = 0.02.
We compute
P(AB) =
P(A B) 0.02
=
= 0.2.
P(B)
0.1
We observe that P(A) = 0.2 = P(AB). And so by Fact 70, we conclude that the events A
and B are independent.
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Exercise 224. Symmetry of Independence. In Fact 70, we showed that A, B independent P(AB) = P(A). Now prove that A, B are independent events
P(BA) = P(B). (Answer on p. 1165.)
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57.1
The idea of independence is intuitively easy to grasp. Indeed, so much so that students
often assume that everything is independent. This is a mistake. Unless youre explicitly
told, NEVER assume that two events are independent.
Here are two examples where the assumption of independence is plausible:
Example 522. The event coin-flip #1 is heads and the event coin-flip #2 is heads are
probably independent.
Example 523. The event die-roll #1 is 3 and the event die-roll #2 is 6 are probably
independent.
Here are two xxamples where the assumption of independence is not plausible:
Example 524. The event Googles share price rises today is probably not independent
of the event Apples share price rises today.
Example 525. The event it rains in Singapore today is probably not independent of the
event it rains in Kuala Lumpur today.
Nonetheless, the assumption of independence is frequently and incorrectly made even
when it is implausible. One reason is that the maths is easy if we assume independence
we can simply multiply probabilities together.
We now revisit the Sally Clark case. Previously, we saw that the courts expert witness
committed the CPF. Now, well see that he also made a second mistake that of assuming
independence.
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Example 526. The expert witness claimed that in an affluent, non-smoking family such
as Sally Clarks, the probability of an infant suddenly dying with no explanation was 1/8543.
Hence, he concluded, the probability of two sudden infant deaths in the same family was
2
(1/8543) or approximately 1 in 73 million.
Can you spot the error in the reasoning?
By simply multiplying together probabilities, the expert implicitly assumed that the two
events sudden death of baby #1 and sudden death of baby #2 are independent.
But as any doctor will tell you, if your family has a history of heart attack, diabetes, or
pretty much any other ailment, then you may be at higher risk (than the average person)
of suffering the same.
And so, it may well be that in any given year, a random person has probability 0.001 of
dying of a heart attack. It does not however follow that in any given year, a random family
has probability 0.0012 = 0.000001 of two deaths by heart attack.
Similarly, it may be that if one baby in a family has already suddenly died, a second baby
is at higher risk (than the average baby) of suddenly dying.
Exercise 226. (Answer on p. 1165.) Say the probability that a randomly-chosen person
is or was an NBA player is one in a million. (This is probably about right, since thereve
only ever been 4, 000 or so NBA players, since the late 1940s.)
The Barry family had four players in the NBA the father Rick Barry and three of his
four sons Jon, Brent, and Drew. (The oldest son Scooter didnt make the NBA but was
still good enough to play professionally in other basketball leagues around the world.)
A journalist concludes that the probability of a Barry family ever occurring is
(
4
1
1
) =
.
1, 000, 000
1, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000, 000
This is equal to the probability of buying a 4D number on six consecutive weeks, and
winning first prize every time. Is the journalist correct?
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57.2
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58
58.1
The Monty Hall Problem is probably the worlds most famous probability puzzle. It takes
less than a minute to state. Yet its counter-intuitive answer confuses nearly everyone.
Youre at a gameshow. There are three boxes, labelled #1, #2, and #3. One box contains
one years worth of a Singapore ministers salary. The other two are empty.
You are asked to pick one box (but you are not allowed to open it yet).
The host, who knows where the ministers salary is, opens one of the other two boxes, to
reveal that it is empty. Important: The host is not allowed to open the box that contains
the ministers salary; he must always open a box that is empty.
Youre now given a choice: Stay (with your original choice) or switch (to the other unopened
box). What should you do?
To illustrate:
Example 527. Say you pick Box #2. The host then opens an empty Box #1. Youre now
given a choice: Stay (with Box #2) or switch (to Box #3). Which do you choose?
Box #1
Empty
Box #2
Box #3
Take as long as you need to think about this problem, before turning to the
next page for the answer.
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A magazine columnist named Marilyn vos Savant64 gave the correct answer:
Yes; you should switch. The first door has a 1/3 chance
of winning, but the second door has a 2/3 chance.
Box #1
Box #2
Box #3
Host opens
Case
A
Ministers salary
Empty
Empty
Box #2 or Box #3
B
Empty
Ministers salary
Empty
Box #3
Empty
Empty
Ministers salary
Box #2
C
Not switching wins you the ministers salary only in Case A (1/3 probability).
Switching wins you the ministers salary in Cases B and C (2/3 probability).
64
Marilyn vos Savant was, briefly, on the Guinness Book of Records as the person with the worlds highest IQ, until Guinness
retired this category because IQ tests were considered to be too unreliable.
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Even with the above explanations, some of you may remain unconvinced. Dont worry, you
are not alone. After Marilyns initial response, 10,000 readers sent in letters telling her she
was wrong. Some were from Professors of Mathematics and PhDs. A few examples:65
As a professional mathematician, Im very concerned with the general
publics lack of mathematical skills. Please help by confessing your error
and in the future being more careful.
There is enough mathematical illiteracy in this country, and we dont need
the worlds highest IQ propagating more. Shame!
Maybe women look at math problems differently than men.
Unfortunately for the above letter writers, Marilyn was correct and they were wrong.
The best way to convince the sceptical is through simulations try this Google spreadsheet.
Or if you dont trust computers, do an actual experiment:
Class Activity
Form pairs. One person is the gameshow host and the other is the contestant. The host
decides where the prize is (Box #1, #2, or #3). The contestant then picks a box. The
host then tells the contestant which one of the other two boxes is empty. The contestant
then decides whether to stay or switch.
Repeat as many times as you have time for. Record the proportion of times that the
contestant should have switched. You should find that this proportion is about 2/3.
65
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58.2
Example 528. (The birthday problem.) What is the smallest number n of people in a
room, such that it is more likely than not, that at least 2 people in the room share the same
birthday?*
.
365 365 365
365
Hence, the probability that at least 2 persons share the same birthday is
1
.
365 365 365
365
The smallest integer n for which the above probability is at least 0.5 is 23. (Wolfram
Alpha.) That is, perhaps surprisingly, with just 23 people, it is more likely than not that
at least 2 persons share a birthday.
*Assume there are no leap years (every year has 365 days). Also, assume each persons birthday is equally likely to be on
any day of the year and does not depend on the birthday of anyone else.
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59
Informally, a random variable is a function that assigns a real number (you can think of
this as a numerical code) to each possible outcome s. We call any such real number an
observed value of X.
Example 529. Model a fair coin-flip with the usual experiment E = (S, , P), where
S = {H, T }.
= {, {H} , {T } , S}.
P R is defined by P () = 0, P ({H}) = P ({H}) = 0.5, and P(S) = 1.
Let X S R be the random variable that indicates whether the coin-flip is heads. That
is, the observed value of X is X(H) = 1 if the outcome is heads and X(T ) = 0 if the
outcome is tails.
Formally:
Definition 112. Let E = (S, , P) be an experiment. A random variable X (on the
experiment E) is any function with domain S and codomain R.
Given any random variable X and any outcome s S, we call X(s) the observed (or
realised) value of the random variable X. We often denote a generic observed value X(s)
by the lower-case letter x.
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59.1
Students often confuse a random variable with an observed value of the random variable.
This confusion is, of course, simply the confusion between a function and the value taken
by the function.
Example 529 (continued from above). X is a function with domain S and codomain
R. X is therefore a random variable.
If the outcome of the coin-flip is heads, we do not say that X is 1. Instead, we say that
the observed value of X is 1.
If the outcome of the coin-flip is tails, we do not say that X is 0. Instead, we say that the
observed value of X is 0.
Remember: A random variable X is a function that can take on many possible real
number values. Each such value x = X(s) is called an observed value of X.
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59.2
and P(X = k) = 0.
and P(Y = k) = 0.
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59.3
We call a complete specification of P (X = k) for all values of k the probability distribution (or probability law or probability mass function) of X. In the above example,
we gave the probability distributions of both X and Y .
More examples of random variables and their probability distributions:
Example 530. Flip two fair coins. Model this with the usual experiment, where S =
{HH, HT, T H, T T }.
Let X S R indicate whether the two coin flips are the same and Y S R count the
number of heads. That is,
X(HH) = 1, X(HT ) = 0, X(T H) = 0, X(T T ) = 1,
Y (HH) = 2, Y (HT ) = 1, Y (T H) = 1, Y (T T ) = 0.
And
P(X = 0) = 0.5, P(X = 1) = 0.5, and P(X = k) = 0, for any k 0, 1.
P(Y = 0) = 0.25, P(Y = 1) = 0.5, P(Y = 2) = 0.25, and P(X = k) = 0, for any k 0, 1, 2.
Another example:
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Example 531. Pick a random card from the standard 52-card deck. Model this with the
usual experiment, where
S = {A, K, , . . . , 2, A, K, . . . , 2, A, K, . . . , 2, A, K, . . . , 2} .
X S R is the High Card Point count (used in the game of bridge). I.e.,
X(A of any suit) = 4,
X(J of any suit) = 1,
Thus,
P(X = 0) =
36
,
52
P(X = 1) =
4
,
52
P(X = 2) =
4
,
52
P(X = 3) =
4
,
52
P(X = 4) =
4
,
52
P(X = k) = 0,
for any k 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
Y S R indicates whether the picked card is a spade (). I.e.,
Y (Any ) = 1, Y (Any other card) = 0.
Thus,
P(Y = 0) =
39
,
52
P(Y = 1) =
13
,
52
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Example 532. Roll two fair dice. Model this with the usual experiment, where
S=
,...,
,...,
,...,
= 7 and X
= 5.
The table below says that P (X = 2) = 1/36, because there is only one way the event X = 2
can occur. And P (X = 3) = 2/36, because there are two ways the event X = 3 can occur.
You are asked to complete the table in the next exercise.
k
2
3
P (X = k)
1
36
2
36
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Exercise 228. (Continuation of the above example.) (Answer on p. 1166.) (a) Complete
the above table.
Consider the event E, described in words as the sum of the two dice is at least 10.
(b) Write down the event E in terms of X.
(c) Calculate P (E).
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59.4
Example 532 (continued from above). Continue with the same the roll-two-fair-dice
example, with X again being the random variable that is the sum of the two dice. We had
= 7 and X
= 5.
= 10 and Y
= 4.
Remember: random variables are simply functions. And thus, we can manipulate random
variables just like we manipulate any functions.
So for example, consider the function X + Y S R. It is also a random variable. We have
(X + Y )
= 17 and (X + Y )
= 9.
= 70 and (XY )
= 20.
= 22 and (4X 5Y )
= 0.
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Exercise 229. Continue with the above roll-two-fair-dice example. Let P S R be the
greater of the two dice. Let Q S R be the difference of the two dice. Evaluate the
functions P , Q, and P Q at
and
. (Answer on p. 1167.)
Exercise 230. (Answer on p. 1167.) Model a fair die-roll with the usual experiment
E = {S, , P}. Define the function X S R by the mapping rule X(1) = 1, X(2) = 2,
X(3) = 3, X(4) = 4, X(5) = 5, and X(6) = 6.
Is X a random variable on E? Why or why not?
If X is indeed a random variable on E, then write down also P(X = k), for all possible k.
Exercise 231. For each of the following real-world scenarios, write down, in precise mathematical notation (i) the experiment E = {S, , P}; (ii) what the random variable X is; and
(iii) P(X = k), for all possible k. (Answers on pp. 1167 and 1168.)
(a) Flip 4 (fair) coins. Let the random variable X be a count of the number of heads.
(b) Roll 3 (fair) dice. Let the random variable X be the sum of the three dice. (Tedious.)
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60
X(HT ) = 0,
Y (HT ) = 1,
X(T H) = 0,
Y (T H) = 1,
X(T T ) = 1,
Y (T T ) = 0.
Then X = 0, Y = 0 is the event that the two coin flips were not the same AND the number of
heads was 0. By observation, this event is the empty set. Thus, P (X = 0, Y = 0) = P () = 0.
X = 1, Y = 0 is the event that the two coin flips were the same AND the number of heads
was 0. By observation, this event is {T T }. Thus, P (X = 1, Y = 0) = P ({T T }) = 0.25.
Exercise: Verify for yourself that
P (X = 0, Y = 1) = 0.5, P (X = 1, Y = 1) = 0,
P (X = 0, Y = 2) = 0,
P (X = 1, Y = 2) = 0.25.
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Informally, two random variables are independent if knowing the value of one does not
tell us anything about the value of the other.
Example 533 (continued from above). Flip two fair coins. We say the two coin-flips
are independent. Informally, the outcome of one doesnt affect the other. Knowing that
the first coin-flip is heads tells us nothing about the second coin-flip.
A little more formally, let A and B be the random variables indicating whether the first and
second coin-flip are heads (respectively). That is, A = 1 if the first coin-flip is heads and
A = 0 otherwise; and B = 1 if the second coin-flip is heads and B = 0 otherwise. Then the
informal statement the two coin-flips are independent may be translated into the formal
statement the random variables A and B are independent.
Informally, knowing the observed value of A tells us nothing about whether B = 0 or B = 1.
(And vice versa.)
Formally:
Definition 115. Given random variables X S R and Y S R, we say that X and Y
are independent if for all x, y,
P (X = x, Y = y) = P(X = x)P(Y = y).
Lets restate the above definition more explicitly. Suppose X can take on values x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
and Y can take on values y1 , y2 , . . . , ym . Then to say that X and Y are independent is to
say that all of the following n m pairs of events are independent
X = x 1 , Y = y1 ,
X = x 2 , Y = y1 ,
X = x n , Y = y1 ,
X = x 1 , Y = y2 ,
X = x 2 , Y = y2 ,
X = xn , Y = y2 ,
...
...
...
...
X = x 1 , Y = ym ,
X = x 2 , Y = ym ,
X = x n , Y = ym .
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Example 533 (continued from above). We now verify, in more formal and precise
language, that the two coin-flips are indeed independent.
Again, A and B are the random variables indicating whether the first and second coin-flips
are heads (respectively).
We now verify that indeed, P (A = a, B = b) = P(A = a)P(B = b) for all possible values of a
and b:
a = 0, b = 0
a = 1, b = 0
a = 0, b = 1
a = 1, b = 1
P (A = a, B = b)
P ({T T }) = 0.25
P ({HT }) = 0.25
P ({T H}) = 0.25
P ({HH}) = 0.25
P(A = a)P(B = b)
P ({T H, T T }) P ({HT, T T }) = 0.5 0.5,
P ({HH, HT }) P ({HT, T T }) = 0.5 0.5,
P ({T H, T T }) P ({HH, T H}) = 0.5 0.5,
P ({HH, HT }) P ({HH, T H}) = 0.5 0.5.
Exercise 232. Flip two fair coins. Let X S R indicate whether the two coin flips were
the same and Y S R count the number of heads. Are X and Y independent random
variables? (Answer on p. 1170.)
Earlier we warned against blithely assuming that any two events are independent. Here we
can repeat this warning: Unless explicitly told (or you have a good reason), do not assume
that two random variables are independent.
The assumption of independence is a strong one. There are many scenarios where it is
plausible. For example, the flips of two coins are probably independent. The rolls of two
dice are probably independent.
There are, however, also many scenarios where it is not plausible. Todays changes in
the share prices of Google and Apple are probably not independent. Todays rainfall in
Singapore and in Kuala Lumpur are probably not independent.
Nonetheless, the assumption of independence is frequently and incorrectly made even
when it is implausible. The reason is that the maths is easy if we assume independence
we can simply multiply probabilities together. Unfortunately, incorrectly assuming independence has sometimes had tragic consequences, as we saw in the Sally Clark case.
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61
1
1
1
1
1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 21
1
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6=
=
= 3.5.
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
E[X] is thus simply a weighted average of the possible values of X, where the weights are
the probability weights.
Well use the following slightly-incorrect definition of a discrete random variable:66
Slightly-Incorrect Definition. A random variable is discrete if its range is finite.
That is, a random variable is discrete if it takes on finitely many possible values.
We can now formally define the expected value of a discrete random variable:
Definition 116. Let E = (S, , P) be an experiment. Then the corresponding expectation
operator, denoted E, is the function that maps any discrete random variable X S R to
a real number, according to the mapping rule
E[X] =
P(X = k) k.
kRange(X)
We call E[X] the expected value (or mean) of X. We often write X = E[X] or even
= E[X] (if it is clear from the context that were talking about the mean of X).
66
The correct definition is this: A random variable is discrete if its range is finite or countably-infinite. I avoid giving this
correct definition because this would require explaining what countably-infinite means.
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Example 535. Let X be the outcome of a fair die roll. The range of X is Range(X) =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. So
E[X] =
P (X = k) k
kRange(X)
= P (X = 1) 1 + P (X = 2) 2 + P (X = 3) 3 + P (X = 4) 4 + P (X = 5) 5 + P (X = 6) 6.
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 = 3.5.
6
6
6
6
6
6
P (Y = k) k
kRange(Y )
= P (Y = 2) 2 + P (Y = 3) 3 + P (Y = 4) 4 + P (Y = 5) 5 + + P (Y = 12) 12
=
2
3
4
5
6
5
4
3
2
1
1
2+
3+
4+
5+
6+
7+
8+
9+
10 +
11 +
12
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
2 + 6 + 12 + 20 + 30 + 42 + 40 + 36 + 30 + 22 + 12 252
=
= 7.
36
36
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Example 537. Flip two fair coins and roll two fair dice. Let X be the number of heads
and Y be the number of sixes.
Problem: What is E[X + Y ]?
As it turns out, it is generally true that E[X + Y ] = E[X] + E[Y ] (as well see in the next
section). So if we knew this, then the problem is very easy: E[X + Y ] = E[X] + E[Y ] =
1 4
1+ = .
3 3
But as an exercise, lets pretend we dont know that E[X + Y ] = E[X] + E[Y ]. We thus
have to work out E[X + Y ] the hard way:
First, note that Range(X + Y ) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. P (X + Y = 0) is the probability of 0 heads
and 0 sixes. And P (X + Y = 1) is the probability of 1 head and 0 sixes OR 0 heads and 1
six. We can compute:
P (X + Y = 0) =
1 1 5 5 25
=
,
2 2 6 6 144
P (X + Y = 1) =
2 1 1 5 5 1 1 2 5 1 50
10 60
+
=
+
= .
1 2 2 6 6 2 2 1 6 6 144 144 72
You are asked to complete the rest of this problem in the exercise below.
Exercise 233. Complete the above example by following these steps: (a) Compute
P (X + Y = 2). (b) Compute P (X + Y = 3). (c) Compute P (X + Y = 4). (d) Now compute E[X + Y ]. (Answer on p. 1171.)
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61.1
Example 538. Let 5 be a constant random variable on some experiment E = (S, , P).
That is, 5 S R is the function defined by s 5. (Note that the symbol 5 does double
duty by denoting both a function and a real number.) Then not surprisingly,
Function Number
E [5] =
5 .
That is, on average, we expect the random variable 5 to take on the value 5.
We can easily prove the above observation:
Fact 71. If the constant random variable c maps every outcome to the number c, then
E[c] = c.
Proof. The PMF of the constant random variable c is given by P (c = c) = 1 and P (c = k) = 0
for any k c. Hence, E [c] = P (c = c) c = 1 c = c.
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Exercise 234. In the game of 4D, you pay $1 to pick any four-digit number between 0000
and 9999 (there are thus 10, 000 possible choices). There are two variants of the 4D game
big and small. The prize structures are as given below. Let X be the prize received
from a $1 stake in the big game and Y be the prize received from a $1 stake in the small
game. (Answer on p. 1172.)
(a) Write down the range of X and the range of Y .
(b) Write down the probability distributions of X and Y .
(c) Hence find E[X] and E[Y ].
(d) Which game big or small is expected to lose you less money?
(Source: Singapore Pools, Rules for the 4-D Game, Version 1.11, 17/11/15. PDF.)
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61.2
i=1
i=1
i=1
(ai + bi ) = ai + bi
i=1
i=1
and (kai ) = k ai .
d
is an example of a linear transformation.
Example 540. The differentiation operator
dx
Because it satisfies both additivity and homogeneity of degree 1:
d
d
d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f (x) + g(x) and
dx
dx
dx
d
d
(kf (x)) = k f (x).
dx
dx
x+y =
x+
or
kx = k x.
(x + y) = x2 + y 2
or (kx) = kx2 .
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62
Example 544. Consider a random variable X that is equally likely to take on one of 5
possible values: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. Its mean is
X = P (X = k) k =
1
1
1
1
1
0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 2.
5
5
5
5
5
Now consider another random variable Y that is equally likely to take on one of 5 possible
values: 8, 3, 2, 7, 12. Coincidentally, its mean is the same:
Y = P (Y = k) k =
1
1
1
1
1
(8) + (3) + 2 + 7 + 12 = 2.
5
5
5
5
5
The random variables X and Y share the same mean. However, there is an obvious difference: Y is more spread out.
What, precisely, do we mean when we say that one random variable is more spread out
than another?
Our goal in this section is to invent a measure of spread-outness. Well call this the
variance and denote the variance of any random variable X by V [X].
Its not at all obvious how the variance should be defined. One possibility is to define the
variance as the weighted average of the deviations from the mean.
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Example 596 (continued from above). (Our first proposed definition of variance.)
For X, the weighted average of the deviations from the mean is
V [X] = P (X = k) (k )
1
1
1
1
1
= (0 ) + (1 ) + (2 ) + (3 ) + (4 )
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
= (0 2) + (1 2) + (2 2) + (3 2) + (4 2)
5
5
5
5
5
2 1
1 2
= + 0 + + = 0.
5 5
5 5
Hmm. This works out to be 0. Is that just a weird coincidence? Lets try the same for Y :
V [Y ] = P (Y = k) (k )
1
1
1
1
1
= (8 ) + (3 ) + (2 ) + (7 ) + (12 )
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
= (8 2) + (3 2) + (2 2) + (7 2) + (12 2)
5
5
5
5
5
= 2 1 + 0 + 1 + 2 = 0.
Hmm. Again it works out to be 0.
This is no mere coincidence. It turns out that P(X = k) (k ) is always equal to 0.
k
This is because
=
P(X = k) (k ) = P(X = k) k P(X = k)
k
= P(X = k) = 0.
k
=1
So our first proposed definition of the variance the weighted average of the deviations
from the mean is always equal to 0. Intuitively, the reason is that the negative deviations
(corresponding to those values below the mean) exactly cancel out the positive deviations
(corresponding to those values above the mean).
This proposed definition is thus quite useless. We cannot use it to say things like Y is
more spread out than X.
This suggests a second approach: define the variance to be the weighted average of the
absolute deviations from the mean.
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Example 596 (continued from above). (Our second proposed definition of variance.)
For X, the weighted average of the absolute deviations from the mean is
V [X] = P (X = k) k
1
1
1
1
1
= 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
= 0 2 + 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + 4 2
5
5
5
5
5
2 1
1 2 6
= + +0+ + = .
5 5
5 5 5
And now lets work out the same for Y :
V [Y ] = P (Y = k) (k )
1
1
1
1
1
= 8 + 3 + 2 + 7 + 12
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
= 8 2 + 3 2 + 2 2 + 7 2 + 12 2
5
5
5
5
5
= 2 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 2 = 6.
Wonderful! So we can now use this second proposed definition of the variance to say things
like Y is more spread out than X.
This second proposed definition seems perfectly satisfactory. Yet for some bizarre reason,
it will not be our actual definition of variance. Instead, the variance will be defined as the
weighted average of the squared deviations from the mean.
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V [X] = P (X = k) (k )
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
= (0 ) + (1 ) + (2 ) + (3 ) + (4 )
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
= (0 2) + (1 2) + (2 2) + (3 2) + (4 2)
5
5
5
5
5
4 1
1 4
= + + 0 + + = 2.
5 5
5 5
And now lets work out the same for Y :
2
V [Y ] = P (Y = k) (k )
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
= (8 ) + (3 ) + (2 ) + (7 ) + (12 )
5
5
5
5
5
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
= (8 2) + (3 2) + (2 2) + (7 2) + (12 2)
5
5
5
5
5
= 20 + 5 + 0 + 5 + 20 = 50.
Formally,
Definition 118. Let = E [X]. Then the variance operator is denoted V and is the
function that maps each random variable X to a real number c, given by the mapping rule
2
V[X] = E [(X ) ] .
2
We call V[X] the variance of X. This is often also instead written as X
or even more
2
simply as (if it is clear from the context that were talking about the variance of X).
So to calculate the variance, we do this: Consider all the possible values that X can take.
Take the difference between these values and the mean of X. Square them. Then take the
probability-weighted average of these squared numbers.
More examples:
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Example 545. Let the random variable X be the outcome of the roll of a fair die. We
already know that = 3.5. Hence,
2
35
1
(2.52 + 1.52 + 0.52 + 0.52 + 1.52 + 2.52 ) =
2.92.
6
12
35
So the variance of the die roll is
2.92. This means that the expected squared deviation
12
35
of X from its mean = 3.5 is
2.92.
12
Example 546. Roll two fair dice. Let the random variable Y be the sum of the two dice.
We already know from Example 536 that = 7. So, using also our findings from Exercise
228,
2
1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 5 2
5 +
4 +
3 +
2 +
1 +
0 +
1
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
4 2 3 2 2 2 1 2
+
2 +
3 +
4 +
5
36
36
36
36
2 (25 + 32 + 27 + 16 + 5) 210 70
=
=
5.83.
36
36 12
70
5.83. This means that on average, the square
12
70
of the deviation of Y from its mean = 7 is
5.83.
12
As the above examples suggest, calculating the variance can be tedious. Fortunately, there
is a shortcut:
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Proof. Using the definition of variance, the linearity of the expectation operator (Proposition 13), and the fact that is a constant, we have
2
1 2 2
91
(1 + 2 + + 62 ) = .
6
6
Hence,
V[X] = E [X 2 ] 2 =
91
182 147 35
3.52 =
= .
6
12
12 12
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Example 546 (continued from above). Let the random variable Y be the sum of two
rolled dice. We already know from Example 536 that = 7. So, using also our findings
from Exercise 228,
E [Y 2 ] = P (Y = 2) 22 + P (Y = 3) 32 + + P (Y = 12) 122
=
1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 5 2
2 +
3 +
4 +
5 +
6 +
7 +
8
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
4 2 3
2
1
+
9 +
102 +
112 +
122
36
36
36
36
4 + 18 + 48 + 100 + 294 + 320 + 324 + 300 + 242 + 144 1974 658
=
=
.
36
36
12
Hence,
V[Y ] = E [Y 2 ] 2 =
658 588 70
658
72 =
= .
12
12
12 12
Exercise 235. Let the random variable Z be the sum of three rolled dice. Find V[Z].
(Answer on p. 1173.)
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62.1
A constant random variable cannot vary. So not surprisingly, the variance of a constant
random variable is 0.
Fact 73. Let c be a constant random variable (i.e. it maps every outcome to the real number
c). Then
V[c] = 0.
2
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62.2
Standard Deviation
Let X be a random variable. Then E [X] has the same unit of measure as X. In contrast,
V [X] uses the squared unit.
Example 547. There are 100 dumbbells in a gym, of which 30 have weight 5 kg and the
remaining 70 have weight 10 kg. Let X be the weight of a randomly-chosen dumbbell.
Then the mean of X is
E [X] = = 0.3 5 kg + 0.7 10 kg = 8.5 kg.
And the variance of X is
2
To get a measure of spread that uses the original unit of measure, we simply take the
square root of the variance. This is called the standard deviation as a measure of spread.
Definition 119. Let X be a random variable and V[X] be its variance. Then the standard
deviation of X is defined as
SD [X] =
V[X].
2
The variance of a random variable X is often denoted X
or even more simply as 2 (if it
is clear from the context that were talking about the variance of X).
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62.3
The variance operator is not linear. However, given independence, the variance operator
does satisfy additivity and homogeneity of degree 2.
Proposition 14. Let X and Y be independent random variables and c be a constant. Then
(a) Additivity: V[X + Y ] = V [X] + V [Y ],
(b) Homogeneity of degree 2: V[cX] = c2 V [X].
Proof. Optional, see p. 991 in the Appendices.
With the above, it becomes much easier than before to find the variance of the sum of 2
dice, 3 dice, or indeed n dice.
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Example 548. Let X be the outcome of a fair die-roll. We showed earlier that V[X] =
35
.
12
Now roll two fair dice. Let X1 and X2 be the respective outcomes. Let Y be the sum of
the two dice (i.e. Y = X1 + X2 ). Assuming independence, we have
V[Y ] = V [X1 + X2 ] = V [X1 ] + V [X2 ] =
70
.
12
105
.
12
Again, compare this quick computation to the work you had to do in Exercise 235!
Now, let A be double the outcome of a die roll (i.e. A = 2X). Note importantly that A Y .
Y is the sum of two independent die rolls. In contrast, A is double the outcome of a single
die roll. Indeed, by Proposition 14, we see that
V[A] = V[2X] = 4V[X] =
140
V[Y ].
12
Similarly, let B be triple the outcome of a die roll (i.e. B = 3X). Note importantly that
B Z. Z is the sum of three independent die rolls. In contrast, B is triple the outcome of
a single die roll. Indeed, by Proposition 14, we see that
V[B] = V[3X] = 9V[X] =
315
V[Z].
12
Exercise 237. The weight of a fish in a pond is a random variable with mean kg and
variance 2 kg2 . (Include the units of measurement in your answers.) (Answer on p. 1173.)
(a) If two fish are caught and the weights of these fish are independent of each other, what
are the mean and variance of the total weight of the two fish?
(b) If one fish is caught and an exact clone is made of it, what are the mean and variance
of the total weight of the fish and its clone?
(c) If two fish are caught and the weights of these fish are not independent of each other,
what are the mean and variance of the total weight of the two fish?
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62.4
Why is the variance defined as the weighted average of squared deviations from the mean?
1. First, we tried defining the variance as the weighted average of deviations from the mean,
i.e. V[X] = E [X ]. But this was no good, because this quantity would always be
equal to 0.67
2. Next, we tried defining the variance as the weighted average of absolute deviations from
the mean, i.e. V[X] = E [X ]. This seemed to work well enough. But yet for some
bizarre reason, we choose not to use this definition.
3. Instead, we choose to use this definition:
2
V[X] = E [(X ) ] .
Why do we prefer using squared (rather than absolute) deviations as our definition of
variance? The conventional view is that the squared deviations definition is superior to
the absolute deviations definition (but see Gorard (2005) and Taleb (2014) for dissenting
views). Here are some reasons for believing the squared deviations definition to be superior:
The maths works out more nicely. For example:
The algebra is easier when dealing with squares than with absolute values.
Differentiation is easier (bserve that x2 is differentiable but x is not).
Variances are additive: If X and Y are independent, then V [X + Y ] = V [X] + V [Y ].
In contrast, if we use the definition V[X] = E [X ], then variances are no longer
additive.
Tradition.
A century or two ago, some Europeans preferred using squared to absolute deviations.
And so were stuck with using this.
See also these Stack Exchange Q&A discussions: [1], [2], [3], [4], and [5].
67
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63
Heres another example of a probability problem that can be stated very simply, yet have
counter-intuitive results.
Example 549. Keep flipping a fair coin until you get a sequence of HH (two heads in a
row). Let X be the number of flips taken.
Now, keep flipping a fair coin until you get a sequence of HT . Let Y be the number of flips
taken.
Which is larger X = E [X] or Y = E [Y ]?
Intuition might suggest that obviously, X = Y . Intuition would be wrong. It turns out
that, surprisingly enough, X = 6 and Y = 4!
Example 550. Now suppose we flip a fair coin 10, 001 times. This gives us a sequence of
10, 000 pairs of consecutive coin-flips.
For example, if the 10, 001 coin-flips are HHTHT . . . , then the first four pairs of consecutive
coin-flips are HH, HT, TH, and HT .
Let A be the proportion of the 10, 000 consecutive coin-flips that are HH. Let B be the
proportion of the 10, 000 consecutive coin-flips that are HT .
Which is larger A = E [A] or B = E [B]?
In the previous example, we saw that it took, on average, 6 flips before getting HH and
4 flips before getting HT . So obviously, wed expect a smaller proportion to be HHs.
That is, A < B .
Sadly, we would again be wrong! It turns out that A = B = 1/4! This Google spreadsheet
simulates 10, 001 coin-flips and calculates A and B.
If youre interested, the above two results are formally proven in Fact 103 in the Appendices.
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64
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Example 552. On any given day, our refrigerator at home has probability 0.001 of breaking
down. We can model this with a Bernoulli trial with probability of success 0.001:
Sample space S = {0, 1},
Event space = {, {0}, {1}, S},
Probability function P({0}) = 0.999 and P({1}) = 0.001.
The corresponding Bernoulli random variable is simply the random variable T S R
defined by T ({0}) = 0 and T ({1}) = 1.
Its probability distribution is given by P (T = 0) = 0.999 and P(T = 1) = 0.001. In words,
the probability of no failure is 0.999 and the probability of a failure is 0.001.
Example 553. 90% of H2 Maths students pass their H2 Maths A-level exams. We randomly pick a H2 Maths student and see if she passes her H2 Maths A-level exam.
We can model this with a Bernoulli trial with probability of success 0.9:
Sample space S = {F, P },
Event space = {, {F }, {P }, S},
Probability function P({F }) = 0.1 and P({P }) = 0.9.
The corresponding Bernoulli random variable is simply the random variable Y S R
defined by Y ({F }) = 0 and Y ({P }) = 1. Its probability distribution is given by P (Y = 0) =
0.1 and P(Y = 1) = 0.9.
The following two statements are equivalent:
1. T is a Bernoulli random variable with probability of success p.
2. The random variable T has Bernoulli distribution with probability of success p.
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64.1
Fact 74. A Bernoulli random variable T with probability of success p has mean p and
variance p(1 p).
Proof.
E[T ] = P (T = 0) 0 + P (T = 1) 1 = (1 p) 0 + p 1 = p.
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65
Informally, the binomial random variable simply counts the number of successes in a
sequence of n identical, but independent Bernoulli trials.
Example 554. Flip 3 fair coins. Let X be the number of heads.
1
X is an example of a binomial random variable X with parameters 3 and .
2
X can take on values 0, 1, 2, or 3 (corresponding to the number of heads).
The probability distribution of X is given by:
3 1 0 1 3 1
( ) ( ) = ,
P(X = 0) =
2
8
0 2
P(X = 2) =
3 1 2 1 1 3
( ) ( ) = ,
2
8
2 2
3 1 1 1 2 3
( ) ( ) = ,
P(X = 1) =
2
8
1 2
P(X = 3) =
3 1 3 1 0 1
( ) ( ) = .
2
8
3 2
Formally:
Definition 121. Let T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn be n identical, but independent Bernoulli random
variables, each with probability of success p. Then the binomial random variable X with
parameters n and p is defined as:
X = T1 + T2 + + Tn .
The following three statements are entirely equivalent:
1. X is a binomial random variable with parameters n and p.
2. The random variable X has the binomial distribution with parameters n and p.
3. X B(n, p).
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P (Y = 0) =
2 0 2
0.9 0.1 = 0.01,
0
P (Y = 1) =
2 1 1
0.9 0.1 = 0.18,
1
P (Y = 2) =
2 2 0
0.9 0.1 = 0.81.
2
In words, the probability that both fail is 0.01, the probability that exactly one passes is
0.18, and the probability that both pass is 0.81.
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65.1
n k
p (1 p)nk .
k
In summary:
Fact 75. Let X B(n, p). Then for any k = 0, 1, . . . , n,
P(X = k) =
n k
p (1 p)1k .
k
Example 556. Let X be the number of heads when 10 fair coins are flipped.
Then X B(10, 0.5). And the probability that exactly 8 coins are heads is:
P(X = 8) =
10 8 2
45
0.5 0.5 =
.
1024
8
20 18 2 20 19 1 20 20 0
0.9 0.1 +
0.9 0.1 +
0.9 0.1 0.677.
18
19
20
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65.2
Example 558. Problem: Three machines each have, independently, probability 0.3 of failure. What is the expected number of failures? What is the variance of the number of
failures?
Solution: Let Z B(3, 0.3) be the number of failures. Then
P (Z = 1) =
3 1 2
0.3 0.7 ,
1
P (Z = 2) =
3 2 1
0.3 0.7 ,
2
P (Z = 3) =
3 3 0
0.3 0.7 .
3
Hence, E[Z] = P (Z = 1) 1 + P (Z = 2) 2 + P (Z = 3) 3
3 1 2
3 2 1
3 3 0
0.3 0.7 1 +
0.3 0.7 2 +
0.3 0.7 3
1
2
3
= 0.441 + 0.378 + 0.081 = 0.9.
=
It turns out though that there is a much quicker formula for finding the mean and variance
of any binomial random variable.
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Fact 76. If X B(n, p), then E[X] = np and V[X] = np(1 p).
(You can verify that this formula works for the last example: n = 3, p = 0.3, and thus
E[Z] = np = 0.9.)
Proof. Let T1 , T2 , . . . , Tn be identical, but independent Bernoulli random variables with
parameter p. Then X = T1 + T2 + + Tn . Hence,
E[X] = E [T1 + T2 + + Tn ] = E [T1 ] + E [T2 ] + + E [Tn ] = p + p + + p = np.
V[X] = V [T1 + T2 + + Tn ] = V [T1 ] + V [T2 ] + + V [Tn ]
= p(1 p) + p(1 p) + + p(1 p) = np(1 p).
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66
SYLLABUS ALERT
The Poisson distribution is in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus.
So you can skip this chapter if youre taking 9758.
The Poisson process is the continuous time analogue of the Bernoulli process.68 And in
parallel, the Poisson random variable is the limit of the binomial random variable.
Example 559. The long-term average number of murders per year in Singapore is 2.4.
How might we model the rate at which murders are committed in Singapore?
Lets assume that the rate at which murders are committed satisfies two properties:
1. (Time-homogeneity.) The probability that there are k murders in any fixed time
interval is constant.
For example, the probability that there are 2 murders in the first 90 days of the year, is
the same as the probability that there are 2 murders in the last 90 days of the year. As
another example, the probability that there is 1 murder on January 10th is the same as the
probability that there is 1 murder on August 5th.
2. (Independence.) The probability that there is a murder at any given moment does
not depend on the number of murders that have already been committed that year.
For example, the probability that there is a murder in December does not depend on how
many murders were committed between January and November.
Then an appropriate model might be the Bernoulli process. Let us say that each month,
there is a murder with probability 2.4/12 = 0.2, and no murder with probability 0.8. The
number of murders each month may thus be modelled by a Bernoulli random variable T
with parameter 0.2.
By assumption, the number of murders in one month has no influence on the number of
murders in another month. Thus, the number of murders in a given year can be modelled
by the binomial random variable X B(12, 0.2). Equivalently,
X = TJan + TFeb + + TDec .
(... Example continued on the next page ...)
68
The Poisson process is an infinite process that is beyond the scope of the A-levels, and is thus omitted from this book.
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2.4
) is probably better than the first model X B(12, 0.2).
365
But why stop at partitioning the year into 365 days?
This second model Y B (365,
In general, we can model the number of murders by the binomial random variable Z
2.4
B (n,
). Taking the above reasoning to the extreme, we can instead partition the year
n
into infinitely-many infinitely-short time intervals. That is, we can let n . And as it
turns out, as n , the binomial random variable Z approaches something called the
Poisson random variable with parameter 2.4. That is,
lim Z Po(2.4).
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66.1
k e
, for all k Z+0 .
k!
The following result establishes that the limit of a binomial random variable is a
Poisson random variable.69
Theorem 13. Let > 0. Let Xn B (n, ). Let Y = lim Xn . Then Y is a Poisson random
n
n
variable with parameter .
Proof. This proof is actually also not too difficult. It just involves some algebra and manipulation of limits. But as usual, Ill put it in the Appendices (on p. 995).
69
By the way, the Poisson random variable is a discrete random variable because although its range is not finite, its range is
countably-infinite.
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66.2
The Poisson random variable is typically used to model the number of occurrences or
arrivals of some phenomenon, within a given timespan or space. We already saw one
example where it could be deployed (murders in Singapore).
In general, the Poisson random variable is an appropriate model if:
1. (Time-homogeneity.) The rate of occurrences is constant.
2. (Independence.) The probability of occurrence is independent of when the last occurrence took place.
Example 560. Consider the number of goals scored in a given football match. Arguably,
an appropriate model for this number is a Poisson random variable, because arguably,
1. The rate of goals is constant.
2. The probability of a goal being scored in, say, the next 60 seconds is independent of
when the last goal was scored.
Suppose that, on average, the number of goals scored in a football match is 2.3. We can
model the number of goals scored with the Poisson random variable X Po( = 2.3).
By definition of the Poisson random variable, the probability that 0 goals are scored is
P(X = 0) =
k e 2.30 e2.3
=
= e2.3 0.100.
k!
0!
k e 2.33 e2.3
=
0.203.
k!
3!
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Example 561. Consider the number of public mass shootings in the US in a given year.
Arguably, an appropriate model for this number is a Poisson random variable, because
arguably,
1. The rate of public mass shootings in the US is constant.
2. The probability of a public mass shooting being committed in, say, the next three days
is independent of when the last public mass shooting was committed.
Now, no model is perfect. We do not know and may never know the exact processes
governing when a goal will be scored, a public mass shooting committed, or a supernova
observed. Nonetheless, we can argue that the Poisson random variable works reasonably
well as a model. We can make use of this model to analyse the phenomenon at hand.
If we choose not to use the Poisson random variable, then our alternatives are to:
Find some alternative model that works better than the Poisson random variable.
Shrug our shoulders and say that the phenomenon cannot be analysed mathematically.
The first alternative, if it exists, is great. The second is anti-intellectual and not very useful.
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Exercise 239. For each the following phenomena, make an argument for whether or not
the Poisson random variable is a suitable model. (Answer on p. 1176.)
(a) The number of cats killed in northern Singapore, between 2011 and 2020.
(b) The number of errors in this textbook.
(c) The number of emails you receive, in a given 24-hour timespan.
Exercise 240. This exercise revisits Example 561. Suppose the number of public mass
shootings in the US in a given year can be modelled by X, a Poisson random variable
with parameter = 4.2. Compute the probability that there are more than 5 public mass
shootings in the US in a given year. (Answer on p. 1176.)
Exercise 241. This exercise revisits Example 562. Suppose the number of supernovae
observed in a millennium can be modelled by Y , a Poisson random variable with parameter = 3.7. Compute the probability that there are no supernovae observed in a given
millennium. (Answer on p. 1176.)
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66.3
It turns out that interestingly (and conveniently) enough, the mean and variance of X
Po() are both equal to .
Fact 77. Let X Po(). Then E[X] = and V[X] = .
Proof. The proof is actually not too difficult, given what we know about Maclaurin series.
But as usual, Ill put it in the Appendices (p. 994).
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66.4
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Example 563. Problem: We have 300 machines, each of which has, independently, probability 0.02 of breaking down in any given month. What is the probability that at most 10
break down in a given month?
Let X B(300, 0.02) be the number of machines that break down in a given month. Then
P(X 10) = pX (0) + pX (1) + pX (2) + + pX (10)
=
300
300
300
0.020 0.99300 +
0.021 0.99299 + +
0.0210 0.99299 .
0
1
10
In the old days, it would have been tedious to compute the above probability. So one might
instead have preferred to use the Poisson approximation.
Now, since n 30 and p 0.05, by our rule-of-thumb, Y Po(np) = Po(6) serves as a
suitable approximation to X B(n = 300, p = 0.02). Thus,
P(X 10) P(Y 10).
Now, it would have been easy to find P(Y 10), because one would have had a print copy
of a Poisson table, partly reproduced below. A Poisson table tells us what the value of
P(Y k) is, for various possible values of and the number k, given that Y Po(). (For
the full table, see sheet titled Poisson Table at the usual link.)
Reading off the table, we have P(Y 10) 0.9574. We thus conclude: The probability that
at most 10 machines break down in a given month is approximately 0.9574.
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Exercise 242. Suppose the number of deaths by lightning strikes in Singapore in a given
year can be modelled by the random variable X B (5500000, 106 ). (Answer on p. 1177.)
(a) What is an appropriate interpretation of the numbers 5500000 and 106 ?
(b) Using a suitable approximation (and justify your use of this approximation), find the
probability that at least 5 people are killed by lightning strikes in Singapore in a given year.
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66.5
Formally:
Theorem 14. Suppose X Po () and Y Po () are independent Poisson random variables. Then X + Y Po ( + ).
Proof. (Optional.) Well prove that the probability distribution of X + Y is that of the
Poisson random variable with parameter + .
k
P (X + Y = k) = P (X + Y = k, X = i)
i=0
k
= P (Y = k i, X = i) = P (Y = k i) P (X = i)
i=0
k
i=0
k
ki e i e
= pY (k i)pX (i) =
i=0
i=0
(k i)! i!
1
ki i
i=0 (k i)!i!
= e(+)
k!
e(+) k
ki i
k! i=0 (k i)!i!
e(+) k k ki i 2 e(+)
k
( + ) ,
=
k! i=0 i
k!
2
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Example 564. Problem: There are 34 machines in Room A and 42 in Room B. In any
given month, each machine in Room A has, independently, probability 0.03 of breaking
down; and each machine in Room B has, independently, probability 0.02 of breaking down.
Using a suitable approximation, find the probability that in a given month, more than 2
machines (in total across the two rooms) break down.
Let A B(34, 0.03) and B B(42, 0.02). We could directly solve this problem by finding
P(A + B > 2).
It is however quicker if we use the Poisson distribution as an approximation. (We have a
simple formula for the sum of two independent Poisson random variables. In contrast, there
is no similarly simple formula for the sum of two independent binomial random variables.)
A suitable approximation for A is X Po(34 0.03) = Po(1.02). A suitable approximation
for B is Y Po(42 0.02) = Po(0.84). Thus, a suitable approximation for A + B is
X + Y Po(1.02 + 0.84) = Po(1.86). Hence,
P(A + B > 2) P(X + Y > 2) = 1 P (X + Y 2) 0.285.
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The sum of two independent Poisson random variables is itself a Poisson random variable.
We might thus wonder, Is the difference of two independent Poisson random variables also
a Poisson random variable? Unfortunately, the answer is no.
A trivial reason for this is that the difference of two independent Poisson random variables
can take on negative values. In contrast, the Poisson random variable always takes on
positive values. To illustrate:
Example 564 (continued from above). Reproduced from above: There are 34 machines in Room A and 42 in Room B. In any given month, each machine in Room A
has, independently, probability 0.03 of breaking down; and each machine in Room B has,
independently, probability 0.02 of breaking down.
Let A B(34, 0.03) and B B(42, 0.02). We now show that B A is not a Poisson random
variable.
The range of A and B are both Z+0 = {0, 1, 2, . . . }. Thus, the range of B A is Z =
{ 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . . }. By the definition of a Poisson random variable then (Definition
122), B A cannot possibly be a Poisson random variable.
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67
So far, all examples of random variables weve seen have been discrete. For example, the
binomial random variable X B (n, p) is discrete, because Range (X) = {0, 1, 2, . . . , n} is
finite.
Well now look at continuous random variables. Informally, a random variable Y is continuous if its range takes on a continuum of values.
For H2 Maths, you need only learn about one continuous random variable: the normal
random variable (subject of the next chapter).
Nonetheless, well first look at another continuous random variable that is not in the syllabus. This is the continuous uniform random variable. It is much simpler than
the normal random variable and can thus help build up your intuition of how continuous
random variables work.
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67.1
A line measuring exactly 1 metre in length is drawn on the floor. It is about to rain. Let
X be the position of the first rain-drop that hits the line. X is measured as the distance
(in metres) from the left-most point of the line.
So for example, if the first rain-drop hits the left-most point of the line, then x = 0. If it
hits the exact midpoint of the line, then x = 0.5. And if it hits the right-most point, then
x = 1.
Assume we can measure X to infinite precision.
Then, assuming the first rain-drop is equally likely to hit any point of the line, we can
model X as a continuous uniform random variable on [0, 1]. This says that
The range of X is [0, 1] (the first rain-drop can hit any point along the line); and
X is equally likely to take on any value in the interval [0, 1] (the first rain-drop is equally
likely to hit any point along the line).
The following three statements are entirely equivalent:
1. X is a continuous uniform random variable on [0, 1].
2. X is a random variable with the continuous uniform distribution on [0, 1].
3. X U [0, 1].
Recall that previously with any discrete random variable Y , we could find its probability
distribution. That is, we could find P (Y = k) (the probability that Y takes on the value
k). For example, if Y B (3, 0.5) modelled the number of heads in three coin-flips, then
3 1 2 3
the probability that there was one heads was P (Y = 1) =
0.5 0.5 = .
8
1
Now, in contrast, for any continuous random variable X, strangely enough, there is
zero probability that X takes on any particular value! For example, if X U [0, 1], then
P (X = 0.37) = 0. That is, there is zero probability that X takes on the value of 0.37!
At first glance, this may seem strange.
But remember: There are infinitely-many real numbers in the interval [0, 1]. So it makes
sense to say that the probability of X taking on any particular value is zero.70
70
But strangely enough, zero probability is not the same thing as impossible. For example, wed say that
There is zero probability, but it is not impossible that X U [0, 1] takes on the value 0.37.
There is zero probability and it is impossible that X U [0, 1] takes on the value 1.2.
(Actually, rather than use the word impossible, mathematicians prefer saying almost never, which has a precise
definition.)
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So for any continuous random variable X, it is pointless to try to write down P (X = k) for
different possible values of k, because P (X = k) is always equal to zero (regardless of what
k is). Instead, we shall try to write down P (a X b), for different possible values of a
and b.
Now, if X U [0, 1], then the probability that X takes on values between 0.3 and 0.7 is
simply 0.7 0.3 = 0.4. That is,
P (0.3 X 0.7) = 0.7 0.3 = 0.4.
Similarly, the probability that X takes on values between 0.16 and 0.35 is simply 0.350.16 =
0.19. That is,
P (0.16 X 0.35) = 0.35 0.16 = 0.19.
The above observations suggest that it may be useful to define a new concept, called the
cumulative distribution function.
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67.2
The CDF simply tells us the probability that X takes on values less than or equal to k, for
every k R. Formally:
Definition 123. The cumulative distribution function (CDF) of a random variable X is
the function FX R R given by the mapping rule
FX (k) = P (X k) .
It turns out that every random variable can be uniquely defined by giving its
CDF. For example, the continuous uniform random variable is formally defined thus:
Definition 124. X is the continuous uniform random variable on [0, 1] if its CDF FX
R R is defined by
0,
FX (k) = k,
1,
if k < 0,
if k [0, 1],
if k > 1.
Armed with the concept of the CDF, the formal definition of a continuous random variable
can be simply stated:
Definition 125. A random variable X is continuous if its CDF FX is continuous.
We can now summarise the three possible types of random variables.
1. Discrete random variables. A random variable is discrete if its range is finite.71
Examples: Bernoulli, binomial.
2. Continuous random variables. A random variable is continuous if its CDF is continuous. Examples: Continuous uniform, normal.
3. Other random variables. There are random variables that are neither discrete nor
continuous. But you will not study any of these for the A-levels.
Note that every random variable (discrete, continuous, or otherwise) has a cumulative
distribution function (CDF).
71
Or countably-infinite.
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67.3
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67.4
d
FX (k).
dk
The PDF has an intuitive interpretation. The area under the PDF between points a and
b is equal to P (a X b). This, of course, is simply a consequence of the Fundamental
Theorems of Calculus:
b
fX (k)dk =
b
a
d
FTC
FX (k)dk = FX (b) FX (a) = P(X b) P(X a) = P(a X b).
dk
if k [0, 1],
and fX (k) = 1,
otherwise.
For any a b, the area under the PDF between a and b is precisely P (a X b). For
example, there is probability 0.25 (red area) that X takes on values between 0.5 and 0.75.
There is probability 0.1 (blue area) that X takes on values between 0.2 and 0.3.
Exercise 244. The continuous uniform random variable Y U[3, 5] is equally likely to
take on values between 3 and 5, inclusive. (a) Write down CDF FX . (b) Write down
and graph its PDF fX . (c) Compute, and also illustrate on your graph, the quantities
P (3.1 Y 4.6) and P (4.8 Y 4.9). (Answer on p. 1178.)
72
Note that although every random variable has a CDF, not every random variable has a PDF. In particular, if the random
variables CDF is not differentiable, then by our definition here, the random variable does not have a PDF.
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68
The standard normal (or Gaussian) random variable (SNRV) is very important. In
fact, it is so important that we usually reserve the letter Z for it, and the Greek letters
and (lower- and upper-case phi) for its PDF and CDF.
The following three statements are entirely equivalent:
1. Z is a SNRV.
2. Z is a random variable with the standard normal distribution.
3. Z N (0, 1).
Heres the formal definition:
Definition 127. Z is called a standard normal random variable (SNRV) if its PDF R
R is defined by:
2
1
(a) = e0.5a .
2
For the A-levels, you need not remember this complicated-looking PDF. Nor need you
understand where it comes from.
The normal PDF is often also referred to as the bell curve, due to its resemblance to a
bell (kinda).
As with the continuous uniform, for any a b, the area under the normal PDF between
a and b gives us precisely P (a X b). For example, there is probability 0.25 (red area)
that X takes on values between 0.5 and 0.75. There is probability 0.1 (blue area) that X
takes on values between 0.2 and 0.3.
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(x)dx =
2
1
e0.5x dx.
Unfortunately, this last integral has no simpler expression (mathematicians would say that
it has no closed-form expression). Instead, as well soon see, we have to use the so-called
Z-tables (or a graphing calculator) to look up values of (k).
The next fact summarises the properties of the normal distribution. Some of these properties are illustrated in the figure that follows.
Fact 78. Let Z N(0, 1) and let and be the PDF and CDF of Z.
1. () = 1. (The area under the entire PDF is 1. This, of course, is true of any random
variable.)
2. (a) > 0, for all a R. (The PDF is positive everywhere. This has the surprising
implication that no matter how large a is, there is always some non-zero probability that
Z a.)
3. E [Z] = 0. (The mean of Z is 0.)
4. The PDF reaches a global maximum at the mean 0. (In fact, we can go ahead and
1
compute (0) = 0.399.)
2
5. V [Z] = 1. (The variance of Z is 1.)
6. P (Z a) = P (Z < a). (Weve already discussed this earlier. It makes no difference
whether the inequality is strict. This is because P(Z = a) = 0.)
7. The PDF is symmetric about the mean. This has several implications:
(a) P (Z a) = P (Z a) = (a).
(b) Since P (Z a) = 1 P (Z a) = 1 (a), it follows that (a) = 1 (a) or,
equivalently, (a) = 1 (a).
(c) (0) = 1 (0) = 0.5.
8. P (1 Z 1) = (1) (1) 0.6827. (There is probability 0.6827 that Z takes on
values within 1 standard deviation of the mean.)
9. P (2 Z 2) = (2) (2) 0.9545. (There is probability 0.9545 that Z takes on
values within 2 standard deviations of the mean.)
10. P (3 Z 3) = (3) (3) 0.9973. (There is probability 0.9973 that Z takes on
values within 3 standard deviations of the mean.)
11. The PDF has two points of inflection, namely at 1. (The points of inflection are one
standard deviation away from the mean.)
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-4
-3
-2
-1
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-4
-3
After Step 2.
-2
-1
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
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Example 567. To find (2.51), (1.372), and P (4 Z 4), the steps are very similar.
So for each, Ill simply give the screenshot from the TI84:
(2.51)
-4
-3
-2
-1
P (4 Z 4)
(1.372)
-4
-3
-2
-1
Example 568. Well find (2.51), (2.51), (1.372), and P (4 Z 4) using Z-tables.
Refer to the Z-tables on p. 641. (These are the exact same tables that appear on the List
of Formulae youll get during exams.)
To find (2.51), look at the row labelled 2.5 and the column labelled 1 read off the
number 0.9940. We thus have (2.51) = 0.9940.
To find (2.51), note that the table does not explicitly give values of (z), if z < 0.
But we can exploit the fact that the standard normal is symmetric about the mean = 0.
This fact implies that (z) = 1 (z). Hence, (2.51) = 1 (2.51) = 0.0060.
To find (1.372), first look at the row labelled 1.3 and the column labelled 7 read off
the number 0.9147. This tells us that (1.37) = 0.9147. Now look at the right end of the
table (where it says ADD). Since the third decimal place of 1.372 is 2, we look under
the column labelled 2 this tells us to ADD 3. Thus, (1.372) = 0.9147+0.003 = 0.9150.
To find P (4 Z 4), the Z-tables printed are actually useless, because they only go
to 2.99. So you can just write P (4 Z 4) 1.
Exercise 245. Using both the Z-tables and your graphing calculator, find the following:
(a) P (Z 1.8). (b) P (0.351 < Z < 1.2). (Answer on p. 1179.)
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7 8
0.5359
0.5753
0.6141
0.6517
0.6879
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
7
7
12
12
12
11
11
16
16
15
15
14
28
28
27
26
25
32
32
31
30
29
36
36
35
34
32
0.7190
0.7517
0.7823
0.8106
0.8365
0.7224
0.7549
0.7852
0.8133
0.8389
3
3
3
3
3
7 10 14 17 20 24
7 10 13 16 19 23
6 9 12 15 18 21
5 8 11 14 16 19
5 8 10 13 15 18
27
26
24
22
20
31
29
27
25
23
0.8577
0.8790
0.8980
0.9147
0.9292
0.8599
0.8810
0.8997
0.9162
0.9306
0.8621
0.8830
0.9015
0.9177
0.9319
2
2
2
2
1
5
4
4
3
3
7
6
6
5
4
9 12 14 16 19 21
8 10 12 14 16 18
7 9 11 13 15 17
6 8 10 11 13 14
6 7 8 10 11 13
0.9406
0.9515
0.9608
0.9686
0.9750
0.9418
0.9525
0.9616
0.9693
0.9756
0.9429
0.9535
0.9625
0.9699
0.9761
0.9441
0.9545
0.9633
0.9706
0.9767
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
4
3
3
2
2
5
4
4
3
2
6
5
4
4
3
7
6
5
4
4
8
7
6
5
4
10
8
7
6
5
11
9
8
6
5
0.9798
0.9842
0.9878
0.9906
0.9929
0.9803
0.9846
0.9881
0.9909
0.9931
0.9808
0.9850
0.9884
0.9911
0.9932
0.9812
0.9854
0.9887
0.9913
0.9934
0.9817
0.9857
0.9890
0.9916
0.9936
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
3
2
2
2
1
3
3
2
2
1
4
3
3
2
2
4
4
3
2
2
0.9946
0.9960
0.9970
0.9978
0.9984
0.9948
0.9961
0.9971
0.9979
0.9985
0.9949
0.9962
0.9972
0.9979
0.9985
0.9951
0.9963
0.9973
0.9980
0.9986
0.9952
0.9964
0.9974
0.9981
0.9986
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5000
0.5398
0.5793
0.6179
0.6554
0.5040
0.5438
0.5832
0.6217
0.6591
0.5080
0.5478
0.5871
0.6255
0.6628
0.5120
0.5517
0.5910
0.6293
0.6664
0.5160
0.5557
0.5948
0.6331
0.6700
0.5199
0.5596
0.5987
0.6368
0.6736
0.5239
0.5636
0.6026
0.6406
0.6772
0.5279
0.5675
0.6064
0.6443
0.6808
0.5319
0.5714
0.6103
0.6480
0.6844
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.6915
0.7257
0.7580
0.7881
0.8159
0.6950
0.7291
0.7611
0.7910
0.8186
0.6985
0.7324
0.7642
0.7939
0.8212
0.7019
0.7357
0.7673
0.7967
0.8238
0.7054
0.7389
0.7704
0.7995
0.8264
0.7088
0.7422
0.7734
0.8023
0.8289
0.7123
0.7454
0.7764
0.8051
0.8315
0.7157
0.7486
0.7794
0.8078
0.8340
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
0.8413
0.8643
0.8849
0.9032
0.9192
0.8438
0.8665
0.8869
0.9049
0.9207
0.8461
0.8686
0.8888
0.9066
0.9222
0.8485
0.8708
0.8907
0.9082
0.9236
0.8508
0.8729
0.8925
0.9099
0.9251
0.8531
0.8749
0.8944
0.9115
0.9265
0.8554
0.8770
0.8962
0.9131
0.9279
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
0.9332
0.9452
0.9554
0.9641
0.9713
0.9345
0.9463
0.9564
0.9649
0.9719
0.9357
0.9474
0.9573
0.9656
0.9726
0.9370
0.9484
0.9582
0.9664
0.9732
0.9382
0.9495
0.9591
0.9671
0.9738
0.9394
0.9505
0.9599
0.9678
0.9744
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
0.9772
0.9821
0.9861
0.9893
0.9918
0.9778
0.9826
0.9864
0.9896
0.9920
0.9783
0.9830
0.9868
0.9898
0.9922
0.9788
0.9834
0.9871
0.9901
0.9925
0.9793
0.9838
0.9875
0.9904
0.9927
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
0.9938
0.9953
0.9965
0.9974
0.9981
0.9940
0.9955
0.9966
0.9975
0.9982
0.9941
0.9956
0.9967
0.9976
0.9982
0.9943
0.9957
0.9968
0.9977
0.9983
0.9945
0.9959
0.9969
0.9977
0.9984
5 6
ADD
20
20
19
19
18
24
24
23
22
22
0.75
0.674
0.90
1.282
0.95
1.645
0.975
1.960
0.99
2.326
0.995
2.576
0.9975
2.807
0.999
3.090
0.9995
3.291
68.1
Once again, for the A-levels, you need not remember this complicated-looking PDF. Nor
need you understand where it comes from.
The following three statements are entirely equivalent:
1. X is a normal random variable with mean and variance 2 .
2. X is a random variable with normal distribution of mean and variance 2 .
3. X N (, 2 ).
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Example 569. The normal random variables A N(1, 1), B N(1, 1), and C N(2, 1)
have variance 1 (just like the SNRV), but non-zero means. Their PDFs are graphed below.
(Included for reference is the standard normal PDF in black.)
We see that the effect of increasing the mean is to move the graph of the PDF rightwards.
And decreasing the mean moves it leftwards.
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Example 570. The normal random variables D N(0, 0.1), E N(0, 2), and F N(0, 3)
have mean 0 (just like the SNRV), but non-unit variances. Their PDFs are graphed below.
(Included for reference is the standard normal PDF in black.)
The effect of changing the variance 2 is this:
The larger the variance, the fatter the tails of the PDF and the shorter the peak.
Conversely, the smaller the variance, the thinner the tails of the PDF and the taller
the peak.
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Example 571. The normal random variables G N(1, 0.1), H N(1, 2), and I N(2, 3)
have non-zero means and non-unit variances. Their PDFs are graphed below. (Included
for reference is the standard normal PDF in black.)
Exercise 246. Let X N(, 2 ). Verify that if = 0 and 2 = 1, then for all a R, we
have fX (a) = (a). What can you conclude? (Answer on p. 1180.)
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Corollary 6. If X N (, 2 ), then
X
= Z N(0, 1). Equivalently, X = Z + .
(Just to be clear, two random variables are identical if their CDFs are identical.)
Proof. The next exercise asks you to prove this corollary.
X
= Z N(0, 1).
The above corollary gives us an alternative method for computing probabilities associated
with normal random variables. In general, if X N (, 2 ), then
P (X c) = P (Z + c) = P (Z
c
c
) = (
).
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The properties that we listed for the SNRV also apply, with only a few modifications, to
any NRV. I highlight any differences in red. The figure that follows illustrates.
Fact 80. Let X N (, 2 ) and let fX and FX be the PDF and CDF of X.
1. () = 1. (The area under the entire PDF is 1. This, of course, is true of any random
variable.)
2. (a) > 0, for all a R. (The PDF is positive everywhere. This has the surprising
implication that no matter how large a is, there is always some non-zero probability that
Z a.)
3. E [X] = . (The mean of Z is .)
4. The PDF fX reaches a global maximum at the mean . (In fact, we can go ahead and
0.399
1
.)
compute fX () =
2
5. V [X] = 2 . (The variance of X is 2 .)
6. P (Z a) = P (Z < a). (Weve already discussed this earlier. It makes no difference
whether the inequality is strict. This is because P(Z = a) = 0.)
7. The PDF is symmetric about the mean. This has several implications:
(a) P (X + a) = P (X a) = FX ( a).
(b) Since P (X + a) = 1 P (X + a) = 1 FX ( + a), it follows that FX ( a) =
1 FX ( + a) or, equivalently, FX ( + a) = 1 FX ( a).
(c) FX () = 1 FX () = 0.5.
8. P ( X + ) = (1) (1) 0.6827. (There is probability 0.6827 that X takes
on values within 1 standard deviation of the mean.)
9. P ( X + ) = (2) (2) 0.9545. (There is probability 0.9545 that X takes
on values within 2 standard deviations of the mean.)
10. P ( X + ) = (3) (3) 0.9973. (There is probability 0.9973 that X takes
on values within 3 standard deviations of the mean.)
11. The PDF has two points of inflection, namely at . (The points of inflection are one
standard deviation away from the mean.)
Exercise 248. Prove all of the properties listed in Fact 80. (Hint: Use Corollary 6 to
convert X into the SNRV. Then simply apply Fact 78.) (Answer on p. 1181.)
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Example 572. Let G N(1, 0.1), H N(1, 2), and I N(2, 3). Well find P (G < 2) using
our TI84. The first few steps are similar to before:
1. Press the blue 2ND button and then VARS (which corresponds to the DISTR button).
This brings up the DISTR menu.
2. Press 2 to select the normalcdf option.
3. Enter the lower bound 1099 by pressing (-) , the blue 2ND button, EE (which corresponds to the , button), and then 9 9 . (Dont press ENTER yet!)
4. Enter the upper bound 2 by pressing , and 2 . (Dont press ENTER yet!!).
After Step 1.
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
Previously, we didnt bother telling the TI84 our mean and standard deviation .
And so by default, if we pressed ENTER at this point, the TI84 simply assumed that we
wanted the SNRV Z N(0, 1). Now well tell the TI84 what and are:
5. First enter the mean = 1. Press , (-) 1 .
0
6. Now enter the standard deviation = 0.1 (and not the variance). Press ,
. 1 ) . Finally, press ENTER . The TI84 says that P (G < 2) 1.
After Step 5.
After Step 6.
Finding P (H < 2), P (I < 2), P (1 < G < 1), P (1 < H < 1), and P (1 < I < 1) is similar:
P (H < 2) and P (I < 2)
P (1 < G < 1)
P (1 < H < 1)
P (1 < I < 1)
Since I has mean = 2, we should have exactly P (I < 2) = 0.5. So here the TI84 has
actually made a small error in reporting instead that P (I < 2) 0.5000000005.
Page 649, Table of Contents
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Example 573. We now redo the previous two examples, but use Z-tables:
P (G < 2) = P (Z <
2 G 2 (1)
=
9.4868) = (9.4868) 1,
G
0.1
P (H < 2) = P (Z <
2 H 2 1
= 0.7071) = (0.7071) 0.7601,
H
2
P (I < 2) = P (Z <
2 I 2 2
= = 0) = (0) = 0.5,
I
3
1 (1)
1 (1)
<Z<
6.3246)
0.1
0.1
= (6.3246) (0) 1 (0) = 0.5.
P (1 < G < 1) = P (0 =
11
1 1
P (1 < H < 1) = P (1.4142 < Z < = 0)
2
2
= (0) (1.4142) 0.5 [1 (1.4142)]
= (1.4142) 0.5 0.9213 0.5 = 0.4213,
1 2
12
P (1 < I < 1) = P (1.7321 < Z < 0.5774)
3
3
= (0.5774) (1.7321) = 1 (0.5774) [1 (1.7321)]
0.9584 0.7182 = 0.2402.
Exercise 249. Let X N(2.14, 5) and Y N(0.33, 2). Using both the Z-tables and your
graphing calculator, find the following: (a) P (X 1) and P (Y 1). (b) P (2 X 1.5)
and P (2 Y 1.5). (Answer on p. 1182.)
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68.2
Theorem 15. If X and Y are independent normal random variables, then X + Y is also a
normal random variable. Moreover, X Y is also a normal random variable.
Proof. Omitted.
We already knew from before that E [X Y ] = E [X] E [Y ]. Moreover, if X and Y are
independent, then V [X Y ] = V [X] + V [Y ]. Thus, the above theorem implies:
2
) and Y N (Y , Y2 ) be independent and a, b R
Corollary 7. Let X N (X , X
2
be constants. Then X + Y N (X + Y , X
+ Y2 ) and more generally, aX + bY
2
N (aX + bY , a2 X
+ b2 Y2 ).
2
Moreover, X Y
N (X Y , X
+ Y2 )
2
N (aX bY , a2 X
+ b2 Y2 ).
and
more
generally,
aX bY
Examples:
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Example 574. The weight (in kg) of a sumo wrestler is modelled by X N (200, 50).
Assume that the weight of each sumo wrestler is independent of the weight of any other
sumo wrestler.
We randomly choose two sumo wrestlers.
(a) What is the probability that their total weight is greater than 405 kg?
(b) What is the probability that one is more than 10% heavier than that the other?
(a) Let X1 N (200, 50) and X2 N (200, 50) be the weight of the first and second sumo
wrestler. Then X1 + X2 N (400, 100). Thus,
P (X1 + X2 > 405) = P (Z >
405 400
(b) Our goal is to find p = P (X1 > 1.1X2 ) + P (X2 > 1.1X1 ). This is the probability that
the first sumo wrestler is more than 10% heavier than the second, plus the probability that
the second is more than 10% heavier than the first. Of course, by symmetry, these two
probabilities are equal. Thus, p = 2 P (X1 > 1.1X2 ). Now,
P (X1 > 1.1X2 ) = P (X1 1.1X2 > 0) .
But X1 1.1X2 N (200 1.1 200, 50 + 1.12 50) = N (20, 110.5). Thus,
0 (20)
P (X1 > 1.1X2 ) = P (X1 1.1X2 > 0) = P (Z >
)
110.5
P (Z > 1.9026) = 1 (1.9026) 1 0.9714 = 0.0286.
Altogether then, p = 2P (X1 > 1.1X2 ) = 2 0.0286 = 0.0572.
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Example 575. The weight (in kg) of a caught fish is modelled by X N (1, 0.4). The
weight (in kg) of a caught shrimp is modelled by Y N (0.1, 0.1). Assume that the weights
of any caught fish and shrimp are independent.
(a) What is the probability that the total weight of 4 caught fish and 50 caught shrimp is
greater than 10 kg?
(b) What is the probability that a caught fish weighs more than 9 times as much as a
caught shrimp?
(a) Let S be the total weight of 4 caught fish and 50 caught shrimp. Note, importantly,
that it would be wrong to write S = 4X + 50Y , because 4X + 50Y would be 4 times the
weight of a single caught fish, plus 50 times the weight of a single caught shrimp.
In contrast, we want Z to be the sum of the weights of 4 independent fish and 50 independent
shrimp. Thus, we should instead write S = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + Y1 + Y2 + + Y50 , where
X1 N (1, 0.4), X2 N (1, 0.4), X3 N (1, 0.4), and X4 N (1, 0.4) are the weights of
each caught fish.
Y1 N (0.1, 0.1), Y2 N (0.1, 0.1), . . . , and Y50 N (0.1, 0.1) are the weights of each
caught shrimp.
Now, S N (4 1 + 50 0.1, 4 0.4 + 50 0.1) = N (9, 6.6).
(Note by the way that in contrast, 4X +50Y N (9, 42 0.4 + 502 0.1) = N (9, 256.4), which
has a rather different variance!)
Thus, P (S > 10) 0.3485 (calculator).
(b) P (X > 9Y ) = P (X 9Y > 0). But X 9Y N (1 9 0.1, 0.4 + 92 0.1) = N (0.1, 8.5).
Thus, P (X 9Y > 0) 0.5137 (calculator).
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Exercise 250. (Answer on p. 1183.) Water and electricity usage are billed, respectively,
at $2 per 1, 000 litres (l) and $0.30 per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Assume that each month, the
amount of water used by Ahmad (and his family) at their HDB flat is normally distributed
with mean 25, 000 l and variance 64, 000, 000 l2 . Similarly, the amount of electricity they
use is normally distributed with mean 200 kWh and variance 10, 000 kWh2 .
Assume that monthly water usage and electricity usage are independent.
(a) Find the probability that their total water and electricity utility bill in any given month
exceeds $100.
(b) Find the probability that their total water and electricity utility bill in any given year
exceeds $1, 000.
Suppose instead that electricity usage is billed at $x per kWh.
(c) Then what is the maximum value of x, in order for the probability that the total utility
bill in a given month exceeds $100 is 0.1 or less?
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68.3
Proof. The proof is a little advanced and thus entirely omitted from this book.
What does it mean for one random variable to converge in distribution to another? This
is a little beyond the scope of the A-levels, but informally, this means that as n ,
n
the random variable Xi becomes ever more like the random variable with distribution
2
N (n, n ).
i=1
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Example 576. Let X be the random variable that is the sum of 100 rolls of a fair die. From
our earlier work, we know that each die roll has mean 3.5 and variance 35/12. Problem:
Find P(X 360) and P(X > 360).
The CLT says that since n = 100 20 is large enough and the distribution is nice enough
(we are assuming this), the random variable X can be approximated by the normal random
variable Y N (100 3.5, 100 35/12) = N (350, 3500/12).
Now, in using Y as an approximation for X, we might be tempted to simply write
P(X 360) P(Y 360) and P(X > 360) P(Y > 360).
Note however that X is a discrete random variable, so that P(X 360) P(X > 360).
More specifically,
P(X 360) = P(X = 360) + P(X > 360).
In contrast, Y is a continuous random variable, so that P(Y 360) = P(Y > 360). Hence, if
we simply use the approximations P(X 360) P(Y 360) and P(X > 360) P(Y > 360),
then implicitly wed be saying that P(X = 360) = 0, which is blatantly false.
To correct for this, we perform the so-called continuity correction. This says that well
instead use the approximations
P(X 360) P(Y 359.5) and P(X > 360) P(Y 360.5).
Thus, P(X 360) P(Y 359.5) 0.2890 (calculator) and P(X > 360) P(Y 360.5)
0.2693.
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Note that if the random variable to be approximated is itself continuous, then there is no
need to perform the continuity correction. This is illustrated in Exercise 252 below.
Exercise 251. Let X be the random variable that is the sum of 30 rolls of a fair die. Find
P(100 X 110). (Answer on p. 1184.)
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68.3.1
SYLLABUS ALERT
This is in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip
this subsection if youre taking 9758.
The binomial distribution is discrete. Thus, when using the normal distribution to approximate it, we must use the continuity correction.
Example 577. Flip a fair coin 1, 000 times. Let X be the number of heads. Find the
probability that there are more than 510 heads.
The CLT says that since n = 1000 20 is large enough and the distribution is nice
enough (we are assuming this), X can be approximated by the normal random variable
Y N (1000 0.5, 1000 0.25) = N (500, 250). Thus, using also the continuity correction,
we have
P (X > 510) P (Y > 510.5) 0.2635 (calculator).
This turns out to be a decent approximation because the exact probability, computed using
the binomial distribution, is P (X > 510) 0.2533.
Exercise 253. In a school of 1000 students, each student has probability 0.9 of passing
the A-level H2 Maths exam. Find the probability that there are at least 920 passes in the
school. (You may make additional assumptions, but you should state them.) (Answer on
p. 1184.)
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68.3.2
SYLLABUS ALERT
This is in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip
this subsection if youre taking 9758.
The Poisson distribution is discrete. Thus, when using the normal distribution to approximate it, we must use the continuity correction.
Example 578. Suppose the monthly number of murders in Singapore can be modelled by
X Po (0.1). Assuming that the month-to-month numbers of murders are independent,
find the probability that there are more than 10 murders in a given 10-year span.
The number of murders in 10 years is Y = X1 + X2 + + X120 , where X1 Po (0.1),
X2 Po (0.1), . . . , X120 Po (0.1) are the numbers of murders in each of the 120 months.
The CLT says that since n = 120 20 is large enough and the distribution is nice
enough (we are assuming this), Y can be approximated by the normal random variable
T N (120 0.1, 120 0.1) = N (12, 12). Thus, using also the continuity correction, we have
P(Y > 10) P(T > 10.5) 0.6675.
This is a decent approximation, because the exact probability, computed using the Poisson
distribution, is P(Y > 10) 0.6528.
Exercise 254. Suppose the daily number of fatalities from motor vehicle accidents can be
modelled by X Po(0.5). Find the probability that there are more than 200 fatalities from
car accidents in any given year. (You may make additional assumptions, but you should
state them.) (Answer on p. 1185.)
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69
The Fundamental Theorems of Calculus and the CLT are the most profound and amazing
results youll learn in H2 maths. This chapter briefly explains why the CLT is so amazing
and why the normal distribution is ubiquitous.
69.1
The normal distribution is ubiquitous in nature. The classic example is human height.73
Example 579. Below is a histogram of the heights of the 4,060 NBA players who ever
played in an NBA game (through the end of the 2016 season). (Heights are reported in feet
and a whole number of inches, where 1 in = 2.54 cm and 1 ft = 12 in, so that 1 ft = 30.48
cm.) The histogram has 28 bins and (arguably) looks normal (bell-shaped).
The width of each bin is 1 inch. For example, the red bin says 410 players have had reported
heights of 6 ft 7 in (approx. 200 cm). The pink (leftmost) bin is barely visible and says
only 1 player has had a reported height of 5 ft 3 in (approx. 160 cm). The blue (rightmost)
bin is also barely visible and says that only 2 players have had reported heights of 7 ft 7 in
(approx. 231 cm). The average or mean height is approx. 6 ft 6 in (approx. 198 cm).
73
Data: Excel spreadsheet. Source: Basketball-Reference.com (retrieved June 15th, 2016). Caveats: (1) For some reason,
out of the 4060 players in that database at the time of retrieval, there was exactly one player (George Karl) whose height
was not listed. Wikipedia lists George Karls height as 6 ft 2 in, so that is what I have used for his height. (2) By NBA, I
actually mean the BAA (1946-1949), the NBA (1949-present), and the ABA (1967-1976), combined. (3) As is well-known
among basketball fans, the listed heights of NBA players are not accurate and can sometimes be off by as much as 2 to 3
inches (5 to 7.5 cm). (See this recent Wall Street Journal article.)
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Manute Bol (approx 231 cm) and Muggsy Bogues (approx 160
cm) were briefly on the same team. (YouTube highlights.)
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Example 580. The 1994 book The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life was named after the observation that the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) seems to
be normally-distributed. This observation was neither new nor controversial (though some
scholars would dispute the usefulness of IQ measures).
What made the book especially controversial were its claims that intelligence was largely
heritable and that black Americans had lower intelligence than whites. The figure above is
taken from p. 279 of the book. It suggests that
Black IQ is normally distributed, with a mean of around 80.
White IQ is normally distributed, with a mean of around 105.
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Example 581. (Galton box.) Small beans are released from the top, through a narrow
passage. There are numerous pegs that tend to randomly divert the path of the beans.
At the bottom of the box, there are many different narrow slots of equal width, into which
the beans can drop. The beans will tend to form a bell shape at the bottom.
(Source: YouTube.)
Question:
Many things in nature seem to be normally distributed. Why?
We will try to answer this question, but only after weve illustrated how the Central Limit
Theorem works.
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69.2
Example 582. Flip many fair coins. Model each with the Bernoulli random variables T1 ,
T2 , T3 , . . . , each with probability of success (heads) 0.5.
Let Xn = T1 + T2 + + Tn be the number of heads in the first n coin-flips. (By the way,
Xn B (n, 0.5).)
Below are the histograms of the distributions of X1 , X2 , . . . , and X9 . X1 has probability
0.5 of taking on each of the values 0 and 1. X2 has probability 0.5 of taking on the value
of 1; and probability of 0.25 of taking on each of the values 0 and 2. Etc.
Distribution of X1
Distribution of X2
Distribution of X3
Distribution of X4
Distribution of X5
Distribution of X6
Distribution of X7
Distribution of X8
Distribution of X9
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Distribution of X10
Distribution of X20
Distribution of X30
Distribution of X40
Distribution of X50
Distribution of X100
74
I should say nearly any distribution. For the classical CLT to apply, the variance must be finite.
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Example 583. Flip many biased coins, each with probability 0.9 of heads. Model each
with the Bernoulli random variables Y1 , Y2 , Y3 , . . . , each with probability of success (heads)
0.9.
Let Sn = Y1 + Y2 + + Yn be the number of heads in the first n coin-flips. (By the way,
Sn B (n, 0.9).)
Below are the histograms of the distributions of S1 , S2 , . . . , and S9 . S1 has probability
0.1 of taking on value 0 and 0.9 of taking on value 1. S2 has probability 0.01 of taking on
the value of 0, 0.18 of taking on the value 1, and 0.81 of taking on the value 2. S3 has
probability 0.001 of taking on the value of 0, 0.036 of taking on the value 1, 0.486 of taking
on the value 2, 0.2916 of taking on the value 3, 0.6561 of taking on the value 4. Etc.
Distribution of S1
Distribution of S2
Distribution of S3
Distribution of S4
Distribution of S5
Distribution of S6
Distribution of S7
Distribution of S8
Distribution of S9
It certainly does not look like the distribution Sn is becoming increasingly bell-curved.
Well, lets see.
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Distribution of S10
Distribution of S20
Distribution of S30
Distribution of S40
Distribution of S50
Distribution of S100
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69.3
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69.4
Mathematical modellers often assume that everything is normal. There are three justifications for this:
1. We have strong empirical evidence that many things in nature are normally-distributed.
2. We have a strong theoretical reason (the CLT) for why this might be so.
3. The normal distribution is easy to handle (because e.g. the maths is easy, compared to
some other distributions).
However, many things are not normally-distributed. It is thus a mistake to assume that
everything is normal.
One example of a common but non-normal distribution found in nature is the Pareto
distribution. Well skip the formal details. Informally, it is called the Pareto Principle or
the 80-20 Rule and businesspersons say things like:
80% of your output is produced by 20% of your employees.
75
Source: Basketball-Reference.com. Caveats: (1) The data were retrieved on June 15th, 2016, so the points scored are
between 1946 and that date. (2) By NBA, I actually mean the BAA (1946-1949), the NBA (1949-present), and the ABA
(1967-1976), combined. Dataset.
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Example 586. Below is a histogram of the total points scored by each of 4,060 NBA
players. Clearly, the total points scored by each player is not normally distributed.
The histogram has 20 bins of equal width. The leftmost bin says that 2, 615 players scored
0 to 1919 points. The rightmost bin says that only 2 players scored 36, 468 to 38, 387 points.
The grand total number of points ever scored in the NBA is 11, 565, 923. Of which,
8, 424, 242 (or 72.8%) were scored by the top 20% (812). So it appears that the 80-20
Rule is a reasonably good description of the distribution of total points scored by players!
In contrast, the normal distribution is obviously not a good description.
Its fairly obvious to anyone who bothers graphing the data that points scored in the
NBA is not normally-distributed. There are however instances where this is less obvious.
One is thus more likely to mistakenly assuming a normal distribution. A famous and tragic
example of this is given by the financial markets.
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Example 587. The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA) is one of the worlds leading
stock market indices. It is a weighted average of the share prices of 30 of the largest US
companies (e.g. Apple, Coca-Cola, McDonalds).
Trading starts in the morning and closes in the afternoon (right now, the trading hours are
9:30 am to 4 pm). The next graph is of the daily closing values for the past 30 years.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
2007
2011
2015
Let qi be the % change in closing value on day i, as compared to day i 1. For example, on
June 14th, 2016, the DJIA closed at 17, 674.82. On June 15th, 2016, it closed at 17, 640.17,
34.65 points lower than the previous days close. Thus,
q20160615 =
34.65
0.20%.
17, 674.82
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12%
8%
4%
0%
-4%
-8%
-12%
-16%
-20%
1
8
9
0
1
9
1
0
1
9
3
0
1
9
5
0
1
9
7
0
1
9
9
0
2
0
1
0
-24%
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It seems reasonable to say that q is normally-distributed (at least if we ignore the leftmost
and rightmost bins).
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70
Probability
Given a known model, what can we
say about the data well observe?
Statistics
Given observed data, what can
we say about the model?
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70.2
Objectivists vs Subjectivists
Example 589. Ann and Bob are two infinitely-intelligent persons. Ann believes that the
probability of rain tomorrow is 0.2 and Bob believes that it is 0.6.
Objectivist view: There is some single, correct probability p of rain tomorrow. Perhaps no one (except some Supreme Being up above) will ever know what exactly p is.
But in any case, we can say that exactly one of the following must be true:
1. Ann is correct (and Bob is wrong);
2. Bob is correct (and Ann is wrong); or
3. Both Ann and Bob are wrong.
Subjectivist view: A probability is not some objective, rational thing that exists outside
the mind of any human being. There is no correct probability. Instead, a probability
is merely
the degree of belief in the occurrence of an event attributed by a given person at
a given instant and with a given set of information. (De Finetti, infra, pp. 3-4.)
Thus, Ann and Bob can legitimately disagree about the probability of rain tomorrow,
without either being wrong. After all, the numbers 0.2 and 0.6 are merely their personal,
subjective degrees of belief in the likelihood of rain tomorrow.
Bruno de Finetti (1906-1985) was perhaps the most famous and extreme subjectivist ever.
In a preface to a book, he provocatively declared, with his CAPSLOCK key stuck, that
PROBABILITY DOES NOT EXIST.76
In this textbook (and for the A-levels), we will be strict objectivists. The main practical
implications of being an objectivist are illustrated in the following examples:
76
Theory of Probability, v. 1, 1990 edition, p. x. (Originally published as Teoria delle probabilit in 1970.)
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Example 590. Judge Ann says the murder suspect is probably innocent. Judge Bob says
the suspect is probably guilty.
Objectivist interpretation: Ann and Bob cannot both be correct. The suspect is either
innocent (with probability 1) or guilty (with probability 1).
In fact, we can go even further and say that both Ann and Bob are talking nonsense. It
is nonsensical to say things like the suspect is probably innocent (or probably guilty),
because the suspect either is innocent or not.
Subjectivist interpretation: Ann and Bob are perfectly well-entitled to their beliefs.
Moreover, it is perfectly meaningful to say things like the suspect is probably innocent
(or probably guilty). Ann and Bob do not know for sure whether the suspect is innocent
or guilty. They are thereby perfectly well-entitled to speak probabilistically about the
innocence or guilt of the suspect.
Example 591. We flip a coin 100 times and get 100 heads.
Given these observed data (100 heads out of 100 flips), what can we say (what statistical
inference can we make) about whether or not the coin is fair?
Subjectivist answer: The coin is probably not fair. (This is perhaps the answer that
most laypersons would give.)
Objectivist answer: The coin either is fair (with probability 1) or isnt fair (with probability 1). Subjectivist statements like the coin is probably not fair are nonsensical.
Most untrained laypersons are innately subjectivist. Yet in this book (and also for the
A-levels), youll be trained to think like strict objectivists.
Note though that it is not the case that one school of thought is correct and the other
wrong. Both the objectivist and subjectivist schools of thought have merit. The growing
consensus amongst statisticians is to take the best of both worlds.
Nonetheless, in this textbook, we learn only the objectivist interpretation. Not because it
is necessarily superior, but rather because
1. The maths is easier.
2. Tradition: For most of the 20th century, the objectivist interepretation was favoured.
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71
Sampling
71.1
Population
Definition 129. A population is any ordered set (i.e. vector) of objects were interested
in.
A population can be finite or infinite. But to keep things simple, well look at examples
where it is finite.
Example 592. The two candidates for the 2016 Bukit Batok SMC By-Election are Dr.
Chee Soon Juan and PAP Guy. It is the night of the election and voting has just closed.
Our objects-of-interest are the 23, 570 valid ballots cast. (A ballot is simply a piece of paper
on which a vote is recorded. The words ballot and vote are often used interchangeably.)
Arrange the ballots in any arbitrary order. Let v1 = 1 if the first ballot is in favour of Dr.
Chee and v1 = 0 otherwise. Similarly and more generally, for any i = 2, 3, . . . , 23570, let
vi = 1 if the ith ballot is in favour of Dr. Chee and v1 = 0 otherwise.
Our population here is simply the ordered set P = (v1 , v2 , . . . , v23570 ). So in this example,
the population is simply an ordered set of 1s and 0s.
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71.2
The population mean is simply the average across all population values. The population variance 2 is a measure of the variation across all population values. Formally:77
Definition 130. Given a finite population P = (v1 , v2 , . . . , vk ), the population mean and
population variance 2 are defined by
2
k
k
(v1 ) + (v2 ) + + (vk )
i=1 (vi )
i=1 vi v1 + v2 + + vk
2
=
and =
=
.
=
k
k
k
k
Example 678 (continued from above). Suppose that of the 23, 570 votes, 9, 142 were
for Dr. Chee and the remaining against. So the vector (v1 , v2 , . . . , v23570 ) contains 9, 142 1s
and 14, 428 0s.
Then the population mean is
=
In this particular example, the population values are binary (either 0 or 1). And so we have
a nice alternative interpretation: the population mean is also the population proportion.
In this case, it is the proportion of the population who voted for Dr. Chee. So here the
proportion of votes for Dr. Chee is about 0.3879.
The population variance is
2
9142
9142
2
2
2
) + 14428 (0 23570
)
9142 (1 23570
(v1 ) + (v2 ) + + (vn )
2
=
=
0.2374.
n
23570
As usual, the variance tells us about the degree to which the vi s vary. Of course, in this
example, we already know that the vi s can take on only two values 0 and 1. So the
variance isnt terribly interesting or informative in this example. In particular, it doesnt
tell us anything more that the population mean didnt already tell us (indeed, it can be
shown that in this example, 2 = 2 ).
77
In the case of an infinite population, the definitions of and 2 must be adjusted slightly, but the intuition is the same.
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71.3
Parameter
Informally, a parameter is some number were interested in and which may be calculated
based on the population.
Example 678 (continued from above). A parameter we might be interested in is the
population mean this is also the proportion of votes in favour of Dr. Chee. (Another
parameter we might be interested in is the population variance 2 , but lets ignore that for
now.)
Voting has just closed. In a few hours time (after the vote-counting is done), we will know
what exactly is. But right now, we still dont know what is.
Suppose we are impatient and want to know right away what might be. In other words,
suppose we want to get an estimate of the true value of . What are some possible
methods of getting a quick estimate of ?
One possibility is to observe a random sample of 100 votes and count the proportion of
these 100 votes that are in favour of Dr. Chee. So for example, say we do this and observe
that 39 out of the 100 votes are for Dr. Chee. That is, we find that the observed sample
mean (which in this context can also be called the observed sample proportion) is
0.39. Then we might conclude:
Based on this observed random sample of 100 votes, we estimate that is 0.39.
The layperson might be content with this. But the statistician digs a little deeper and asks
questions such as:
How do we know if this estimate is good?
What are the criteria to determine whether an estimate is good?
Well now try to address, if only to a limited extent, these questions. But to do so, we must
first precisely define terms like sample and estimate.
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71.4
Distribution of a Population
Example 678 (continued from above). The population is P = (v1 , v2 , . . . , v23570 ), the
ordered set of 23570 ballots. Suppose that of these, 9, 142 are votes for Dr. Chee (hence
recorded as 1s) and the remaining 14, 428 are for PAP Guy (hence recorded as 0s).
Then the distribution of the population can informally be described in words as:
A proportion 9142/23570 of the population are 1s, and
A proportion 14428/23570 of the population are 0s.
78
Formally, wed define the population distribution as a function. Indeed, some writers define the population itself as the
distribution function.
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71.5
A Random Sample
Informally, to observe a random sample of size n, we follow this procedure: Imagine the
23, 570 ballots are in a single big bag.
1. Randomly pull out one ballot. Record the vote (either we write x1 = 1, if the vote was
for Dr. Chee, or we write x1 = 0, if it wasnt).
2. Put this ballot back in (this second step is why we call it sampling with replacement).
3. Repeat the above n times in total, so as to record down the values of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .
We call (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) an observed random sample of size n. Note that this is an
ordered set (or vector) of numbers. Formally:
Definition 131. Let P be a population. Then the random vector (i.e. ordered set of
random variables) (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) is a random sample of size n from the population P if
X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are independent; and
X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are identically-distributed, with the same distribution as P .
An example to illustrate:
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Example 678 (continued from above). To repeat, the distribution of the population
P = (v1 , v2 , . . . , v23570 ) can informally be described in words as:
9142/23570 of the population were 1s; and
14428/23570 of the population were 0s.
Let X1 , X2 , and X3 be independent random variables, each with the same distribution as
the population. That is, for each i = 1, 2, 3,
P (Xi = 0) =
14428
23570
and P (Xi = 1) =
9142
.
23570
In this textbook, well be very careful to distinguish between a random sample (which is
a vector of random variables) and an observed random sample (which is a vector of real
numbers).
This may be contrary to the practice of your teachers or indeed even the A-level exams.
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71.6
Definition 132. Let S = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) be a random sample of size n. Then the corre and the sample variance of S are the random variables defined
sponding sample mean X
by:
= X 1 + X 2 + + Xn ,
X
n
2
S =
2 + + (Xn X)
2
2 + (X2 X)
(X1 X)
n1
n
2
i=1 (Xi X)
=
.
n1
(The List of Formulae you get during exams will contain the observed sample variance.)
Note that strangely enough, the denominator of S 2 is n 1, rather than n as one might
expect. As well see later, there is a good reason for this.
By the way, there are two other formulae for calculating the sample variance:
be the sample
Fact 81. Let S = (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) be a random sample of size n. Let X
mean and S 2 be the sample variance. Let a R be a constant. Then
(a) S 2 =
[i=1nXi ]
n1
n
i=1 Xi2
and (b) S 2 =
n
i=1 (Xi
i a)]
a) [i=1 (X
n
.
n1
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Example 678 (continued from above). Let (X1 , X2 , X3 ) be a random sample of size 3.
and sample variance S 2 are these random variables:
The corresponding sample mean X
= X1 + X2 + X3 ,
X
3
S2 =
2 + (X2 X)
2 + (X3 X)
2
(X1 X)
31
Suppose our observed random sample of size 3 is (1, 0, 0). Then the corresponding observed sample mean x and observed sample variance s2 are these real numbers:
x =
x1 + x2 + x3 1 + 0 + 0 1
=
= ,
n
3
3
2
2
2
2
(1 13 ) + (0 31 ) + (0 31 )
(x1 x) + (x2 x) + (x3 x)
1
s =
=
= .
n1
31
3
2
S2 =
2 + (X2 X)
2 + + (X5 X)
2
(X1 X)
51
Suppose our observed random sample of size 5 is (0, 1, 0, 0, 1). Then the corresponding
observed sample mean x and observed sample variance s2 are these real numbers:
x =
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 1 2
=
= = 0.4,
n
5
5
2
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Example 594. Suppose we wish to find the average height (in cm) of an adult male.
As a practical matter, it would be quite difficult to locate and record the height of every
adult male in the world. So instead, what we might do is to randomly pick 4 adult males
and record their heights. This gives us a random sample (H1 , H2 , H3 , H4 ) of heights. The
= (H1 + H2 + H3 + H4 ) /4. H
shall
corresponding sample mean is the random variable H
serve as our estimator for .
Suppose our observed random sample is (h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 ) = (178, 165, 182, 175).
Then the corresponding observed sample mean is
= h1 + h2 + h3 + h4 = 178 + 165 + 182 + 175 = 175.
h
n
4
= 175 serves as an estimate (or guess) of the true average male height .
Thus, h
= 175 good or reliable? How much should
and estimate h
Again, are the estimator H
we trust them? These are questions that well address in the next section.
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Example 595. Let X be the random variable that is the height (in cm) of an adult
female Singaporean. Our parameters-of-interest are the true population mean and true
population variance 2 of X. We wish to generate estimates for and 2 .
To this end, we get a random sample of size 8: (X1 , X2 , . . . , X8 ). The corresponding sample
= (X1 + X2 + + X8 ) /8 will serve as our estimator for . And the corresponding
mean X
8
xi = 1, 320 and
i=1
Then the observed sample mean x and the observed sample variance s2 are
n
i=1 xi 1320
x =
=
= 165,
n
8
(n xi )
218360 1320
8
=
= 80.
7
2
And our estimates for and 2 are, respectively, 165 cm and 80 cm2 .
Then the observed sample mean x and the observed sample variance s2 are
n
n
n
72
i=1 xi i=1 (xi 160 + 160) i=1 (xi 160)
x =
=
=
+ 160 =
+ 160 = 169,
n
n
n
8
s2 =
n
i=1 (xi
And our estimates for and 2 are, respectively, 169 cm and 130.3 cm2 .
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Exercise 255. Calculate the observed sample mean and variance for the following observed
random sample of size 7: (3, 14, 2, 8, 8, 6, 0). (Answer on p. 1186.)
Exercise 256. (Answer on p. 1186.) Let X be the random variable that is the weight (in
kg) of an American. Suppose we are interested in estimating the true population mean
and variance 2 of X. We get an observed random sample of size 10: (x1 , x2 , . . . , x10 ).
10
10
i=1
i=1
(a) Suppose you are told that xi = 1, 885 and x2i = 378, 265. Find the observed sample
mean x and observed sample variance s2 .
10
10
(b) Suppose you are instead told that (xi 50) = 1, 885 and (xi 50) = 378, 265. Find
i=1
i=1
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71.7
Earlier we asked: How do we decide if an estimator and the estimates it generates are
good? How do we know whether to trust any given estimate?
For H2 Maths, well learn only about one (important) crtierion for deciding whether an
estimator is good. This is unbiasedness. Informally, an estimator is unbiased if on
average, the estimator gets it right. Formally:
Definition 133. Let X be a random variable and R be a parameter (i.e. just some real
number). We say that X is an unbiased estimator for if
E [X] = .
If x is an estimate generated by an unbiased estimator X, then we call x an unbiased
estimate.
is an unbiased estimator for the
The next proposition says that the sample mean X
population mean ; and the sample variance S 2 is an unbiased estimator for the
population variance 2 .
Proposition 15. Let (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ) be a random sample of size n drawn from a distri be the sample mean and
bution with population mean and population variance 2 . Let X
S 2 be the sample variance. Then
= . And
(a) E [X]
(b) E [S 2 ] = 2 .
Proof. You are asked to prove (a) in Exercise 258. For the proof of (b), see p. 1000 in the
Appendices (optional).
Proposition 15(b) is the reason why, strangely enough, we define the sample variance with
n 1 in the denominator:
2
S =
2 + (X2 X)
2 + + (Xn X)
2
(X1 X)
n1
As defined, S 2 is an unbiased estimator for the population variance 2 . This, then, is the
reason why we define it like this.
Some writers call S 2 the unbiased sample variance, but we shall not bother doing so. Well
simply call S 2 the sample variance.
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xi
2/3
0
2/3
1/3
2/3
1/3
0
0
1/3
2/3
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Exercise 257. (Answer on p. 1186.) We are interested in the weight (in kg) of Singaporeans. We have an observed random sample of size 5: (32, 88, 67, 75, 56).
(a) Find unbiased estimates for the population mean and variance 2 of the weights of
Singaporeans. (State any assumptions you make.)
(b) What is the average weight of a Singaporean?
Exercise 259. Suppose we flip a coin 10 times. The first 7 flips are heads and the next 3
are tails. Let 1 denote heads and 0 denote tails. (Answer on p. 1187.)
(a) Write down, in formal notation, our observed random sample, the observed sample
mean, and observed sample variance.
(b) Are these observed sample mean and variance unbiased estimates for the true population
mean and variance?
(c) Can we conclude that this a biased coin (i.e. the true population mean is not 0.5)?
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71.8
is itself a
This section is just to repeat, stress, and emphasise that the sample mean X
random variable. This is an important point.
is both (i) a random variable; and (ii) an estimator. In
Indeed, the sample mean X
contrast, an observed sample mean x is both (i) a real number; and (ii) an estimate.
= . This equation can be interpreted in two equivalent ways:
Wev showed that E [X]
The expected value of the sample mean equals the population mean .
The sample mean is an unbiased estimator for the population mean .
We now give the variance of the sample mean. It turns out to be equal to the population
variance 2 , divided by the sample size n.
2
= .
Fact 82. V [X]
n
= 1 (X1 + X2 + + Xn ) and X1 , X2 ,
Exercise 260. Prove Fact 82. (Hint: Note that X
n
. . . , Xn are independent.) (Answer on p. 1187.)
Exercise 261. For each of the following terms, give a formal definition and an intuitive
explanation. (State whether each term is a random variable or a real number.) For simplicity, you may assume that the finite population is given by P = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ). (Answer
on p. 1188.)
(a) The population mean.
(b) The population variance.
(c) The sample mean.
(d) The sample variance.
(e) The mean of the sample mean.
(f) The variance of the sample mean.
(g) The mean of the sample variance.
(h) The observed sample mean.
(i) The observed sample variance.
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71.9
Xn =
N (, ) .
n
n
Proof. Corollary 7 tells us that the sum of normal random variables is itself a normal
random variable. So X1 + X2 + + Xn is a normal random variable.
Fact 79 tells us that a linear transformation of a normal random variable is itself a normal
n = (X1 + X2 + + Xn ) /n is a normal random variable.
random variable. So X
n has mean and variance 2 /n.
In the previous sections, we already showed that X
2
n N (, ).
Altogether then, X
n
Now, suppose instead X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn are not normally-distributed. Surprisingly, a similar
result still holds, thanks to the CLT. Informally, draw X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn from any distribution.
Then thanks to the CLT, it will still be the case that provided n is large enough
n is (approximately) normally-distributed. Formally:
X
Fact 84. Let X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn be independent random variables, each identically-distributed
with mean R and variance 2 R. Let
n = X 1 + X2 + + X n .
X
n
2
n N (, ).
Then lim X
n
n
Proof. The CLT says that if n is large enough, then X1 +X2 + +Xn is well-approximated
by the normal distribution N (n, n 2 ).
And so it follows from Fact 79 (a linear transformation of a normal random variable is itself
= (X1 + X2 + + Xn ) /n is well-approximated by the
a normal random variable) that X
2
normal distribution N (, ).
n
In the next chapter, well make greater use of the two results given in this section.
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71.10
Non-Random Samples
Example 597. Suppose were interested in what the average Singaporean family spends
on food each month. The only way to know this for sure is to survey every single family in
Singapore. This, however, is not practical.
Instead, we have only the resources to survey 100 families. We decide to go to Sixth
Avenue and randomly ask 100 families living there what they reckon they spend on food
each month. We thereby gather an observed sample of size 100: (x1 , x2 , . . . , x100 ). We find
that the average family spends x = xi /100 = $2, 700 on food each month.
Is x = $2, 700 an unbiased estimate of the average monthly spending on food by a Singaporean family? Intuitively, we know that the answer is obviously no.
The reason is that our observed sample of size 100 was non-random. We picked an unusually
affluent neighbourhood. Our estimate x = $2, 700 is thus probably biased upwards.
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71.11
SYLLABUS ALERT
This is in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip
this section if youre taking 9758.
79
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Quota sampling is very similar to stratified sampling. Again, we divide the population
into strata. The difference is that instead of randomly picking respondents from each
stratum, interviewers are free to choose the respondents from each stratum.
Example 599. Again, want to know the average height of a Singaporean. We decide to
will be our estimator
use a random sample of 100 individuals. The sample mean height X
for .
Again, we divide the population into 2 strata: Male and Female. Assume that 0.49 of the
population is male and 0.51 of the population is female.
In stratified sampling, we would have randomly picked 49 males and 51 females. In contrast,
in quota sampling, the interviewer is given the freedom to choose any 49 males and
any 51 females, in whatever way the interviewer deems appropriate.
A small advantage of quota sampling is that it gives the interviewer more flexibility and
can thus speed up the collection of data.
The big disadvantage with quota sampling is that the interviewer may unwittingly introduce
biases. For example, told simply to choose 49 males and 51 males, the interviewer might
choose respondents who are more attractive, more friendly-looking, of the same race, etc.
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What explains this polling disaster? One explanation (among many see cited report)
was that the pollsters used quota sampling.
Interviewers were each given an assigned quota specifying the number of men, women,
and persons of various economic levels to be interviewed. It was believed that this would
reduce the biases that might result if interviewers chose their respondents freely (p. 12,
id.)
However, other than being subject to these quotas, interviewers had complete freedom to
choose their respondents. They could thus operate as biased selecting devices (p. 84). For
example, an interviewer who was himself likely to vote Dewey might tend (unconsciously or
otherwise) to choose respondents who were themselves also likely to vote Dewey (p. 136ff).
As another example, the interviewers were themselves likely to be upper-class whites (a
demographic that tended to vote Dewey). Thus, lower-class and Negro respondents (demographics that tended to vote Truman) may have been less likely to tell the truth when
responding to their interviewers (p. 135).
Polling has improved since 1948. For example, pollsters have now moved away from quota
sampling. Nonetheless, polling disasters still occur occasionally. Heres a recent example:
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Example 601. The Brexit referendum of June 23, 2016 gave British voters two choices:
Remain (in the EU) or Leave.
In the week before the actual referendum, there were 12 polls, of which 9 gave Remain
the lead, including one that gave Remain a commanding 55 45 lead! And the only 3
polls that had Leave in the lead gave Leave only a 1 or 2% lead. (Source: Wikipedia.)
Alas, these polls got it terribly wrong. On the day of the referendum itself, the Leave
campaign won 52 48. (Note though that the pollsters, having learnt the lesson of 1948,
probably didnt use quota sampling. So the use of quota sampling was probably not one of
explanations of why the Brexit polling got it wrong.)
To be fair, pollsters were not the only ones who got it wrong. Even the financial markets
had also expected Remain to win. This was dramatically illustrated by the plunge in the
value of the British pound on the night of the elections, as the results came in:
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The advantage of systematic sampling is that it takes away the freedom of interviewers to
choose their respondents. The sample is thus more likely to be truly random.
The disadvantage of systematic sampling is that it may, by coincidence, introduce a large
and systematic bias. Heres an example.
Example 603. We are interested in the average household spending on groceries in a
particular HDB estate. We decide to use systematic sampling: Well survey every flat
whose unit number ends in 7. This, we believe, is surely random.
This seems like a great idea. But unfortunately, it turns out that in this particular HDB
estate, units whose numbers end in 7 are all 5-room flats. And every other unit is a 4-room
flat. We are completely unaware of this.
As a result, well probably obtain an overestimate of the true average household spending
in this HDB estate.
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72
Heres a quick sketch of how Null Hypothesis Significance Testing (NHST) works:
Example 604. A piece of equipment has probability of breaking down. We have many
pieces of the same type of equipment. Assume the rates of breakdown across the pieces of
equipment are identical and independent.
1. Write down a null hypothesis H0 . In this case, it might be H0 : = 0.6.
2. Write down an alternative hypothesis HA . In this case, it might be HA : < 0.6.
(This is a one-tailed test to be explained shortly.)
3. Observe a random sample. For example, we might have an observed random sample
of size 5, where only the fourth piece of equipment breaks down. And so wed write
(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 ) = (0, 0, 0, 1, 0).
4. Write down a test statistic. In this case, an obvious test statistic is the sample number
of failures T = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 + X5 . Our observed test statistic is thus t = x1 + x2 +
x3 + x4 + x5 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 = 1.
5. Now ask, how likely is it that if H0 were true our test statistic would have been
at least as extreme as that actually observed? That is, what is the probability
P (Observe data as extreme as that observedH0 )?
The above probability is called the p-value of the observed sample.
In this case, the p-value is the probability of observing a random sample where 1 or fewer
pieces of equipment broke down, assuming H0 = 0.6 were true. That is,
p = P (T t = 1H0 ) .
Now, remember that T is a random variable. In fact, its a binomial random variable.
Assuming H0 to be true, we have T B (n, ) = B (5, 0.6). Thus,
p = P (T 1H0 ) = P (T = 0H0 ) + P (T = 1H0 ) =
5 0 5 5 1 4
0.6 0.4 +
0.6 0.4 = 0.08704.
0
1
This says that if H0 were true, then the probability of observing a test statistic as extreme
as the one we actually observed is only 0.08704. We might interpret this relatively small
p-value as casting doubt on or providing evidence against H0 .
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1. Null hypothesis H0 (e.g. this equipment has probability 0.6 of breaking down).
2. Alternative hypothesis HA (e.g. this equipment has probability less than 0.6 of
breaking down). The test is either one-tailed or two-tailed, depending on HA .
3. A random sample of size n: (X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ).
4. A test statistic T (which simply maps each observed random sample to a real number.)
5. The p-value of the observed sample. This is the probability that assuming H0 were
true T takes on values that are at least as extreme as the actual observed test
statistic t.
6. The significance level . This is a pre-selected threshold, usually chosen to be some
small value. The conventional significance levels are = 0.1, = 0.05, or = 0.01.
We then conclude qualitatively that:
A small p-value casts doubt on or provides evidence against H0 .
A large p-value fails to cast doubt on or provide evidence against H0 .
In particular, if p < , then we say that we reject H0 at the significance level . And
if p , then we say that we fail to reject H0 at the significance level .
Note importantly that to reject H0 (at some significance level ) does NOT mean that H0
is false and HA is true. Similarly, failure to reject H0 does NOT mean that H0 is true and
HA is false. More on this below.
Another example of NHST, now slightly more formally and carefully presented.
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Example 678. (Dr. Chee election example.) Our parameter of interest is , the
proportion of votes for Dr. Chee. We guess that Dr. Chee won only 30% of the votes. We
might thus write down two competing hypotheses:
H0 = 0.3,
HA > 0.3.
We call H0 the null hypothesis and HA the alternative hypothesis.
We pre-select = 0.05 as our significance level. This is the arbitrary threshold at which
well say we reject (or fail to reject) H0 .
We gather a random sample of 100 votes: (X1 , X2 , . . . , X100 ). Our test statistic is the
number of votes in favour of Dr. Chee, given by
T = X1 + X2 + + X100 .
Suppose that in our observed random sample (x1 , x2 , . . . , x100 ), we find that 39 are in favour
of Dr. Chee. Our observed test statistic is thus t = 39.
We now ask: What is the probability that assuming H0 were true T takes on values
that are at least as extreme as the actual observed test statistic t? That is, what is the
p-value of the observed sample?
Now, assuming H0 were true, T is a binomial random variable with parameters 100 and
0.3. That is, T B (n, p) = B (100, 0.3). So:
p = P (T 39H0 ) = P (T = 39H0 ) + P (T = 40H0 ) + + P (T = 100H0 )
=
100 39 61 100 40 60
100 100 0
0.3 0.7 +
0.3 0.7 + +
0.3 0.7 0.03398.
39
40
100
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Let be the parameter were interested in. Under the objectivist interpretation, the value
of may be unknown, but it is fixed. This has two consequences:
1. We never speak probabilistically about , because is a fixed number. For example, we
never say is probably less than 0.6 or has probability 0.8 of being between 0.4
and 0.7. Such statements are nonsensical.
2. The null hypothesis, which is always written as an equality (e.g. H0 = 0.6), is
almost certainly false. After all, can (usually) take on a continuum of values. So do
NOT interpret we fail to reject H0 to mean H0 is true. This is because H0
is almost certainly false.
When performing NHST, we will assiduously avoid saying things like H0 is true, H0 is
false, HA is true, or HA is false. Instead, we will stick strictly to saying either we
reject H0 at the significance level or we fail to reject H0 at the significance level .
Each of these two statements has a very precise meaning. The first says that p < . The
second says that p . Nothing more and nothing less.
Exercise 262. We flip a coin 20 times and get 17 heads. Test, at the 5% significance level,
whether the coin is biased towards heads. (Answer on p. 1189.)
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72.1
In the previous section, all the NHST we did were one-tailed tests.80 For example, in the
NHST done for Dr. Chee, we had
H0 = 0.3,
HA > 0.3.
This was a one-tailed test because the alternative hypothesis HA was that was to the
right of 0.3.
If instead we changed the alternative hypothesis to:
H0 = 0.3,
HA 0.3.
Then this would be called a two-tailed test, because the alternative hypothesis HA is that
is either to the left or to the right of 0.3.
We now repeat the examples done in the previous section, but with HA tweaked so that we
instead have two-tailed tests. The difference is that the p-value is calculated differently.
80
By the way, the more common convention is to say one-tailed and two-tailed tests, rather than one-tail and two-tail
tests. My grammatical consultants tell me though that both are equally correct.
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5 0 5 5 1 4 5 1 4
0.6 0.4 +
0.6 0.4 +
0.6 0.4 = 0.1648.
0
1
5
Since p = 0.1648 = 0.1, we say that we fail to reject H0 at the = 0.1 significance
level.
Observe that previously, under the one-tailed test, we could reject H0 at the = 0.1
significance level, because there p = 0.08704. Now, in contrast, under the two-tailed test,
we fail to reject H0 at the same significance level.
In general, all else equal, the p-value for an observed random sample is greater under a
two-tailed test than under a one-tailed test. Thus, under a two-tailed test, we are less
likely to reject H0 .
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100 22 78 100 23 77
100 38 62
=1
0.3 0.7 +
0.3 0.7 + +
0.3 0.7 0.06281.
23
38
22
Since p = 0.06281 = 0.05, we say that we fail to reject H0 at the = 0.05 significance
level.
Again observe that previously, under the one-tailed test, we could reject H0 at the = 0.05
significance level, because there p = 0.03398. Now, in contrast, under the two-tailed test,
we fail to reject H0 at the same significance level.
Exercise 263. We flip a coin 20 times and get 17 heads. Test, at the 5% significance level,
whether the coin is biased.(Answer on p. 1189.)
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72.2
81
Indeed, under the objectivist view, such a statement is nonsensical anyway, because H0 is either true or not true; it makes
no sense to talk probabilistically about whether H0 is true.
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72.3
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*E.g. the article Margin of Ignorance (backup) begins by reporting poll results that Kerry-Edwards was supported by 51%
of voters, while Bush-Cheney was supported by 45%. The author then ridicules other journalists for their misinterpretation
of these data. (He also claims, incorrectly, that polling is based on the Central Limit Theorem.) He then triumphantly
gives the correct explanation: 95 times out of 100 the true Kerry-Edwards number will fall between 47 and 55 and the
Bush-Cheney number will fall between 41 and 49. This, of course, is what we called incorrect Interpretation #1 above.
**Section 3 of Erring on the Margin of Error lists some such mistakes.
See section 89.9 in the Appendices for a discussion of where the Elections Departments
4% margin of error comes from.
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Journalists often try to explain what the confidence level and margin of error mean they
almost always get it wrong.
Example 606. On the night of the 2016 Bukit Batok SMC By-Election, a website called
Mothership.sg wrote:
Based on the sample count of 100 votes,* it was revealed at 9.26pm that the SDP Sec-Gen
received 39 percent of votes. In other words, Chee would score 35 per cent in the worst
case scenario and 43 per cent in the best case scenario.
This is the most absurd misinterpretation of the margin of error I have ever seen.**
Lets see what the correct worst- and best-case scenarios are.
Suppose that in the observed random sample of 900 votes, exactly 39% or 0.39 900 = 351
were votes for Dr. Chee and the remaining 549 were for PAP Guy. Then:
Worst-case scenario: The observed random sample of 900 votes happened to contain
exactly all of the votes in favour of Dr. Chee. That is, Dr. Chee won only 351 votes
and PAP Guy won the remaining 23, 570 351 = 23, 219 votes. So the correct worst-case
scenario is that Dr. Chee won 1.5% of the votes.
Best-case scenario: The observed random sample of 900 votes happened to contain
exactly all of the votes in favour of PAP Guy. That is, PAP Guy won only 549 votes
and Dr. Chee won the remaining 23570 549 = 23, 021 votes. So the correct best-case
scenario is that Dr. Chee won 97.7% of the votes.
These worst- and best-case scenarios are admittedly unlikely. Nonetheless, they are possible scenarios all the same. The journalists purported worst- and best-case scenarios are
completely wrong.
*By the way, even this basic fact was wrong. The sample count was not 100 votes. Instead, it was 900 votes, consisting of
100 votes from each of 9 polling stations.
Moreover, the Mothership.sg journalist failed to report the confidence level of 95%, either because he didnt know what it
meant or because he didnt think it important. But it is important. It is pointless to inform the reader about the margin of
error without also specifying the confidence level.
**You can find several misinterpretations of the margin of error collected in this academic paper: Erring in the Margin of
Error. None is as absurdly bad as the one here.
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72.4
SYLLABUS ALERT
This is new to the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So skip this section if youre taking 9740 (old).
Informally, the critical region is the set of values of the observed test statistic t for which
we would reject the null hypothesis. The critical region is thus sometimes also called the
rejection region.
And the critical value(s) is (are) the exact value(s) of the observed test statistic t at
which we are just able to reject the null hypothesis.
Example 678. (Dr. Chee election.)
Say that as before, we have a one-tailed test where the two competing hypotheses are:
H0 = 0.3,
HA > 0.3.
Say that as before, we choose = 0.05 as our significance level.
Say that as before, in our observed random sample of 100 votes, 39 are in favour of Dr.
Chee, so that our observed test statistic is t = 39.
We calculated that the corresponding p-value is 0.03398 and so we were able to reject H0
at the = 0.05 significance level.
We now calculate the critical region and the critical value. We can calculate that if
t = 38, then the corresponding p-value is 0.053 (you should verify this for yourself). And
so we would be unable to reject H0 .
We thus conclude that the critical value is 39, because this is the value of t at which we
are just able to reject H0 .
And the critical region is the set {39, 40, 41, . . . , 100}. These are the values at which wed
be able to reject H0 at the = 0.05 significance level.
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Exercise 264. (Answer on p. 1190.) We flip a coin 20 times. What are the critical region
and critical value(s) in
(a) A test, at the 5% significance level, of whether the coin is biased towards heads.
(b) A test, at the 5% significance level, of whether the coin is biased.
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3 + 9 + 11 + 7
= 7.5.
4
7.5 5
2.5 5
=P Z
+P Z
0.04779 + 0.04779 = 0.09558.
9/4
9/4
Thus, we reject H0 at the = 0.1 significance level. However, we would fail to reject H0 at
the = 0.05 significance level.
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The table below summarises the tests to use for the population mean, in different circumstances. In this section, we learnt how to handle the first case (any sample size, normal
distribution, 2 known). The following sections will deal with the other three cases.
Sample size Distribution
Any
Normal
Known
Large
Any
Known
Large
Any
Small
Normal
Unknown
Small
Non-normal
Either
2 known
X
N(0, 1).
Z-test:
/ n
Z-test:
X
N(0, 1).
/ n
Unknown Z-test:
X
N(0, 1).
s/ n
t-test:
X
N(0, 1).*
s/ n
Not in A-levels.
Exercise 265. The Singapore daily high temperature (in C) can be modelled by X
N (, 8). Our unknown parameter of interest is the true population mean (i.e. the
true average daily high temperature). Your friend guesses that = 34. You gather
the following data on daily high temperatures, of 10 randomly-chosen days in 2015:
(35, 35, 31, 32, 33, 34, 31, 34, 35, 34). Test your friends hypothesis, at the = 0.05 significance level. (Be sure to write down your null and alternative hypotheses.) (Answer on p.
1191.)
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x1 + x2 + + x100
= 5.5.
100
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4.4 5
4.4
5.6 5
5.6
CLT
) + P (Z
)=P Z
+P Z
P (Z
/ n
/ n
9/100
9/100
= P (Z 2) + P (Z 2) 0.0455.
Thus, we reject H0 at the = 0.05 significance level.
Exercise 266. The Singapore daily high temperature (in C) can be modelled by X
(, 8). Our unknown parameter of interest is the true population mean (i.e. the true
average daily high temperature). Your friend guesses that = 34. You gather the data
on daily high temperatures, of 100 randomly-chosen days in 2015 and find the observed
sample average temperature to be 33.4 C. Test your friends hypothesis, at the = 0.05
significance level. (Be sure to write down your null and alternative hypotheses. Also, clearly
state where you use the CLT.) (Answer on p. 1191.)
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100
x1 + x2 + + x100
i=1 (xi x)
2
= 5.6 and s =
=8
x =
100
n1
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4.4 5
4.4
5.6 5
5.6
CLT
+P Z
P (Z ) + P (Z ) = P Z
s/ n
s/ n
8/100
8/100
P (Z 2.1213) + P (Z 2.1213) 0.03389.
Thus, we reject H0 at the = 0.05 significance level.
Exercise 267. The Singapore daily high temperature (in C) can be modelled by X
(, 2 ). Our unknown parameter of interest is the true population mean (i.e. the true
average daily high temperature). Your friend guesses that = 34. You gather the data
on daily high temperatures, of 100 randomly-chosen days in 2015. Your observed sample
mean temperature is 33.4 C and your observed sample variance is 11.2 C2 . Test your
friends hypothesis, at the = 0.05 significance level. (Be sure to write down your null and
alternative hypotheses. Also, clearly state where you use the CLT.) (Answer on p. 1192.)
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SYLLABUS ALERT
This is in the 9740 (old) syllabus, but not in the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So you can skip
this section if youre taking 9758.
Well recycle the same example from section 72.5. The big difference is that now 2 (the
variance of X) is unknown:
Example 610. The weight (in mg) of a grain of sand is X N (, 2 ). Our unknown
parameter of interest is the true population mean (i.e. the true average weight of a grain
of sand). Again, we guess that = 5. Again, we write down
H0 = 5,
HA 5.
This time, we have resources only to take a random sample of size 4 (X1 , X2 , X3 , X4 ).
= (X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 ) /4.
Again, our test statistic is the sample mean X
Suppose our observed random sample is (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) = (3, 9, 11, 7). That is, we randomly
pick four grains of sand with weights 3, 9, 11, and 7 mg. Then the observed test statistic is
x =
3 + 9 + 11 + 7
= 7.5.
4
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T is the random variable with Students t-distribution with degrees of freedom. T has a
rather complicated PDF that we shall relegate to the Appendices (see Definition 170). All
you need know is that
T has mean 0.
Its PDF looks very similar to that of the standard normal distribution, except it is
shorter and fatter.
As , its PDF looks taller and thinner, until eventually it coincides exactly with Z.
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Example 610 (continued from above). The p-value in this case is the probability
took on values at least as extreme as our observed test statistic
that our test statistic X
x = 7.5, assuming H0 = 5 were true. Thus, the p-value is given by
7.5, X
2.5H0 ) = P (X
7.5H0 ) + P (X
2.5H0 )
p = P (X
= P (Tn1
2.5
7.5
7.5 5
2.5 5
) + P (Tn1 ) = P T3
+ P T3
s/ n
s/ n
(35/3)/4
(35/3)/4
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
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Exercise 268. The Singapore daily high temperature (in C) can be modelled by X
N (, 2 ). Our unknown parameter of interest is the true population mean (i.e. the
true average daily high temperature). Your friend guesses that = 34. You gather
the following data on daily high temperatures, of 10 randomly-chosen days in 2015:
(35, 35, 31, 32, 33, 34, 31, 34, 35, 34). Test your friends hypothesis, at the = 0.05 significance level. (Be sure to write down your null and alternative hypotheses.) (Answer on p.
1193.)
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72.9
Formulation of Hypotheses
SYLLABUS ALERT
This is new to the 9758 (revised) syllabus. So skip this section if youre taking 9740 (old).
Example 611. We flip a coin 100 times. We get 100 heads. What can we say about the
coin?
This is an open-ended question, to which there can be many different answers. Heres the
answer were taught to give for H2 Maths:
Let be the probability that a coin-flip is heads. We formulate a pair of competing
hypotheses:
H0 = 0.5,
HA 0.5.
Our test statistic T is the number of heads (out of 100 coin-flips). Our observed test
statistic t is 100. The corresponding p-value (note that this is a two-tailed test) is
P (T 100, T 0H0 ) = P (T = 0H0 ) + P (T = 100H0 )
=
Exercise 269. (Answer on p. 1193.) We observe the weights (in kg) of a random sample
of 50 Singaporeans: (x1 , x2 , . . . , x50 ). We observe that xi /50 = 68 and x2i /50 = 5000.
A friend claims that the average American is heavier than the average Singaporean. It
is known that the average American weighs 75 kg. Is your friend correct? If you make
any assumptions or approximations, make clear exactly where you do so. (Hint: Use Fact
81(a)).
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73
73.1
In this chapter, well be interested in the relationship between two sets of data.
Example 612. We measure the heights and weights of 10 adult male Singaporeans. Their
heights (in cm) and weights (in kg) are given in this table:
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
hi (cm) 182 165 173 155 178 174 169 160 150 190
wi (kg) 81 70 71 53 72 75 69 60 44 80
We call (hi , wi ) observation i. So for example, observation 5 is (178, 72) and observation
9 is (150, 44).
We can plot a scatter diagram of these 10 persons weights (vertical axis) against their
heights (horizontal).
90
Weight (kg)
80
70
60
50
Height (cm)
40
145
155
165
175
185
195
The black dotted line is called a line of best fit. Shortly (section 73.4), well learn how
to construct this line of best fit.
The more closely the data points in the above scatter diagram lie to a straight line, the more
strongly linearly-correlated are weight and height. So here with these particular data,
the linear correlation between weight and height seems strong. In the next section, well
learn about the product moment correlation coefficient, which is a way to precisely
quantify the degree to which two sets of data are linearly-correlated.
Because the line of best fit is upward-sloping, we can also say that the linear correlation is
positive.
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Example 613. We have data from the Clementi weather station for the daily high temperature (in C) and daily rainfall (in mm) on 361 days in 2015. (Strangely, data were missing
for four days, namely Feb 10-13.)
1
2
3
4 ...
i
ti (C) 27.3 29.5 31.1 32
pi (mm)
0
0.2
0
0
361
30.2
12.4
80
Rainfall (mm)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
25
Again, the black dotted line is a line of best fit. The data points do not seem close to this
line. Thus, it seems that the linear correlation between temperature and rainfall is weak.
The line of best fit is downward-sloping and so we say that the linear correlation is negative.
Exercise 270. (Answer on p. 1194.) The table below shows the prices charged (p) and
the number of haircuts (q) given by 5 different barbers, during June 2016.
Draw a scatter diagram with price on the horizontal axis. Plot also what you think looks
like a line of best fit.
i
1
2
3
4
5
pi ($) 8
9
4
10
8
qi
300 250 1000 400 400
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73.2
In the previous section, we used a scatter diagram to determine if there was a plausible
linear relationship between two sets of data. This, though, was a very crude method.
A more precise measure of the degree to which two sets of data are linearly correlated is
called the product moment correlation coefficient (PMCC). Formally:
Definition 134. Let (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) be two ordered sets of real numbers.
Then their product moment correlation coefficient (PMCC) , denoted r, is the real number
defined by
i=1 (xi x) (yi y)
.
r=
2
2
n
n
i=1 (xi x) i=1 (yi y)
n
82
Remarkably enough, we can prove this using what we know about vectors! (See Fact 105 in the Appendices.)
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4. If r = 1, then the data points lie exactly on a downward-sloping line (and we say the
linear correlation is perfect).
5. If r is close to 1, then the data points lie close to an upward-sloping line (and we say the
linear correlation is very strong).
6. If r is close to 1, then the data points lie close to a downward-sloping line (and we say
the linear correlation is very strong).
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y
x
8. r is merely a measure of linear correlation and nothing else. Two variables may be very
closely related but not linearly-correlated. For example, data generated by the quadratic
model yi = x2i may have a very low r.
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Example 612 (continued from above). This is the height and weight example revisited.
For convenience, we reproduce the data and scatter diagram:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
i
hi (cm) 182 165 173 155 178 174 169 160 150 190
wi (kg) 81 70 71 53 72 75 69 60 44 80
90
Weight (kg)
80
70
60
50
Height (cm)
40
145
155
165
175
185
195
= 182 + 165 + 173 + 155 + 178 + 174 + 169 + 160 + 150 + 190 = 169.6,
h
10
w =
81 + 70 + 71 + 53 + 72 + 75 + 69 + 60 + 44 + 80
= 67.5,
10
(wi w)
(81 w)
(80 w)
= (182 h)
+ + (190 h)
= 1237
(hi h)
i=1
n
2
(hi h)
= (182 169.6)2 + + (190 169.6)2 37.180640,
i=1
n
2
2
2
(wi w)
= (81 67.5) + + + (80 67.5) 35.418922,
i=1
(wi w)
i=1 (hi h)
r =
0.9393.
2
2
n
n
i=1 (hi h)
i=1 (wi w)
n
As expected, r > 0 (the linear correlation is positive or, equivalently, the line of best fit is
upward-sloping). Moreover, r is close to 1 (the linear correlation is very strong).
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Example 613 (continued from above). This is the temperature and rainfall example
revisited. For convenience, we reproduce the data and scatter diagram:
1
2
3
4 ...
i
ti (C) 27.3 29.5 31.1 32
0
0.2
0
0
pi (mm)
361
30.2
12.4
80
Rainfall (mm)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
30 Temperature (degrees Celsius) 35
25
w =
0 + 0.2 + 0 + 0 + + 12.4
5.0.
361
2
2
n
n
2
2
2
2
(27.3 31.5) + + (30.2 31.5) (0 5.0) + + (12.4 5.0)
0.1623.
As expected, r < 0 (the linear correlation is negative or, equivalently, the line of best fit is
downward-sloping). Moreover, r is fairly close to 0 (the linear correlation is weak).
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Exercise 271. Compute the PMCC between p and q, using the data below. (Answer on
p. 1194.)
1
2
3
4
5
i
pi ($) 8
9
4
10
8
qi
300 250 1000 400 400
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73.3
Correlation does not imply causation. This saying has now become a clich. Doesnt make
it any less true.
Below is an amusing but spurious correlation (source).
US spending on science, space, and technology
correlates with
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
10000 suicides
$25 billion
8000 suicides
$20 billion
6000 suicides
$15 billion
Hanging suicides
US spending on science
1999
$30 billion
4000 suicides
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Hanging suicides
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
US spending on science
tylervigen.com
The PMCC is r 0.99789126. So the two sets of data are almost perfectly linearlycorrelated. But of course, this doesnt mean that spending on science causes suicides
or that suicides cause spending on science. More likely, the correlation is simply spurious.
A comic from xkcd:
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73.4
Linear Regression
Example 256 (continued from above). We suspect that the heights and weights of
adult male Singaporeans are linearly-correlated. We thus write down this linear model:
w = a + bh.
Recall the quote: All models are wrong, but some are useful. The model w = a + bh is
unlikely to be exactly correct. But hopefully it will be useful.
We treat a and b as unknown parameters (do you expect b to be positive or negative?).
Our goal is to try to get estimates for a and b, from an observed random sample of height
and weight data.
We recycle the data from earlier. These, along with the scatter diagram, are reproduced
for convenience.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
i
hi (cm) 182 165 173 155 178 174 169 160 150 190
wi (kg) 81 70 71 53 72 75 69 60 44 80
90
Weight (kg)
80
70
60
50
Height (cm)
40
145
155
165
175
185
195
The basic idea of linear regression is this: Find the line that best fits the given data.
Drawn in the picture above are three plausible candidates for the line of best fit. But
there can only be one line of best fit. Which is it?
At the end of the day, well choose black dotted line as the line of best fit. But why?
This will be answered in the next section.
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Example 613 (continued from above). We suspect that daily rainfall and daily high
temperatures for 2015 were linearly-correlated. We thus write down this linear model:
p = a + bt.
Again, our goal is to get estimates for the unknown parameters a and b (do you expect b
to be positive or negative?).
We gather the following data (recycled from before):
1
2
3
4 ...
i
ti (C) 27.3 29.5 31.1 32
pi (mm)
0
0.2
0
0
361
30.2
12.4
80
Rainfall (mm)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
25
Again, drawn in the picture above are several plausible candidates for the line of best fit.
It turns out that the black dotted line will be the line of best fit.
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73.5
There are different methods for determining the line of best fit. Each method will give a
different line of best fit.
The method well learn in H2 Maths is the most basic and most standard method. It is
called the method of ordinary least squares (OLS).
Lets assume there is some true linear model, which may be written as y = a+bx. As always,
we stick to the objectivist interpretation. The parameters a and b have some true, fixed
values. However, they are unknown (and may forever be unknown).
Nonetheless, well try to do our best and get estimates for a and b. These estimates will be
denoted a
and b. And our line of best fit will then be y = a
+ bx.
How do we find this line of best fit? Intuitively, this will be the line to which the data
points are as close as possible. But there are many ways to define the term as close
as possible. For example, we could try to minimise the sum of the distances between the
points and the line. But we shall not do this.
Instead, well use the method of OLS:
1. Measure the vertical distance of each data point (xi , yi ) from the line. This is called the
residual and is denoted ui .
2. Our goal is to find the line y = a
+ bx that minimises u2i this quantity is called the
Sum of Squared Residuals (SSR).
Example:
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Example 612 (height and weight example revisited). Our candidate line of best fit
is w = a
+ bh = 65+0h = 65. This is a horizontal line, which simply predicts that everyones
weight is always 65 kg, regardless of their height. (This is a somewhat silly candidate line
of best fit. Not surprisingly, this is not the actual line of best fit.)
85
Weight (kg)
80
75
5
70
65
60
55
50
45
Height (cm)
40
145
155
165
175
185
195
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
hi (cm)
182 165 173 155 178 174 169 160 150 190
wi (kg)
81 70 71 53 72 75 69 60 44 80
wi (kg)
65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65 65
ui = wi wi (kg) 16
5
6 12 7
10
4
5 21 15
The second last row of the above table gives, for each person with height hi , the corresponding predicted weight wi (as per our candidate line of best fit). The residual ui (last row) is
then defined as the vertical distance between the data point and the weight predicted by
the candidate line of best fit.
10
The SSR is u2i = 162 + 52 + 62 + (12)2 + 72 + 102 + 42 + (5)2 + (21)2 + 152 = 1317. Can
i=1
we do better than this? That is, can we find another candidate line of best fit whose SSR
is smaller than 1317?
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The following fact gives two formulae for b, the slope of the line of best fit. Formula (i) is
printed in the List of Formulae you get during exams, but formula (ii) is not.
Fact 85. Let (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) and (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) be two ordered sets of data. The OLS
regression line of y on x is y y = b (x x), where
n
i=1 (xi x) (yi y)
(i) b =
,
2
n
i=1 (xi x)
xy
xi yi n
(ii) b =
.
2
x2
xi n
Moreover, the regression line can also be written in the form y = a
+ bx, where b is as given
above and a
= y b
x.
Proof. We want to find a
and b such that the line y = a
+ bx has the smallest SSR possible.
The residual ui is defined as the vertical distance between (xi , yi ) and the line y = a
+ bx.
That is,
ui = yi y = yi (
a + bxi ) .
Thus, the SSR is
a + bxi )]
u2i = [yi (
u2i = 0,
u2i = 0.
b
The remainder of the proof simply involves taking derivatives and doing the algebra, and
is continued on p. 1005 in the Appendices.
Remark 9. Whenever we simply say regression line or line of best fit, it may safely be
assumed that we are talking about the OLS regression line.
83
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w = 67.5,
2 = 1382.4,
(hi h)
i=1
(wi w)
= 1237.
(hi h)
i=1
n
(wi w)
i=1 (hi h)
1237
0.8948.
=
So, b =
2
n
1382.4
i=1 (hi h)
90
Weight (kg)
85
80
8
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
Height (cm)
40
145
155
165
175
185
195
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
hi (cm)
182 165 173 155 178 174 169 160 150 190
wi (kg)
81
70
71
53
72
75
69
60
44
80
wi (kg)
78.6 63.4 70.5 54.4 75.0 71.4 67.0 58.9 50.0 85.8
ui = wi wi (kg) 2.4 6.6 0.5 1.4 3.0 3.6 2.0 1.1 6.0 5.8
10
The SSR for the actual line of best fit is u2i = 2.42 + + (5.8)2 147.6. This is much
i=1
better than the SSR of 1317 that we found for the previous candidate line of best fit, which
was simply a horizontal line.
Page 739, Table of Contents
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Exercise 272. (a) Find the regression line of q on p, using the data below. (b) Complete
the table. (c) Draw the scatter diagram, including the regression line and the corresponding
residuals. (d) Compute the SSR. (Answer on p. 1195.)
1
2
3
4
5
i
pi ($)
8
9
4
10
8
qi
300 250 1000 400 400
qi
ui = qi qi
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73.6
Example 614. Well find the PMCC and the regression line for these data:
i 1 2 3 4 5
xi 1 7 3 11 8
yi 14 5 6 4 4
1. Press ON to turn on your calculator.
2. Press the blue 2ND button and then CATALOG (which corresponds to the 0 button).
This brings up the CATALOG menu.
3. Using the down arrow key , scroll down until the cursor is on DiagnosticOn.
4. Press ENTER once. And press ENTER a second time. The TI84 now says DONE,
telling you that the Diagnostic option has been turned on.
The above steps need only be performed once. Unless of course youve just reset your
calculator (as is required before each exam). In which case you have to go through the
above steps again.
After Step 1.
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
After Step 6.
After Step 7.
After Step 8.
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Exercise 273. Using your TI84, find the PMCC between q and p, and also find the regression line of q on p (see data below). Verify that your answer for this exercise is the same
as those in the last two exercises. (Answer on p. 1196.)
i
1
2
3
4
5
pi ($) 8
9
4
10
8
qi
300 250 1000 400 400
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73.7
Given any value of x, we call the corresponding y = b (x x) + y the fitted value or the
predicted value. One use of the regression line is that it can help us predict (or guess)
the value of y, even for x for which we have no data.
Example 612 (height and weight example revisited). Say we want to guess the weight
of an adult male Singaporean who is 185 cm tall. Using our regression line, we predict that
his weight is wh=185 = 0.8948 185 84.26 81.3 kg. This is called interpolation, because
we are predicting the weight of a person whose height is between two of our observations.
Say instead we want to guess the weight of an adult male Singaporean who is 210 cm tall.
Using our regression line, we predict that his weight is wh=210 = 0.8948 210 84.26 103.6
kg. This is called extrapolation, because we are predicting the weight of a person whose
height is beyond on our rightmost observation.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
i
hi (cm) 182 165 173 155 178 174 169 160 150 190 185 210
wi (kg) 81
70
71
53
72
75
69
60
44
80
wi (kg) 78.6 63.4 70.5 54.4 75.0 71.4 67.0 58.9 50.0 85.8 81.3 103.6
110
Weight (kg)
6
100
90
80
70
60
50
Height (cm)
40
145
155
165
175
185
195
205
215
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For the A-level exams, you are supposed to mindlessly and formulaically say that Extrapolation is less reliable than interpolation, because
The former predicts whats beyond the known observations; the
latter predicts whats between two known observations.
This, though, is not a very satisfying explanation for why extrapolation is less reliable
than interpolation. It merely leads to another question: Why should a prediction be more
reliable if done between two known observations, than if done to the right of the right-most
observation (or to the left of the left-most observation)?
We wont give an adequate answer to this latter question. Instead, well simply give a
bunch of examples to illustrate the dangers of extrapolation:
Example 615. A man on a diet weighs 115 kg in Week #1. Heres a chart of his weight
loss.
The OLS line of best fit suggests that he has been losing about 0.5 kg a week.
He forgot to record his weight on Week #6. By interpolation, we predict that his weight
that week was 112.5 kg. This is probably a reliable guess.
By extrapolation, we predict that his weight on Week #201 will be 15 kg. This guess is
obviously absurd. It requires that he keeps losing 0.5 kg a week for nearly 4 years.
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Example 616. A growing boy is 160 cm tall in Month #1. Heres a chart of his growth.
The OLS line of best fit suggests that he has been growing by about 1 cm a month.
He forgot to record his height in Month #6. By interpolation, we predict that his height
that month was 165 cm. This is probably a reliable guess.
By extrapolation, we predict that his height in Month #101 will be 260 cm. This guess is
obviously absurd. It requires that he keep growing by 1 cm a month for the 8-plus years.
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Here are three colourful examples of the dangers of extrapolation from other contexts.
Example 617. Russells Chicken (Problems of Philosophy, 1912, Google Books link).
The man who has fed the chicken every day throughout its life at last wrings its neck instead,
showing that more refined views as to the uniformity of nature would have been useful to the
chicken. ... The mere fact that something has happened a certain number of times causes
animals and men to expect that it will happen again. Thus our instincts certainly cause
us to believe the sun will rise to-morrow, but we may be in no better a position than the
chicken which unexpectedly has its neck wrung.
F1 = 22 + 1 = 5,
1
F2 = 22 + 1 = 17,
2
F3 = 22 + 1 = 257,
3
F4 = 22 + 1 = 65537.
4
Remarkably, the first five Fermat numbers are all prime. This observation led Fermat to
conjecture (guess) in the 17th century that all Fermat numbers are prime. This was an act
of extrapolation.
Unfortunately, Fermats act of extrapolation was wrong. About a century later, Euler
5
showed that F5 = 22 + 1 = 4294967297 = 641 6700417 is composite (not prime).
Today, the Fermat numbers F5 , F6 , . . . , F32 are all known to be composite. Indeed, it was
shown in 1964 that F32 is composite. Over half a century later, it is not yet known if F33 =
33
22 + 1 is prime or composite. F33 is an unimaginably huge number, with 2, 585, 827, 973
digits.
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Example 619. On Ah Bengs first day at school, he learns in Chinese class that the Chinese
character for the number 1 is written as a single horizontal stroke.
On his second day at school, he learns that the Chinese character for the number 2 is
written as two horizontal strokes.
On his third day at school, he learns that the Chinese character for the number 3 is written
as three horizontal strokes.
The Chinese
character for 1
The Chinese
character for 2
The Chinese
character for 3
After his third day at school, Ah Beng decides hell skip at least the next few Chinese
classes, because he thinks he knows how to write the Chinese characters for the numbers 4
and above. 4 simply consists of four horizontal strokes; 5 simply consists of five horizontal
strokes; etc. Unfortunately, Ah Bengs act of extrapolation is wrong.
The characters for the numbers 4 through 10 look instead like this:
10
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On the other hand, here are two historical examples of extrapolation that, to everyones
surprise, have held up remarkably well (at least to date).
Example 620. Moores Law. In 1965, Gordon Moore observed that the number of
components that could be crammed onto each integrated circuit doubled every year. He
predicted that this rate of progress would continue at least through 1975.
In 1975, he adjusted his prediction to a more modest rate of doubling every two years. Thus
far, this latter prediction has held up remarkably well, as the following graph (taken from
Nature) shows.
Unfortunately, as stated in the same Nature article, it has become increasingly obvious to
everyone involved that Moores law ... is nearing its end.
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Example 621. Augustines Law. In 1983, Norman Augustine observed that the cost of
a tactical aircraft grows four-fold every ten years. (Google Books.)
This is considerably quicker than the rate at which the annual US defense budget and US
Gross National Product (GNP) grows. Extrapolating, he concluded:
In 2054, the entire annual US defense budget will be spent on a single aircraft.
Early in the 22nd century, the entire US GNP will be spent on a single aircraft.
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*Figure quoted from an April 2016 Defense News story. Note though that the estimate keeps changing.
Exercise 274. Using the data below, predict how many haircuts were sold in June 2016
by (a) a barber who charged $7 per haircut; and (b) a barber who charged $200 per haircut.
Which prediction is an act of interpolation and which is an act of extrapolation? Which
prediction do you think is more reliable?(Answer on p. 1196.)
i
1
2
3
4
5
pi ($) 8
9
4
10
8
300 250 1000 400 400
qi
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73.8
Two variables may have a relationship, but not a linear one. Here we consider cases where
the relationship is quadratic, reciprocal, or logarithmic.
Example 622. Quadratic. Consider the following data. There is a very strong, but not
perfect degree of linear correlation between x and y (r 0.950). The observations are very
close to, but are not exactly on the OLS line of best fit.
The degree of linear correlation between z and y is near perfect (r 0.995). The observations
also lie closer to the line of best fit than before.
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Example 623. Reciprocal. Consider the following data. There seems to be a moderate
degree of linear correlation between x and y (r 0.603). The observations are fairly close
to the OLS line of best fit.
The degree of linear correlation between z and y is much stronger (r 0.899). The observations also lie closer to the line of best fit.
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Example 624. Logarithmic. Consider the following data. There seems to be a fairly
strong degree of linear correlation between x and y (r 0.873). The observations are fairly
close to, but are not exactly on the OLS line of best fit.
The degree of linear correlation between z and y is much stronger (r 0.978). The observations also lie closer to the line of best fit.
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Exercise 275. You are given the following data. (Answer on p. 1197.)
i
1
2
3
4
5
xi
1
2
3
4
5
yi 10.59 10.54 27.30 33.84 56.6
(a) Plot the above data in a scatter diagram and find the PMCC.
(b) Apply an appropriate transformation to x. Plot the transformed data in a scatter
diagram and find the PMCC.
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73.9
Its much more interesting to live not knowing than to have answers which might be wrong.
- Richard Feynman (1981, YouTube).
The A-level examiners84 want you to say, mindlessly and formulaically, that
All else equal, a model with a higher PMCC
is better than a model with a lower PMCC.
Regurgitating the above sentence will earn you your full mark. But in fact, without the
all else equal clause, it is nonsense. And since it is almost never true that all else is
equal, it is almost always nonsense.
In every introductory course or text on statistics, one is told that the PMCC is merely
a relatively-unimportant consideration, in deciding between models. Yet somehow, the
A-level examiners seem to consider the PMCC an all-important consideration.
Heres a quick example to illustrate.
Example 625. (From the 2015 exam see Exercise 458 below.) In an experiment the
following information was gathered about air pressure P , measured in inches of mercury,
at different heights above sea-level h, measured in feet.
h 2000 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000
P 27.8 24.9 20.6
16.9
13.8
11.1
8.89
7.04
5.52
4.28
The exam first asks us to find the PMCCs between (a) h and P ; (b) ln h and P ; and (c)
h and P . The answers are (a) ra 0.980731; (b) rb 0.974800; and (c) rc 0.998638.
The A-level exam then says, Using the most appropriate case ..., find the equation which
best models air pressure at different heights. The correct answer is that (c) P = a + b h
is the most appropriate model, simply because the PMCC there is the largest.
(... Example continued on the next page ...)
84
See 9740 N2015/II/10(iii), N2014/II/8(b)(ii), N2012/II/8(v), N2011/II/8(iii), N2010/II/10(iii), and N2008/II/8(i). These
are given in this textbook as Exercises 458, 464, 479, 485, 495, and 507.
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L
h) .
T
The constants L = 0.0065 kelvin per metre (Km-1 ) and T = 288.15 kelvin (K) are, respectively, the standard temperature lapse rate (up to 11, 000 m above sea level) and the
standard temperature (at sea level).
The PMCC for the above model is rd 0.999998, which is better than the cases examined
above. (See this Google spreadsheet for the data and calculations.)
But again, the PMCC is merely one relatively-unimportant
consideration. Our
conclusion that this last model is superior to the model P = a + b h is based not on the
fact that rd is 0.001 larger than rc .
Instead, we are confident in this
model because it was derived from physical theories. In
contrast, the model P = a + b h (or indeed any of the other models suggested above) is
completely
arbitrary and has no theoretical justification. Hence, even if the model P =
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Part VII
Ten-Year Series
This part lists all the questions from 2006-2015 A-Level exams, sorted into the nine different
parts and in reverse chronological order.
In the older exams, they had the habit of not distinctly numbering different parts within
the same question as parts (i), (ii), etc. So I have sometimes taken the liberty of adding or
modifying such numbers.
Exam Tip
Unless explicitly instructed, you are always allowed to use your graphing calculator, so use
it wherever possible.
Examples of explicit instructions to avoid using your calculator include (but are not limited
to):
Without using your calculator ...
Use a non-calculator method ...
Find the exact value of ...
Express your answer in terms of
3 or .
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74
a
+ bx + c,
x2
where a, b and c are constants. It is given that C passes through the points with coordinates
(1.6, 2.4) and (0.7, 3.6), and that the gradient of C is 2 at the point where x = 1.
(i) Find the values of a, b and c, giving your answers correct to 3 decimal places. [4]
(ii) Find the x-coordinate of the point where C crosses the x-axis, giving your answer
correct to 3 decimal places. [2]
(iii) One asymptote of C is the line with equation x = 0. Write down the equation of the
other asymptote of C. [1]
Exercise 277. (9740 N2015/I/2. Answer on p. 1199.) (i) Sketch the curve with equation
y=
x+1
,
1x
stating the equations of the asymptotes. On the same diagram, sketch the line with equation
y = x + 2. [3]
(ii) Solve the inequality
x+1
< x + 2.
1x
[3]
Exercise 278. (9740 N2015/I/5. Answer on p. 1201.) (i) State a sequence of transformations that will transform the curve with equation y = x2 on to the curve with equation
y = 0.25(x 3)2 . [2]
A curve has equation y = f (x) where
for 0 x 1,
for 1 < x 3,
otherwise.
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Exercise 279. (9740 N2015/II/3. Answer on p. 1202.) (a) The function f is defined by
1
f x
, x R, x > 1.
1 x2
(i) Show that f has an inverse. [2]
(ii) Find f 1 (x) and state the domain of f 1 . [3]
2+x
(b) The function g is defined by g x
, x R, x 1. Find algebraically the range
1 x2
of g, giving your answer in terms of 3 as simply as possible. [5]
1
,
1x
x R, x 1, x 0.
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Exercise 281. (9740 N2014/I/4. Answer on p. 1203.) The diagram shows the curve
y = f (x). The curve crosses the x-axis at the points A, B and C, and has a maximum
turning point at D where it crosses the y-axis. The coordinates of A, B, C and D are
(a, 0), (b, 0), (c, 0) and (0, d) respectively, where a, b, c and d are positive constants.
D = (0, d)
Vertical
intercept
A = (-a, 0)
B = (b, 0)
C = (c, 0)
x
y = f(x)
Horizontal
intercepts
(i) Sketch the curve y 2 = f (x), stating, in terms of a, b, c and d, the coordinates of any
turning points and of the points where the curve crosses the x-axis. [4]
(ii) What can be said about the tangents to the curve y 2 = f (x) at the points where it
crosses the x-axis? [1]
Exercise 282. (9740 N2014/II/1. Answer on p. 1204.) A curve C has parametric equations
x = 3t2 ,
y= 6t.
(i) Find the value of t at the point on C where the tangent has gradient 0.4. [3]
(ii) The tangent at the point P (3p2 , 6p) on C meets the y-axis at the point D. Find the
cartesian equation of the locus of the mid-point of P D as p varies. [4]
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x2 + x + 1
,
x1
x R, x 1.
Without using a calculator, find the set of values that y can take. [5]
Exercise 284. (9740 N2013/I/3. Answer on p. 1205.) (i) Sketch the curve with equation
y=
x+1
,
2x 1
stating the equations of any asymptotes and the coordinates of the points where the curve
crosses the axes. [4]
(ii) Solve the inequality
x+1
< 1.
2x 1
[1]
Exercise 285. (9740 N2013/II/1. Answer on p. 1206.) Functions f and g are defined by
f x
2+x
,
1x
g x 1 2x,
x R, x 1,
x R.
(i) Explain why the composite function f g does not exist. [2]
(ii) Find an expression for gf (x) and hence, or otherwise, find (gf )1 (5). [4]
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Exercise 286. (9740 N2012/I/1. Answer on p. 1206.) A cinema sells tickets at three
different prices, depending on the age of the customer. The age categories are under 16
years, between 16 and 65 years, and over 65 years. Three groups of people, A, B, and C,
go to the cinema on the same day. The numbers in each category for each group, together
with the total cost of the tickets for each group, are given in the following table.
Group Under 16 years Between 16 and 65 years Over 65 years Total cost
A
9
6
4
$162.03
B
7
5
3
$128.36
C
10
4
5
$158.50
Write down and solve equations to find the cost of a ticket for each of the age categories.
[4]
Exercise 287. (9740 N2012/I/7. Answer on p. 1207.) A function f is said to be selfinverse if f (x) = f 1 (x) for all x in the domain of f . The function g is defined by
gx
x+k
,
x1
x R, x 1,
where k is a constant, k 1.
(i) Show that g is self-inverse. [2]
(ii) Given that k > 0, sketch the curve y = g(x), stating the equations of any asymptotes
and the coordinates of any points where the curve crosses the x- and y-axes. [3]
(iii) State the equation of one line of symmetry of the curve in part (ii), and describe fully
1
a sequence of transformations which would transform the curve y = onto this curve. [4]
x
Exercise 288. (9740 N2013/I/3. Answer on p. 1208.) It is given that f (x) = x3 +x2 2x4.
(i) Sketch the graph of y = f (x). [1]
(ii) Find the integer solution of the equation f (x) = 4, and prove algebraically that there
are no other real solutions. [3]
(iii) State the integer solution of the equation (x + 3)3 + (x + 3)2 2(x + 3) 4 = 4. [1]
(iv) Sketch the graph of y = f (x). [1]
(v) Write down two different cubic equations which between them give the roots of the
equation f (x) = 4. Hence find all the roots of this equation. [4]
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Exercise 289. (9740 N2011/I/1. Answer on p. 1209.) Without using a calculator, solve
the inequality
x2 + x + 1
< 0.
x2 + x 2
[4]
Exercise 290. (9740 N2011/I/1. Answer on p. 1209.) It is given that f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,
where a, b, and c are constants.
(i) Given that the curve with equation y = f (x) passes through the points with coordinates
(1.5, 4.5), (2.1, 3.2) and (3.4, 4.1), find the values of a, b, and c. Give your answers correct
to 3 decimal places. [3]
(ii) Find the set of values of x for which f (x) is an increasing function.
1
x R, x > .
2
(i) Find f 1 (x) and write down the domain and range of f 1 . [4]
(ii) Sketch on the same diagram the graphs of y = f (x) and y = f 1 (x) giving the equations
of any asymptotes and the exact coordinates of any points where the curves cross the xand y-axes. [4]
(iii) Explain why the x-coordinates of the points of intersection of the curves in part (ii)
satisfy the equation
ln(2x + 1) = x 3,
and find the values of these x-coordinates, correct to 4 significant figures. [3]
Exercise 292. (9740 N2010/I/5. Answer on p. 1211.) The curve with equation y = x3 is
transformed by a translation of 2 units in the positive x-direction, followed by a stretch with
scale factor 0.5 parallel to the y-axis, followed by a translation of 6 units in the negative
y-direction.
(i) Find the equation of the new curve in the form y = f (x) and the exact coordinates of
the points where this curve crosses the x- and y-axes. Sketch the new curve. [5]
(ii) On the same diagram, sketch the graph of y = f 1 (x), stating the exact coordinates of
the points where the graph crosses the x- and y-axes. [3]
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
f x
1
,
x2 1
for x R, x 1, x 1.
1
,
x3
for x R, x 2, x 3, x 4.
(x 3)2
.
(4 x)(x 2)
[2]
Exercise 294. (9740 N2009/I/1. Answer on p. 1215.) (i) The first three terms of a
sequence are given by u1 = 10, u2 = 6, u3 = 5. Given that un is a quadratic polynomial in n,
find un in terms of n. [4]
(ii) Find the set of values of n for which un is greater than 100. [2]
Exercise 295. (9740 N2009/I/6. Answer on p. 1215.) The curve C1 has equation y =
x2
x2 y 2
. The curve C2 has equation
+
= 1.
x+2
6
3
(i) Sketch C1 and C2 on the same diagram, stating the exact coordinates of any points of
intersection with the axes and the equations of any asymptotes. [4]
(ii) Show algebraically that the x-coordinates of the points of intersection of C1 and C2
satisfy the equation 2(x 2)2 = (x + 2)2 (6 x2 ). [2]
(iii) Use your calculator to find these x-coordinates. [2]
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
ax
,
bx a
a
for x R, x ,
b
f (x) =
ax + b
,
cx + d
3x 7
2x + 1
y=
3x 7
,
2x + 1
(b)
y2 =
3x 7
,
2x + 1
including the coordinates of the points where the graphs cross the axes and the equations
of any asymptotes. [5]
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Exercise 298. (9233 N2008/I/9. Answer on p. 1218.) Sketch, on separate diagrams, the
curves
x
, stating the equations of the asymptotes, [4]
1
x
(ii) y 2 = 2
, making clear the form of the curve at the origin. [3]
x 1
(i) y =
x2
x2
x
and y = ex
1
Use the iterative formula xn+1 = 1 + xn exn , together with a suitable initial value x1 , to
find the positive root of this equation correct to 2 decimal places.
1
=
.
x2 + 3x + 2
x2 + 3x + 2
[1]
[4]
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Exercise 301. (9740 N2007/I/2. Answer on p. 1220.) Functions f and g are defined by
1
x3
g x x2
f x
for x R,x 3,
for x R.
(i) Only one of the composite functions f g and gf exists. Give a definition (including the
domain) of the composite that exists, and explain why the other composite does not exist.
[3]
(ii) Find f 1 (x) and state the domain of f 1 . [3]
2x + 7
Exercise 302. (9740 N2007/I/5. Answer on p. 1221.) Show that the equation y =
x+2
B
can be written as y = A +
, where A and B are constants to be found. Hence state a
x+2
1
2x + 7
sequence of transformations which transform the graph of y = to the graph of y =
.
x
x+2
[4]
2x + 7
Sketch the graph of y =
, giving the equations of any asymptotes and the coordinates
x+2
of any points of intersection with the x- and y-axes.
Exercise 303. (9740 N2007/II/1. Answer on p. 1222.) Four friends buys three different
kinds of fruits in the market. When they get home they cannot remember the individual
prices per kilogram, but three of them can remember the total amount that they each paid.
The weights of fruit and the total amts paid are shown in the following table.
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4x + 1
,
x3
x R, x 3.
(i) State the equations of the two asymptotes of the graph of y = f (x). [2]
(ii) Sketch the graph of y = f (x), showing its asymptotes and stating the coordinates of
the points of intersection with the axes. [3]
(iii) Find an expression for f 1 (x) and state the domain of f 1 . [3]
Exercise 305. (9233 N2006/I/3. Answer on p. 1223.) Functions f and g are defined by
f x 5x + 3,
3
gx ,
x
x > 0,
x > 0.
x > 0.
[1]
[5]
N
Remark: This was the old 9233 exam. Technically, inequalities of the form
0 are no
D
N
longer in the 9740 or 9758 syllabus. Only inequalities of the form
> 0 are. But this is
D
not a difficult question and you should go ahead and try it.
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75
Exercise 307. (9740 N2015/I/8. Answer on p. 1225.) Two athletes are to run 20 km by
running 50 laps around a circular track of length 400 m. They aim to complete the distance
in between 1.5 hours and 1.75 hours inclusive.
(i) Athlete A runs the first lap in T seconds and each subsequent lap takes 2 seconds longer
than the previous lap. Find the set of values of T which will enable A to complete the
distance within the required time interval. [4]
(ii) Athlete B runs the first lap in t seconds and the time for each subsequent lap is 2%
more than the time for the previous lap. Find the set of values of t which will enable B to
complete the distance within the required time interval. [4]
(iii) Assuming each athlete completes the 20 km run in exactly 1.5 hours, find the difference
in the athletes times for their 50th laps, giving your answer to the nearest second. [3]
Exercise 308. (9740 N2015/II/4. Answer on p. 1226.) Skip part (a) if youre taking the
9758 (revised) exam.
(a) Prove by the method of mathematical induction that
1 3 6 + 2 4 7 + 3 5 8 + + n(n + 2)(n + 5) =
1
n(n + 1)(3n2 + 31n + 74). [6]
12
2
A
B
can
be
expressed
as
+
, where A and B are
4r2 + 8r + 3
2r + 1 2r + 3
constants to be determined. [1]
(b) (i) Show that
n
2
is denoted by Sn .
2 + 8r + 3
4r
r=1
The sum
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Exercise 309. (9740 N2014/I/6. Answer on p. 1228.) Skip part (a) if youre taking the
9758 (revised) exam.
(a) A sequence p1 , p2 , p3 , . . . is given by p1 = 1 and pn+1 = 4pn 7 for n 1.
(i) Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that pn =
7 4n
. [5]
3
1
.
(n + 1)!
(i) Give a reason why the series ur converges, and write down the value of the sum to
infinity. [2]
(ii) Find a formula for un in simplified form. [2]
Exercise 310. (9740 N2014/II/3. Answer on p. 1229.) In a training exercise, athletes
run from a starting point O to and from a series of points A1 , A2 , A3 , . . . , increasingly far
away in a straight line. In the exercise, athletes start at O and run stage 1 from O to A1
and back to O, then stage 2 from O to A2 and back to O, and so on.
4m
A1
4m
A2
4m
A3
4m
A4
4m
A5
4 m A6 4 m
A7
4m
A8
4m
A1
4m
A2
8m
A3
16 m
A4
(i) In Version 1 of the exercise (top), the distances between adjacent points are all 4 m.
(a) Find the distance run by an athlete who completes the first 10 stages of Version 1 of
the exercise. [2]
(b) Write down an expression for the distance run by an athlete who completes n stages of
Version 1. Hence find the least number of stages that the athlete needs to complete to run
at least 5 km. [4]
(ii) In Version 2 of the exercise (bottom), the distances between the points are such that
OA1 = 4 m, A1 A2 = 4 m, A2 A3 = 8 m and An An+1 = 2An1 An . Write down an expression
for the distnace run by an athlete who completes n stages of Version 2. Hence find the
distance from O, and the direction of travel, of the athlete after he has run exactly 10 km
using Version 2. [5]
Page 770, Table of Contents
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Exercise 311. (9740 N2013/I/7. Answer on p. 1231.) A gardener is cutting off pieces
of string from a long roll of string. The first piece he cuts off is 128 cm long and each
2
successive piece is as long as the preceding piece.
3
(i) The length of the nth piece of string cut off is p cm. Show that ln p = (An + B) ln 2 +
(Cn + D) ln 3, for constants A, B, C and D to be determined. [3]
(ii) Show that the total length of string cut off can never be greater than 384 cm. [2]
(iii) How many pieces must be cut off before the total length cut off is greater than 380
cm? You must show sufficient working to justify your answer. [4]
Exercise 312. (9740 N2013/I/9. Answer on p. 1231.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
(i) Prove by the method of mathematical induction that
n
1
r(2r2 + 1) = n(n + 1)(n2 + n + 1).
2
r=1
[5]
for a constant a to be determined. Hence find a formula for r2 , fully factorising your
r=1
answer. [5]
n
(iii) Find f (r). (You should not simplify your answer.) [3]
r=1
Exercise 313. (9740 N2012/I/3. Answer on p. 1233.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
A sequence u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is given by
u1 = 2 and un+1 =
3un 1
6
for n 1.
[4]
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Exercise 314. (9740 N2012/II/4. Answer on p. 1234.) On 1 January 2001 Mrs A put
$100 into a bank account, and on the first day of each subsequent month she put in $10
more than in the previous month. Thus on 1 February she put $110 into the account and
on 1 March she put $120 into the account, and so on. The account pays no interest.
(i) On what date did the value of Mrs As account first become greater than $5000? [5]
On 1 January 2001 Mr B put $100 into a savings account, and on the first day of each
subsequent month he put another $100 into the account. The interest rate was 0.5% per
month, so that on the last day of each month the amount in the account on that day was
increased by 0.5%.
(ii) Use the formula for the sum of a geometric progression to find an expression for the
value of Mr Bs account on the last day of the nth month (where January 2001 was the
1st month, February 2001 was the 2nd month, and so on). Hence find in which month the
value of Mr Bs account first became greater than $5000. [5]
(iii) Mr B wanted the value of his account to be $5000 on 2 December 2003. What interest
rate per month, applied from January 2001, would achieve this? [3]
Exercise 315. (9740 N2011/I/6. Answer on p. 1235.) Skip parts (ii) and (iii) of this
question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(i) Using the formulae for sin(A B), prove that
sin(r + 0.5) sin(r 0.5) = 2 cos(r) sin(0.5). [2]
n
(ii) Hence find a formula for cos(r) in terms of sin(n + 0.5) and sin(0.5). [3]
r=1
sin(r) =
r=1
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Exercise 316. (9740 N2011/I/9. Answer on p. 1235.) (i) A company is drilling for oil.
Using machine A, the depth drilled on the first day is 256 metres. On each subsequent day,
the depth drilled is 7 metres less than on the previous day. Drilling continues daily up to
and including the day when a depth of less than 10 metres is drilled. What depth is drilled
on the 10th day, and what is the total depth when drilling is completed? [6]
Using machine B, the depth drilled on the first day is also 256 metres. On each subsequent
8
day, the depth drilled in of the depth drilled on the previous day. How many days does
9
it take for the depth drilled to exceed 99% of the theoretical maximum total depth? [4]
Exercise 317. (9740 N2010/I/3. Answer on p. 1237.) Skip part (ii) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
The sum Sn of the first n terms of a sequence u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is given by Sn = n(2n + c),
where c is a constant.
(i) Find un in terms of c and n. [3]
(ii) Find a recurrence relation of the form un+1 = f (un ). [2]
Exercise 318. (9740 N2010/II/2. Answer on p. 1238.) Skip part (i) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(i) Prove by mathematical induction that
n
1
r(r + 2) = n(n + 1)(2n + 7).
6
r=1
[5]
1
3
1
1
=
.
4 2(n + 1) 2(n + 2)
r=1 r(r + 2)
[4]
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r=2
r3
1
.
r
1
converges, and write down its value. [2]
3r
r
r=2
Exercise 320. (9740 N2009/I/5. Answer on p. 1241.) Skip the first part of this question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that
n
1
r2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1).
6
r=1
[4]
2n
Exercise 321. (9740 N2009/I/8. Answer on p. 1242.) Two musical instruments, A and
B, consist of metal bars of decreasing lengths.
(i) The first bar of instrument A has length 20 cm and the lengths of the bars form a
geometric progression. The 25th bar has length 5 cm. Show that the total length of all the
bars must be less than 357 cm, no matter how many bars there are. [4]
Instrument B consists of only 25 bars which are identical to the first 25 bars of instrument
A.
(ii) Find the total length, L cm, of all the bars of instrument B and the length of the 13th
bar. [3]
(iii) Unfortunately the manufacturer misunderstands the instructions and constructs instrument B wrongly, so that the lengths of the bars are in arithmetic progression with
common difference d cm. If the total length of the 25 bars is still L cm and the length of
the 25th bar is still 5 cm, find the value of d and the length of the longest bar. [4]
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Exercise 322. (9740 N2008/I/2. Answer on p. 1243.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
The nth term of a sequence is given by un = n(2n + 1), for n 1. The sum of the first
n terms is denoted by Sn . Use the method of mathematical induction to show that Sn =
1/6n(n + 1)(4n + 5) for all positive integers n. [5]
Exercise 323. (9740 N2008/I/10. Answer on p. 1224.) (i) A student saves $10 on 1
January 2009. On the first day of each subsequent month she saves $3 more than in the
previous month, so that she saves 13 on 1 February 2009, $16 on 1 March 2009, and so on.
On what date will she first have saved over $2000 in total?
(ii) A second students puts $10 on 1 January 2009 into a bank account which pays compound
interest at a rate of 2% per month on the last day of each month. She puts a further $10
into the account on the first day of each subsequent month.
(a) How much compound interest has her original $10 earned at the end of 2 years? [2]
(b) How much in total is in the account at the end of 2 years? [3]
(c) After how many complete months will the total in the account first exceed $2000? [4]
Exercise 324. (9233 N2008/I/14. Answer on p. 1224.) Skip part (i) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
It is required to prove the statement:
2
1 + 2x + 3x + + nx
n1
1 (n + 1)xn + nxn+1
=
.
(1 x)2
(i) Use mathematical induction to prove the statement for all positive integers n.
(ii) By considering the expression obtained by integrating each term on the left hand side,
prove the statement without using mathematical induction. [6]
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Exercise 326. (9740 N2007/I/9. Answer on p. 1224.) Technically this question involves
recurrence relations, so you can skip it if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. But its
perfectly doable even using only what you learnt in 9758.
y
x
0
The diagram shows the graph of y = ex 3x. The two roots of the equation ex 3x = 0 are
denoted by and , where < .
(i) Find the values of and , each correct to 3 decimal places. [2]
A sequence of real numbers x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . satisfies the recurrence relation
1
xn+1 = exn
3
for n 1.
(ii) Prove algebraically that, if the sequence converges, then it converges to either or .
[2]
(iii) Use a calculator to determine the behaviour of the sequence for each of the cases x1 = 0,
x1 = 1, x1 = 2. [3]
(iv) By considering xn+1 xn , prove that
xn+1 < xn
xn+1 > xn
if < xn < ,
if xn < or xn > .
[2]
(v) State briefly how the results in part (iv) relate to the behaviours determined in (iii).
Page 776, Table of Contents
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Exercise 327. (9740 N2007/I/10. Answer on p. 1249.) A geometric series has common
ratio r, and an arithmetic series has first term a and common difference d, where a and d
are non-zero. The first three terms of the geometric series are equal to the first, fourth and
sixth terms respectively of the arithmetic series.
(i) Show that 3r2 5r + 2 = 0. [4]
(ii) Deduce that the geometric series is convergent and find, in terms of a, the sum to
infinity. [5]
(iii) The sum of the first n terms of the arithmetic series is denoted by S. Given that a > 0,
find the set of possible values of n for which S exceeds 4a. [5]
Exercise 328. (9740 N2007/II/2. Answer on p. 1250.) Skip part (i) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
A sequence u1 , u2 , u3 , . . . is such that u1 = 1 and
un+1 = un
2n + 1
,
n2 (n + 1)2
for all n 1.
(i) Use the method of mathematical induction to prove that un =
1
. [4]
n2
[2]
(iii) Give a reason why the series in part (ii) is convergent and state the sum to infinity. [2]
(iv) Use your answer to part (ii) to find
2n 1
.
2
2
n=2 n (n 1)
N
[2]
Exercise 329. (9233 N2007/I/14. Answer on p. 1251.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
Use the method of mathematical induction to prove the following result.
n
sin rx =
r=1
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3r+2 . [3]
r=1
Exercise 331. (9233 N2006/I/1. Answer on p. 1253.) The sum Sn of the first n terms
2
of a geometric progression is given by Sn = 6 n1 . Find the first term and the common
3
ratio.
Exercise 332. (9233 N2006/I/11. Answer on p. 1253.) Skip the first part of this question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
Prove by induction that
n
1
r3 = n2 (n + 1)2 . [4]
4
r=1
Deduce that 23 + 43 + 63 + + (2n)3 = 2n2 (n + 1)2 . [1]
Hence or otherwise find
n
(2r 1)3 ,
r=1
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76
Exercise 333. (9740 N2015/I/7. Answer on p. 1255.) Referred to the origin O, points
A and B have position vectors a and b respectively. Point C lies on OA, between O
and A, such that OC CA = 3 2. Point D lies on OB, between O and B, such that
OD DB = 5 6.
(i) Find the position vectors OC and OD, giving your answers in terms of a and b. [2]
(ii) Show that the vector equation of the line BC can be written as r = 0.6a + (1 )b,
where is a parameter. Find in a similar form the vector equation of the line AD in terms
of a parameter . [3]
(iii) Find, in terms of a and b, the position vector of the point E where the lines BC and
AD meet and find the ratio AE ED. [5]
Exercise 334. (9740 N2015/II/2. Answer on p. 1256.) The line L has equation r =
i 2j 4k + (2i + 3j 6k).
(i) Find the acute angle between L and the x-axis. [2]
The point P has position vector 2i + 5j 6k.
(ii) Find the points on L which are a distance of
point on L which is closest to P . [5]
(iii) Find a cartesian equation of the plane that includes the line L and the point P . [3]
Exercise 335. (9740 N2014/I/3. Answer on p. 1257.) (i) Given that a b = 0, what can
be deduced about the vectors a and b? [2]
(ii) Find a unit vector n such that n (i + 2j 2k) = 0. [2]
(iii) Find the cosine of the acute angle between i + 2j 2k and the z-axis. [1]
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Exercise 336. (9740 N2014/I/9. Answer on p. 1257.) Planes p and q are perpendicular.
Plane p has equation x + 2y 3z = 12. Plane q contains the line l with equation
x1 y+1 z3
=
=
.
2
1
4
The point A on l has coordinates (1, 1, 3).
(i) Find a cartesian equation of q. [4]
(ii) Find a vector equation of the line m where p and q meet. [4]
(iii) B is a general point on m. Find an expression for the square of the distance AB.
Hence, or otherwise, find the coordinates of the point on m which is nearest to A. [5]
Exercise 337. (9740 N2013/I/1. Answer on p. 1257.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
Planes p, q and r have equations x 2z = 4, 2x 2y + z = 6 and 5x 4y + z = 9 respectively,
where is a constant.
(i) Given that = 3, find the coordinates of the point of intersection of p, q and r.
(ii) Given instead that = 0, describe the relationship between p, q and r.
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Exercise 338. (9740 N2013/I/6. Answer on p. 1258.) Skip part (iii) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
A
N
C
c
b
O
The origin O and the points A, B and C lie in the same plane, where OA = a, OB = b and
OC = c (see diagram).
(i) Explain why c can be expressed as c = a + b, for constants and . [1]
The point N is on AC such that AN N C = 3 4.
(ii) Write down the position vector of N in terms of a and c. [1]
(iii) It is given that the area of triangle ON C is equal to the area of triangle OM C, where
M is the mid-point of OB. By finding the areas of these triangles in terms of a and b, find
in terms of in the case where and are both positive. [5]
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Exercise 339. (9740 N2013/II/4. Answer on p. 1259.) The planes p1 and p2 have
equations r (2, 2, 1) = 1 and r (6, 3, 2) = 1 respectively, and meet in the line l.
(i) Find the acute angle between p1 and p2 . [3]
(ii) Find a vector equation for l. [4]
(iii) The point A(4, 3, c) is equidistant from the planes p1 and p2 . Calculate the two possible
values of c. [6]
Exercise 340. (9740 N2012/I/5. Answer on p. 1260.) Skip part (i) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
Referred to the origin O, the points A and B have position vectors a and b such that
a = i j + k and b = i + 2j. The point C has position vector c given by c = a + b, where
and are positive constants.
(i) Given that the area of triangle OAC is 126, find . [4]
(ii) Given instead that = 4 and that OC = 5 3, find the possible coordinates of C. [4]
Exercise 341. (9740 N2012/I/9. Answer on p. 1260.) (i) Find a vector equation of the
line through the points A and B with position vectors 7i+8j+9k and i8j+k respectively.
(ii) The perpendicular to this line from the point C with position vector i + 8j + 3k meets
the line at the point N . Find the position vector of N and the ratio AN N B. [5]
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Exercise 342. (9740 N2011/I/7. Answer on p. 1261.) Skip part (i) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
P
M
Referred to the origin O, the points A and B are such that OA = a and OB = b. The point
P on OA is such that OP P A = 1 2, and the point Q on OB is such that OQ QB = 3 2.
The mid-point of P Q is M (see diagram).
(i) Find OM in terms of a and b and show that the area of triangle OM P can be written
as k a b, where k is a constant to be found. [6]
(ii) The vectors a and b are now given by a = 2pi 6pj + 3pk and b = i + j 2k, where p is
a positive constant. Given that a is a unit vector,
(a) find the exact value of p, [2]
(b) give a geometrical interpretation of a b, [1]
(c) evaluate a b. [2]
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Exercise 343. (9740 N2011/I/11. Answer on p. 1262.) The plane p passes through the
points with coordinates (4, 1, 3), (2, 5, 2) and (4, 3, 2).
(i) Find a cartesian equation of p. [4]
The lines l1 and l2 have, respectively, equations
x1 y2 z+3
=
=
2
4
1
and
x+2 y1 z3
=
=
,
1
5
k
Exercise 344. (9740 N2010/I/1. Answer on p. 1263.) The position vectors a and b are
given by a = 2pi + 3pj + 6pk and b = i 2j + 2k, where p > 0, It is given that a = b.
(i) Find the exact value of p. [2]
(ii) Show that (a + b) (a b) = 0. [3]
Exercise 345. (9740 N2010/I/10. Answer on p. 1263.) Skip part (iv) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
The line l and plane p have, respectively, equations
x 10 y + 1 z + 3
=
=
3
6
9
and x 2y 3z = 0.
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Exercise 346. (9740 N2009/I/10. Answer on p. 1264.) The planes p1 and p2 have
equations r (2, 1, 3) = 1 and r (1, 2, 1) = 2 respectively, and meet in a line l.
(i) Find the acute angle between p1 and p2 . [3]
(ii) Find a vector equation of l. [4]
(iii) The plane p3 has equation 2x + y + 3z 1 + k(x + 2y + z 2) = 0. Explain why l lies in
p3 for any constant k. Hence, or otherwise, find a cartesian equation of the plane in which
both l and the point (2, 3, 4) lie. [5]
Exercise 347. (9740 N2009/II/2. Answer on p. 1264.) Skip part (iv) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
Relative to the origin O, two points A and B have position vectors given by a = 14i+14j+14k
and b = 11i 13j + 2k respectively.
(i) The point P divides the line AB in the ratio 2 1. Find the coordinates of P . [2]
(Note: They should have said line segment rather than line. About this, see section 26.1
Lines vs. Line Segments on p. 252.)
(ii) Show that AB and OP are perpendicular. [2]
(iii) The vector c is a unit vector in the direction of OP . Write c as a column vector, and
give the geometrical meaning of a c. [2]
(iv) Find a p, where p is the vector OP , and give the geometrical meaning of a p.
Hence write down the area of the triangle OAP . [4]
Exercise 348. (9740 N2008/I/3. Answer on p. 1265.) Skip part (iii) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. Points O, A, B are such that OA = i + 4j 3k and
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Exercise 349. (9740 N2008/I/11. Answer on p. 1265.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
The equations of three planes p1 , p2 , p3 are 2x5y+3z = 3, 3x+2y5z = 5, 5x+y+17z = ,
respectively, where and are constants. When = 20.9 and = 16.6, find the coordinates
of the point at which these planes meet. [2]
The planes p1 and p2 intersect in a line l.
(i) Find a vector equation of l. [4]
(ii) Given that all three planes meet in the line l, find and . [3]
(iii) Given instead that the three planes have no points in common, what can be said about
the values of and ? [2]
(iv) Find the cartesian equation of the plane which contains l and the point (1, 1, 3). [4]
Exercise 350. (9233 N2008/I/11. Answer on p. 1266.) The cartesian equations of two
lines are
x y+2 z5
=
=
1
2
1
and
x1 y+3 z4
=
=
.
1
3
1
(i) Show that the lines intersect and state the point of intersection. [5]
(ii) Find the acute angle between the lines. [4]
Exercise 351. (9740 N2007/I/6. Answer on p. 1266.) Skip part (iii) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. Referred to the origin O, the position vectors of the
points A and B are i j + 2k and 2i + 4j + k respectively.
(i) Show that OA is perpendicular to OB. [2]
(ii) Find the position vector of the point M on the line segment AB such that AM M B =
1 2. [3]
(iii) The point C has position vector 4i + 2j + 2k. Use a vector product to find the exact
area of triangle OAC. [4]
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Exercise 352. (9740 N2007/I/8. Answer on p. 1267.) The line l passes through the points
A and B with coordinates (1, 2, 4) and (2, 3, 1) respectively. The plane p has equation
3x y + 2z = 17. Find
(i) the coordinates of the point of intersection of l and p, [5]
(ii) the acute angle between l and p, [3]
(iii) the perpendicular distance from A to p. [3]
Exercise 353. (9233 N2007/I/7. Answer on p. 1267.) The point P is the foot of the
perpendicular from the point A(1, 3, 2) to the line given by
x+3 y8 z3
=
=
.
2
2
3
Find the coordinates of P , and hence find the length of AP . [7]
Exercise 355. (9233 N2006/I/14. Answer on p. 1268.) Skip part (ii) of this question if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
The points A, B, C and D have position vectors i2j+5k, i+3j, 10i+j+2k and 2i+4j+5k
respectively, with respect to an origin O. The point P on AB is such that AP P B = 1
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
77
Exercise 356. (9740 N2015/I/9. Answer on p. 1269.) (a) The complex number w is such
that w = a + ib, where a and b are non-zero real numbers. The complex conjugate of w is
w2
denoted by w . Given that is purely imaginary, find the possible values of w in terms
w
of a. [5]
Skip part (b) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(b) The complex number z is such that z 5 = 32i.
(i) Find the modulus and argument of each of the possible values of z. [4]
(ii) Two of these values are z1 and z2 , where 0.5 < arg z1 < and < arg z2 < 0.5. Find
the exact value of arg(z1 z2 ) in terms of and show that z1 z2 = 4 sin(0.2). [4]
1
in cartesian form x + iy, showing
z3
q
(ii) The real numbers p and q are such that pz 2 + 3 is real. Find, in terms of p, the value
z
q
2
of q and the value of pz + 3 . [3]
z
Exercise 358. (9740 N2014/II/4. Answer on p. 1271.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
(a) The complex number z satisfies z + 5 i = 4.
(i) On an Argand diagram show the locus of z. [2]
(ii) The complex number z also satisfies z 6i = z + 10 + 4i. Find exactly the possible
values of z, giving your answers in the form x + iy. [4]
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Exercise 359. (9740 N2013/I/4. Answer on p. 1272.) The complex number w is given
by 1 + 2i.
(i) Find w3 in the form x + iy, showing your working. [2]
(ii) Given that w is a root of the equation az 3 + 5z 2 + 17z + b = 0, find the values of the real
numbers a and b. [3]
(iii) Using these values of a and b, find all the roots of this equation in exact form. [3]
Exercise 360. (9740 N2013/I/8. Answer on p. 1273.) The complex number z is given by
z = rei , where r > 0 and 0 0.5.
z 10
= , find . [3]
w2
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Exercise 363. (9740 N2011/I/10. Answer on p. 1276.) Do not use a graphic calculator in answering this question.
(i) The roots of the equation z 2 = 8i are z1 and z2 . Find z1 and z2 in cartesian form x + iy,
showing your working. [4]
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, find in cartesian form the roots w1 and w2 of the equation w2 +
4w + (4 + 2i) = 0. [3]
Skip parts (iii) and (iv) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(iii) Using a single Argand diagram, sketch the loci
(a) z z1 = z z2 , [1]
(b) z w1 = z w1 , [1]
(iv) Give a reason why there are no points which lie on both of these loci. [1]
Exercise 364. (9740 N2011/II/1. Answer on p. 1277.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
The complex number z satisfies z 2 5i 3.
(i) On an Argand diagram, sketch the region in which the point representing z can lie. [3]
(ii) Find exactly the maximum and minimum possible values of z. [2]
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
. [4]
4
(iv) Find where the locus z z1 = 2 meets the positive real axis. [2]
Exercise 366. (9740 N2010/II/1. Answer on p. 1279.) (i) Solve the equation x2 6x+34 =
0. [2]
(ii) One root of the equation x4 + 4x3 + x2 + ax + b = 0, where a and b are real, is x = 2 + i.
Find the values of a and b and the other roots. [5]
Exercise 367. (9740 N2009/I/9. Answer on p. 1280.) (i) Solve the equation z 7 (1+i) = 0,
giving the roots in the form rei , where r > 0 and < . [5]
(ii) Show the roots on an Argand diagram. [2]
Skip part (iii) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
. Explain why
2
the locus of all points z such that z z1 = z z2 passes through the origin. Draw this
locus on your Argand diagram and find its exact cartesian equation. [5]
(iii) The roots represented by z1 and z2 are such that 0 < arg z1 < arg z2 <
(i) It is given that z1 = 1 + 3i. Find the value of z13 , showing clearly how you obtain your
answer. [3]
(ii) Given that 1 + 3i is a root of the equation 2z 3 + az 2 + bz + 4 = 0, find the values of the
real numbers a and b. [4]
(iii) For these values a and b, solve the equation in part (ii), and show all the roots on an
Argand diagram. [4]
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Exercise 369. (9740 N2008/II/3. Answer on p. 1282.) (a) The complex number w has
modulus r and argument , where 0 < < , and w denotes the conjugate of w. State the
2
w
modulus and argument of p, where p = . [2]
w
Given that p5 is real and positive, find the possible values of . [2]
Skip part (b) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(b) The complex number z satisfies the relations z 6 and z = z 8 6i.
(i) Illustrate both of these relations on a single Argand diagram [3]
(ii) Find the greatest and least possible values of arg z, giving your answers in radians
correct to 3 decimal places. [4]
Exercise 370. (9233 N2008/I/9. Answer on p. 1283.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
In an Argand diagram, the point P represents the complex number z. Clearly labelling
any relevant points, draw three separate diagrams to show the locus of P in each of the
following cases.
(i) z + 2i = 2. [2]
(ii) z 2 i = z i. [2]
(iii)
Exercise 371. (9233 N2008/II/3. Answer on p. 1268.) (i) Verify that w = 1 i satisfies
the equation w2 = 2i and write down the other root of this equation. [3]
(ii) Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation z 2 (3 + 5i)z 4(1 2i) = 0. [4]
Exercise 372. (9740 N2007/I/3. Answer on p. 1286.) If youre taking the 9758 (revised)
exam, you can skip part (a) but you should still do part (b) of this question .
(a) Sketch, on an Argand
diagram, the locus of points representing the complex number z
such that z + 2 3i = 13. [3]
(b) The complex number w is such that ww+2w = 3+4i, where w is the complex conjugate
of w. Find w in the form a + ib, where a and b are real. [4]
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Exercise 373. (9740 N2007/I/7. Answer on p. 1287.) The polynomial P (z) has real
coefficients. The equation P (z) = 0 has a root rei , where r > 0 and 0 < < .
(i) Write down a second root in terms of r and , and hence show that a quadratic factor
of P (z) is z 2 2rz cos + r2 . [3]
Skip parts (ii) and (iii) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(ii) Solve the equation z 6 = 64, expressing the solutions in the form rei , where r > 0 and
< . [4]
(iii) Hence, or otherwise, express z 6 + 64 as the product of three quadratic factors with real
coefficients, giving each factor in non-trigonometrical form. [3]
Exercise 374. (9233 N2007/I/9. Answer on p. 1288.) The equation az 4 +bz 3 +cz 2 +dz+e = 0
has a root z = ki, where k is real and non-zero. Given that the coefficients a, b, c, d and e
are real, show that ad2 + b2 e = bcd. [5]
Verify that this condition is satisfied for the equation z 4 + 3z 3 + 13z 2 + 27z + 36 = 0 and hence
find two roots of this equation which are of the form z = ki, where k is real. [3]
Exercise 375. (9233 N2007/I/7. Answer on p. 1289.) Skip this question if youre taking
the 9758 (revised) exam.
Illustrate, on an Argand diagram, the locus of a point P representing the complex number
Hence find the exact value of z such that arg(z 2i) = and z 4 = z + 2, giving your
3
answer in the form a + ib. [3]
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78
Exercise 378. (9740 N2015/I/3. Answer on p. 1292.) (i) Given that f is a continuous
function, explain, with the aid of a sketch, why the value of
1
1
2
n
[f ( ) + f ( ) + + f ( )]
n n
n
n
n
lim
is f (x) dx.
0
1 3 1 + 3 2 + + 3 n
Exercise 379. (9740 N2015/I/4. Answer on p. 1292.) A piece of wire of fixed length d
m is cut into two parts. One part is bent into the shape of a rectangle with sides of length
x m and y m. The other part is bent into the shape of a semicircle, including its diameter.
The radius of the semicircle is x m. Show that the maximum value of the total area of the
two shapes can be expressed as kd2 m2 , where k is a constant to be found.
Exercise 380. (9740 N2015/I/6. Answer on p. 1294.) Write down the first three nonzero terms in the Maclaurin series for ln (1 + 2x), where 0.5 < x 0.5, simplifying the
coefficients. [2]
(ii) It is given that the three terms found in part (i) are equal to the first three terms in
c
the series expansion of ax (1 + bx) for small x. Find the exact values of the constants a,
c
b and c and use these values to find the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of ax (1 + bx) ,
giving your answer as a simplified rational number. [6]
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Exercise 381. (9740 N2015/I/10. Answer on p. 1295.) With origin O, the curves with
equations
y = sin x and y = cos x, where 0 x 0.5, meet at the point P with coordinates
2
( ,
). The area of the region bounded by the curves and the x-axis is A1 and the area
4 2
of the region bounded by the curves and the y-axis is A2 (see diagram).
y
y = sin x
P
A2
y = cos x
A1
x
O
(i) Show that
0.5
A1
= 2. [4]
A2
(ii) The region bounded by y = sin x between O and P , the line y = 0.5 2 and the y-axis is
rotated about the y-axis through 360 . Show that the volume of the solid formed is given
by
0.5 2
0
(iii) Show that the substitution y = sin u transforms the integral in part (ii) to
for limits a and b to be determined. Hence find the exact volume. [6]
u2 cos u du,
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dy
= 2 cot tan . [3]
dx
(ii) Show that C has a turning point when tan = k, where k is an integer to be determined. Find, in non-trignonometric form, the exact coordinates of the turning point and
explain why it is a maximum. [6]
(iii) Show that the area of the region bounded by C and the x-axis is given by
0
0.5
9 sin4 cos2 d.
Use your calculator to find the area, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places. [3]
The line with equation y = ax, where a is a positive constant, meets C at the origin and at
the point P .
3
at P . Find the exact value of a such that the line passes through
a
the maximum point of C. [3]
(iv) Show that tan =
Exercise 383. (9740 N2015/II/1. Answer on p. 1296.) As a tree grows, the rate of
increase of its height, h m, with respect to time, t years after planting, is modelled by the
differential equation
dh 1
=
16 0.5h.
dt 10
The tree is planted as a seedling of negligible height, so that h = 0 when t = 0.
(i) State the maximum height of the tree, according to this model. [1]
(ii) Find an expression for t in terms of h, and hence find the time the tree takes to reach
half its maximum height. [5]
Exercise 384. (9740 N2014/I/2. Answer on p. 1297.) The curve C has equation x2 y +
xy 2 + 54 = 0. Without using a calculator, find the coordinates of the point on C at which
the gradient is 1, showing that there is only one such point. [6]
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Exercise 385. (9740 N2014/I/7. Answer on p. 1297.) It is given that f (x) = x6 3x4 7.
The diagram shows the curve with equation y = f (x) and the line with equation y = 7,
for x 0. The curve crosses the positive x-axis at x = , and the curve and the line meet
where x = 0 and x = .
-7
(, -7)
(i) Find the value of , giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places, and find the exact
value of . [2]
(ii) Evaluate f (x) dx, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places. [2]
3, the area of the finite region bounded by the curve and the line,
(iv) Show that f (x) = f (x). What can be said about the six roots of the equation
f (x) = 0? [4]
1
Exercise 386. (9740 N2014/I/10. Answer on p. 1298.) It is given that f (x) =
,
9 x2
where 3 < x < 3.
(i) Write down f (x) dx. [1]
(ii) Find the binomial expansion for f (x), up to and including the term in x6 . Give the
coefficients as exact fractions in their simplest form. [4]
(iii) Hence, or otherwise, find the first four non-zero terms of the Maclaurin series for
x
sin1 . Give the coefficients as exact fractions in their simplest form. [4]
3
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Exercise 387. (9740 N2014/I/10. Answer on p. 1299.) The mass, x grams, of a certain
substance present in a chemicla reaction at time t minutes satisfies the differential equation
dx
= k (1 + x x2 ) ,
dt
where 0 x 0.5 and k is a constant. It is given that x = 0.5 and
dx
= 0.25 when t = 0.
dt
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Exercise 388. (9740 N2014/I/11. Answer on p. 1300.) [It is given that the volume of a
4
sphere of radius r is r3 and the volume of a circular cone with base radius r and height
3
1 2
h is r h.]
3
4
h
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Exercise 389. (9740 N2014/II/2. Answer on p. 1301.) Using partial fractions, find
0
9x2 + x 13
dx.
(2x 5)(x2 + 9)
Give your answer in the form a ln b + c tan1 d, where a, b, c and d are rational numbers to
be determined. [9]
x2
1 2
f (x) =
a
for a x a,
for a < x < 2a,
and that f (x + 3a) = f (x) for all real values of x, where a is a real constant.
(i) Sketch the graph of y = f (x) for 4a x 6a. [3]
3a/2
f (x) dx in terms of a
Exercise 391. (9740 N2013/I/10. Answer on p. 1303.) The variables x, y and z are
dz A
dy B
connected by the following differential equations.
= 3 2z and
= z.
dx
dx
A
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L
M
A curve L has equation x = y 2 + 1. The diagram shows the parts of C and L for which y 0.
The curves C and L touch at the point M .
(iii) Show that 4t6 3t2 + 1 = 0 at M . Hence, or otherwise, find the exact coordinates of M .
[3]
(iv) Find the exact value of the area of the shaded region bounded by C and L for which
y 0. [6]
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Exercise 393. (9740 N2013/II/2. Answer on p. 1305.) Fig. 1 shows a piece of card,
ABC, in the form of an equilateral triangle of side a. A kite shape is cut from each corner,
to give the shape shown in Fig. 2. The remaining card shown in Fig. 2 is folded along the
dotted lines, to form the open triangular prism of height x shown in Fig. 3.
a
x
Fig. 2
x
Fig. 1
Fig. 3
2
(i) Show that the volume V of the prism is given by V = 0.25x 3 (a 2x 3) . [3]
(ii) Use differentiation to find, in terms of a, the maximum value of V , proving that it is a
maximum. [6]
Authors remark: The question should have clearly stated that either a or x is a fixed
constant. Otherwise the volume V of the prism is unbounded simply blow up both a and
x to ! My guess is that the writers of this question intended a to be the fixed constant.
Exercise 394. (9740 N2013/II/3. Answer on p. 1306.) (i) Given that f (x) = ln(1+2 sin x),
find f (0), f (0), f (0) and f (0). Hence write down the first three non-zero terms in the
Maclaurin series for f (x). [7]
(ii) The first two non-zero terms in the Maclaurin series for f (x) are equal to the first two
non-zero terms in the series expansion of eax sin nx. Using appropriate expansions from the
List of Formulae (MF15), find the constants a and n. Hence find the third non-zero term
of the series expansion of eax sin nx for these values of a and n. [5]
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x3
Exercise 395. (9740 N2012/I/2. Answer on p. 1307.) (i) Find
dx. [2]
1 + x4
x
(ii) Use the substitution u = x2 to find
dx. [3]
1 + x4
(iii) Evaluate
0
2
x
(
) dx, giving the answer correct to 3 decimal places. [1]
1 + x4
B
1
0.75
A
(i) Show that AC =
1
. [4]
cos sin
(ii) Given that is a sufficiently small angle, show that AC 1 + a + b2 , for constants a
and b to be determined. [4]
(ii) Sketch C, showing clearly the features of the curve at the points where = 0, and 2.
[3]
(iii) Without using a calculator, find the exact area of the region bounded by C and the
x-axis. [5]
(iv) A point P on C has parameter p, where 0 < p < 0.5. Show that the normal to C at P
crosses the x-axis at the point with coordinates (p, 0). [3]
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Exercise 398. (9740 N2012/I/8. Answer on p. 1308.) The curve C has equation x y =
(x + y)2 . It is given that C has only one turning point.
(i) Show that 1 +
dy
2
=
. [4]
dx 2x + 2y + 1
d2 y
dy 3
(ii) Hence, or otherwise, show that 2 = (1 + ) . [3]
dx
dx
(iii) Hence, state, with a reason, whether the turning point is a maximum or a minimum.
[2]
Exercise 399. (9740 N2012/I/10. Answer on p. 1309.) [It is given that a sphere of radius
4
r has surface area 4r2 and volume r3 .]
3
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Exercise 400. (9740 N2012/II/1. Answer on p. 1311.) (a) Find the general solution of
d2 y
the differential equation 2 = 16 9x2 , giving your answer in the form y = f (x). [3]
dx
du
= 16 9u2 , and that u = 1 when t = 0, find t in
dt
terms of u, simplifying your answer. [5]
(b) Given that u and t are related by
Exercise 402. (9740 N2011/I/4. Answer on p. 1312.) (i) Use the first three non-zero
terms of the Maclaurin series for cos x to find the Maclaurin series for g(x), where g(x) =
cos6 x, up to and including the term in x4 . [3]
a
(ii) (a) Use your answer to part (i) to give an approximation for g(x) dx in terms of a,
0
(iii) Find the exact value of the constant a for which f (x) dx = f (x) dx. [3]
1
1
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dv.
(ii) A stone is dropped from a stationary balloon. It leaves the balloon with zero speed, and
dv
= 100.1v 2 .
t seconds later it speed v metres per second satisfies the differential equation
dt
(a) Find t in terms of v. Hence find the exact time the stone takes to reach a speed of 5
metres per second. [5]
(b) Find the speed of the stone after 1 second. [3]
(c) What happens to the spped of the stone for large values of t?
Exercise 405. (9740 N2011/II/2. Answer on p. 1314.) The diagram shows a rectangular
piece of cardboard ABCD of sides n meteres and 2n metres, where n is a positive constant.
A square of side x metres is removed from each corner of ABCD. The remaining shape is
now folded along P Q, QR, RS and SP to form an open rectangular box of height x metres.
B
x
2n
(i) Show that the volume V cubic metres of the box is given by V = 2n2 x 6nx2 + 3x3 .
(ii) Without using a calculator, find in surd form the value of x that gives a stationary
value of V , and explain why there is only one answer. [6]
Authors remark: Although not stated, my guess is that the writers of this question intended
a to be the fixed constant, so that is how I approach this question.
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Exercise 406. (9740 N2011/II/4. Answer on p. 1315.) (a) (i) Obtain a formula for
n
2 2x
0 x e dx in terms of n, where n > 0. [5]
4x
(b) The region bounded by the curve y = 2
, the axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 1 is
x +1
rotated through 2 radians about the x-axis. Use the substitution x = tan to show that
/4
Exercise 407. (9740 N2010/I/2. Answer on p. 1315.) (i) Find the first three terms of
the Maclaurin series for ex (1 + sin 2x). [You may use standard results given in the List of
Formulae (MF15).] [3]
(ii) It is given that the first two terms of this series are equal to the first two terms in the
4 n
series expansion, in ascending powers of x, of (1 + x) . Find n and show that the third
3
terms in each of these series are equal. [3]
Exercise 408. (9740 N2010/I/4. Answer on p. 1316.) (i) Given that x2 y 2 + 2xy + 4 = 0,
dy
find
in terms of x and y. [4]
dx
(ii) For the curve with equation x2 y 2 + 2xy + 4 = 0, find the coordinates of each point at
which the tangent is parallel to the x-axis. [4]
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Exercise 409. (9740 N2010/I/6. Answer on p. 1316.) The diagram shows the curve with
equation y = x3 3x + 1 and the line with equation y = 1. The curve crosses the x-axis at
x = , x = and x = and has turning points x = 1 and x = 1.
y
-1
(i) Find the values of and , giving your answers correct to 3 decimal places. [2]
(ii) Find the area of the region bounded by the curve and the x-axis between x = and
x = . [2]
(iii) Use a non-calculator method to find the area of the region bounded by the curve and
the red line, where x 0. [4]
(iv) Find the set of values of k for which the equation x3 3x + 1 = k has three real distinct
roots. [2]
Exercise 410. (9740 N2010/I/7. Answer on p. 1317.) (i) A bottle containing liquid is
taken from a refrigerator and placed in a room where the temperature is a constant 20 C.
As the liquid warms up, the rate of increase of its temperature C after time t minutes
is proportional to the temperature difference (20 ) C. Initially the temperature of the
liquid is 10 C and the rate of increase of the temperature is 1 C per minute. By setting
up and solving a differential equation, show that = 20 10e0.1t . [7]
(ii) Find the time it takes the liquid to reach a temperature of 15 C, and state what
happens to for large values of t. Sketch a graph of against t. [4]
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Exercise 411. (9740 N2010/I/9. Answer on p. 1318.) A company requires a box made of
cardboard of negligible thickness to hold 300 cm3 of powder when full. The length of the
box is 3x cm, the width is x cm and the height is y cm. The lid has depth ky cm, where
0 < k 1 (see diagram).
3x
3x
ky
x
Box
Lid
(i) Use differentiation to find, in terms of k, the value of x which gives a minimum total
external surface area of the box and the lid. [6]
Authors remark: It is not clear and so I interpret external surface area to mean the
external surface area when the lid is placed over the box.
Another possible and entirely reasonable interpretation is that this refers to the total external
surface area when the box and lid are kept apart, as depicted in the diagram! This would
yield a different answer.
(ii) Find also the ratio of the height to the width,
[2]
(iii) Find the values between which
y
, in this case, simplifying your answer.
x
y
must lie. [2]
x
(iv) Find the value of k for which the box has square ends. [4]
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Exercise 413. (9740 N2010/II/3. Answer on p. 1320.) (i) Given that y = x x + 2, find
dy
, expressing your answer as a single algebraic fraction. Hence, show that there is only
dx
one value of x for which the curve y = x x + 2 has a turning point, and state this value.
(ii) A curve has equation y 2 = x2 (x + 2).
(a) Find exactly the possible values of the gradient at the point where x = 0. [2]
(b) Sketch the curve y 2 = x2 (x + 2).
(iii) On a separate diagram sketch the graph of y = f (x), where f (x) = x x + 2. State the
equations of any asymptotes. [2]
Exercise 414. (9740 N2009/I/2. Answer on p. 1324.) Find the exact value of p such that
1
1
2p
1
1
dx. [5]
0 4 x2 dx = 0
1 p2 x 2
7 x2
f (x) =
2x 1
for 0 < x 2,
for 2 < x 4,
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Exercise 416. (9740 N2009/I/7. Answer on p. 1325.) (i) Given that f (x) = ecos x , find
f (0), f (0) and f (0). Hence write down the first two non-zero terms in the Maclaurin
series for f (x). Give the coefficients in terms of e. [5]
(ii) Given that the first two non-zero terms in the Maclaurin series for f (x) are equal to
1
the first two non-zero terms in the series expansion of
, where a and b are constants,
a + bx2
find a and b in terms of e. [4]
Exercise 417. (9740 N2009/I/11. Answer on p. 1325.) The curve C has equation
2
y = f (x), where f (x) = xex .
(i) Sketch the curve C. [2]
(ii) Find the exact coordinates of the turning points on the curve. [4]
n
(iii) Use the substitution u = x2 to find f (x) dx, for n > 0. Hence find the area of the
0
region between the curve and the positive x-axis. [4]
2
Exercise 418. (9740 N2009/II/1. Answer on p. 1326.) The curve C has parametric
equations x = t2 + 4t, y = t3 + t2 .
(i) Sketch the curve for 2 t 1. [1]
The tangent to the curve at the point P where t = 2 is denoted by l.
(ii) Find the cartesian equation of l. [3]
(iii) The tangent l meets C again at the point Q. Use a non-calculator method to find the
coordinates of Q. [4]
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Exercise 419. (9740 N2009/II/4. Answer on p. 1327.) Two scientists are investigating
the change of a certain population of size n thousand at time t years.
d2 n
(i) One scientist suggests that n and t are related by the differential equation 2 = 10 6t.
dt
Find the general solution of this differential equation. Sketch three members of the family
of solution curves, given that n = 100 when t = 0. [5] (You can skip the last sentence if
youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.)
dn
(ii) The other scientist suggests that n and t are related by the differential equation
=
dt
3 0.02n. Find n in terms of t, given again that n = 100 when t = 0. Explain in simple
terms what will eventually happen to the population using this model. [7]
Exercise 420. (9740 N2008/I/1. Answer on p. 1328.) The diagram shows the curve with
equation y = x2 . The area of the region bounded by the curve, the lines x = 1, x = 2 and
the x-axis is equal to the area of the region bounded by the curve, the lines y = a, y = 4
and the y-axis , where a < 4. Find the value of a. [4]
x
1
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Exercise 421. (9740 N2008/I/4. Answer on p. 1328.) (i) Find the general solution of the
dy
3x
differential equation
= 2
. [2]
dx x + 1
(ii) Find the particular solution of the differential equation for which y = 2 when x = 0. [1]
(iii) What can you say about the gradient of every solution curve as x ? [1]
You can skip the part (iv) if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(iv) Sketch, on a single diagram, the graph of the solution found in part (ii), together with
2 other members of the family of solution curves. [3]
Exercise
422. (9740 N2008/I/5. Answer on p. 1329.) (i) Find the exact value of
1/ 3
1
dx. [3]
0
1 + 9x2
e
Exercise 423. (9740 N2008/I/6. Answer on p. 1329.) (a) In the triangle ABC, AB = 1,
BC =3 and ABC = radians. Given that is a sufficiently small angle, show that
AC 4 + 32 a + b2 , for constants a and b to be determined. [5]
(b) Given that f (x) = tan (2x + ), find f (0), f (0) and f (0). Hence find the first 3 terms
4
in the Maclaurin series of f (x). [5]
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Exercise 424. (9740 N2008/I/7. Answer on p. 1330.) A new flower-bed is being designed
for a large garden. The flower-bed will occupy a rectangle x m by y m together with a
semicircle of diameter x m, as shown in the diagram. A low wall will be built around the
flower-bed. The time needed to build the wall will be 3 hours per metre for the straight
parts and 9 hours per metre for the semicircular part. Given that a total time of 180 hours
is taken to build the wall, find, using differentiation, the values of x and y which give a
flower-bed of maximum area. [10]
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x
O
0.5
-0.5
(i) Write down an integral that gives the area of R, and evaluate this integral numerically.
[3]
(ii) The part of R above the x-axis is rotated through 2 radians about the x-axis. By
using the substitution u = 1 x, or otherwise, find the exact value of the volume obtained.
[3]
(iii) Find the exact x-coordinate of the maximum point of C. [3]
Page 815, Table of Contents
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Exercise 427. (9233 N2008/I/2. Answer on p. 1332.) Find the constants a and b such
cos 2x
that, when x is small,
a + bx2 . [4]
2
1+x
1
1 3
Exercise 428. (9233 N2008/I/3. Answer on p. 1332.) Show that xe2x dx = e2 .
4 4
0
[5]
3/2
1
1
dx
=
dx. [5]
2
4+x
1/2
1 x2
Exercise 432. (9233 N2008/I/10. Answer on p. 1334.) (i) Prove that the substitution
dy
dz
y = xz reduces the differential equation xy
= x2 + y 2 to xz
= 1. [3]
dx
dx
(ii) Hence find the solution of the differential equation xy
x = 2. [5]
dy
= x2 + y 2 f or which y = 6 when
dx
Exercise 433. (9233 N2008/I/13. Answer on p. 1334.) A curve is defined by the para
metric equations x = cos3 t, y = sin3 t, for 0 < t < .
4
(i) Show that the equation of the normal to the curve at the point P (cos3 t, sin3 t) is
x cos t y sin t = cos4 t sin4 t. [5]
(ii) Prove the identity cos4 t sin4 t cos 2t. [2]
(iii) The normal at P meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B. Show that the length of
AB can be expressed in the form k cot 2t, where k is a constant to be found. [5]
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Exercise 434. (9233 N2008/II/1. Answer on p. 1335.) Use the formulae for cos(A + B)
and cos(A B), with A = 5x and B = x, to show that 2 sin 5x sin x can be written as
cos px cos qx, where p and q are positive integers. [2]
/3
Exercise 435. (9233 N2008/II/5. Answer on p. 1335.) (i) Show that the derivative of
2x
the function ln(1 + x)
is never negative. [5]
x+2
(ii) Hence show that ln(1 + x)
2x
when x 0. [3]
x+2
Exercise 436. (9740 N2007/I/4. Answer on p. 1335.) The current I in an electric circuit
dI
at time t satisfies the differential equation 4 = 2 3I.
dt
(i) Find I in terms of t, given that I = 2 when t = 0. [6]
(ii) State what happens to the current in this circuit for large values of t. [1]
Exercise 437. (9740 N2007/I/11. Answer on p. 1336.) A curve has parametric equations
x = cos2 t, y = sin3 t, for 0 t 0.5.
(i) Sketch the curve. [2]
(ii) The tangent to the curve at the point (cos2 , sin3 ), where 0 < < 0.5, meets the xand y-axes at Q and R respectively. The origin is denoted by O. Show that the area of
OQR is
1
2
sin (3 cos2 + 2 sin2 ) . [6]
12
(iii) Show that the area under the curve for 0 t 0.5 is 2
0
substitution sin t = u to find this area. [5]
0.5
1.5
(iii) Find the set of values of x for which the expansion in part (ii) is valid. [2]
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Exercise 439. (9740 N2007/II/4. Answer on p. 1338.) (i) Find the exact value of
0
5/3
5/3
cos2 x dx.
(ii) The region R is bounded by the curve y = x2 sin x, the line x = 0.5 and the part of the
x-axis between 0 and 0.5. Find
(a) the exact area of R, [5]
(b) the numerical value of the volume of revolution formed when R is rotated completely
about the x-axis, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places. [2]
Exercise 440. (9233 N2007/I/2. Answer on p. 1338.) Find the first negative coefficient
4
in the expansion of (4 + 3x)2.5 in a series of ascending powers of x, where x < . Give your
3
answer as a fraction in its lowest terms. [3]
Exercise 441. (9233 N2007/I/3. Answer on p. 1338.) The region bounded by the curve
1
, the x-axis and the lines x = 0.5 and x = 0.5 3 is rotated through 4 right
y=
1 + 4x2
angles about the x-axis to form a solid of revolution of volume V . Find the exact value of
V , giving your answer in the form k 2 . [5]
Exercise 442. (9233 N2007/I/8. Answer on p. 1338.) Use the substitution t = sin u to
2
(sin1 t) cos [(sin1 t) ]
dt. [4]
1 t2
Exercise 443. (9233 N2007/I/10. Answer on p. 1339.) (i) By sketching the graphs of
y = cos x and y = sin x, or otherwise, solve the inequality cos x > sin x for 0 x 2. [3]
(ii) Evaluate
0
Exercise 444. (9233 N2007/I/11. Answer on p. 1339.) Use partial fractions to evaluate
4
5x + 4
1 (x 5)(x2 + 4) dx, giving your answer in the form ln a, where a is a positive integer.
[9]
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Exercise 445. (9233 N2007/I/13. Answer on p. 1340.) In this question, the result
d sec x
= sec x tan x may be quoted without proof. Given that y = ln (sec x), show that
dx
(i)
d3 y
d2 y dy
=
2
, [3]
dx3
dx2 dx
d4 y
when x = 0 is 2. [4]
dx4
(iii) Write down the Maclaurin series for ln(sec x) up to and including the term in x4 . [2]
2
4
(iv) By substituting x = , show that ln 2
+
. [3]
4
16 1536
dy x2 + y 2
=
.
dx
2xy
dy
2xy
.
= 2
dx
x + y2
By substituting y = vx, where v is a function of x, show that, for the second family of
dv
3v + v 3
curves, x =
. [4]
dx
1 + v2
(iii) Hence show that the second family of curves is given by 3x2 y + y 3 = C, where C is an
arbitrary constant.
Exercise 447. (9233 N2006/I/7. Answer on p. 1342.) A hollow cone of semi-vertical angle
45 is held with its axis vertical and vertex downwards (see diagram). At the beginning of
an experiment, it is filled with 390 cm3 of liquid. The liquid runs out through a small hole
at the vertex at a constant rate of 2 cm3 s1 . Find the rate at which the depth of the liquid
is decreasing 3 minutes after the start of the experiment. [6]
45
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Exercise 448. (9233 N2006/I/8. Answer on p. 1342.) Find the coordinates of the points
on the curve 3x2 + xy + y 2 = 33 at which the tangent is parallel to the x-axis. [7]
Exercise 449. (9233 N2006/I/9. Answer on p. 1342.) (i) Use the derivative of cos to
d sec
show that
= sec tan . [2]
d
(ii) Use the substitution x = sec 1 to find the exact value of
1
21
dx. [6]
(x + 1) x2 + 2x
1 + x 2x2
(2 x)(1 + x2 )
(ii) Expand f (x) in ascending powers of x, up to and including the term in x2 . [5]
(iii) State the set of values of x for which the expansion is valid. [1]
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Exercise 451. (9233 N2006/I/14. Answer on p. 1344.) A curve has parametric equations
c
c
c
c
x = ct, y = , where c is a positive constant. Three points P (cp, ), Q (cq, ), R (cr, )
t
p
q
r
on the curve are shown in the diagram.
R
P
1
. [2]
qr
c
(ii) Given that the line through P perpendicular to QR meets the curve at V (cv, ), find
v
v in terms of p, q and r. [2]
(iii) Find the gradient of the normal at P . [3]
c
1
(iv) The normal at P meets the curve again at S (cs, ). Show that s = 3 . [2]
s
p
(v) Given that angle QP R is 90 , prove that QR is parallel to the normal at P . [3]
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x
Exercise 452. (9233 N2006/II/2. Answer on p. 1344.) (i) Given that z =
, show
x2 + 32
dz
1.5
that
= 32 (x2 + 32) . [3]
dx
1.5
(ii) Find the exact value of the area of the region bounded by the curve y = (x2 + 32)
the x-axis and the lines x = 2 and x = 7. [3]
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79
Exercise 453. (9740 N2015/II/5. Answer on p. 1345.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. The manager of a busy supermarket wishes to
conduct a survey of the opinions of customers of different ages about different types of cola
drink.
(i) Give a reason why the manager would not be able to use stratified sampling. [1]
(ii) Explain briefly how the manager could carry out a survey using quota sampling. [2]
(iii) Give one reason why quota sampling would not necessarily provide a sample which is
representative of the customers of the supermarket. [1]
Exercise 454. (9740 N2015/II/6. Answer on p. 1345.) Droppers are small sweets that
are made in a variety of colours. Droppers are sold in packets and the colours of the sweets
in a packet are independent of each other. On average, 25% of Droppers are red.
(i) A small packet of Droppers contains 10 sweets. Find the probability that there are at
least 4 red sweets in a small packet. [2]
You can skip parts (ii) and (iii) if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
A large packet of Droppers contains 100 sweets.
(ii) Use a suitable approximation, which should be stated, to find the probability that a
large packet contains at least 30 red sweets. [3]
(iii) Yip buys 15 large packets of Droppers. Find the probability that no more than 3 of
these packets contain at least 30 red sweets. [2]
Exercise 455. (9740 N2015/II/7. Answer on p. 1346.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
The average number of errors per page for a certain daily newspaper is being investigated.
(i) State, in context, two assumptions that need to be made for the number of errors per
page to be well modelled by a Poisson distribution. [2]
Assume that the number of errors per page has the distribution Po(1.3).
(ii) Find the probability that, on one day, there are more than 10 errors altogether on the
first 6 pages. [3]
(iii) The probability that there are fewer than 2 errors altogether on the first n pages of
the newspaper is less than 0.05. Write down an inequality in terms of n to represent this
information, and hence find the least possible value of n. [2]
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Exercise 456. (9740 N2015/II/8. Answer on p. 1346.) A market stall sells pineapples
which have masses that are normally distributed. The stall owner claims the mean mass
of the pineapples is at least 0.9 kg. Nur buys a random selection of 8 pineapples from the
stall. The 8 pineapples have masses, in kg, as follows.
Exercise 457. (9740 N2015/II/9. Answer on p. 1347.) For events A, B and C it is given
that P (A) = 0.45, P (B) = 0.4, P (C) = 0.3 and P (A B C) = 0.1. It is also given that
events A and B are independent, and that events A and C are independent.
(i) Find P (BA). [1]
(ii) Given also that events B and C are independent, find P (A B C ). [3]
(iii) Given instead that events B and C are not independent, find the greatest and least
possible values of P (A B C ). [4]
h 2000 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000
P 27.8 24.9 20.6
16.9
13.8
11.1
8.89
7.04
5.52
4.28
(i) Draw a scatter diagram for these values, labelling the axes. [1]
(ii) Find, correct to 4 decimal places,
the product moment correlation coefficient between
On the original A-level exams, this sentence read: Test at the 10% level of significance whether there is any evidence
to doubt the stall owners claim. This was a terrible choice of words by the writers of the examination there is no
well-known precise definition of what it means to doubt a claim. I have thus rewritten this sentence into the present
form.
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Exercise 459. (9740 N2015/II/11. Answer on p. 1349.) This question is about arrangements of all eight letters in the word CABBAGES.
(i) Find the number of different arrangements of the eight letters that can be made. [2]
(ii) Write down the number of these arrangements in which the letters are not in alphabetical order. [1]
(iii) Find the number of different arrangements that can be made with both the As together
and both the Bs together. [2]
(iv) Find the number of different arrangements that can be made with no two adjacent
letters the same. [4]
Exercise 460. (9740 N2015/II/12. .Answer on p. 1349.) In this question you should
state clearly the values of the parameters of any normal distribution you use.
The masses in grams of apples have the distribution N (300, 202 ) and the masses in grams
of pears have the distribution N (200, 152 ). A certain recipe requires 5 apples and 8 pears.
(i) Find the probability that the total mass of 5 randomly chosen apples is more than 1600
grams. [2]
(ii) Find the probability that the total mass of 5 randomly chosen apples is more than the
total mass of 8 randomly chosen pears. [3]
The recipe requires the apples and pears to be prepared by peeling them and removing the
cores. This process reduces the mass of each apple by 15% and the mass of each pear by
10%.
(iii) Find the probability that the total mass, after preparation, of 5 randomly chosen apples
and 8 randomly chosen pears is less than 2750 grams. [4]
Exercise 461. (9740 N2014/II/5. Answer on p. 1350.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. An Internet retailer has compiled a list of 10000
regular customers and wishes to carry out a survey of customer opinions involving 5% of
its customers.
(i) Describe how the marketing manager could choose customers for this survey using
systematic sampling. [2]
(ii) Give one advantage and one disadvantage of systematic sampling in this context. [2]
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Exercise 463. (9740 N2014/II/7. Answer on p. 1351.) Yan is carrying out an experiment
with a fair 6-sided die and a biased 6-sided die, each numbered from 1 to 6.
(i) Yan rolls the fair die 10 times. Find the probability that it shows a 6 exactly thrice. [1]
You can skip parts (ii) and (iii) if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(ii) Yan now rolls the fair dies 60 times. Use a suitable approximate distribution, which
should be stated, to find the probability that the die shows a 6 between 5 and 8 times,
inclusive. [3]
The probability that the biased die shows a 6 is 1/15.
(iii) Yan rolls the biased die 60 times. Use a suitable approximate distribution, which
should be stated, to find the probability that the biased die shows a 6 between 5 and 8
times, inclusive. [3]
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Exercise 464. (9740 N2014/II/8. Answer on p. 1352.) (a) Sketch a scatter diagram that
might be expected when x and y related approximately by y = px2 +t in each of the cases (i)
and (ii) below. In each case your diagram should include 6 points, approximately equally
spaced with respect to x, and with all x-values positive.
(i) p and t are both positive.
(ii) p is negative and t is positive. [2]
(b) The age in months (m) and prices in dollars (P ) of a random sample of ten used cars
of a certain model are given in the table.
m
11
20
28
36
40
47
58
62
68
75
P 112800 102600 76500 72000 72000 69000 65800 57000 50600 47600
It is thought that the price after m months can be modelled by one of the formulae
P = am + b,
P = c ln m + d,
Exercise 465. (9740 N2014/II/9. Answer on p. 1353.) The number of minutes that the
0815 bus arrives late at my local bus stop has a normal distribution; the mean number of
minutes the bus is late has been 4.3. A new company takes over the service, claiming that
punctuality will be improved. After the new company takes over, a random sample of 10
days is taken and the number of minutes that the bus is late is recorded. The sample mean
is t minutes and the sample variance is k 2 minutes2 . A test is to be carried out at the
10% level of significance to determine whether the mean number of minutes late has been
reduced.
(i) State appropriate hypotheses for the test, defining any symbols that you use. [2]
You can skip parts (ii) and (iii) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(ii) Given that k 2 = 3.2, find the set of values of t for which the result of the test would be
that the null hypothesis is not rejected. [4]
(iii) Given instead that t = 4.0, find the set of values of k 2 for which the result of the test
would be to reject the null hypothesis. [3]
Page 827, Table of Contents
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Exercise 466. (9740 N2014/II/10. Answer on p. 1353.) A game has three sets of ten
symbols, and one symbol from each set is randomly chosen to be displayed on each turn.
The symbols are as follows.
Set 1 + + + +
Set 2 + + +
Set 3 + +
For example, if a + symbol is chosen from set 1, a symbol is chosen from set 2 and a
symbol is chosen from set 3, the display would be +.
(i) Find the probability that, on one turn,
(a) is displayed, [1]
(b) at least one symbol is displayed, [2]
(c) two symbols and one + symbol are displayed in any order. [3]
(ii) Given that exactly one of the symbols displayed is , find the probability that the other
two symbols are + and . [4]
Exercise 467. (9740 N2014/II/11. Answer on p. 1354.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
An art dealers sells both original paintings and prints. (Prints are copies of paintings.) It
is to be assumed that his sales of originals per week can be modelled by the distribution
Po(2) and his sales of prints per week can be modelled by the independent distribution
Po(11).
(i) Find the probability that, in a randomly chosen week,
(a) the art dealer sells more than 8 prints, [2]
(b) the art dealer sells a total of fewer than 15 prints and originals combined. [2]
(ii) The probability that the art dealer sells fewer than 3 originals in a period of n weeks is
less than 0.01. Express this information as an inequality in n, and hence find the smallest
possible integer value of n. [5]
(iii) Using a suitable approximation, which should be stated, find the probability that the
art dealer sells more than 550 prints in a year (52 weeks). [3]
(iv) Give two reasons in context why the assumptions made at the start of this question
may not be valid. [2]
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Exercise 469. (9740 N2013/II/6. Answer on p. 1355.) The continuous random variable
Y has the distribution N (, 2 ). It is known that P (Y < 2a) = 0.95 and P (Y < a) = 0.25.
Express in the form ka, where k is a constant to be determined. [4]
Exercise 471. (9740 N2013/II/8. Answer on p. 1356.) For events A and B it is given
that P (A) = 0.7, P (BA ) = 0.8 and P (AB ) = 0.88. Find
(i) P (B A ), [1]
(ii) P (A B ), [2]
(iii) P (A B). [3]
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14.0
12.5
11.0
11.0
12.5
12.6
15.6
13.2
(i) Calculate unbiased estimates of the population mean and variance. [2]
You can skip the rest of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
The manufacturer claims that this model of car will travel 13.8 km per litre on average. It
is given that the distances travelled per litre for cars of this model are normally distributed.
(ii) Stating a necessary assumption, carry out a t-test of the magazine editors belief at the
5% significance level. [5]
Exercise 473. (9740 N2013/II/10. Answer on p. 1357.) (i) Sketch a scatter diagram that
might be expected when x and y are related approximately as given in each of the cases
(A), (B) and (C) below. In each case your diagram should include 6 points, approximately
equally spaced with respect to x, and with all x- and y-values positive. The letters a, b, c,
d, e and f represent constants.
(A) y = a + bx2 , where a is positive and b is negative,
(B) y = c + d ln x, where c is positive and d is negative,
f
(C) y = e + , where e is positive and f is negative. [3]
x
A motoring website gives the following information about the distance travelled, y km, by
a certain type of car at different speeds, x km h-1 , on a fixed amount of fuel.
Speed, x
88 96 104 112 120 128
Distance, y 148 147 144 138 126 107
(ii) Draw the scatter diagram for these values, labelling the axes. [1]
(iii) Explain which of the three cases in part (i) is the most appropriate for modelling these
values, and calculate the product moment correlation coefficient for this case. [2]
(iv) It is required to estimate the distance travelled at a speed of 110 km h-1 . Use the case
that you identified in part (iii) to find the equation of a suitable regression line, and use
your equation to find the required estimate. [3]
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Exercise 475. (9740 N2013/II/12. Answer on p. 1359.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. A company has two departments and each department records the number of employees absent through illness each day. Over a long period
of time it is found that the average numbers absent on a day are 1.2 for the Administration
Department and 2.7 for the Manufacturing Department.
(i) State, in this context, two conditions that must be met for the numbers of absences to
be well modelled by Poisson distributions. Explain why each of your two conditions may
not be met. [3]
For the remainder of this question assume that these conditions are met. You should assume
also that absences in the two departments are independent of each other.
(ii) Find the smallest number of days for which the probability that no employee is absent
through illness from the Administration Department is less than 0.01. [2]
Each employee absent on a day represents one day of absence. So, one employee absent
for 3 days contributes 3 days of absence, and 5 employees absent on 1 day contribnute 5
days of absence.
(iii) Find the probability that, in a 5-day period, the total number of days of absence in
the two departments is more than 20. [3]
(iv) Use a suitable approximation, which should be stated together with its parameter(s),
to find the probability that, in a 60-day period, the total number of days of absence in the
two departments is between 200 and 250 inclusive. [4]
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Exercise 476. (9740 N2012/II/5. Answer on p. 1360.) The probability that a hospital
patient has a particular disease is 0.001. A test for the disease has probability p of giving a
positive result when the patient has the disease, and equal probability p of giving a negative
result when the patient does not have the disease. A patient is given the test.
(i) Given that p = 0.995, find the probability that
(a) the result of the test is positive, [2]
(b) the patient has the disease given that the result of the test is positive. [2]
(ii) It is given instead that there is a probability of 0.75 that the patient has the disease
given that the result of the test is positive. Find the value of p, giving your answer correct
to 6 decimal places. [3]
Exercise 478. (9740 N2012/II/7. Answer on p. 1361.) A group of fifteen people consists
of one pair of sisters, one set of three brothers and ten other people. The fifteen people are
arranged randomly in a line.
(i) Find the probability that the sisters are next to each other. [2]
(ii) Find the probability that the brothers are not all next to each other. [2]
(iii) Find the probability that the sisters are next to each other and the brothers are all
next to each other. [2]
(iv) Find the probability that either the sisters are next to each other or the brothers are
all next to each other or both. [2]
Instead the fifteen people are arranged randomly in a circle.
(iv) Find the probability that the sisters are next to each other. [1]
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Exercise 479. (9740 N2012/II/8. Answer on p. 1362.) Amy is revising for a mathematics
examination and takes a different practice paper each week. Her marks, y% in week x, are
as follows.
1 2 3 4 5 6
Week x
Percentage mark y 38 63 67 75 71 82
(i) Draw a scatter diagram showing these marks. [1]
(ii) Suggest a possible reason why one of the marks does not seem to follow the trend. [1]
(iii) It is desired to predict Amys marks on future papers. Explain why, in this context,
neither a linear nor a quadratic model is likely to be appropriate. [2]
It is decided to fit a model of the form ln(L y) = a + bx, where L is a suitable constant.
The product moment correlation coefficient between x and ln(L y) is denoted by r. The
following table gives values of r for some possible values of L.
L
r
91
92
93
-0.929944 -0.929918
(iv) Calculate the value of r for L = 91, giving your answer correct to 6 decimal places. [1]
(v) Use the table and your answer to part (iv) to suggest with a reason which of 91, 92 or
93 is the most appropriate value for L. [1]
(vi) Using the value for L, calculate the values of a and b, and use them to predict the week
in which Amy will obtain her first mark of at least 90%. [4]
(vii) Give an interpretation, in context, of the value of L. [1]
Exercise 480. (9740 N2012/II/9. Answer on p. 1363.) In an opinion poll before an
election, a sample of 30 voters is obtained.
(i) The number of voters in the sample who support the Alliance Party is denoted by
A. State, in context, what must be assumed for A to be well modelled by a binomial
distribution. [2]
Assume now that A has the distribution B(30, p).
(ii) Given that p = 0.15, find P (A = 3 or 4). [2]
You can skip part (iii) if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. However, you should still
do part (iv).
(iii) Given instead that p = 0.55, explain whether it is possible to approximate the distribution of A with (a) a normal distribution; (b) a Poisson distribution. [3]
(iv) For an unknown value of p it is given that P (A = 15) = 0.06864 correct to 5 decimal
places. Show that p satisfies an equation of the form p(1 p) = k, where k is a constant
to be determined. Hence find the value of p to a suitable degree of accuracy, given that
p < 0.5. [5]
Page 833, Table of Contents
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Exercise 481. (9740 N2012/II/10. Answer on p. 1364.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. Gold coins are found scattered throughout an
archaeological site.
(i) State two conditions needed for the number of gold coins found in a randomly chosen
region of area 1 square metre to be well modelled by a Poisson distribution. [2]
Assume that the number of gold coins in 1 square metre has the distribution Po(0.8).
(ii) Find the probability that in 1 square metre there are at least 3 gold coins. [1]
(iii) It is given that the probability that 1 gold coin is found in x square metres is 0.2.
Write down an equation for x, and solve it numerically given that x < 1. [2]
(iv) Use a suitable approximation to find the probability that in 100 square metres there
are at least 90 gold coins. State the parameter(s) of the distribution that you use. [3]
Pottery shards are also found scattered throughout the site. The number of pottery shards
in 1 square metre is an independent random variable with the distribution Po(3). Use
suitable approximations, whose parameters should be stated, to find
(v) the probability that in 50 square metres the total number of gold coins and pottery
shards is at least 200, [4]
(vi) the probability that in 50 square metres there are at least 3 times as many pottery
shards as gold coins. [3]
Exercise 482. (9740 N2011/II/5. Answer on p. 1365.) The continuous random variable X
has the distribution N (, 2 ). It is known that P (X < 40.0) = 0.05 and P (X < 70.0) = 0.975.
Calculate the values of and . [4]
Exercise 483. (9740 N2011/II/6. Answer on p. 1365.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. It is desired to interview residents of a city suburb
about the types of shop to be opened in a new shopping mall. In particular it is necessary
to interview a representative range of ages.
(i) Explain how a quota sample might be carried out in this context. [2]
(ii) Explain a disadvantage of quota sampling in the context of your answer to part (i). [1]
(iii) State the name of a method of sampling that would not have this disadvantage, and
explain whether it would be realistic to use this method in this context. [2]
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Exercise 484. (9740 N2011/II/7. Answer on p. 1366.) When I try to contact (by
telephone) any of my friends in the evening, I know that on average the probability that I
succeed is 0.7. On one evening I attempt to contact a fixed number, n, of different friends.
If I do not succeed with a particular friend, I do not attempt to contact that friend again
that evening. The number of friends whom I succeed in contacting is the random variable
R.
(i) State, in the context of this question, two assumptions needed to model R by a binomial
distribution. [2]
(ii) Explain why one of the assumptions stated in part (i) may not hold in this context. [1]
Assume now that these assumptions do in fact hold.
(iii) Given that n = 8, find the probability that R is at least 6. [1]
You can skip part (iv) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(iv) Given that n = 40, use an appropriate approximation to find P (R < 25). State the
parameters of the distribution you use. [4]
Exercise 485. (9740 N2011/II/8. Answer on p. 1367.) (i) Sketch a scatter diagram that
might be expected for the case when x and y are related approximately by y = a + bx2 ,
where a is positive and b is negative. Your diagram should include 5 points, approximately
equally spaced with respect to x, and with all x- and y-values positive. [1]
The table gives the values of seven observations of bivariate data, x and y.
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Exercise 486. (9740 N2011/II/9. Answer on p. 1368.) Camera lenses are made by two
companies, A and B. 60% of all lenses are made by A and the remaining 40% by B. 5% of
the lenses made by A are faulty. 7% of the lenses made by B are faulty.
(i) One lens is selected at random. Find the probability that
(a) it is faulty, [2]
(b) it was made by A, given that it is faulty. [1]
(ii) Two lenses are selected at random. Find the probability that
(a) exactly one of them is faulty, [2]
(b) both were made by A, given that exactly one is faulty. [3]
(Authors remark: Assume that there are infinitely many lenses.)
Exercise 487. (9740 N2011/II/10. Answer on p. 1368.) In a factory, the time in minutes
for an employee to install an electronic component is a normally distributed continuous
random variable T . The standard deviation of T is 5.0 and under ordinary conditions
the expected value of T is 38.0. After background music is introduced into the factory, a
sample of n components is taken and the mean time taken for randomly chosen employees
to install them is found to be t minutes. A test is carried out, at the 5% significance level,
to determine whether the mean time taken to install a component has been reduced.
(i) State appropriate hypotheses for the test, defining any symbols you use. [2]
(ii) Given that n = 50, state the set of values of t for which the result of the test would be
to reject the null hypothesis. [3]
(iii) It is given instead that t = 37.1 and the result of the test is that the null hypothesis is
not rejected. Obtain an inequality involving n, and hence find the set of values that n can
take. [4]
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Exercise 489. (9740 N2011/II/12. Answer on p. 1370.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. The number of people joining an airport check-in
queue in a period of 1 minute is a random variable with the distribution Po(1.2).
(i) Find the probability that, in a period of 4 minutes, at least 8 people join the queue. [1]
(ii) The probability that no more than 1 person joins the queue in a period of t seconds is
0.7. Find an equation for t. Hence find the value of t, giving your answer correct to the
nearest whole number. [4]
(iii) The number of people leaving the same queue in a period of 1 minute is a random
variable with the distribution Po(1.8). At 0930 on a certain morning there are 35 people in
the queue. Use appropriate approximations to find the probability that by 0945 there are
at least 24 people in the queue, stating the parameters of any distributions that you use.
(You may assume that the queue does not become empty during this period.) [5]
(iv) Explain why a Poisson model would probably not be valid if applied to a time period
of several hours. [1]
Exercise 491. (9740 N2010/II/6. Answer on p. 1371.) The time required by an employee
to complete a task is a normally distributed random variable. Over a long period it is
known that the mean time required is 42.0 minutes. Background music is introduced in the
workplace, and afterwards the time required, t minutes, is measured for a random sample
of 11 employees. The results are summarised as follows.
n = 11,
t = 454.3,
t2 = 18779.43.
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Exercise 492. (9740 N2010/II/7. Answer on p. 1371.) For events A and B it is given
that P (A) = 0.7, P (B) = 0.6 and P (AB ) = 0.8. Find
(i) P (A B ), [2]
(ii) P (A B), [2]
(iii) P (B A). [2]
For a third event C, it is given that P (C) = 0.5 and that A and C are independent.
(iv) Find P (A C). [2]
(v) Hence state an inequality satisfied by P (A B C). [1]
(Authors remark: The last part is a terribly vague question. A possible answer is this:
P (A B C) is a probability and hence by the First Kolmogorov Axiom, P (A B C)
500. But this is probably not the answer wanted by the writers of this question. In my
answer, Ill simply give the best guess of what I think the writers wanted.)
Exercise 493. (9740 N2010/II/8. Answer on p. 1372.) The digits 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 are
arranged randomly to form a five-digit number. No digit is repeated. Find the probability
that
(i) the number is greater than 30000, [1]
(ii) the last two digits are both even, [2]
(iii) the number is greater than 30000 and odd. [4]
Exercise 494. (9740 N2010/II/9. Answer on p. 1372.) In this question you should state
clearly the values of the parameters of any normal distribution you use.
Over a three-month period Ken makes X minutes of peak-rate telephone calls and Y minutes of cheap-rate calls. X and Y are independent random variables with the distributions
N (180, 302 ) and N (400, 602 ) respectively.
(i) Find the probability that, over a three-month period, the number of minutes of cheaprate calls made by Ken is more than twice the number of minutes of peak-rate calls. [4]
Peak-rate calls cost $0.12 per minute and cheap-rate calls cost $0.05 per minute.
(ii) Find the probability that, over a three-month period, the total cost of Kens calls is
greater than $45. [3]
(iii) Find the probability that the total cost of Kens peak-rate calls over two independent
three-month periods is greater than $45. [3]
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Exercise 495. (9740 N2010/II/10. Answer on p. 1373.) A car is placed in a wind tunnel
and the drag force F for different wind speeds v, in appropriate units, is recorded. The
results are shown in the table.
v
F
0 4
8 12 16
20
24
28
32
36
0 2.5 5.1 8.8 11.2 13.6 17.6 22.0 27.8 33.9
(i) Draw the scatter diagram for these values, labelling the axes clearly. [2]
It is thought that the drag force F can be modelled by one of the formulae
F = a + bv
or F = c + dv 2
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Exercise 497. (9740 N2009/II/5. Answer on p. 1374.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. A cinema manager wishes to take a survey of
opinions of cinema-goers. Describe how a quota sample of size 100 might be obtained, and
state one disadvantage of quota sampling. [3]
Exercise 498. (9740 N2009/II/6. Answer on p. 1375.) The table gives the world record
time, in seconds above 3 minutes 30 seconds, for running 1 mile as at 1st January in various
years.
Year, x 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Time, t 40.4 36.4 31.3 24.5 21.1 19.0 16.3 13.1
(i) Draw a scatter diagram to illustrate the data. [2]
(ii) Comment on whether a linear model would be appropriate, referring both to the scatter
diagram and the context of the question. [2]
(iii) Explain why in this context a quadratic model would probably not be appropriate for
long-term predictions. [1]
(iv) Fit a model of the form ln t = a + bx to the data and use it to predict the world record
time as at 1st January 2010. Comment on the reliability of your prediction. [3]
Exercise 500. (9740 N2009/II/8. Answer on p. 1376.) Find the number of ways in which
the letters of the word ELEVATED can be arranged if
(i) there are no restrictions, [1]
(ii) T and D must not be next to one another, [2]
(iii) consonants (L, V, T, D) and vowels (E, A) must alternate, [3]
(iv) between any two Es there must be at least 2 other letters. [3]
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x2 = 835.92.
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Exercise 504. (9740 N2008/II/5. Answer on p. 1380.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. A school has 950 pupils.
(i) A sample of 50 pupils is to be chosen to take part in a survey. Describe how the sample
could be chosen using systematic sampling. [2]
The purpose of the survey is to investigate pupils opinions about the sports facilities
available at the school.
(ii) Give a reason why a stratified sample might be preferable in this context. [2]
Exercise 505. (9740 N2008/II/6. Answer on p. 1380.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. In mineral water from a certain source, the mass
of calcium, X mg, in a one-litre bottle is a normally distributed random variable with mean
. Based on observations over a long period, it is known that = 78. Following a period of
extreme weather, 15 randomly chosen bottles of the water were analysed. The masses of
calcium in the bottles are summarised by
x = 1026.0,
x2 = 77265.90.
Test, at the 5% significance level, whether the mean mass of calcium in a bottle has changed.
[6]
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Exercise 507. (9740 N2008/II/8. Answer on p. 1381.) A certain metal discolours when
exposed to air. To protect the metal against discolouring, it is treated with a chemical. In
an experiment, different quantities, x ml, of the chemical were applied to standard samples
of the metal, and the times, t hours, for the metal to discolour were measured. The results
are given in the table.
x 1.2 2.0 2.7 3.8 4.8 5.6 6.9
t 2.2 4.5 5.8 7.3 7.6 9.0 9.9
(i) Calculate the product moment correlation coefficient between x and t, and explain
whether your answer suggests that a linear model is appropriate. [3]
(ii) Draw a scatter diagram for the data. [1]
One of the values t appears to be incorrect.
(iii) Indicate the corresponding point on your diagram by labelling it P , and explain why
the scatter diagram for the remaining points may be consistent with a model of the form
t = a + b ln x. [2]
(iv) Omitting P , calculate least square estimates of a and b for the model t = a + b ln x. [2]
(v) Estimate the value of t at the value of x corresponding to P . [1]
(vi) Comment on the use of the model in part (iv) in predicting the value of t when x = 8.0.
[1]
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Exercise 508. (9740 N2008/II/9. Answer on p. 1382.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. A shop sells two types of piano, grand and
upright. The mean number of grand pianos sold in a week is 1.8.
(i) Use a Poisson distribution to find the probability that in a given week at least 4 grand
pianos are sold. [2]
The mean number of upright pianos sold in a week is 2.6. The sales of the two types of
piano is independent.
(ii) Use a Poisson distribution to find the probability that in a given week the total number
of pianos sold is exactly 4. [2]
(iii) Use a normal approximation to the Poisson distribution to find the probability that
the number of grand pianos sold in a year of 50 weeks is less than 80. [4]
(iv) Explain why the Poisson distribution may not be a good model for the number of grand
pianos sold in a year. [2]
Exercise 510. (9740 N2008/II/11. Answer on p. 1384.) The random variable X has the
distribution N (50, 82 ). Given that X1 and X2 are two independent observations of X, find
(i) P (X1 + X2 > 120), [2]
(ii) P (X1 > X2 + 15). [3]
The random variable Y is related to X by the formula Y = aX + b, where a and b are
constants with a > 0.
(iii) Given that P (Y < 74) = P (Y > 146) = 0.0668, find the values of E(Y ) and Var(Y ),
and hence find the values of a and b. [7]
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Exercise 512. (9233 N2008/II/23. Answer on p. 1384.) The events A, B and C are such
that P (A) = 0.2, P (C) = 0.4, P (A B) = 0.4 and P (B C) = 0.1. Given that A and B are
independent, find P (B) and show that B and C are also independent. [4]
Exercise 513. (9233 N2008/II/26. Answer on p. 1385.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. The number of times that an office photocopying
machine breaks down in a week follows a Poisson distribution with mean 3. Find the
probability that
(i) the machine will break down more than twice in a given week, [2]
(ii) the machine will break down at most three times in a period of four weeks. [3]
(iii) Use a suitable approximation to find the probability that the machine will break down
more than 50 times in a period of 16 weeks. [4]
Exercise 514. (9233 N2008/II/27. Answer on p. 1385.) The masses of a certain type of
electronic component produced by a machine are normally distributed with mean 32.40 g.
The machine is adjusted and a sample of 80 components is now taken and is found to have
a mean mass 32.00 g. The unbiased estimate of the population variance, calculated from
this sample, is 2.892 g2 .
(i) Test at the 5% significance level whether this indicates a change in the mean. [5]
(ii) Explain what you understand by the phrase at the 5% significance in the context of
this question. [2]
(iii) Find the least level of significance at which this sample would indicate a decrease in
the population mean. [3]
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Exercise 515. (9233 N2008/II/29. Answer on p. 1386.) Mr Sim and Mr Lee work in the
same office and are expected to arrive by 9 a.m. each day. Both men drive to work.
(i) The time taken for Mr Sims journey follows a normal distribution with mean 50 minutes
and standard deviation 4 minutes. Given that he regularly leaves home at 8.05 a.m., find
the probability that he will be late no more than once in a working week of 5 days. [5]
(ii) Mr Lees journey time follows a normal distribution with mean 40 minutes and standard
deviation 5 minutes. Mr Lee leaves home at 8.10 a.m. each day. Find the probability that
Mr Sim will arrive at work before Mr Lee on any particular day. [5]
(iii) Find the probability that in a working week of 5 days, Mr Sim arrives at work before
Mr Lee on at least 3 days. [2]
Exercise 516. (9233 N2008/II/30. Answer on p. 1387.) (i) The masses of valves produced
by a machine are normally distributed with mean and standard deviation . 12% of the
valves have mass less than 86.50 g and 20% have mass more than 92.25 g. Find and .
[4]
(ii) The setting of the machine is adjusted so that the mean mass of the valves produced is
unchanged, but the standard deviation is reduced. Given that 80% of the valves now have
a mass within 2 g of the mean, find the new standard deviation. [3]
(iii) After the machine has been adjusted, a random sample of n valves is taken. Find the
smallest value of n such that the probability that the sample mean exceeds by at least
0.50 g is at most 0.1. [5]
Exercise 517. (9740 N2007/II/5. Answer on p. 1387.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. (i) Give a real-life example of a situation in which
quota sampling could be used. Explain why quota sampling would be appropriate in this
situation, and describe briefly any disadvantage that quota sampling has. [4]
(ii) Explain briefly whether it would be possible to use stratified sampling in the situation
you have described in part (i). [1]
Exercise 518. (9740 N2007/II/6. Answer on p. 1388.) In a large population, 24% have
a particular gene A, and 0.3% have gene B.
(i) Find the probability that, in a random sample of 10 people from the population, at most
4 have gene A. [2]
You can skip the rest of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
A random sample of 1000 people is taken from the population. Using appropriate approximations, find
(ii) the probability that between 230 and 260 inclusive have gene A, [3]
(iii) the probability that at least 2 but fewer than 5 have gene B. [2]
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x2 = 147691.
(i) Find unbiased estimates of the population mean and variance. [2]
(ii) Test, at the 5% significance level, whether the population mean time for a student to
complete the project exceeds 30 hours. [4]
You can skip part (iii) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(iii) State giving a valid reason, whether any assumptions about the population are needed
in order for the test to be valid. [1]
Exercise 520. (9740 N2007/II/8. Answer on p. 1389.) Chickens and turkeys are sold
by weight. The masses, in kg, of chickens and turkeys are modelled as having independent
normal distributions with means and standard deviations as shown in the table.
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Exercise 522. (9740 N2007/II/10. Answer on p. 1390.) A player throws three darts at a
1
target. The probability that he is successful in hitting the target with his first throw is .
8
For each of his second and third throws, the probability of success is
twice the probability of success on the preceding throw if that throw was successful,
the same as the probability of success on the preceding throw if that throw was unsuccessful.
Construct a probability tree showing this information. [3]
Find (i) the probability that all three throws are successful, [2]
(ii) the probability that at least two throws are successful, [2]
(i) the probability that the third throw is successful given that exactly two of the three
throws are successful. [4]
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Exercise 523. (9740 N2007/II/11. Answer on p. 1391.) Research is being carried out into
how the concentration of a drug in the bloodstream varies with time, measured from when
the drug is given. Observations at successive times give the data shown in the following
table.
100
x (micrograms per litre)
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
50
100
150
t (minutes)
200
250
300
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Exercise 524. (9233 N2007/I/4. Answer on p. 1391.) The diagram shows two straight
lines, ABCD and AEF GHIJ, which intersect at A. Triangles are to be drawn using three
of the points A, B, C, D, E, F , G, H, I, J as vertices.
(i) How many different triangles can be drawn which have the point A as one of the vertices?
[1]
(ii) How many different triangles in total can be drawn? [4]
Exercise 525. (9233 N2007/II/23. Answer on p. 1392.) (i) A random sample of size 100
is taken from a population with mean 30 and standard deviation 5. Find an approximate
value for the probability that the sample mean lies between 29.2 and 30.8. [6]
(ii) Giving a reason, state whether it is necessary to make any assumptions about the
distribution of the population. [1]
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Exercise 526. (9233 N2007/II/25. Answer on p. 1392.) The numbers of men and women
studying Chemistry, Physics and Biology at a college are given in the following table.
Exercise 527. (9233 N2007/II/26. Answer on p. 1392.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. At a fire station, each call-out is classified as either
genuine or false. Call-outs occur at random times. On average, there are two genuine callouts in a week, and one false call-out in a two-week period.
(i) Calculate the probability that there are fewer than 6 genuine call-outs in a randomly
chosen two-week period.
(ii) Using a suitable approximation, calculate the probability that the total number of
call-outs in a randomly chosen six-week period exceeds 19.
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Mass
.]
Volume
Exercise 529. (9233 N2006/I/4. Answer on p. 1393.) A box contains 8 balls, of which 3
are identical (and so are indistinguishable from one another) and the other 5 are different
from each other. 3 balls are to be picked out of the box; the order in which they are picked
out does not matter. Find the number of different possible selections of 3 balls. [4]
(Authors remark: Assume also that the latter 5 balls are each different from the first 3
balls.)
Exercise 530. (9233 N2006/II/23. Answer on p. 1394.) Two fair dice, one red and the
other green, are thrown.
A is the event: The score on the red die is divisible by 3.
B is the event: The sum of two scores is 9.
Justifying your conclusion, determine whether A and B are independent. [3]
Find P (A B). [2]
Exercise 531. (9233 N2006/II/25. Answer on p. 1394.) The mass of vegetables in a
randomly chosen bag has a normal distribution. The mass of the contents of a bag is
supposed to be 10 kg. A random sample of 80 bags is taken and the mass of the contents
of each bag, x grams, is measured. The data are summarised by
(x 10000) = 2510,
(x 10000)2 = 2010203.
(i) Test, at the 5% significance level, whether the mean mass of the contents of a bag is
less than 10 kg. [7]
(ii) Explain, in the context of the question, the meaning of at the 5% significance level.
[1]
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Exercise 532. (9233 N2006/II/26. Answer on p. 1393.) You can skip this entire question
if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam. In a weather model, severe floods are assumed to
occur at random intervals, but at an average rate of 2 per 100 years.
(i) Using this model, find the probability that, in a randomly chosen 200-year period, there
is exactly one severe flood in the first 100 years and exactly one severe flood in the second
100 years. [3]
(ii) Using the same model, and a suitable approximation, find the probability that there
are more than 25 severe floods in 1000 years. [5]
Exercise 533. (9233 N2006/II/28. Answer on p. 1395.) Observations are made of the
speeds of cars on a particular stretch of road during daylight hours. It is found that, on
average, 1 in 80 cars is travelling at a speed exceeding 125 km h-1 , and 1 in 10 is travelling
at a speed less than 40 km h-1 .
(i) Assuming a normal distribution, find the mean and the standard deviation of this
distribution. [4]
(ii) A random sample of 10 cars is to be taken. Find the probability that at least 7 will be
travelling at a speed in excess of 40 km h-1 . [3]
You can skip part (iii) of this question if youre taking the 9758 (revised) exam.
(iii) A random sample of 100 cars is to be taken. Using a suitable approximation, find the
probability that at most 8 cars will be travelling at a speed less than 40 km h-1 . [3]
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Part VIII
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80
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MATHEMATICS
Higher 2 (2017)
(Syllabus 9758)
CONTENTS
Page
2
PREAMBLE
SYLLABUS AIMS
CONTENT OUTLINE
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
13
MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
15
PREAMBLE
Mathematics is a basic and important discipline that contributes to the developments and understandings of
sciences and other disciplines. It is used by scientists, engineers, business analysts and psychologists, etc.
to model, understand and solve problems in their respective fields. A good foundation in mathematics and
the ability to reason mathematically are therefore essential for students to be successful in their pursuit of
various disciplines.
H2 Mathematics is designed to prepare students for a range of university courses, including mathematics,
sciences, engineering and related courses, where a good foundation in mathematics is required. It develops
mathematical thinking and reasoning skills that are essential for further learning of mathematics. Through
applications of mathematics, students also develop an appreciation of mathematics and its connections to
other disciplines and to the real world.
SYLLABUS AIMS
The aims of H2 Mathematics are to enable students to:
(a) acquire mathematical concepts and skills to prepare for their tertiary studies in mathematics, sciences,
engineering and other related disciplines
(b) develop thinking, reasoning, communication and modelling skills through a mathematical approach to
problem-solving
(c) connect ideas within mathematics and apply mathematics in the contexts of sciences, engineering and
other related disciplines
(d) experience and appreciate the nature and beauty of mathematics and its value in life and other
disciplines.
Understand and apply mathematical concepts and skills in a variety of problems, including those
that may be set in unfamiliar contexts, or require integration of concepts and skills from more than
one topic.
AO2
Formulate real-world problems mathematically, solve the mathematical problems, interpret and
evaluate the mathematical solutions in the context of the problems.
AO3
Reason and communicate mathematically through making deductions and writing mathematical
explanations, arguments and proofs.
Electrical circuits
Differential equations
Standardised testing
The list illustrates some types of contexts in which the mathematics learnt in the syllabus may be applied,
and is by no means exhaustive. While problems may be set based on these contexts, no assumptions will be
made about the knowledge of these contexts. All information will be self-contained within the problem.
CONTENT OUTLINE
Knowledge of the content of the O Level Mathematics syllabus and of some of the content of the O Level
Additional Mathematics syllabuses are assumed in the syllabus below and will not be tested directly, but it
may be required indirectly in response to questions on other topics. The assumed knowledge for O Level
Additional Mathematics is appended after this section.
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
1.1
Functions
Include:
concepts of function, domain and range
use of notations such as f( x ) = x 2 + 5 ,
f : x a x 2 + 5 , f 1( x ) , fg( x ) and f 2 ( x )
finding inverse functions and composite functions
conditions for the existence of inverse functions
and composite functions
domain restriction to obtain an inverse function
relationship between a function and its inverse
Include:
use of a graphing calculator to graph a given
function
important characteristics of graphs such as
symmetry, intersections with the axes, turning
points and asymptotes of the following:
x2 y 2
+
=1
a2 b2
x2
a2
y2
= 1;
b2
ax + b
y=
cx + d
y =
y2
b2
a2
=1
dx + e
( )
x2
ax 2 + bx + c
y = f x , and y =
1.3
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
Include:
formulating an equation, a system of linear
equations, or inequalities from a problem
situation
solving an equation exactly or approximately
using a graphing calculator
solving a system of linear equations using a
graphing calculator
f (x )
solving inequalities of the form
> 0 where
g(x )
f(x) and g(x) are linear expressions or quadratic
expressions that are either factorisable or always
positive
concept of |x|, and use of relations
| x a | < b a b < x < a + b and
2.1
Include:
concepts of sequence and series for finite and
infinite cases
sequence as function y = f(n) where n is a
positive integer
relationship between un (the nth term) and Sn (the
sum to n terms)
sequence given by a formula for the nth term
use of notation
sum and difference of two series
summation of series by the method of differences
convergence of a series and the sum to infinity
formula for the nth term and the sum of a finite
arithmetic series
formula for the nth term and the sum of a finite
geometric series
condition for convergence of an infinite geometric
series
formula for the sum to infinity of a convergent
geometric series
Topic/Sub-topics
3
Vectors
3.1
Content
Include:
addition and subtraction of vectors, multiplication
of a vector by a scalar, and their geometrical
interpretations
x
x
use of notations such as , y ,
y z
3.2
xi + y j , x i + y j + zk , AB, a
position vectors, displacement vectors and
direction vectors
magnitude of a vector
unit vectors
distance between two points
concept of direction cosines
collinearity
use of the ratio theorem in geometrical
applications
Include:
concepts of scalar product and vector product of
vectors and their properties
calculation of the magnitude of a vector and the
angle between two vectors
geometrical meanings of | a n | and | a n |,
where n is a unit vector
Exclude triple products a b c and a b c .
3.3
Include:
vector and cartesian equations of lines and
planes
finding the foot of the perpendicular and distance
from a point to a line or to a plane
finding the angle between two lines, between a
line and a plane, or between two planes
relationships between
(i) two lines (coplanar or skew)
(ii) a line and a plane
(iii) two planes
Exclude:
finding the shortest distance between two skew
lines
finding an equation for the common
perpendicular to two skew lines
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
4.1
Include:
extension of the number system from real
numbers to complex numbers
complex roots of quadratic equations
conjugate of a complex number
four operations of complex numbers
equality of complex numbers
conjugate roots of a polynomial equation with
real coefficients
4.2
Include:
representation of complex numbers in the Argand
diagram
complex numbers expressed in the form
r(cos + i sin ), or rei where r > 0 and
< Y=
calculation of modulus (r) and argument () of a
complex number
multiplication and division of two complex
numbers expressed in polar form
Calculus
5.1
Differentiation
Include:
graphical interpretation of
(i) f (x) > 0, f (x) = 0 and f (x) < 0
(ii) f (x) > 0 and f (x) < 0
relating the graph of y = f (x) to the graph of
y = f(x)
differentiation of simple functions defined
implicitly or parametrically
determining the nature of the stationary points
(local maximum and minimum points and points
of inflexion) analytically, in simple cases, using
the first derivative test or the second derivative
test
locating maximum and minimum points using a
graphing calculator
finding the approximate value of a derivative at a
given point using a graphing calculator
finding equations of tangents and normals to
curves, including cases where the curve is
defined implicitly or parametrically
local maxima and minima problems
connected rates of change problems
Exclude finding non-stationary points of inflexion and
finding second derivatives of functions defined
parametrically.
5.2
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
Maclaurin series
Include:
standard series expansion of (1 + x)n for any
rational n, ex, sin x, cos x and In(1 + x)
derivation of the first few terms of the Maclaurin
series by
1 x
Integration techniques
Include:
integration of f (x ) [f (x )] (including n = 1),
f (x)ef(x)
sin2 x, cos2 x, tan2 x,
sin mx cos nx, cos mx cos nx and sin mx sin nx
1
1
1
1
,
,
and
2
2
2
2
2
a +x
x a2
a2 x 2 a x
n
Definite integrals
Include:
concept of definite integral as a limit of sum
definite integral as the area under a curve
evaluation of definite integrals
finding the area of a region bounded by a curve
and lines parallel to the coordinate axes,
between a curve and a line, or between two
curves
area below the x-axis
finding the area under a curve defined
parametrically
finding the volume of revolution about the x- or
y-axis
finding the approximate value of a definite
integral using a graphing calculator
Exclude finding the volume of revolution about the
x-axis or y-axis where the curve is defined
parametrically.
5.5
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
Differential equations
Include:
solving for the general solutions and particular
solutions of differential equations of the forms
dy
(i)
= f (x )
dx
dy
(ii)
= f (y )
dx
d2 y
(iii)
= f (x )
dx 2
including those that can be reduced to (i) and (ii)
by means of a given substitution
formulating a differential equation from a problem
situation
interpreting a differential equation and its solution
in terms of a problem situation
10
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
6.1
Probability
Include:
addition and multiplication principles for counting
concepts of permutation (nPr) and combination
(nCr)
arrangements of objects in a line or in a circle,
including cases involving repetition and
restriction
addition and multiplication of probabilities
mutually exclusive events and independent
events
use of tables of outcomes, Venn diagrams, tree
diagrams, and permutations and combinations
techniques to calculate probabilities
calculation of conditional probabilities in simple
cases
use of:
P ( A' ) = 1 P ( A)
P ( A B ) = P ( A ) + P (B ) P ( A B )
P ( A | B) =
6.2
P ( A B)
P (B )
Include:
concept of discrete random variables, probability
distributions, expectations and variances
concept of binomial distribution B(n, p) as an
example of a discrete probability distribution and
use of B(n, p) as a probability model, including
conditions under which the binomial distribution
is a suitable model
use of mean and variance of binomial distribution
(without proof)
Exclude finding cumulative distribution function of a
discrete random variable.
11
6.3
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
Normal distribution
Include:
concept of a normal distribution as an example of
a continuous probability model and its mean and
variance; use of N(, 2) as a probability model
standard normal distribution
finding the value of P(X < x1) or a related
probability, given the values of x1, ,
symmetry of the normal curve and its properties
finding a relationship between x1, , given the
value of P(X < x1), or a related probability
solving problems involving the use of E(aX + b)
and Var (aX + b)
solving problems involving the use of E(aX + bY)
and Var (aX + bY), where X and Y are
independent
Exclude normal approximation to binomial
distribution.
6.4
Sampling
Include:
concepts of population, random and non-random
samples
concept of the sample mean X as a random
2
n
distribution of sample means from a normal
population
use of the Central Limit Theorem to treat sample
means as having normal distribution when the
sample size is sufficiently large
calculation and use of unbiased estimates of the
population mean and variance from a sample,
including cases where the data are given in
summarised form x and x2, or (x a) and
(x a)2
( )
6.5
Hypothesis testing
Include:
concepts of null hypothesis (H0) and alternative
hypotheses (H1), test statistic, critical region,
critical value, level of significance and p-value
formulation of hypotheses and testing for a
population mean based on:
a sample from a normal population of known
variance
a large sample from any population
1-tail and 2-tail tests
interpretation of the results of a hypothesis test in
the context of the problem
Exclude the use of the term Type I error, concept of
Type II error and testing the difference between two
population means.
12
6.6
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
Include:
use of scatter diagram to determine if there is a
plausible linear relationship between the two
variables
correlation coefficient as a measure of the fit of a
linear model to the scatter diagram
finding and interpreting the product moment
correlation coefficient (in particular, values close
to 1, 0 and 1)
concepts of linear regression and method of least
squares to find the equation of the regression line
concepts of interpolation and extrapolation
use of the appropriate regression line to make
prediction or estimate a value in practical
situations, including explaining how well the
situation is modelled by the linear regression
model
use of a square, reciprocal or logarithmic
transformation to achieve linearity
Exclude:
derivation of formulae
relationship r 2 = b1b2, where b1 and b2 are
regression coefficients
hypothesis tests
13
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
Content from O Level Additional Mathematics
ALGEBRA
A1
A2
A3
A4
laws of logarithms
equivalence of y = a x and x = loga y
change of base of logarithms
function |x| and graph of |f(x)|, where f(x) is linear, quadratic or trigonometric
solving simple equations involving exponential and logarithmic functions
B6
14
15
MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
The list which follows summarises the notation used in Cambridges Mathematics examinations. Although
primarily directed towards A Level, the list also applies, where relevant, to examinations at all other levels.
1. Set Notation
is an element of
is not an element of
{x1, x2, }
{x: }
n(A)
+
+
0
0
n
`=
is a subset of
is a proper subset of
is not a subset of
union
intersection
[a, b]
[a, b)
the interval {x : a Y x I b}
(a, b]
the interval {x : a I x Y b}
(a, b)
16
2. Miscellaneous Symbols
=
is equal to
is not equal to
is identical to or is congruent to
is approximately equal to
is proportional to
is less than
Y;
is greater than
[;
infinity
3. Operations
a+b
a plus b
ab
a minus b
a b, ab, a.b
a multiplied by b
a b,
a:b
a
b
, a/b
a divided by b
the ratio of a to b
a
i =1
a1 + a2 + ... + an
the positive square root of the real number a
n!
n
r
n!
, for n, r + {0}, 0 Y r Y n
r! (n r )!
n(n 1)...(n r + 1)
, for n , r + {0}
r!
17
4. Functions
f
the function f
f(x)
f: A B
f: x y
f 1
g o f, gf
lim f(x)
x ; x
an increment of x
x a
dy
dx
dn y
dx n
y dx
b
a
y dx
x& , &x& ,
ex, exp x
exponential function of x
log a x
ln x
natural logarithm of x
lg x
logarithm of x to base 10
18
7. Complex Numbers
i
a complex number, z
= x + iy
= r(cos + i sin ), r 0+
= rei, r 0+
Re z
Im z
z
arg z
z*
8. Matrices
M
a matrix M
det M
9. Vectors
a
the vector a
AB
the vector represented in magnitude and direction by the directed line segment AB
i, j, k
the magnitude of a
AB
the magnitude of AB
a.b
aPb
19
events
AB
AB
P(A)
A'
P(A | B)
X, Y, R, etc.
random variables
x, y, r, etc.
x1, x2,
observations
f1, f2,
p(x)
the value of the probability function P(X = x) of the discrete random variable X
p1, p2,
f(x), g(x)
the value of the probability density function of the continuous random variable X
F(x), G(x)
the value of the (cumulative) distribution function P(X Y x) of the random variable X
E(X)
E[g(X)]
expectation of g(X)
Var(X)
B(n, p)
Po()
N(, 2)
population mean
population variance
sample mean
s2
s2 =
1
2
( x x )
n 1
probability density function of the standardised normal variable with distribution N (0, 1)
20
81
Reproduced on the following pages is List MF26 . This new List of Formulae and Statistical Tables will be used for the first time in 2017.
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LIST OF FORMULAE
AND
STATISTICAL TABLES
for Mathematics, Statistics and Further
Mathematics
For use from 2017 in all papers for the H1, H2 and H3 Mathematics, H1 Statistics and
H2 Further Mathematics syllabuses.
CSTXXX
*xxxxxxxxxx*
PURE MATHEMATICS
Algebraic series
Binomial expansion:
n
n
n
(a + b) n = a n + a n 1b + a n 2b 2 + a n 3b3 + K + b n , where n is a positive integer and
1
2
3
n
n!
=
r r!(n r )!
Maclaurin expansion:
x2
x n (n)
f (0) + K +
f (0) + K
n!
2!
n(n 1) 2
n(n 1) K (n r + 1) r
x +K
(1 + x) n = 1 + nx +
x +K+
2!
r!
f( x) = f(0) + x f (0) +
x < 1)
x2 x3
xr
+
+K+
+K
r!
2!
3!
(all x)
sin x = x
(1) r x 2 r +1
x3 x5
+
K+
+K
3!
5!
(2r + 1)!
(all x)
cos x = 1
(1) r x 2 r
x2 x4
+
K+
+K
2!
4!
(2r )!
(all x)
ex =1+ x +
ln(1 + x) = x
(1) r +1 x r
x2 x3
+
K+
+K
r
2
3
A
B
C
+
+
(ax + b) (cx + d ) (cx + d ) 2
(ax + b)( x + c )
A
Bx + C
+ 2
(ax + b) ( x + c 2 )
( 1< x 1)
Trigonometry
sin( A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos( A B) cos A cos B m sin A sin B
tan( A B)
tan A tan B
1 m tan A tan B
tan 2 A
2 tan A
1 tan 2 A
12 =sin1x
( x 1)
0 cos1x
( x 1)
Derivatives
f ( x)
f(x)
sin 1 x
1 x 2
cos 1 x
1
1 x 2
tan 1 x
1
1 + x2
cosec x
cosec x cot x
sec x
sec x tan x
Integrals
(Arbitrary constants are omitted; a denotes a positive constant.)
f(x)
f( x) dx
1
x + a2
1
x
tan 1
a
a
1
2
a x
x
sin 1
a
(x
< a)
1 xa
ln
2a x + a
(x > a)
1 a+x
ln
2a a x
( x <a)
tan x
ln(sec x)
( x < 12 )
cot x
ln(sin x)
(0 < x < )
cosec x
ln(cosec x + cot x)
(0 < x < )
sec x
ln(sec x + tan x)
( x < 12 )
1
2
x a
1
2
a x
Vectors
The point dividing AB in the ratio : has position vector
Vector product:
a1 b1 a 2 b3 a 3 b2
a b = a 2 b2 = a 3 b1 a1b3
a b a b a b
2 1
3 3 1 2
a + b
+
Numerical methods
Trapezium rule (for single strip):
b
a
b
a
a +b
1
f ( x)dx 6 (b a ) f (a ) + 4f
+ f (b)
2
f ( x1 )
,
f ( x1 )
y 2 = y1 +
h
[f (x1 , y1 ) + f (x2 , u 2 )]
2
Mean
Variance
n x
p (1 p ) n x
x
np
np (1 p )
1
p
1 p
p2
Distribution of X
Binomial B(n,p )
Poisson Po( )
x
x!
(1 p)x1p
Geometric Geo(p)
Exponential
p.d.f.
Mean
Variance
ex
1
2
s2 =
n ( x x ) 2
n 1
n
1 2 ( x ) 2
=
n 1 x n
( x1 x1 ) 2 + ( x 2 x 2 ) 2
n1 + n 2 2
r=
( x x )( y y )
{( x x ) }{( y y ) }
2
xy
2 ( x ) 2
x
xy
n
2 ( y ) 2
y
( x x )( y y )
( x x ) 2
0.5359
0.5753
0.6141
0.6517
0.6879
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
7
7
12
12
12
11
11
16
16
15
15
14
28
28
27
26
25
32
32
31
30
29
36
36
35
34
32
0.7190
0.7517
0.7823
0.8106
0.8365
0.7224
0.7549
0.7852
0.8133
0.8389
3
3
3
3
3
7 10 14 17 20 24
7 10 13 16 19 23
6 9 12 15 18 21
5 8 11 14 16 19
5 8 10 13 15 18
27
26
24
22
20
31
29
27
25
23
0.8577
0.8790
0.8980
0.9147
0.9292
0.8599
0.8810
0.8997
0.9162
0.9306
0.8621
0.8830
0.9015
0.9177
0.9319
2
2
2
2
1
5
4
4
3
3
7
6
6
5
4
9 12 14 16 19 21
8 10 12 14 16 18
7 9 11 13 15 17
6 8 10 11 13 14
6 7 8 10 11 13
0.9406
0.9515
0.9608
0.9686
0.9750
0.9418
0.9525
0.9616
0.9693
0.9756
0.9429
0.9535
0.9625
0.9699
0.9761
0.9441
0.9545
0.9633
0.9706
0.9767
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
4
3
3
2
2
5
4
4
3
2
6
5
4
4
3
7
6
5
4
4
8 10 11
7 8 9
6 7 8
5 6 6
4 5 5
0.9798
0.9842
0.9878
0.9906
0.9929
0.9803
0.9846
0.9881
0.9909
0.9931
0.9808
0.9850
0.9884
0.9911
0.9932
0.9812
0.9854
0.9887
0.9913
0.9934
0.9817
0.9857
0.9890
0.9916
0.9936
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
3
2
2
2
1
3
3
2
2
1
4
3
3
2
2
4
4
3
2
2
0.9946
0.9960
0.9970
0.9978
0.9984
0.9948
0.9961
0.9971
0.9979
0.9985
0.9949
0.9962
0.9972
0.9979
0.9985
0.9951
0.9963
0.9973
0.9980
0.9986
0.9952
0.9964
0.9974
0.9981
0.9986
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5000
0.5398
0.5793
0.6179
0.6554
0.5040
0.5438
0.5832
0.6217
0.6591
0.5080
0.5478
0.5871
0.6255
0.6628
0.5120
0.5517
0.5910
0.6293
0.6664
0.5160
0.5557
0.5948
0.6331
0.6700
0.5199
0.5596
0.5987
0.6368
0.6736
0.5239
0.5636
0.6026
0.6406
0.6772
0.5279
0.5675
0.6064
0.6443
0.6808
0.5319
0.5714
0.6103
0.6480
0.6844
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.6915
0.7257
0.7580
0.7881
0.8159
0.6950
0.7291
0.7611
0.7910
0.8186
0.6985
0.7324
0.7642
0.7939
0.8212
0.7019
0.7357
0.7673
0.7967
0.8238
0.7054
0.7389
0.7704
0.7995
0.8264
0.7088
0.7422
0.7734
0.8023
0.8289
0.7123
0.7454
0.7764
0.8051
0.8315
0.7157
0.7486
0.7794
0.8078
0.8340
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
0.8413
0.8643
0.8849
0.9032
0.9192
0.8438
0.8665
0.8869
0.9049
0.9207
0.8461
0.8686
0.8888
0.9066
0.9222
0.8485
0.8708
0.8907
0.9082
0.9236
0.8508
0.8729
0.8925
0.9099
0.9251
0.8531
0.8749
0.8944
0.9115
0.9265
0.8554
0.8770
0.8962
0.9131
0.9279
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
0.9332
0.9452
0.9554
0.9641
0.9713
0.9345
0.9463
0.9564
0.9649
0.9719
0.9357
0.9474
0.9573
0.9656
0.9726
0.9370
0.9484
0.9582
0.9664
0.9732
0.9382
0.9495
0.9591
0.9671
0.9738
0.9394
0.9505
0.9599
0.9678
0.9744
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
0.9772
0.9821
0.9861
0.9893
0.9918
0.9778
0.9826
0.9864
0.9896
0.9920
0.9783
0.9830
0.9868
0.9898
0.9922
0.9788
0.9834
0.9871
0.9901
0.9925
0.9793
0.9838
0.9875
0.9904
0.9927
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
0.9938
0.9953
0.9965
0.9974
0.9981
0.9940
0.9955
0.9966
0.9975
0.9982
0.9941
0.9956
0.9967
0.9976
0.9982
0.9943
0.9957
0.9968
0.9977
0.9983
0.9945
0.9959
0.9969
0.9977
0.9984
5 6
ADD
20
20
19
19
18
24
24
23
22
22
0.75
0.674
0.90
1.282
0.95
1.645
0.975
1.960
0.99
2.326
0.995
2.576
0.9975
2.807
0.999
3.090
0.9995
3.291
0.75
0.90
0.95
0.975
0.99
0.995
0.9975
0.999
0.9995
=1
2
3
4
1.000
0.816
0.765
0.741
3.078
1.886
1.638
1.533
6.314
2.920
2.353
2.132
12.71
4.303
3.182
2.776
31.82
6.965
4.541
3.747
63.66
9.925
5.841
4.604
127.3
14.09
7.453
5.598
318.3
22.33
10.21
7.173
636.6
31.60
12.92
8.610
5
6
7
8
9
0.727
0.718
0.711
0.706
0.703
1.476
1.440
1.415
1.397
1.383
2.015
1.943
1.895
1.860
1.833
2.571
2.447
2.365
2.306
2.262
3.365
3.143
2.998
2.896
2.821
4.032
3.707
3.499
3.355
3.250
4.773
4.317
4.029
3.833
3.690
5.894
5.208
4.785
4.501
4.297
6.869
5.959
5.408
5.041
4.781
10
11
12
13
14
0.700
0.697
0.695
0.694
0.692
1.372
1.363
1.356
1.350
1.345
1.812
1.796
1.782
1.771
1.761
2.228
2.201
2.179
2.160
2.145
2.764
2.718
2.681
2.650
2.624
3.169
3.106
3.055
3.012
2.977
3.581
3.497
3.428
3.372
3.326
4.144
4.025
3.930
3.852
3.787
4.587
4.437
4.318
4.221
4.140
15
16
17
18
19
0.691
0.690
0.689
0.688
0.688
1.341
1.337
1.333
1.330
1.328
1.753
1.746
1.740
1.734
1.729
2.131
2.120
2.110
2.101
2.093
2.602
2.583
2.567
2.552
2.539
2.947
2.921
2.898
2.878
2.861
3.286
3.252
3.222
3.197
3.174
3.733
3.686
3.646
3.610
3.579
4.073
4.015
3.965
3.922
3.883
20
21
22
23
24
0.687
0.686
0.686
0.685
0.685
1.325
1.323
1.321
1.319
1.318
1.725
1.721
1.717
1.714
1.711
2.086
2.080
2.074
2.069
2.064
2.528
2.518
2.508
2.500
2.492
2.845
2.831
2.819
2.807
2.797
3.153
3.135
3.119
3.104
3.091
3.552
3.527
3.505
3.485
3.467
3.850
3.819
3.792
3.768
3.745
25
26
27
28
29
0.684
0.684
0.684
0.683
0.683
1.316
1.315
1.314
1.313
1.311
1.708
1.706
1.703
1.701
1.699
2.060
2.056
2.052
2.048
2.045
2.485
2.479
2.473
2.467
2.462
2.787
2.779
2.771
2.763
2.756
3.078
3.067
3.057
3.047
3.038
3.450
3.435
3.421
3.408
3.396
3.725
3.707
3.689
3.674
3.660
30
40
60
120
0.683
0.681
0.679
0.677
0.674
1.310
1.303
1.296
1.289
1.282
1.697
1.684
1.671
1.658
1.645
2.042
2.021
2.000
1.980
1.960
2.457
2.423
2.390
2.358
2.326
2.750
2.704
2.660
2.617
2.576
3.030
2.971
2.915
2.860
2.807
3.385
3.307
3.232
3.160
3.090
3.646
3.551
3.460
3.373
3.291
0.01
=1
0.025
3
0.05
2
0.9
0.95
0.975
0.99
0.995
0.999
0.0 1571
0.0 9821
0.0 3932
2.706
3.841
5.024
6.635
7.8794
10.83
0.02010
0.05064
0.1026
4.605
5.991
7.378
9.210
10.60
13.82
0.1148
0.2158
0.3518
6.251
7.815
9.348
11.34
12.84
16.27
4
5
0.2971
0.5543
0.4844
0.8312
0.7107
1.145
7.779
9.236
9.488
11.07
11.14
12.83
13.28
15.09
14.86
16.75
18.47
20.51
0.8721
1.237
1.635
10.64
12.59
14.45
16.81
18.55
22.46
1.239
1.690
2.167
12.02
14.07
16.01
18.48
20.28
24.32
1.647
2.180
2.733
13.36
15.51
17.53
20.09
21.95
26.12
9
10
2.088
2.558
2.700
3.247
3.325
3.940
14.68
15.99
16.92
18.31
19.02
20.48
21.67
23.21
23.59
25.19
27.88
29.59
11
3.053
3.816
4.575
17.28
19.68
21.92
24.73
26.76
31.26
12
3.571
4.404
5.226
18.55
21.03
23.34
26.22
28.30
32.91
13
4.107
5.009
5.892
19.81
22.36
24.74
27.69
29.82
34.53
14
15
4.660
5.229
5.629
6.262
6.571
7.261
21.06
22.31
23.68
25.00
26.12
27.49
29.14
30.58
31.32
32.80
36.12
37.70
16
5.812
6.908
7.962
23.54
26.30
28.85
32.00
34.27
39.25
17
6.408
7.564
8.672
24.77
27.59
30.19
33.41
35.72
40.79
18
7.015
8.231
9.390
25.99
28.87
31.53
34.81
37.16
42.31
19
20
7.633
8.260
8.907
9.591
10.12
10.85
27.20
28.41
30.14
31.41
32.85
34.17
36.19
37.57
38.58
40.00
43.82
45.31
21
8.897
10.28
11.59
29.62
32.67
35.48
38.93
41.40
46.80
22
9.542
10.98
12.34
30.81
33.92
36.78
40.29
42.80
48.27
23
10.20
11.69
13.09
32.01
35.17
38.08
41.64
44.18
49.73
24
25
10.86
11.52
12.40
13.12
13.85
14.61
33.20
34.38
36.42
37.65
39.36
40.65
42.98
44.31
45.56
46.93
51.18
52.62
30
14.95
16.79
18.49
40.26
43.77
46.98
50.89
53.67
59.70
40
22.16
24.43
26.51
51.81
55.76
59.34
63.69
66.77
73.40
50
29.71
32.36
34.76
63.17
67.50
71.42
76.15
79.49
86.66
60
70
37.48
45.44
40.48
48.76
43.19
51.74
74.40
85.53
79.08
90.53
83.30
95.02
88.38
100.4
91.95
104.2
99.61
112.3
80
53.54
57.15
60.39
96.58
101.9
106.6
112.3
116.3
124.8
90
61.75
65.65
69.13
107.6
113.1
118.1
124.1
128.3
137.2
100
70.06
74.22
77.93
118.5
124.3
129.6
135.8
140.2
149.4
Critical values of T
One Tail
Two Tail
n=6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0.05
0.1
2
3
5
8
10
13
17
21
25
30
35
41
47
53
60
Level of significance
0.025
0.01
0.05
0.02
0
2
0
3
1
5
3
8
5
10
7
13
9
17
12
21
15
25
19
29
23
34
27
40
32
46
37
52
43
0.005
0.01
0
1
3
5
7
9
12
15
19
23
27
32
37
For larger values of n , each of P and Q can be approximated by the normal distribution with mean
1
n(n + 1)
4
and variance
1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) .
24
10
BLANK PAGE
11
12
82
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
MATHEMATICS
Higher 2 (2017)
(Syllabus 9740)
CONTENTS
Page
2
AIMS
ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES (AO)
LIST OF FORMULAE
CONTENT OUTLINE
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
12
MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
14
AIMS
The syllabus prepares students adequately for university courses including mathematics, physics and
engineering, where more mathematics content is required. The syllabus aims to develop mathematical
thinking and problem solving skills in students. Topics covered include Functions and Graphs, Sequences
and Series, Vectors, Complex Numbers, Calculus, Permutations, Combinations and Probability, Binomial,
Poisson and Normal Distributions, Sampling and Hypothesis Testing, and Correlation and Regression.
Students will learn to analyse, formulate and solve different types of problems. They will also learn to work
with data and perform statistical analyses.
The general aims of the syllabus are to enable students to:
acquire the necessary mathematical concepts and skills for everyday life, and for continuous learning in
mathematics and related disciplines
develop the necessary process skills for the acquisition and application of mathematical concepts and
skills
develop the mathematical thinking and problem solving skills and apply these skills to formulate and
solve problems
recognise and use connections among mathematical ideas, and between mathematics and other
disciplines
make effective use of a variety of mathematical tools (including information and communication
technology tools) in the learning and application of mathematics
develop the abilities to reason logically, to communicate mathematically, and to learn cooperatively and
independently.
LIST OF FORMULAE
Candidates will be provided in the examination with a list of formulae.
CONTENT OUTLINE
Knowledge of the content of the O Level Mathematics syllabus and of some of the content of the O Level
Additional Mathematics syllabus are assumed in the syllabus below and will not be tested directly, but it may
be required indirectly in response to questions on other topics. The assumed knowledge for O Level
Additional Mathematics is appended after this section.
Topic/Sub-topics
Content
PURE MATHEMATICS
1
1.1
Include:
f 1( x ) , fg( x ) and f 2 ( x )
finding inverse functions and composite functions
conditions for the existence of inverse functions and
composite functions
domain restriction to obtain an inverse function
relationship between a function and its inverse as
reflection in the line y = x
Graphing techniques
Include:
=1
a2 b2
ax + b
y=
cx + d
ax 2 + bx + c
dx + e
characteristics of graphs such as symmetry,
intersections with the axes, turning points and
asymptotes
determining the equations of asymptotes, axes of
symmetry, and restrictions on the possible values of x
and/or y
effect of transformations on the graph of y = f(x ) as
represented by y = a f(x ) , y = f( x ) + a , y = f( x + a )
and y = f(ax ) , and combinations of these
transformations
1
relating the graphs of y = f ( x ) , y = f ( x ) , y =
f( x )
y =
Topic/Sub-topics
1.3
Content
Include:
solving inequalities of the form
2
2.1
Include:
2.2
3
3.1
f(x)
> 0 where
g( x )
use of notation
summation of series by the method of differences
convergence of a series and the sum to infinity
binomial expansion of (1 + x) n for any rational n
condition for convergence of a binomial series
proof by the method of mathematical induction
Include:
Vectors
Vectors in two and three dimensions
Include:
AB , a
position vectors and displacement vectors
magnitude of a vector
unit vectors
distance between two points
angle between a vector and the x-, y- or
z-axis
use of the ratio theorem in geometrical applications
Topic/Sub-topics
3.2
Content
Include:
3.3
Three-dimensional geometry
Include:
relationships between
two lines (coplanar or skew)
a line and a plane
two planes
three planes
4
4.1
Complex numbers
Complex numbers expressed in
cartesian form
Include:
Topic/Sub-topics
4.2
Content
Include:
arg( z a ) =
use of de Moivres theorem to find the powers and n th
roots of a complex number
Exclude:
5
5.1
arg( z a ) arg( z b ) =
properties and geometrical representation of the n th
roots of unity
use of de Moivres theorem to derive trigonometric
identities
Calculus
Differentiation
Include:
graphical interpretation of
f ( x ) > 0 , f ( x ) = 0 and f ( x ) < 0
f ( x ) > 0 and f ( x ) < 0
Topic/Sub-topics
5.2
Maclaurins series
Content
Include:
5.3
Integration techniques
Include:
integration of
f ( x )
f(x)
sin 2 x, cos 2 x, tan 2 x
1
2
a +x
1
2
a x
a x
integration by a given substitution
integration by parts
2
and
1
2
x a2
Definite integrals
Include:
Topic/Sub-topics
5.5
Differential equations
Content
Include:
STATISTICS
6
6.1
Include:
6.2
Probability
( n Cr )
arrangements of objects in a line or in a circle
cases involving repetition and restriction
Include:
use of:
P( A) = 1 P( A)
P( A B ) = P( A) + P(B ) P( A B )
P( A B ) =
7
7.1
P( A B )
P(B )
Include:
Topic/Sub-topics
7.2
Normal distribution
Content
Include:
Exclude:
8.1
Sampling
Include:
8.2
Hypothesis testing
Include:
use of t-test
Exclude testing the difference between two population
means
10
Topic/Sub-topics
9
9.1
Content
Include:
derivation of formulae
hypothesis tests
11
ASSUMED KNOWLEDGE
Content from O Level Additional Mathematics
ALGEBRA
A1
A2
A3
A4
(ax + b )(cx + d )2
(ax + b )( x 2 + c 2 )
laws of logarithms
equivalence of y = a x and x = loga y
solving simple equations involving exponential and logarithmic, and modulus functions
12
( x a ) 2 + ( y b ) 2 = r 2 or x + y + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0
B6
CALCULUS
C7
13
MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
The list which follows summarises the notation used in Cambridges Mathematics examinations. Although
primarily directed towards A Level, the list also applies, where relevant, to examinations at all other levels.
1. Set Notation
is an element of
is not an element of
{x1, x2, }
{x: }
n(A)
A
+
+
0
0
n
`=
is a proper subset of
is not a subset of
union
[a, b]
intersection
the closed interval {x : a x b}
[a, b)
(a, b]
(a, b)
is a subset of
14
2. Miscellaneous Symbols
=
is equal to
is not equal to
is identical to or is congruent to
is approximately equal to
is proportional to
<
is less than
Y;
>
is greater than
[;
infinity
3. Operations
a+b
a plus b
ab
a minus b
a b, ab, a.b
a multiplied by b
a b,
a:b
a
b
, a/b
a divided by b
the ratio of a to b
a
i =1
a1 + a2 + ... + an
the positive square root of the real number a
n!
n
r
n!
, for n, r + U {0}, 0 Y r Y n
r! (n r )!
n(n 1)...(n r + 1)
, for n , r +U {0}
r!
15
4. Functions
f
function f
f(x)
f: A B
f: x y
f
g o f, gf
lim f(x)
x ; x
an increment of x
x a
dy
dx
dn y
dx n
ydx
ydx
x& , &x& ,
e , exp x
log a x
exponential function of x
logarithm to the base a of x
ln x
natural logarithm of x
lg x
logarithm of x to base 10
16
7. Complex Numbers
i
square root of 1
a complex number,
z = x + iy
= r(cos + i sin ), r 0
+
= rei, r 0
Re z
Im z
z
arg z
z*
8. Matrices
M
a matrix M
det M
9. Vectors
a
the vector a
AB
the vector represented in magnitude and direction by the directed line segment AB
i, j, k
a
AB
a.b
aPb
events
AB
P(A)
A'
P(A | B)
X, Y, R, etc.
random variables
x, y, r, etc.
x1 , x 2 ,
f1 , f 2 ,
17
p(x)
the value of the probability function P(X = x) of the discrete random variable X
p1 , p 2
f(x), g(x)
the value of the probability density function of the continuous random variable X
F(x), G(x)
the value of the (cumulative) distribution function P(X Y x) of the random variable X
E(X)
E[g(X)]
expectation of g(X)
Var(X)
B(n, p)
Po()
N(, )
population mean
population variance
sample mean
unbiased estimate of population variance from a sample,
s2
s2 =
1
(x x )2
n 1
18
83
Reproduced on the following pages is List MF15 . This old List of Formulae and Statistical Tables will be used through 2016.
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
LIST OF FORMULAE
AND
STATISTICAL TABLES
for Mathematics, Statistics and Further
Mathematics
For use from 2017 in all papers for the H1, H2 and H3 Mathematics, H1 Statistics and
H2 Further Mathematics syllabuses.
CSTXXX
*xxxxxxxxxx*
PURE MATHEMATICS
Algebraic series
Binomial expansion:
n
n
n
(a + b) n = a n + a n 1b + a n 2b 2 + a n 3b3 + K + b n , where n is a positive integer and
1
2
3
n
n!
=
r r!(n r )!
Maclaurin expansion:
x2
x n (n)
f (0) + K +
f (0) + K
n!
2!
n(n 1) 2
n(n 1) K (n r + 1) r
x +K
(1 + x) n = 1 + nx +
x +K+
2!
r!
f( x) = f(0) + x f (0) +
x < 1)
x2 x3
xr
+
+K+
+K
r!
2!
3!
(all x)
sin x = x
(1) r x 2 r +1
x3 x5
+
K+
+K
3!
5!
(2r + 1)!
(all x)
cos x = 1
(1) r x 2 r
x2 x4
+
K+
+K
2!
4!
(2r )!
(all x)
ex =1+ x +
ln(1 + x) = x
(1) r +1 x r
x2 x3
+
K+
+K
r
2
3
A
B
C
+
+
(ax + b) (cx + d ) (cx + d ) 2
(ax + b)( x + c )
A
Bx + C
+ 2
(ax + b) ( x + c 2 )
( 1< x 1)
Trigonometry
sin( A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos( A B) cos A cos B m sin A sin B
tan( A B)
tan A tan B
1 m tan A tan B
tan 2 A
2 tan A
1 tan 2 A
12 =sin1x
( x 1)
0 cos1x
( x 1)
Derivatives
f ( x)
f(x)
sin 1 x
1 x 2
cos 1 x
1
1 x 2
tan 1 x
1
1 + x2
cosec x
cosec x cot x
sec x
sec x tan x
Integrals
(Arbitrary constants are omitted; a denotes a positive constant.)
f(x)
f( x) dx
1
x + a2
1
x
tan 1
a
a
1
2
a x
x
sin 1
a
(x
< a)
1 xa
ln
2a x + a
(x > a)
1 a+x
ln
2a a x
( x <a)
tan x
ln(sec x)
( x < 12 )
cot x
ln(sin x)
(0 < x < )
cosec x
ln(cosec x + cot x)
(0 < x < )
sec x
ln(sec x + tan x)
( x < 12 )
1
2
x a
1
2
a x
Vectors
The point dividing AB in the ratio : has position vector
Vector product:
a1 b1 a 2 b3 a 3 b2
a b = a 2 b2 = a 3 b1 a1b3
a b a b a b
2 1
3 3 1 2
a + b
+
Numerical methods
Trapezium rule (for single strip):
b
a
b
a
a +b
1
f ( x)dx 6 (b a ) f (a ) + 4f
+ f (b)
2
f ( x1 )
,
f ( x1 )
y 2 = y1 +
h
[f (x1 , y1 ) + f (x2 , u 2 )]
2
Mean
Variance
n x
p (1 p ) n x
x
np
np (1 p )
1
p
1 p
p2
Distribution of X
Binomial B(n,p )
Poisson Po( )
x
x!
(1 p)x1p
Geometric Geo(p)
Exponential
p.d.f.
Mean
Variance
ex
1
2
s2 =
n ( x x ) 2
n 1
n
1 2 ( x ) 2
=
n 1 x n
( x1 x1 ) 2 + ( x 2 x 2 ) 2
n1 + n 2 2
r=
( x x )( y y )
{( x x ) }{( y y ) }
2
xy
2 ( x ) 2
x
xy
n
2 ( y ) 2
y
( x x )( y y )
( x x ) 2
0.5359
0.5753
0.6141
0.6517
0.6879
4
4
4
4
4
8
8
8
7
7
12
12
12
11
11
16
16
15
15
14
28
28
27
26
25
32
32
31
30
29
36
36
35
34
32
0.7190
0.7517
0.7823
0.8106
0.8365
0.7224
0.7549
0.7852
0.8133
0.8389
3
3
3
3
3
7 10 14 17 20 24
7 10 13 16 19 23
6 9 12 15 18 21
5 8 11 14 16 19
5 8 10 13 15 18
27
26
24
22
20
31
29
27
25
23
0.8577
0.8790
0.8980
0.9147
0.9292
0.8599
0.8810
0.8997
0.9162
0.9306
0.8621
0.8830
0.9015
0.9177
0.9319
2
2
2
2
1
5
4
4
3
3
7
6
6
5
4
9 12 14 16 19 21
8 10 12 14 16 18
7 9 11 13 15 17
6 8 10 11 13 14
6 7 8 10 11 13
0.9406
0.9515
0.9608
0.9686
0.9750
0.9418
0.9525
0.9616
0.9693
0.9756
0.9429
0.9535
0.9625
0.9699
0.9761
0.9441
0.9545
0.9633
0.9706
0.9767
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
4
3
3
2
2
5
4
4
3
2
6
5
4
4
3
7
6
5
4
4
8 10 11
7 8 9
6 7 8
5 6 6
4 5 5
0.9798
0.9842
0.9878
0.9906
0.9929
0.9803
0.9846
0.9881
0.9909
0.9931
0.9808
0.9850
0.9884
0.9911
0.9932
0.9812
0.9854
0.9887
0.9913
0.9934
0.9817
0.9857
0.9890
0.9916
0.9936
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
3
2
2
2
1
3
3
2
2
1
4
3
3
2
2
4
4
3
2
2
0.9946
0.9960
0.9970
0.9978
0.9984
0.9948
0.9961
0.9971
0.9979
0.9985
0.9949
0.9962
0.9972
0.9979
0.9985
0.9951
0.9963
0.9973
0.9980
0.9986
0.9952
0.9964
0.9974
0.9981
0.9986
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5000
0.5398
0.5793
0.6179
0.6554
0.5040
0.5438
0.5832
0.6217
0.6591
0.5080
0.5478
0.5871
0.6255
0.6628
0.5120
0.5517
0.5910
0.6293
0.6664
0.5160
0.5557
0.5948
0.6331
0.6700
0.5199
0.5596
0.5987
0.6368
0.6736
0.5239
0.5636
0.6026
0.6406
0.6772
0.5279
0.5675
0.6064
0.6443
0.6808
0.5319
0.5714
0.6103
0.6480
0.6844
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.6915
0.7257
0.7580
0.7881
0.8159
0.6950
0.7291
0.7611
0.7910
0.8186
0.6985
0.7324
0.7642
0.7939
0.8212
0.7019
0.7357
0.7673
0.7967
0.8238
0.7054
0.7389
0.7704
0.7995
0.8264
0.7088
0.7422
0.7734
0.8023
0.8289
0.7123
0.7454
0.7764
0.8051
0.8315
0.7157
0.7486
0.7794
0.8078
0.8340
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
0.8413
0.8643
0.8849
0.9032
0.9192
0.8438
0.8665
0.8869
0.9049
0.9207
0.8461
0.8686
0.8888
0.9066
0.9222
0.8485
0.8708
0.8907
0.9082
0.9236
0.8508
0.8729
0.8925
0.9099
0.9251
0.8531
0.8749
0.8944
0.9115
0.9265
0.8554
0.8770
0.8962
0.9131
0.9279
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
0.9332
0.9452
0.9554
0.9641
0.9713
0.9345
0.9463
0.9564
0.9649
0.9719
0.9357
0.9474
0.9573
0.9656
0.9726
0.9370
0.9484
0.9582
0.9664
0.9732
0.9382
0.9495
0.9591
0.9671
0.9738
0.9394
0.9505
0.9599
0.9678
0.9744
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
0.9772
0.9821
0.9861
0.9893
0.9918
0.9778
0.9826
0.9864
0.9896
0.9920
0.9783
0.9830
0.9868
0.9898
0.9922
0.9788
0.9834
0.9871
0.9901
0.9925
0.9793
0.9838
0.9875
0.9904
0.9927
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
0.9938
0.9953
0.9965
0.9974
0.9981
0.9940
0.9955
0.9966
0.9975
0.9982
0.9941
0.9956
0.9967
0.9976
0.9982
0.9943
0.9957
0.9968
0.9977
0.9983
0.9945
0.9959
0.9969
0.9977
0.9984
5 6
ADD
20
20
19
19
18
24
24
23
22
22
0.75
0.674
0.90
1.282
0.95
1.645
0.975
1.960
0.99
2.326
0.995
2.576
0.9975
2.807
0.999
3.090
0.9995
3.291
0.75
0.90
0.95
0.975
0.99
0.995
0.9975
0.999
0.9995
=1
2
3
4
1.000
0.816
0.765
0.741
3.078
1.886
1.638
1.533
6.314
2.920
2.353
2.132
12.71
4.303
3.182
2.776
31.82
6.965
4.541
3.747
63.66
9.925
5.841
4.604
127.3
14.09
7.453
5.598
318.3
22.33
10.21
7.173
636.6
31.60
12.92
8.610
5
6
7
8
9
0.727
0.718
0.711
0.706
0.703
1.476
1.440
1.415
1.397
1.383
2.015
1.943
1.895
1.860
1.833
2.571
2.447
2.365
2.306
2.262
3.365
3.143
2.998
2.896
2.821
4.032
3.707
3.499
3.355
3.250
4.773
4.317
4.029
3.833
3.690
5.894
5.208
4.785
4.501
4.297
6.869
5.959
5.408
5.041
4.781
10
11
12
13
14
0.700
0.697
0.695
0.694
0.692
1.372
1.363
1.356
1.350
1.345
1.812
1.796
1.782
1.771
1.761
2.228
2.201
2.179
2.160
2.145
2.764
2.718
2.681
2.650
2.624
3.169
3.106
3.055
3.012
2.977
3.581
3.497
3.428
3.372
3.326
4.144
4.025
3.930
3.852
3.787
4.587
4.437
4.318
4.221
4.140
15
16
17
18
19
0.691
0.690
0.689
0.688
0.688
1.341
1.337
1.333
1.330
1.328
1.753
1.746
1.740
1.734
1.729
2.131
2.120
2.110
2.101
2.093
2.602
2.583
2.567
2.552
2.539
2.947
2.921
2.898
2.878
2.861
3.286
3.252
3.222
3.197
3.174
3.733
3.686
3.646
3.610
3.579
4.073
4.015
3.965
3.922
3.883
20
21
22
23
24
0.687
0.686
0.686
0.685
0.685
1.325
1.323
1.321
1.319
1.318
1.725
1.721
1.717
1.714
1.711
2.086
2.080
2.074
2.069
2.064
2.528
2.518
2.508
2.500
2.492
2.845
2.831
2.819
2.807
2.797
3.153
3.135
3.119
3.104
3.091
3.552
3.527
3.505
3.485
3.467
3.850
3.819
3.792
3.768
3.745
25
26
27
28
29
0.684
0.684
0.684
0.683
0.683
1.316
1.315
1.314
1.313
1.311
1.708
1.706
1.703
1.701
1.699
2.060
2.056
2.052
2.048
2.045
2.485
2.479
2.473
2.467
2.462
2.787
2.779
2.771
2.763
2.756
3.078
3.067
3.057
3.047
3.038
3.450
3.435
3.421
3.408
3.396
3.725
3.707
3.689
3.674
3.660
30
40
60
120
0.683
0.681
0.679
0.677
0.674
1.310
1.303
1.296
1.289
1.282
1.697
1.684
1.671
1.658
1.645
2.042
2.021
2.000
1.980
1.960
2.457
2.423
2.390
2.358
2.326
2.750
2.704
2.660
2.617
2.576
3.030
2.971
2.915
2.860
2.807
3.385
3.307
3.232
3.160
3.090
3.646
3.551
3.460
3.373
3.291
0.01
=1
0.025
3
0.05
2
0.9
0.95
0.975
0.99
0.995
0.999
0.0 1571
0.0 9821
0.0 3932
2.706
3.841
5.024
6.635
7.8794
10.83
0.02010
0.05064
0.1026
4.605
5.991
7.378
9.210
10.60
13.82
0.1148
0.2158
0.3518
6.251
7.815
9.348
11.34
12.84
16.27
4
5
0.2971
0.5543
0.4844
0.8312
0.7107
1.145
7.779
9.236
9.488
11.07
11.14
12.83
13.28
15.09
14.86
16.75
18.47
20.51
0.8721
1.237
1.635
10.64
12.59
14.45
16.81
18.55
22.46
1.239
1.690
2.167
12.02
14.07
16.01
18.48
20.28
24.32
1.647
2.180
2.733
13.36
15.51
17.53
20.09
21.95
26.12
9
10
2.088
2.558
2.700
3.247
3.325
3.940
14.68
15.99
16.92
18.31
19.02
20.48
21.67
23.21
23.59
25.19
27.88
29.59
11
3.053
3.816
4.575
17.28
19.68
21.92
24.73
26.76
31.26
12
3.571
4.404
5.226
18.55
21.03
23.34
26.22
28.30
32.91
13
4.107
5.009
5.892
19.81
22.36
24.74
27.69
29.82
34.53
14
15
4.660
5.229
5.629
6.262
6.571
7.261
21.06
22.31
23.68
25.00
26.12
27.49
29.14
30.58
31.32
32.80
36.12
37.70
16
5.812
6.908
7.962
23.54
26.30
28.85
32.00
34.27
39.25
17
6.408
7.564
8.672
24.77
27.59
30.19
33.41
35.72
40.79
18
7.015
8.231
9.390
25.99
28.87
31.53
34.81
37.16
42.31
19
20
7.633
8.260
8.907
9.591
10.12
10.85
27.20
28.41
30.14
31.41
32.85
34.17
36.19
37.57
38.58
40.00
43.82
45.31
21
8.897
10.28
11.59
29.62
32.67
35.48
38.93
41.40
46.80
22
9.542
10.98
12.34
30.81
33.92
36.78
40.29
42.80
48.27
23
10.20
11.69
13.09
32.01
35.17
38.08
41.64
44.18
49.73
24
25
10.86
11.52
12.40
13.12
13.85
14.61
33.20
34.38
36.42
37.65
39.36
40.65
42.98
44.31
45.56
46.93
51.18
52.62
30
14.95
16.79
18.49
40.26
43.77
46.98
50.89
53.67
59.70
40
22.16
24.43
26.51
51.81
55.76
59.34
63.69
66.77
73.40
50
29.71
32.36
34.76
63.17
67.50
71.42
76.15
79.49
86.66
60
70
37.48
45.44
40.48
48.76
43.19
51.74
74.40
85.53
79.08
90.53
83.30
95.02
88.38
100.4
91.95
104.2
99.61
112.3
80
53.54
57.15
60.39
96.58
101.9
106.6
112.3
116.3
124.8
90
61.75
65.65
69.13
107.6
113.1
118.1
124.1
128.3
137.2
100
70.06
74.22
77.93
118.5
124.3
129.6
135.8
140.2
149.4
Critical values of T
One Tail
Two Tail
n=6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
0.05
0.1
2
3
5
8
10
13
17
21
25
30
35
41
47
53
60
Level of significance
0.025
0.01
0.05
0.02
0
2
0
3
1
5
3
8
5
10
7
13
9
17
12
21
15
25
19
29
23
34
27
40
32
46
37
52
43
0.005
0.01
0
1
3
5
7
9
12
15
19
23
27
32
37
For larger values of n , each of P and Q can be approximated by the normal distribution with mean
1
n(n + 1)
4
and variance
1
n(n + 1)(2n + 1) .
24
10
BLANK PAGE
11
12
Part IX
Appendices (Optional)
The discussion in the main text above has not always been complete, precise, and rigorous.
In these appendices, I fill in these gaps. In particular, I give formal definitions, statements
of claims, and proofs of claims.
In general, where there is a trade-off between generality of a result and the simplicity of its
proof, I favour the latter.
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84
Sets
Fact 1. Two sets are subsets of each other they are identical.
Proof. (1) If every element in A is also in B and every element in B is also in A, then both
sets contain exactly the same elements. By Definition 3 then, A = B.
(2) If A = B, then both sets contain exactly the same elements. Hence, every element in A
is also in B and every element in B is also in A.
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84.2
Functions
If it seems strange to you that a function is defined to be a set, you might find it stranger
still that every mathematical object can be defined in terms of sets.
For example, in standard set theory, very strangely, the number 0 is defined to be the
empty set {} = . The number 1 is defined to be {0} = {{}} = {}. The number 2 is
defined to be {0, 1} = {{} , {{}}} = {, {}}. The number 3 is defined to be {0, 1, 2} =
{{} , {{}} , {{} , {{}}}} = {, {} , {, {}}}. Etc.
Sets are what mathematicians call a primitive notion. That is, sets are left undefined
(though they do have to satisfy certain axioms). But having summoned out of the void
this single undefined object called the set, mathematicians can then define every other
mathematical object based on the set. It is in this sense that the set is the basic building
block out of which every other mathematical object can be built. The idea is to have just
one undefined object, then define everything else based on this single undefined object.
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84.3
Reflection in a Line
Fact 5 (reproduced from p. 93). Let (a, b) be a point. Its reflection in the line y = x
is the point (b, a).
Proof. Let (p, q) be the reflection of the point (a, b) in the line y = x.
Consider the line through the points (a, b) and (p, q). It is perpendicular to the line y = x,
whose slope is 1. And so the slope of this line must be 1. Thus, q b = 1 (p a) or
1
q b = a p.
Now consider the midpoint of the line segment connecting (a, b) and (p, q), namely
(
a+p b+q
,
).
2
2
b+q a+p
2
=
or b + q = a + p.
2
2
a+p b+q
,
).
2
2
b+q
a+p
2
=
or b + q = a p.
2
2
2
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More generally,
Fact 86. Let (p, q) be a point. Its reflection in the line ay + bx + c = 0 is the point
p(a2 b2 ) 2b(aq + c) q(b2 a2 ) 2a(bp + c)
(
,
).
a2 + b2
a2 + b2
Proof. Consider the line that is perpendicular to the line of reflection and which contains
(p, q). It can be written as by+ax+d = 0, where d is an unknown. Since (p, q) is on this line,
we have bq +ap+d = 0, so that d = bq ap. So the perpendicular line is by +ax+bq ap = 0.
The intersection of the line of reflection and the perpendicular line we just found is given
by the system of equations:
1
ay + bx + c = 0
2
by + ax + bq ap = 0
a2 p b(aq + c)
Take b = plus a = and do the algebra to get x =
.
a2 + b2
1
b2 q a(bp + c)
Similarly, take a = minus b = and do the algebra to get y =
.
a2 + b2
1
(x, y) is the midpoint between (p, q) and the reflection point we are looking for. Thus, our
reflection point has x- and y-coordinates
a2 p b(aq + c)
p (a2 b2 ) 2b(aq + c)
p=
,
2x p = 2
a2 + b2
a2 + b2
2y q = 2
b2 q a(bp + c)
q (b2 a2 ) 2a(bp + c)
q
=
.
a2 + b2
a2 + b2
Fact 7 (reproduced from p. 95). Let f be an invertible function. Then the reflection
of the graph of f in the line y = x is the graph of its inverse function f 1 .
Proof. By definition of the inverse function, f (a) = b f 1 (b) = a. Hence, (a, b) is in
the graph of f (b, a) is in the graph of f 1 . But as we showed in Fact 5, the reflection
of the point (a, b) in the line y = x is the point (b, a). And so the reflection of the graph of
f in the line y = x is precisely the graph of f 1 .
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84.4
Proof. Compute
The Hyperbola y =
bx + c
dx + e
bx + c
has no turning points.
dx + e
dy
d b cd be 1
=
[ +
]
dx dx d
d2 x + e/d
d b d cd be 1
=
+
[
]
dx d dx
d2 x + e/d
cd be d
1
=0+
[
]
2
d dx x + e/d
cd be
1
=
[(1)
].
2
d
(x + e/d)2
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ax2 + bx + c
The Hyperbola y =
dx + e
84.5
First, do the long division
a
x
d
dx + e ax2
ax2
b ae
+ 2
d d
+bx
+
+c
ae
x
d
(b
ae
)x
d
+c
(b
ae
)x
d
b ae
+( 2)e
d d
c+(
ae b
)e
d2 d
ae b
a
b ae
x + 2 and the remainder is c + ( 2 ) e. Lets see if we can
d
d d
d
d
simplify this so that x in the denominator has no coefficient:
The quotient is
ae
b
ae
b
ax2 + bx + c a
b ae c + ( d2 d ) e a
b ae 1 c + ( d2 d ) e
= x+ 2 +
= x+ 2 +
dx + e
d
d d
dx + e
d
d d
d x + e/d
a
bd ae c + ( d2 d ) e 1
a
bd ae d2 c + (ae bd) e 1
= x+
+
= x+
+
.
d
d2
d
x + e/d d
d2
d3
x + e/d
ae
Recall that to rule out trivial cases, we assumed that d 0; c and e are not both 0; and
a 0.
Now in addition, well also assume that d2 c + (ae bd) e = 0 (otherwise the function is a
linear function).
We now examine the hyperbolas intercepts, turning points, asymptotes, centre, and lines
of symmetry.
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1. Intercepts. If e = 0, then the graph does not intersect the vertical axis. If e 0, then
c
the graph intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, ).
e
The horizontal intercepts are given by the zeros of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. So if
b2 4ac <
0, then there are no horizontal intercepts. Otherwise the two horizontal intercepts
b b2 4ac
(identical if b2 4ac = 0). And so the graph intesects the horizontal axis
are
2a
b b2 4ac
b + b2 4ac
at the points (
, 0) and (
, 0).
2a
2a
dy a d2 c + (ae bd) e
=
. Setting this equal to zero, we
dx d
(x + e/d)2 d3
d2 c + (ae bd) e
d2 y
d2 c + (ae bd) e
2
have (dx + e) =
. Compute also 2 = 2
. And thus,
a
dx
(dx + e)3
d2 c+(aebd)e
a
and x =
e +
d2 c+(aebd)e
a
bd ae e
+
1
x
+
+
d2
d2
d
a2
a2
bd ae e
+
1
x
+
d2
d2
d
a2
+ 1,
d2
a2
+ 1.
d2
The proof that the above are indeed the lines of symmetry for y =
involves a load of messy and boring algebra, which well omit.
ax2 + bx + c
simply
dx + e
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85
Here are the formal definitions of convergent and divergent sequences and series.
Definition 136. Let (an ) = (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . ) be an infinite sequence. Let > 0. If there
exists N such that for any n N , an (L , L + ), then the sequence (an ) is convergent;
and moreover, it converges to L (L is called the limit of the sequence). We can also write
(an ) L.
A sequence that is not convergent is divergent and its limit does not exist.
Definition 137. (Partial sums.) Let (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . ) be an infinite sequence. We call
k
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86
Vectors in 2D
Fact 22 (reproduced from p. 281). Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors. Then
a can be written as a scalar multiple of b.
=b
a
= cb = b = b.
= cb
Proof. ( ) Suppose a = cb. Then a
c b b
Then a = a
and b = b,
so that indeed a = a a
= a b
= b.
=b
= a b
( ) Suppose a
a
b
b
can be written as a scalar multiple of b.
Fact 23 (reproduced from p. 281 above). Let a and b be any two vectors in the same
plane with distinct direction vectors. Then every vector in the same plane can be written
as a + b for some , R.
Proof. I prove only the 2D case. (For higher dimensions, it is much easier to use linear
algebra, but this is not covered in H2 maths.)
Let a = (a1 , a2 ) and b = (b1 , b2 ). Let c = (c1 , c2 ) be any vector.
Observe that a1 b2 a2 b1 , because if a1 b2 = a2 b1 , then a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 0 (otherwise both a and
a1 b1
b are zero vectors) and so
= , in which case a and b have the same direction vector,
a2 b2
contradicting our assumption.
Then we do indeed have c = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ) if we pick and such that
1
a1 + b1 = c1 ,
a2 + b2 = c2 .
b2 c1 b1 c2
a 1 b2 a 2 b1
and =
a1 c2 a2 c1
.
a1 b2 a2 b1
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86.2
Scalar Product
Fact 24 (reproduced from p. 284). Let a, b, and c be vectors. Then a(b+c) = ab+ac.
Moreover, (a + b) c = a c + b c.
Proof. I prove only the 2D case. Let a = (a1 , a2 ), b = (b1 , b2 ), and c = (c1 , c2 ). Then
a (b + c) = (a1 , a2 ) [(b1 , b2 ) + (c1 , c2 )]
= (a1 , a2 ) (b1 + c1 , b2 + c2 )
= a1 (b1 + c1 ) + a2 (b2 + c2 )
= a1 b1 + a1 c1 + a2 b2 + a2 c2
= a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a1 c1 + a2 c2
= (a1 , a2 ) (b1 , b2 ) + (a1 , a2 ) (c1 , c2 )
= a b + a c.
The proof that (a + b) c = a c + b c is very similar and is thus omitted.
Fact 26 (reproduced from p. 285). Let u and v be two vectors (of any dimension)
and [0, ] be the angle between them. Then u v = u v cos .
Proof. Let u and v correspond to two sides of a triangle. Then uv corresponds to the third
side and is the angle opposite this third side. Then by Proposition 6 (Law of Cosines),
2
u v = u + v 2 u v cos
(u v) (u v) = u u + v v 2 u v cos
u u + v v 2u v = u u + v v 2 u v cos
2u v = 2 u v cos
u v = u v cos
uv
cos =
.
u v
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86.3
Theorem 3 (reproduced from p. 282.) Ratio Theorem. Let a and b be points. Let
p be a point on the line segment ab. Then
bp
ap
p=
a+
b.
ap + bp
ap + bp
=
ap
ap
ap
bp
ap
(b a) .
+
ap
bp
Hence,
p=a+
ap
ap
=a+
(b a)
ap + bp
ap
ap
= 1
a +
ap + bp
ap + bp
bp
ap
=
a+
b.
+
+
ap
ap
bp
bp
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86.4
Vector Product
Fact 29 (reproduced from p. 298). Let u and v be two non-zero 2D vectors and
[0, ] be the angle between them. Then the scalar u v is equal to either u v sin or
u v sin .
Proof. Let and be the angles that u and v make with the positive x-axis (the angles
are measured counter-clockwise). Then
u v = ux vy uy vx
= u cos v sin u sin v cos
= u v (cos sin sin cos )
= u v sin ( ) .
Case #1. If , then = and so sin ( ) = sin . Thus, u v = u v sin , as
desired.
Case #2. If > , then = and so sin ( ) = sin () = sin . Thus, u v =
u v sin , as desired.
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Lemma 1. The parallelopiped with sides of lengths a, b, and c has volume a (b c).
Proof. The base of the parallelopiped has area b c.
Its height is the projection of a onto the vector that is perpendicular to both b and c. That
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
uv=
(ux i + uy j + uz k) (vx i + vy j + vz k)
ux i (vx i + vy j + vz k)
+ uy j (vx i + vy j + vz k)
+ uz k (vx i + vy j + vz k)
(distributivity)
ux vx (i i) + ux vy (i j) + ux vz (i k)
+ uy vx (j i) + uy vy (j j) + uy vz (j k)
+ uz vx (k i) + uz vy (k j) + uz vz (k k)
(distributivity)
0 + ux vy k + ux vz (j)
+ uy vx (k) + 0 + uy vz i
+ uz vx j + uz vy (i) + 0
(Fact 32)
(uy vz uz vy ) i
+ (uz vx ux vz ) j
+ (ux vy uy vx ) k
uy vz uz vy
u v u v
z x
x z
ux vy uy vx
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86.5
2D Geometry
Fact 34 (reproduced from p. 310). The line with vector equation r = (p1 , p2 ) + (v1 , v2 )
(for R) is the line with cartesian equations as given by the 3 cases below.
(1)
x p1 y p2
=
,
v1
v2
(2)
x = p1 , y is free,
if v1 = 0, v2 0;
(3)
x is free, y = p2 ,
if v2 = 0, v1 0;
if v1 , v2 0;
x = p1 + v1 ,
2
y = p2 + v2 .
2
x p1 y p2
=
.
v1
v2
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86.6
3D Geometry
Fact 35 (reproduced from p. 314). The line with vector equation r = (p1 , p2 , p3 ) +
(v1 , v2 , v3 ) (for R) is the line with cartesian equations as given by the 7 cases below.
(1)
x p1 y p2 z p3
=
=
,
v1
v2
v3
(2)
x = p1 ,
y p2 z p3
=
,
v2
v3
if v1 = 0, v2 , v3 0;
(3)
y = p2 ,
x p1 z p3
=
,
v1
v3
if v2 = 0, v1 , v3 0;
(4)
z = p3 ,
x p1 y p2
=
,
v1
v2
if v3 = 0, v1 , v2 0;
(5)
x = p1 , y = p2 , z is free,
if v1 , v2 = 0, v3 0;
(6)
x = p1 , z = p3 , y is free,
if v1 , v3 = 0, v2 0;
(7)
y = p2 , z = p3 , x is free,
if v2 , v3 = 0, v1 0.
if v1 , v2 , v3 0;
Rearrange the above into v2 xv1 y+v1 p2 v2 p1 = 0. Similarly, taking v3 = minus v2 = yields
5
3
1
6
v3 y v2 z +v2 p3 v3 p2 = 0. Finally, taking v1 = minus v3 = yields v1 z v3 x+v1 p3 v3 p1 = 0.
4
x p 1 4 y p2
y p2 5 z p3
=
and
=
.
v1
v2
v2
v3
5
y p 2 5 z p3
=
.
v2
v3
I omit the proofs of cases (3) and (4), which are very similar.
4
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2
2 (
v
) ; and
(b) The distance between the point and the line is
pa
pa
v
) v
.
(b) The foot of the perpendicular from the point to the line is the point p + (
pa
2
2
2
2
2 2
v.
(a1 p1 v1 ) + (a2 p2 v2 ) + (a3 p3 v3 ) = 2 v +
pa
pa
So the minimum point is given by
d
2
2 2
v] = 2 v2 2
v set
[2 v +
pa
pa
pa
= 0
d
v (a p) v
pa
=
=
.
2
v
v
(a) Hence, the distance between the point and the line is
v
pa
2
2
2
2
2
v + pa 2 pa v =
(
v pa) + pa 2
pa
v
2 +
2 2 (
= (
pa)
pa
pa)
pa
v
v
2 +
2 2 (
v
pa)
v
pa)
= (
v
pa)
pa
2 (
2 , as desired.
=
pa
v
pa)
v = p + (
v
, also as
v
pa)
(b) And the foot of the perpendicular is p + v = p + (
v
pa)
v
desired.
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Fact 40 (reproduced from p. 361). Given a plane and a line, there are three possible
cases:
1. The line and plane are parallel and do not intersect at all.
2. The line and plane are parallel and the line lies completely on the plane.
3. The line and plane are not parallel and intersect at exactly one point.
(p + v) n = d
p n + v n = d
1
v n = d p n,
where the second line uses the distributivity of the scalar product.
Case #1. The plane and line are not parallel.
Then v n 0 and we can divide both sides by v n to get
=
dpn
.
vn
dpn
v.
vn
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Fact 41 (reproduced from p. 363). Two non-parallel planes with normal vectors n1
and n2 intersect at all if and only if they intersect along a line with direction vector n1 n2
(i.e. the line is perpendicular to both n1 and n2 ).
Proof. Let the two planes be r n1 = d1 and r n2 = d2 .
( ) Trivial if they intersect along such a line, then of course they intersect.
( ) Suppose the two planes intersect at some point p. So p is on both planes and we
1
have p n1 = d1 and p n2 = d2 .
Our goal is to show that a point q is on both planes (i.e. q n1 = d1 and q n2 = d2 ) if and
only if q = p + (n1 n2 ) (for R). That is, the points of intersection are exactly those
points along the line r = p + (n1 n2 ) (for R).
Any point can be written as q = p + (n1 n2 ) + v, where R and v is some vector that
is not perpendicular to n1 . Then
q n1 = (p + (n1 n2 ) + v) n1
= p n1 + (n1 n2 ) n1 + v n1
= d1 + (n1 n2 ) n1 + v n1
= d1 + v n1
Using =
(n1 n2 ) n1
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Fact 88. Let two planes be described by the following cartesian equations:
ax + by + cz + d = 0,
ex + f y + gz + h = 0.
If the two planes are not parallel (i.e. (a, b, c) cannot be written as a scalar multiple of
(e, f, g)), then they share at least one point of intersection.
Proof. Pick any (i1 , i2 , i3 ) such that ai1 + bi2 + ci3 = 0 but ei1 + f i2 + gi3 0. (This vector
exists because of the assumption that (a, b, c) cannot be written as a scalar multiple of
(e, f, g).)
Pick any (j1 , j2 , j3 ) such that aj1 + bj2 + cj3 + d = 0.
Then the following point lies on both planes:
(j1 , j2 , j3 )
ej1 + f j2 + gj3 + h
(i1 , i2 , i3 ) ,
ei1 + f i2 + gi3
=0
ej1 + f j2 + gj3 + h
aj1 + bj2 + cj3 + d
(ai1 + bi2 + ci3 ) = 0,
ei1 + f i2 + gi3
ej1 + f j2 + gj3 + h
(ei1 + f i2 + gi3 ) = 0.
ei1 + f i2 + gi3
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Fact 42 (reproduced from p. 363). Given two planes, there are three possible cases:
1. The two planes are parallel and exactly identical.
2. The two planes are parallel and do not intersect at all.
3. The two planes are not parallel and share an intersection line with direction vector
n1 n2 (where n1 , n2 are the normal vectors of the plane).
Proof. Let the two planes be r n1 = d1 and r n2 = d2 .
Suppose they are parallel (i.e. n1 = cn2 for some c R). If they intersect at one point p,
then both planes can be written as r n2 = d2 and are thus exactly identical. So either they
do not intersect at all or they are exactly identical.
If they are not parallel, then Fact 88 shows that they intersect. Fact 41 then says that they
intersect along a line with direction vector n1 n2 .
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87
Fact 89. Let b > 0. Then (a) the two square roots of a+bi (i.e. the solutions to the equation
x2 = a + bi) are
2
2
2
(
a +b +a+i
a2 + b2 a) .
2
(b) And the two square roots of a bi (i.e. the solutions to the equation x2 = a bi) are
2
2
2
( a + a b i a a2 b2 ) .
2
Proof.
2
(a) [
a2 + b2 + a + i
a2 + b2 a)]
(
2
1 2 2
= [ a + b + a ( a2 + b2 + a) + 2i ( a2 + b2 + a) ( a2 + b2 a)]
2
1
= [2a + 2i a2 + b2 a2 ]
2
= a + i b2 = a + ib.
2
2
2
2
2
(b) [
( a + a b i a a b )]
2
1
= [a + a2 b2 + a a2 + b2 2i (a + a2 b2 ) (a a2 b2 )]
2
1
= [2a 2i a2 (a2 b2 )]
2
= a i b2 = a ib.
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n1
+ an2 x
n2
+ + a1 x + a0 = ak xk . Since a + bi solves an xn +
k=0
[ ak (a + bi)k ] = 0 = 0.
k=0
Now repeatedly use Lemma 3 (above) to show that the LHS expression equals ak (a bi) :
k=0
k=0
n
k=0
n
k=0
n
k=0
k=0
397.)
For any R, ei =
Were actually cheating a little with this proof here, because we havent proven how we can take derivatives of complexvalued functions.
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+ 2k
. Then k (, ] for
n
n1
, if n is odd;
2
n
2. k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , , if n is even AND > 0;
2
n
3. k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , , if n is even AND 0.
2
1. k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
Proof. In each case, examine the largest and smallest k . If they are both in the interval
(, ], then every k is also in the interval (, ].
1. n is odd.
Since (, ], we have
( , ).
n
n n
2(n 1)
+
= + (n 1) ( + (n 1) , + (n 1) ] = ((n 2) , ].
n
2
n n
n
n
n n
n
n
And so indeed max k (, ].
max k =
2(n 1)
= (n 1) ( (n 1) , (n 1) ] = (, (2 n) ].
n
2
n n
n
n
n n
n
n
And so indeed min k (, ].
min k =
(0, ].
n
n
max k =
n
2
+ 2 ( 1) =
+ (2 , ]. And so indeed max k (, ].
n
2
n
n
n
n
min k =
2
= (, ]. And so indeed min k (, ].
n
2n n
n
3. n is even AND 0.
Since (, 0], we have
( , 0].
n
n
max k =
+2
= + ( , ]. And so indeed max k (, ].
n
2n n
n
min k =
n
+ 2
2 ( 1) =
( + , + 2 ]. And so indeed min k (, ].
n
2
n
n
n
n
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88
In this chapter, I sometimes use the symbols (for all) and (there exist(s)).
88.1
Informally, lim f (x) = L means For all values of x that are close to but not equal to a,
xa
f (x) is close to (or possibly even equal to) L. Formally:
Definition 139. Let f be a real function on a real variable. Let L R. We say that the
limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L if:
> 0, > 0 x (a , a + )/{a} f (x) (L , L + ).
We may denote this by as x a, f (x) L or lim f (x) = L.
xa
This is an example of how mathematical definitions are formed. First we have some intuitive, informal notion in mind (in this case a limit). Then with a little work, we write
down a formal, precise, rigorous definition to formalise our informal notion. Our rigorous
definition leaves no room for ambiguity or alternative interpretations.
Lets now revisit our earlier examples, but now using our formal definition.
Page 946, Table of Contents
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Let > 0. Pick = . Then it is indeed true that for all x (3 , 3 + ) but x 3, we
5
5
5
have f (x) = 5x + 2 (15 5 2, 15 + 5 + 2) = (17 , 17 + ). So indeed lim f (x) = 17.
x3
5
5
The game here is to figure out, based on your choice of , what I should pick in order
that x (a , a + ) /{a} implies f (x) (L , L + ).
Example 92 (revisited). Consider the function g (, 3) (3, ) R defined by
x 5x + 2. We prove that lim g(x) = 17.
x3
Let > 0. Pick = . Then it is indeed true that for all x (3 , 3 + ) /{3}, we have
5
5
5
g(x) = 5x + 2 (15 5 2, 15 + 5 + 2) = (17 , 17 + ). So indeed lim g(x) = 17.
x3
5
5
Example 93 (revisited). Consider the function h R R defined by x 5x + 2 for x 3
and h(3) = 0. We prove that lim h(x) = 17.
x3
Let > 0. Pick = . Then it is indeed true that for all x (3 , 3 + ) /{3}, we have
5
5
5
h(x) = 5x + 2 (15 5 2, 15 + 5 + 2) = (17 , 17 + ). So indeed lim h(x) = 17.
x3
5
5
In the next example, need not depend on . Indeed, can simply be any positive number!
This is because of the peculiar way the function is defined.
Example 94 (revisited). Consider the function i R R defined by x 0 for x 3 and
i(3) = 17. We prove that lim f (x) = 0.
x3
Let > 0. Pick > 0 (that is, pick to be any positive number). Then it is indeed true
that for all x (3 , 3 + ) /{3}, we have f (x) = 0 (0 , 0 + ). So indeed lim f (x) = 0.
x3
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88.2
Definition 140. Let f be a real function on a real variable. Let L R. We say that the
left-sided limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L if:
> 0, > 0 x (a , a)/{a}, f (x) (L , L + ).
We may denote this by as x a, f (x) L or lim f (x) = L.
xa
Definition 141. Let f be a real function on a real variable. Let L R. We say that the
right-sided limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L if:
> 0, > 0 x (a, a + )/{a}, f (x) (L , L + ).
We may denote this by as x a, f (x) L or lim f (x) = L.
xa
xa
xa
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88.3
Definition 142. (Two-Sided Infinite Limit.) We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is if:
P R, > 0 x (a , a + )/{a} f (x) > P .
We may denote this by as x a, f (x) or lim f (x) = .
xa
Definition 143. (Left-Sided Infinite Limit.) We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a from the left is if:
P R, > 0 x (a , a) f (x) > P .
We may denote this by as x a, f (x) or lim f (x) = .
xa
The definition of the right-sided infinite limit (lim f (x) = ) is very similar and thus
xa
xa
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88.4
Definition 145. (Limit at Infinity.) We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches
is L and write as x , f (x) L or lim f (x) = L if:
x
lim f (x) = L.
Definition 147. (Limit at Infinity.) We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches
is ax + b if:
> 0, P R x > P f (x) (ax + b , ax + b + ).
We may denote this by as x , f (x) ax + b or lim f (x) = ax + b
x
lim f (x) = ax + b.
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88.5
Limit Laws
4.
1
1
= (L 0),
xa f (x)
L
lim
2.
5.
xa
3. lim [f (x)g(x)] = LM ,
xa
g(x) M
=
(L 0).
xa f (x)
L
lim
Proof. We first write down what the statements lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M mean:
xa
xa
1. Let 1 > 0. Pick small f , g so that f + g 1 . Pick the f , g that correspond to these
f , g . Now pick 1 = min {f , g }, so that indeed x (a 1 , a + 1 )/{a} implies
f (x) + g(x) (L + M (f + g ) , L + M + (f + g )) (L + M 1 , L + M + 1 ) .
The proof that lim [f (x) g(x)] = L M is very similar and omitted.
xa
2. Let 2 > 0. Pick small f so that kf 2 . Pick the f that corresponds to this f . Then
indeed x (a f , a + f )/{a} implies
kf (x) (k (L f ) , k (L + f )) (kL 2 , kL + 2 ) .
3. Let 3 > 0. Case #1. Assume L, M > 0.
Pick small f , g so that f M + g L + f g 3 and L f , M g > 0. Pick the f , g that
correspond to these f , g . Now pick 3 = min {f , g }, so that indeed x (a 3 , a + 3 )/{a}
implies
f (x)g(x) ((L f ) (M g ) , (L + f ) (M + g ))
= (LM f M g L + f g , LM + f M + g L + f g ) (LM 3 , LM + 3 ) .
The proof for the other cases (where L, M are not both positive) is similar and omitted.
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1
4 L2
4. Let 4 (0, ). Pick f =
. Pick f that corresponds to this f . First,
L
1 + 4 L
1
4 (0, )
L
1
1,
1 + 24 L
1,
if L > 0,
if L < 0
L
L
1 + 24 L
1,
1 + 24 L
1,
L
L,
1 + 24 L
L,
4 L
if L > 0,
if L < 0
if L > 0,
if L < 0
4 L
1 + 24 L
4 L 1
1 4 L.
1 + 24 L
1
1
,
2
2
4 L
4 L
L + 1+
L 1+
4L
4L
=(
1 + 4 L 1 + 4 L
,
)
L + 24 L2
L
1 1 + 4 L
1
1
4 L
1
=( (
) , + 4 ) = ( (1
) , + 4 )
L 1 + 24 L L
L
1 + 24 L L
2 1
1
( (1 4 L) , + 4 )
L
L
2
=(
1
1
4 , + 4 ) ,
L
L
where uses .
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Proof. Let > 0. Pick any f , g to be small enough so that f + g . Pick the f ,
g that correspond to these f , g . Now pick 1 = min {, f , g }, so that indeed for all
x (a 1 , a + 1 )/{a}, we have h(x) (L f , L + f ) (L g , L + g ) = (L min {f , g } , L +
min {f , g }) (L , L + ).
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88.6
Continuity
Definition 149. A function f is left-continuous at a point a if lim f (x) = f (a) and rightcontinuous at a if lim f (x) = f (a).
xa
xa
Proof. This is obvious from Fact 91 and the definitions of left- and right-continuity.
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88.7
Differentiation
f (x) f (a)
exists
xa
xa
f (x) f (a)
f (x) f (a)
= lim
.
xa
xa
xa
xa
Proof. This is obvious from Fact 91 and the definitions of left- and right-differentiability.
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sin
= 1.
0
Lemma 5. lim
Proof. Consider the circle (from which the trigonometric functions and the radian were
defined). First restrict attention to (0, 0.5).
Clearly, for all (0, 0.5), BC < arcAB. But by definition of the radian and the sine
function, we have = arc AB and sin = BC. Thus, sin < .
Clearly, the area of the OAD is greater than the area of the circular sector OAB. That
We can show this last pair of inequalities also holds for all (0.5, 0).
sin
= 1 (Squeeze Theorem).
0
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d
dx
d
sin x =
dx
cos x,
d
f g = f g,
dx
d
cos x =
dx
sin x,
d
dx
kf
d
dx
f g
g f + f g,
d
dx
xk
= kxk1 ,
d
dx
f
g
g f f g
,
gg
d
dx
ex
d
d (f g) dg
f g =
.
dx
dg
dx
0,
kf ,
ex ,
d
1
ln x =
,
dx
x
Sum and Difference. f g is the function with domain A B, codomain R, and mapping
f (x) g(x) [f (a) g(a)]
rule x f (x) g(x). For every a A B, lim
exists, with
xa
xa
f (x) g(x) [f (a) g(a)]
f (x) f (a) g(x) g(a)
= lim (
)
xa
xa
xa
xa
xa
f (x) f (a)
g(x) g(a)
= lim
lim
= f (x) g (a),
xa
xa
xa
xa
where the penultimate = used Lemma 4.1. Hence, the derivative of f g is the function
f g with domain A B, codomain R, and mapping rule x f (x) g (x). We can write
this in shorthand as d (f g) /dx = f g .
lim
k times
k times
d
d
= f + f + f + + f = kf .
(kf ) =
f
+
f
+
f
+
+
f
Constant Multiple.
dx
dx
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Sine. Let h be the function with domain R, codomain R, and mapping rule x sin x. For
h(x) h(a)
every a R, lim
exists and moreover
xa
xa
xa
2 cos x+a
h(x) h(a)
sin x sin a
2 sin 2
lim
= lim
= lim
xa
xa
xa
xa
xa
xa
sin xa
x+a
x+a
2
lim xa2 = lim cos
=lim cos
xa
xa
2 xa 2
2
1
= cos a.
where = and = used Lemmata 4 and 5, and = uses the fact that the cosine function is
continuous (admittedly we havent proven this yet, but this should be obvious). Hence,
the derivative of h is the function with domain R, codomain R, and mapping rule x cos x.
We can write this in shorthand as d sin x/dx = cos x.
Cosine. d cos x/dx = d sin (x + /2) /dx = cos (x + /2) = sin x.
Product Rule. f g is the function with domain A B, codomain R, and mapping rule
f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a)
exists and moreover
x f (x)g(x). For every a A B, lim
xa
xa
f (x)g(x) f (a)g(a)
xa
xa
lim
= lim [f (x)
xa
g(x) g(a)
f (x) f (a)
] + lim [g(a)
]
xa
xa
xa
g(x) g(a)
f (x) f (a)
] + g(a) lim
xa
xa
xa
xa
where = and = used Lemma 4. Hence, the derivative of f g is the function f g + gf with
domain AB, codomain R, and mapping rule x f g +gf . We can write this in shorthand
as d (f g) /dx = f g + gf .
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f (g(x)) f (g(a))
f (g(x)) f (g(a)) g(x) g(a)
= lim [
]
xa
xa
xa
g(x) g(a)
xa
(f g) (a) = lim
f (g(x)) f (g(a))
g(x) g(a)
lim
= f (g(a)) g (a).
xa
xa
g(x) g(a)
xa
= lim
However, the above proof commits the cardinal sin of (possibly) dividing by zero, because
there is the possibility that g(x) = g(a) for values of x in the neighbourhood of a!
To get around this irksome technicality, we need to play the little trick of defining the
function:
f (g(x)) f (g(a))
g(x) g(a)
(x) =
f (g(a)) ,
if g(x) g(a),
if g(x) = g(a).
Note that
f (g(x)) f (g(a))
lim
= f (g(a)) ,
0 xa
g(x) g(a)
lim (x) =
xa
xa
if g(x) g(a),
if g(x) = g(a).
because if g(x) = g(a), then = is clearly true; and if g(x) g(a), then = is again clearly
true, because
f (g(x)) f (g(a))
g(x) g(a)
=0=
.
xa
xa
So
f (g(x)) f (g(a)) 1
g(x) g(a)
= lim [(x)
]
xa
xa
xa
xa
g(x) g(a) 0
= f (g(a)) g (a).
= lim (x) lim
xa
xa
xa
(f g) (a) = lim
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d
d
d
1 d
Exponential. On the one hand,
ln ex =
x = 1. On the other,
ln ex = x ex .
dx
dx
dx
e dx
1 d x
d x
x
Hence, x e = 1. Rearranging,
e =e .
e dx
dx
Power Rule. Using the Chain Rule and also the derivatives of the natural logarithm and
exponential functions, we have:
d
n
n
dxn
= en ln x = en ln x = xn = nxn1 .
dx dx
x
x
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88.8
xa
xa
f (x) f (a)
]
xa
f (x) f (a)
xa
xa
= lim(x a) lim
xa
= 0 f (a) = 0
xa
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88.9
Proof. 1. Suppose f is decreasing on (a, b). That is, by definition, x1 , x2 (a, b), x2 > x1
f (x2 ) f (x1 ). Equivalently, x2 x1 > 0 f (x2 ) f (x1 ) 0. Equivalently, for all
f (x) f (c)
f (x2 ) f (x1 )
0. This implies that c (a, b), lim
0.
distinct x1 , x2 (a, b),
xc
x2 x1
xc
That is, f (c) 0 for all c (a, b).
Now suppose f (c) 0, for all c (a, b). Then > 0 such that c (a, b), x (c , c + ),
f (x) f (c)
0. Equivalently, x1 , x2 (c , c + ), x2 > x1 f (x2 ) f (x1 ). Since
xc
is fixed and the previous sentence is true if we replace c with any other d (a, b), we have
that x1 , x2 (a, b), x2 > x1 f (x2 ) f (x1 ).
This completes the proof of 1. The proofs of 2, 3, and 4 are similar and thus omitted.
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Similarly, suppose for contradiction that f (a) < 0 ... (similar reasoning omitted).
We conclude that if x is a maximum or a minimum point, then f (a) = 0.
Fact 94. Suppose f D R is continuous at a. If there exists > 0 such that f is increasing
on (a , a) and f is decreasing on (a, a + ), then f attains a maximum at a. (Similarly,
if there exists > 0 such that f is decreasing on (a , a) and f is increasing on (a, a + ),
then f attains a minimum at a.)
x(a,a)
x(a,a+)
88
sup f (x) is the smallest real number L such that L f (x) for all x A.
xA
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88.10
These are the general definitions of concavity and inflexion points, without assuming that
f is differentiable.
Definition 160. A function f is concave downwards (or concave) on an interval if for every
x1 , x2 in that interval and every [0, 1], f (x1 + (1 ) x2 ) f (x1 ) + (1 ) f (x2 ) .
Definition 161. A function f is concave upwards (or convex) on an interval (in the functions domain) if for every x1 , x2 in that interval and every [0, 1], f (x1 + (1 ) x2 )
f (x1 ) + (1 ) f (x2 ) .
Definition 162. A function f is linear on an interval (in the functions domain) if for every
x1 , x2 in that interval and every [0, 1], f (x1 + (1 ) x2 ) = f (x1 ) + (1 ) f (x2 ) .
Of course, if a function is linear on an interval, then it is also both concave and convex on
that interval.
Definition 163. Suppose f D R is continuous at a D. Then a is an inflexion point
of f if there exists > 0 such that
1. f is concave downwards on (a , a), but concave upwards on (a, a + ); OR
2. f is concave upwards on (a , a), but concave downwards on (a, a + ),
and moreover, f is not linear on (a , a + ).
The moreover bit is to rule out the trivial case where f is simply linear (and thus both
concave and convex) on (a , a + ). In this case, we do not want to say that a is an
inflexion point.
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.
x2 x1
x3 x2
(b) f is concave upwards on an interval For every x1 , x2 , x3 in that interval,
f (x2 ) f (x1 ) f (x3 ) f (x2 )
.
x2 x1
x3 x2
x3 x2
Proof. Pick any distinct x1 , x2 , and x3 in the interval. Let =
[0, 1], so that
x3 x1
x3 x2
x2 x1
x1 + (1 ) x3 =
x1 +
x3 = x2 . And so by Definition 160,
x3 x1
x3 x1
f (x2 )
x3 x2
x2 x1
f (x1 ) +
f (x3 )
x3 x1
x3 x1
.
x2 x1
x3 x2
This completes the proof of (a). The proof of (b) is similar and thus omitted.
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88.11
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1
5
x sin ,
x
i(x) =
0,
for x 0,
for x = 0.
1
1
4
3
5x
sin
x
cos
,
x
x
i (x) =
0,
for x 0,
for x = 0,
and i R R defined by
1
1
1
3
2
20x
sin
8x
cos
x
sin
,
x
x
x
i (x) =
0,
for x 0,
for x = 0.
We indeed have i (0) = i (0) = 0. However, near 0, i(x) fluctuates infinitely often between
negative and positive values. So 0 is neither a maximum point nor a minimum point.
Moreover, near 0, i (x) fluctuates infinitely often between negative and positive values. So
there is no interval to the left of 0 on which i is concave or convex. And there is no interval
to the right of 0 on which i is concave or convex. Thus, 0 is not an inflexion point.
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88.12
= lim
xy xa f (xy )f (xa )
xy xa
limxy xa
f (xy )f (xa )
xy xa
1
f (xy )f (xa )
xy xa
1
.
f (a)
f (xy ) f (xa )
xy xa
xy xa
where = uses the continuity of f and = uses a Limit Law and the fact that lim
exists and is not equal to 0.
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88.13
Parametric Differentiation
dy dy dx
In the main text above, we wrote informally that
= . Here is the formal statement
dx dt dt
and proof of this fact:
Fact 96. Let f, g R R be differentiable functions. Let y = f (t) and x = g(t). Then for
any a such that g (a) 0, we have
R
R
R
dy RRRR
dx RRRR
dy RRRR
R = RRR RRR .
dx RRRR
dt RR
dt RR
Rt=a
Rt=a
Rt=a
Proof.
R
dy RRRR
f (t) f (a)
f (t) f (a) t a
RRR = lim
= lim [
]
ta g(t) g(a)
ta g(t) g(a) t a
dx RR
Rt=a
f (t) f (a) g(t) g(a)
= lim [
]
ta
ta
ta
R
R
dx RRRR
f (t) f (a)
g(t) g(a) dy RRRR
= lim
lim
= RRR RRR
ta
ta
ta
ta
dt RR
dt RR
R
R
t=a
t=a
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88.14
Maclaurin Series
Proof. Omitted, not because its difficult, but because the proof requires the Mean Value
Theorem, which in turn requires a few other ingredients. After some thought, Ive decided
to just omit this, rather than add another 10 pages that no one will read.
f (n+1) (b) n+1
a
as Lagranges remainder. Observe that if Lagranges
(n + 1)!
remainder is small, then it is indeed the case that f (a) is equal to the nth-order Maclaurin
series at a.
We refer to the term
Corollary 8. If f satisfies the nice property at a, then f (a) = M (a), where M (a) is the
Maclaurin series at a.
Now we can verify that our five standard series satisfy the nice property (for some specified
range of values).
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Example 626. We verify that the function g R R defined by x (1 + x)n satisfies the
nice property at a for all a (1, 1): For all x (a, a) for all k Z+ , we have
g (k) (x) k n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n k + 1)(1 + x)nk k
a =
a .
k!
k!
Now, n(n 1)(n 2) . . . (n k + 1) is bounded above, if not by n!, then by some other
expression involving n.
Similarly, (1 + x)nk is bounded above by 2n .
Finally, ak is bounded above by 1, because a (1, 1).
g (k) (x) k
a = 0. And so by Corollary 8, for all x (1, 1),
k
k!
n(n 1) 2
we have (1 + x)n = M (x) = 1 + nx +
x + ...
2!
So indeed, for all x (a, a), lim
Note that in contrast, if a (1, 1), then ak is not bounded from above and thus there is
g (k) (x) k
no guarantee that lim
a = 0.
k
k!
Example 627. We verify that the function h R R defined by x ex satisfies the nice
property at a for all a R: For all x (a, a) for all k Z+ , we have
h(k) (x) k ex k
a = a .
k!
k!
a
a
ak a a a
Since a is fixed, eventually the ending terms in the product
= ...
will
k! 1 2 3
k1 k
ak
all be less than 1. And so lim
= 0. And so as desired, we have
k k!
ex k
ea k
1
lim a < lim a = ea lim ak = 0.
k k!
k k!
k k!
And so indeed, R is the range of values for which the Maclaurin series converges
to h. That is, h(x) is equal to its Maclaurin series for all x R.
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Example 628. We verify that the function i R R defined by x sin x satisfies the
nice property at a for all a R: For all x (a, a) for all k Z+ , we have
cos x k
a ,
k!
sin x k
a ,
k!
(k)
i (x) k
a =
k!
cos x k
a ,
k!
sin x k
a ,
k!
if k 1 ( mod 4) ,
if k 2 ( mod 4) ,
.
if k 3 ( mod 4) ,
if k 4 ( mod 4) .
ak
= 0. Moreover, sin x, cos x have maximum absolute value of 1. Thus,
k k!
i(k) (x) k
lim
a = 0, as desired.
k
k!
Again, lim
And so indeed, R is the range of values for which the Maclaurin series converges
to i. That is, i(x) is equal to its Maclaurin series for all x R.
I skip the verification for cos x because it is almost exactly identical.
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a k
) =0
1+x
a k
a k
(1)k1
(1)k1
f (k) (x) k
a = lim
(
) = [ lim
] [ lim (
) ] = 0.
lim
k
k
k 1 + x
k
k!
k
1+x
k
Case #3. If a < 0, then
a
a
a
1
1
(
,
)=(
1, 1
) (1, 0)
1+x
1a 1+a
1a
1+a
lim (
k
a k
) =0
1+x
(1)k1
a k
(1)k1
a k
f (k) (x) k
a = lim
(
) = [ lim
] [ lim (
) ] = 0.
k
k
k
k 1 + x
k!
k
1+x
k
lim
And so indeed, (1, 1] is the range of values for which the Maclaurin series converges to f . That is, f (x) is equal to its Maclaurin series for all x (1, 1].
a
f (k) (x) k
Note that in contrast, if a > 1, then
could be greater than 1, so that lim
a =
k
1+x
k!
(1)k1
a k
f (k) (x) k
lim
(
) 0. So there is no guarantee that lim
a = 0.
k
k
k
1+x
k!
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88.15
Let > 0. Our goal is to show that N n N , Fn (c)Gn (c) (f (c)g(c) , f (c)g(c) + ).
Case #1: f (c), g(c) 0.
1
Pick f , g > 0 such that f (c)g + g(c)f + f g < , f < f (c), and g < g(c). Note that <
2
But by construction, f (c)g g(c)f + f g > and f (c)g + g(c)f + f g < . Hence, the
lattermost set is a subset of (f (c)g(c) , f (c)g(c) + ). So we have as desired:
Fn (c)Gn (c) (f (c)g(c) , f (c)g(c) + ) .
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Pick f , g > 0 such that f (c)g g(c)f + f g < , f < f (c), and g < g(c). Note that <
2
But by construction, f (c)g + g(c)f + f g > and f (c)g g(c)f + f g < . Hence, the
lattermost set is a subset of (f (c)g(c) , f (c)g(c) + ). So we have as desired:
Fn (c)Gn (c) (f (c)g(c) , f (c)g(c) + ) .
Pick f , g > 0 such that f (c)g + g(c)f f g > , f < f (c), and g < g(c). Note that
1
But by construction, f (c)g + g(c)f f g > and f (c)g g(c)f f g < . Hence, the
lattermost set is a subset of (f (c)g(c) , f (c)g(c) + ). So we have as desired:
Fn (c)Gn (c) (f (c)g(c) , f (c)g(c) + ) .
Case #4: f (c) < 0, g(c) 0 is similar to Case #3 and the proof is thus omitted.
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88.16
Proof. Let xg = g(c). Since xg F , by assumption, f (xg ) = a0 +a1 xg +a2 (xg ) +a3 (xg ) +. . . .
2
3
That is, f (g(x)) = a0 + a1 g(c) + a2 [g(c)] + a3 [g(c)] + . . . , as desired.
Fact 99. Let f F R and g G R be functions. Suppose f (x) = a0 +a1 x+a2 x2 +a3 x3 +. . .
for all x F and g(x) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + b3 x3 + . . . Then c G g(c) F , we have
2
+ an (b0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + + bk xk ) .
Clearly, lim Sn,k (x) = Tn (x)
k
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88.17
1
for example a = 0.5, b = 1, f (x) = 1 , and c = 1. Then indeed f (x) < c for all x (a, b),
x
BUT lim f (x) = c.
xb
Proof. (a) If f (a) > c, then by the continuity of f , > 0 x (a, a + ), f (x) > c,
contradicting our assumption that f (x) < c for all x (a, b).
The proof that f (b) c is similar and thus omitted.
The proof of (b) is similar and thus omitted.
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Definition 165. Let f be a real function on a real variable that is continuous on [a, b].
For i = 1, 2, . . . , n, let
Pi = [b + (i 1)
ba
ba
,b + i
],
n
n
ba n
f (xi ) are,
n i=1
respectively,
ba n
f (xi )
n i=1
and
ba n
f (xi ) .
n i=1
Definition 166. Let f be a real function on a real variable that is continuous on [a, b].
The Lower Integral of f on [a, b] is
ba n
lim
f (xi ) ,
a f dx = n
n i=1
b
exist and are equal, i.e. f dx = f dx R, then the definite (or Riemann) integral is
a
a
b
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f (x) dx =
f (x) dx.
Proof. Omitted. But here is an informal proof: Clearly, f (x) dx is simply the area
a
q
of the graph of f between a and p, while f (x) dx is simply the area of the graph of f
a
between a and q. And so the former minus the latter is simply the area of the graph of f
p
b
a
c
dx.
ba
b c
Proof. Omitted. But here is an informal proof: Clearly,
dx is simply the area
a ba
b c
c
c
of a rectangle with base b a and height
. So
dx = (b a)
= c.
ba
ba
a ba
Lemma 10. Suppose that for all x [a, b], c < f (x) < d. Suppose moreover that f dx
a
is well-defined. Then (a b)c <
f dx < (a b)d.
Proof. Omitted. But here is an informal proof: If for all x [a, b], f (x) = c, then by
b
Lemma 9, f dx = (b a)c. And if for all x [a, b], f (x) = d, then by Lemma 9,
a
b
a f dx = (b a)d. Clearly then, if for all x [a, b], c < f (x) < d, then (a b)c <
b
a f dx < (a b)d.
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Theorem 20. (FTC1.) Suppose f be a real function on a real variable that is continuous
c
on [a, b] and F [a, b] R is defined by the mapping F (c) = f (x) dx. Then F is an
a
indefinite integral of f . That is, x [a, b], F (x) = f (x).
Proof. Let p, q [a, b], with p q. Then
F (p) F (q)
1
f (p) =
[F (p) F (q) (p q)f (q)]
pq
pq
p
q
1
=
[
f (x) dx f (x) dx (p q)f (q)]
p q a
a
1
p
p
1
1
2
[ f (x) dx (p q)f (q)] =
[f (x) f (q)] dx,
pq q
p q q
where = uses Lemma 8 and = uses Lemma 9 (note that f (q) is simply a constant).
By the continuity of f , x (q , q + ), f (q) < f (x) f (q) + and hence < f (x)
f (q) < . So if p (q , q + ), then by Lemma 10, (pq) <
and thus
p
1
<
[f (x) f (q)] dx < .
p q q
p
1
This proves that lim
[f (x) f (q)] dx = 0. And so
pq p q q
lim [
pq
F (p) F (q)
f (p)] = 0.
pq
But by the continuity of f , we know also that lim f (p) = f (q). Thus,
pq
F (p) F (q)
= f (q).
pq
pq
lim
F (p) F (q)
. And so indeed F (q) = f (q).
pq
pq
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88.18
It took a long while, but we can now finally define the natural logarithm function (which
weve been happily using all along)!
Definition 168. The natural logarithm function, denoted ln, has domain R+ , codomain
c 1
R, and mapping rule ln c =
dx.
1 x
Graphically, ln a is the area between the curve y = 1/x and the x-axis, bounded by the
vertical lines x = 1 and x = a.
Example 630. The shaded blue area below is ln 6.
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
You probably learnt that ln x is the number such that eln x = x. Our definition is a little
d
1
strange, but has the advantage that we can almost immediately prove that
ln x = .
dx
x
Fact 100. For all c R+ , we have
d
1
ln c = .
dx
c
1
Proof. Define f R+ R by f (x) = . Let A be its corresponding area function. Then
x
by FTC1
=0
dA(c)
dA(1)
1
= f (c) = .
dx
dx
c
=f (c),
c 1
d
d
d
ln c =
(
dx) =
[A(c) A(1)] =
dx
dx 1 x
dx
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1
1
1
dx = 0.
x
1
dy
1 1 dy
d
ln(xy) =
(y + x ) = +
dx
xy
dx
x y dx
d
1 1 dy
(ln x + ln y) = +
. Thus, ln(xy) and ln x + ln y are both indefinite integrals
dt
x y dx
1 1 dy
. By Fact 60 then, ln(xy) = ln x + ln y + C. But for x = 1,
for the same function +
x y dx
ln y = ln 1 + ln y + C = ln y + C, so C = 0. Thus, ln(xy) = ln x + ln y.
and
d
1
n
d
(d) Differentiate both sides with respect to x to get
ln xn = n nxn1 = and
(n ln x) =
dx
x
x
dx
n
n
. Thus, ln xn and n ln x are both indefinite integrals for the same function . By Fact 60
x
x
then, ln xn = n ln x + C. But for x = 1, ln 1n = ln 1 = 0 and n ln 1 + C = C, so C = 0. Thus,
ln xn = n ln x.
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88.19
Eulers Number
The number e 2.7182818284 . . . is sometimes called Eulers number in honour of Euler.89 It is not to be confused with Eulers constant 0.5772156649 . . . , a number youve
probably never encountered.
Definition 169. e is the unique number such that ln e = 1.
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1
is strictly positive for
x
all x [1, ), so that ln x is strictly increasing. So there can be only one number e such
that ln e = 1.
d2 ln x xeln x /x eln x
e =
= 0.
dx2
x
The only functions whose derivative is 0 are constant functions.90 Hence, the first derivative
eln x
of eln x is a constant. That is,
= C or eln x = Cx. But we also know that for x = 1,
x
eln 1 = e0 = 1, so that C = 1. Hence, eln x = x, as desired.
Note though that it was simply Euler himself who happened to start using the letter e to denote this number. And
presumably he was not doing it to honour himself. Calling it Eulers number is simply an honour conferred by posterity.
90
As noted in n. 52, this textbook shall simply take this assertion for granted.
89
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1
1 1 1 1
Theorem 21. e = . (Equivalently, e = + + + + . . . )
0! 1! 2! 3!
i=0 i!
xi
for all x R. Hence,
i!
i=0
1
e = e1 = , as desired.
i=0 i!
1 n
Theorem 22. lim (1 + ) = e.
n
n
1
1
Proof. Let n (1, ) and x [1, ]. Then 1, so that
n
x
1+ n 1
1+ n
1
1
dx
1 dx = .
ln (1 + ) =
n
x
n
1
1
1
Similarly,
1
n
, so that
x n+1
1+ n 1
1+ n
1
n
1
ln (1 + ) =
dx
dx =
.
n
x
n+1
n+1
1
1
1
Altogether,
1
1
1
ln (1 + )
n+1
n
n
1
1
e n+1 (1 + ) e1/n
n
e n+1 eln(1+ n )
1
e1/n
n
1 n
e n+1 (1 + ) en/n = e.
n
Taking limits,
lim e
n
n+1
1 n
lim (1 + ) lim e.
n
n
n
Since lim e n+1 = e and lim e = e, by the Squeeze Theorem (Theorem 17), we must have
n
n
1 n
lim (1 + ) = e.
n
n
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89
How to Count
Theorem 23. (Addition Principle). If A and B are disjoint, finite sets, then A B =
A + B.
Proof. Let A = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ap } and B = {b1 , b2 , . . . , bq }. Then
A B = {a1 , a2 , . . . , ap , b1 , b2 , . . . , bq } .
We have A = p, B = q, and A B = p + q. The result follows.
ni=1 Ai
= Ai .
i=1
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ni=1 Ai = Ai
i=1
Ai Aj +
Ai Aj Ak + (1)
i,j distinct
i,j,k distinct
n1
ni=1 Ai .
Theorem 26. (Complements Principle.) If A and B are finite sets and A B, then
A/B = A B.
Proof. B and A/B are disjoint, finite sets. Moreover, B (A/B) = A. So by the AP,
B + A/B = A. Rearranging yields the desired result.
Corollary 13. If A is a finite set and B1 , B2 , . . . Bn A are disjoint, then
A/ ni=1
Bi = A Bi .
i=1
Proof. By the corollary to the AP, ni=1 Bi = Bi . The result then follows by the CP.
i=1
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89.2
Circular Permutations
Consider n objects, only k of which are distinct. Let r1 , r2 , . . . , and rk be the numbers of
times the 1st, 2nd, . . . , and kth distinct objects appear. We already know from Fact 63
that the number of (linear) permutations of these n objects is
n!
.
r1 !r2 ! . . . rk !
We also know that m distinct objects have m! (linear) permutations and (m 1)! circular
permutations.
A reasonable conjecture might thus be that the number of circular permutations of the
above n objects is
(n 1)!
.
r1 !r2 ! . . . rk !
The above conjecture sometimes works e.g. SEE has 3!/2! = 3 (linear) permutations
and SEE indeed also has (3 1)!/2! = 1 circular permutation. However and unfortunately,
this conjecture is, in general, incorrect. Here are two counter-examples.
Example 631. There are 3!/3! = 1 (linear) permutations of the three letters AAA.
If the above conjecture were true, then there ought to be (3 1)!/3! = 2!/3! = 1/3 circular
permutations of AAA. But this is not even an integer, so obviously it cannot be the number
of circular permutations of AAA. In fact, there is also exactly 1 circular permutation of
AAA.
Example 632. There are 6!/ (3!3!) = 20 (linear) permutations of the six letters AAABBB.
If the above conjecture were true, then there ought to be (6 1)!/ (3!3!) = 10/3 circular
permutations of AAABBB. But this is not even an integer, so obviously it cannot be
the number of circular permutations of AAABBB. In fact, there are exactly 4 circular
permutations of AAABBB.
A general solution (i.e. formula) is possible but is a bit too advanced for A-levels.91
91
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89.3
Probability
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89.4
Random Variables
P (X = k) k = cE [X] .
P (X = k) (ck) = c
kRange(X)
kRange(X)
E [X + Y ]
(a)
=
P (X = k, Y = l) (k + l)
kRange(X) lRange(Y )
k
P (X = k, Y = l) +
l
P (X = k, Y = l)
kRange(X) lRange(Y )
lRange(Y ) kRange(X)
kP (X = k) +
lP (Y = l)
kRange(X)
lRange(Y )
= E [X] + E [Y ] .
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V [X + Y ] = E [(X + Y ) ] (E [X + Y ])
= E [X 2 + Y 2 + 2XY ] (E [X] + E [Y ])
= E [X 2 ] + E [Y 2 ] + 2E [XY ] (2X + 2Y + 2X Y )
= E [X 2 ] 2X + E [Y 2 ] 2Y + 2(E [XY ] X Y ) .
V[X]
V[Y ]
Lemma 11. If X and Y are independent random variables, then E [XY ] = E [X] E [Y ].
Proof. We prove this Lemma only for the case where X and Y are both discrete.
E [XY ] = P (X = k, Y = l) kl
k
= P (X = k) P (Y = l) kl
k
(independence)
= (P (X = k) k P (Y = l) l) = (P (X = k) kE [Y ])
k
= E [Y ] P (X = k) k = E [Y ] E [X] .
k
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Fact 103. (a) Let X be the number of fair coin-flips until we get two consecutive heads.
Let Y be the number of fair coin-flips until we get HT consecutively. Then E[X] = X = 6
and E[Y ] = Y = 4.
(b) Flip a fair coin n + 1 times. This gives us n pairs of consecutive coin-flips. Let A be the
proportion of these n pairs of consecutive coin-flips that are HH. Let B be the proportion
that are HT . Then E[A] = A = 1/4 and E[B] = B = 1/4.
Proof. (a) To find X actually requires a clever, new trick. Let
p = E [Additional number of flips to get HHLast flip was T ] ,
q = E [Additional number of flips to get HHLast two flips were T H] .
Observe that p is the number of flips, if were restarting . Thus, p = X .
Now, also observe that
q = P (Next flip is H) 1 + P (Next flip is T ) (1 + p)
= 0.5 1 + 0.5 (1 + p) = 1 + 0.5p.
(Explanation: If the next flip is H, then weve completed HH and this took us only 1 more
flip. If instead the next flip is T , then we start all over again; weve already taken 1 flip
and are expected to take another p flips.)
Similarly, observe that
p = P (Next flip is H) (1 + q) + P (Next flip is T ) (1 + p)
= 0.5 (2 + 0.5p) + 0.5 (1 + p) = 1.5 + 0.75p.
(Explanation: If the next flip is H, then we expect to take, in addition, another q flips. If
instead the next flip is T , then we start all over again; weve already taken 1 flip and are
expected to take another p flips.)
Hence, p = 6 = X . The reasoning used above is illustrated by the probability tree below.
Lets now find Y . Again, let
r = E [Additional number of flips to get HT Last two flips were T T ] ,
s = E [Additional number of flips to get HT Last flip was H] .
Observe that r is the number of flips, if were restarting. Thus, r = X .
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(b) Let Si be the random variable that indicates whether the ith pair of consecutive coinflips is HH. That is, Si = 1 if so and Si = 0 if not. Then
A=
And so,
S1 + S2 + + Sn
.
n
S1 + S2 + + Sn
1 n
E [A] = E [
] = E [Si ] .
n
n i=1
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89.5
Fact 77 (reproduced from p. 623). Let X Po(). Then E[X] = and V[X] = .
Proof.
k e
k=1
k!
k=1
k
k=1 (k 1)!
k = e
k1
= e
k=1 (k 1)!
k
= e
k=0 k!
= e e = .
Similarly compute
E [X 2 ] = P(X = k) k 2 = P(X = k) k 2
k=0
k e
k=1
k!
=
=e
=e
=e
=e
k =e
k=1
k
k
k=1 (k 1)!
(P(X = 0) 02 = 0)
k
k
k
[(k 1) + 1] = e { [
(k 1)] +
}
k=1 (k 1)!
k=1 (k 1)!
k=1 (k 1)!
k
k
{ [
(k 1)] +
}
k=2 (k 1)!
k=1 (k 1)!
k2
k1
[
+
]
k=2 (k 2)!
k=1 (k 1)!
2
k
k
(
+ )
k=0 k!
k=0 k!
2
= e (2 e + e ) = 2 + .
1
(1 1) = 0)
(1 1)!
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variable is the Poisson random variable.) Fix . Let Xn B (n, ). Let Y = lim Xn .
n
n
Then Y is a random variable that satisfies the following two properties:
Range(Y ) = {0, 1, 2, 3, . . . } = Z+0 .
k e
, for all k Z+0 .
The probability distribution of Y is given by P(Y = k) =
k!
Moreover, we call Y a Poisson random variable with parameter .
Proof. Since the range of X is {0, 1, 2, . . . , n}, it follows that the range of Y = lim Xn is Z+0 .
n
k
1 k
nk
n!
lim
( ) (1 )
(Move out terms not involving n)
k! n (n k)! n
n
k
n!
n
k
lim
(1 ) (1 )
k! n nk (n k)!
n
n
k
n(n 1) . . . (n k + 1)
n
k
lim
(1 ) (1 )
k! n
nk
n
n
k
k
n(n 1) . . . (n k + 1)
n
[ lim
][ lim (1 ) ][ lim (1 ) ]
n
n
k! n
nk
n
n
=1
k e
k!
=e
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89.6
Fact 104.
ex dx =
2
Fact 78 (reproduced from p. 637). Let Z N(0, 1) and let and be the PDF and
CDF of Z.
1. () = 1. (The area under the entire PDF is 1. This, of course, is true of any random
variable.)
2. (a) > 0, for all a R. (The PDF is positive everywhere. This has the surprising
implication that no matter how large a is, there is always some non-zero probability that
Z a.)
3. E [Z] = 0. (The mean of Z is 0.)
4. The PDF reaches a global maximum at the mean 0. (In fact, we can go ahead and
1
compute (0) = 0.399.)
2
5. V [Z] = 1. (The variance of Z is 1.)
6. P (Z a) = P (Z < a). (Weve already discussed this earlier. It makes no difference
whether the inequality is strict. This is because P(Z = a) = 0.)
7. The PDF is symmetric about the mean. This has several implications:
(a) P (Z a) = P (Z a) = (a).
(b) Since P (Z a) = 1 P (Z a) = 1 (a), it follows that (a) = 1 (a) or,
equivalently, (a) = 1 (a).
(c) (0) = 1 (0) = 0.5.
8. P (1 Z 1) = (1) (1) 0.6827. (There is probability 0.6827 that Z takes on
values within 1 standard deviation of the mean.)
9. P (2 Z 2) = (2) (2) 0.9545. (There is probability 0.9545 that Z takes on
values within 2 standard deviations of the mean.)
10. P (3 Z 3) = (3) (3) 0.9973. (There is probability 0.9973 that Z takes on
values within 3 standard deviations of the mean.)
11. The PDF has two points of inflection, namely at 1. (The points of inflection are one
standard deviation away from the mean.)
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x=
2 du
1 0.5x2
1
1
0.5x2
e
dx =
e0.5x 2 dx
() =
dx = e
dx
2
2
2 x=
u=
2
1
1 1
=
eu du =
= 1,
u=
2
2
1
1
x e0.5x dx = (xe0.5x ) dx
2
2
2
1
1
= [e0.5x ] = [0 0] = 0.
2
2
> 0,
if a < 0,
2
2
d
d 1 0.5a
a 0.5a
e
4.
(a) =
= e
= 0,
if a = 0,
da
da 2
2
if a > 0.
< 0,
E [Z] =
x(x) dx =
5.
u
1
1 0.5x2
0.5x2
x xe
dx
dx =
V [Z] = (x 0) (x) dx = x e
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
= [e0.5x e0.5x dx] = e0.5x dx = 1.
2
2
is continuous, increasing for a < 0 and decreasing for a > 0. Thus, reaches a global
maximum at 0. By plugging in a = 0, we can compute this global maximum value to be
1
(0) = 0.399.
2
6. By the Additivity Axiom, P (Z a) = P (Z < a, Z = a) = P (Z < a)+P (Z = a) = P (Z < a)+
0 = P (Z < a), as desired.
2
2
1
1
7. Clearly, (a) = e0.5a = e0.5(a) = (a) for all a R. Thus, is symmetric
2
2
about the vertical axis x = 0, which is also the mean.
u=a
x= 1
2
du
e0.5x dx =
= 1 and P (Z a) =
dx
x=a
2
u=a 1
2
2
1
e0.5u du =
e0.5u du = P (Z a) = (a).
u=
2
2
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11.
d a 0.5a2
d2
e
(a)
=
da2
da 2
> 0,
= 0,
1 0.5a2 2
(a 1) < 0,
= e
= 0,
> 0,
if a < 1,
if a = 1,
if 1 < a < 1,
if a = 1,
if a > 1.
Hence, 1 are the only two points of inflection since changes concavity only here.
Theorem 27. Let a, b R be constants with a 0 and X be a continuous random variable
with PDF fX and CDF FX . Let Y = aX + b. Then
fY (c) =
cb
1
fX (
).
a
a
cb
cb
) = FX (
).
a
a
Now differentiate:
d
d
cb
1
cb
1
cb
FY (c) = FX (
) = fY (c) = fX (
) = fX (
).
da
dc
a
a
a
a
a
Case #2. If a < 0, then FY (c) = = P (aX c b) = P (X
cb
cb
) = 1 FX (
).
a
a
Now differentiate:
d
cb
1
cb
1
cb
d
FY (c) = [1 FX (
)] = fY (c) = fX (
) = fX (
).
da
dc
a
a
a
a
a
Fact 79 (reproduced from p. 646). Let X N (, 2 ) and a, b R be constants. Then
aX + b N (a + b, a2 2 ).
Proof. By Theorem 27, the PDF of aX + b is given by
1
cb
1 1
0.5(
e
)=
faX+b (c) = fX (
a
a
a 2
cb 2
a
)
2
1
0.5[ c(a+b)
]
a
e
=
.
a 2
But this lattermost expression is indeed the PDF of the random variable with distribution
N (a + b, a2 2 ).
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89.7
Sampling
[n
i=1 Xi ]
n
i=1 Xi2
(a) S 2 =
n1
n
[ (X a)]
n
i=1 (Xi a) i=1 n i
2
and (b) S =
.
n1
2
Proof. This proof may look intimidating but its really just a bunch of tedious algbera. (Ive
also tried to go slow with the algebra, so more steps are explicitly listed than is typical in
a proof.)
(a) Start from the definition of the sample variance and do the algebra:
n
2 ni=1 (2XX
i)
2 2XX
i ) ni=1 X 2 ni=1 X
2 ni=1 (X 2 + X
i=1 (Xi X)
i
i
=
=
S =
n1
n1
n1
n
n
n
2
2
2
2
2X
i=1 Xi i=1 Xi nX 2X (nX) ni=1 X 2 nX
2
i=1 Xi nX
i
=
=
=
n1
n1
n1
2
i=1 Xi2 n [
n
i=1 Xi
n ]
n1
[n
i=1 Xi ]
n
i=1 Xi2
=
n1
n
(b) Start from the formula found in (a) and do the algebra:
n
S2 =
=
=
=
=
[ X ]
[ (X a+a)]
n
n
i=1 Xi2 i=1n i
i=1 (Xi a + a) i=1 ni
=
n1
n1
2
2
[n (X a)+n a]
n
i=1 [(Xi a) + a2 + 2 (Xi a) a] i=1 i n i=1
n1
2
2
n
n
2
[n (X a)] +(n
n
n
n
i=1 a) +2 i=1 (Xi a) i=1 a
i=1 (Xi a) + i=1 a2 + 2a i=1 (Xi a) i=1 i
n
n1
2
2
2
[n (X a)] +(na) +2na n
n
n
i=1 (Xi a)
i=1 (Xi a) +na2 +2a i=1 (Xi a) i=1 i
n
n1
2
n
2
[
(X
a)]
n
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varies from
Xi varies from X
X
Xi varies from
2
2
1
2
E [(Xi ) ] .
E [(Xi X) ]
+
E [(X ) ]
=
Rearranging:
Population variance Variance of sample mean
2
2
)2 ]
]=
E [(X
E [(Xi X)
E [(Xi ) ]
2 n 1 2
=
=
.
n
n
2
(X
E
[
X)
i=1
n 2
n1
i
i
i=1
i=1 n1
2
E [S ] = E
= E
=
=
= 2.
n1
n
n
n
] + E [(X
) ] = E [(Xi X)
+ (X
) ]
E [(Xi X)
+ (X
)) 2 2 (Xi X)
(X
)]
= E [((Xi X)
(X
)]
= E [(Xi ) 2 2 (Xi X)
Xi X
2 + X)]
= E [(Xi ) 2 2 (Xi X
X
2 )]
= E [(Xi ) 2 2 (Xi X
2 ] E [XX
i ]}
= E [(Xi ) 2 ] + 2 {E [X
= E [(Xi ) 2 ] .
n
n
i]
i=1 E [XX
i=1 Xi
2 ].
The last equality follows because E [XXi ] =
= E [X
] = E [X
n
n
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89.8
Definition 170. The random variable T with Students t-distribution with degrees of
freedom has PDF f R R given by mapping rule
1 x
t2
0 x 2 e dx
f (t) =
(1 + )
0 x 2 1 ex dx
+1
+1
2
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89.9
Let be the true population proportion (of votes for Dr. Chee). Say we take a random
sample of size 900.92 Let X be the sample number of votes for Dr. Chee. We know that
X B (900, ).
Our confidence level is 95%. So we want to find the smallest k such that
P (900 k X 900 + k) 0.95.
And k/900 will be our margin of error.
Case #1: Perfect hindsight: = 9142/23570.
With perfect hindsight, we now know that = 9142/23570. So X B (900, 9142/23570).
We want to find the smallest k such that
P (349 k X 349 + k) 0.95.
where 900 9142/23570 349. Using the Binomial sheet at the usual link, we have
P (349 28 X 349 + 28) 0.9488,
P (349 29 X 349 + 29) 0.9565.
Thus, k = 29. Now, 29/900 3.2%. Thus, at a 95% confidence level, the margin of error
is 3.2%. This is the true margin of error, assuming we know . But this assumption
defeats the point of sampling we dont know , which is why were doing sampling in
the first place!
What we want instead is the margin of error in the case where is unknown.
92
This is slightly different from what actually happened: (1) The actual random sampling was most likely without replacement
(which would change the maths slightly). (2) 100 votes were taken from each of 9 different polling stations (which would
also change the maths slightly).
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We conclude that the smallest such k is 29. Now, 29/900 3.2%. So the margin of error
may be given as 3.2%. This is the same as what was calculated above, which is not
surprising, since 9142/23570 0.388 is close to 0.5.
The reader will, of course, wonder why the Elections Department stated that the margin of
error was 4%, rather than 3.2% as I calculated here. I am not sure myself. My guess is
that they probably dont bother going through all the above calculations afresh each time.
Instead, each time they report a sample count, they simply read off the margin of error
from a table that looks something like this:
Sample Size Approximate Margin of Error
400 599
5%
600 999
4%
1000 2000
3%
(By the way, note that it is common to use the CLT approximation when calculating the
margin of error. I have not done so here. Instead, Ive stuck with using the original, exact
binomial distribution.)
93
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89.10
2
2
n
n
i=1 (xi x) i=1 (yi y)
2
2
u v
n
n
i=1 (xi x) i=1 (yi y)
But from what we learnt about vectors,94 if is the angle between two vectors,
cos =
uv
.
u v
94
Of course, in this textbook, weve only shown that this is true for two- and three-dimensional vectors. But lets just wave
our hands and say that this is also true for higher-dimensional vectors.
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xy
xi yi n
.
(ii) b =
x2
x2i n
Moreover, the regression line can also be written in the form y = a
+ bx, where b is a given
above and a
= y b
x.
Proof. (Continued from the proof begun on p. 738.) Remember that the data (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
and (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) are given. Thus, we can treat all the xi s and yi s as constants. We have:
ui
ui
) = 2 [yi (
a + bxi )] .
u2i = u2i = (2
a
Thus,
1
a + bxi ) = 0 a
= y b
x.
u2i = 0 yi (
We also have:
ui
ui
) = 2xi [yi (
a + bxi )] .
u2i = u2i = (2
b
b
b
1
a + bxi )] xi = 0. Plugging = into this last equation, we
u2i = 0 [yi (
b
have [yi (
y b
x + bxi )] xi = 0. Tedious algebra yields Formula (ii):
Thus,
xy
b = xi yi n
.
x2
x2i n
More algebra yields Formula (i).
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89.10.1
According to NASA (1976), U.S. Standard Atmosphere, p. 12, eq. (33a) (PDF), the
barometric formula (relating pressure P to height H above sea level), in the case where
LM,b 0 is given by:
P = Pb [
TM,b
]
TM,b + LM,b (h hb )
g0 M
R LM,b
P = Pb [
= Pb [
TM,b
]
TM,b + LM,b (h hb )
TM,b + LM,b (h hb )
]
TM,b
= PM,b [1 +
g0 M
R LM,b
g M
R 0L
M,b
g0 M
R L
M,b
LM,b
(h hb )]
TM,b
LM,b
gM
ln P = ln PM,b 0
ln [1 +
(h hb )] .
R LM,b
TM,b
Now, for heights up to 11, 000 m above sea level, hb is simply the height at sea level. That
g0 M
is, hb = 0 m. If we also let a = ln PM,b and b =
and get rid of the subscripts in LM,b
R LM,b
and TM,b (just to make it neater), then we have:
ln P = a + b ln (1 +
L
h) .
T
For heights up to 11, 000 m above sea level, L = 0.00065 kelvin per metre is the temperature
lapse rate (the rate at which the temperature falls, as we go up in altitude; see p.3, Table
4) and T = 288.15 kelvin is the standard sea-level temperature (also precisely equal to 15
C; see p. 4).
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Part X
Answers to Exercises
My answers here are often more verbose than what would be necessary for you to get the
full credit on an exam. The reason is to help you understand my answers better.
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90
Answer to Exercise 5. D is the set containing the first 50 odd positive integers; hence,
n(D) = 50. And T is the set containing the first 99 negative integers; hence, n(T ) = 99.
Answer to Exercise 6. The set of all primes is H = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 23, 29, . . . }.
Answer to Exercise 7. If U = {1, 0, 2}, then U + = {2}, U = {1}, U0 = {1, 0, 2}, U0+ =
{0, 2}, and U0 = {1, 0}.
Answer to Exercise 8. The set Z = [1, 1] contains only one element, namely the number
1. So actually, we can also write Z = {1}.
Answer to Exercise 9. The set Y = (1, 1) contains no elements. So actually, we can also
write Y = .
Answer to Exercise 10. The set X = (1, 1.01) contains infinitely many elements, namely
all the real numbers that are greater than 1 but smaller than 1.01.
Answer to Exercise 11.
R0 = (, 0].
Answer to Exercise 12. (a) Every integer is also a rational number and a real number;
hence, Z Q, R. (b) A rational number is also a real number; hence, Q R. However,
some rational numbers are not integers (e.g. 1.5 is rational but is not an integer); hence,
Q / Z. (c) Some real numbers are neither rational nor integers (e.g. ); hence, R / Z, Q.
Answer to Exercise 13. True. The set of currently-serving Singapore Prime Ministers if
{Lee Hsien Loong}. The set of currently-serving Singapore Ministers is {Lee Hsien Loong,
Tharman, Teo Chee Hean, Khaw Boon Wan, . . . }. The latter set contains every element
that is in the former set. Hence, the former is a subset of the latter.
Answer to Exercise 14. Yes, the set of squares is a proper subset of the set of rectangles.
All squares are rectangles and so S R. Moreover, some rectangles are not squares and so
S R. Altogether then, by Definition 6, S R.
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Answer to Exercise 15. No, that one set is a subset of another does not imply that the
former is also a proper subset of the latter. It may be that the two sets are equal. For
example, if A = {1, 2} and B = {1, 2}, then A B, but A / B.
Answer to Exercise 16. Yes. By definition, A B requires that A B.
Answer to Exercise 17. True: If A is a subset of B, then A is either a proper subset
of or is equal to B.
Answer to Exercise 18.
(c) {0} Z+ = Z+0 .
Answer to Exercise 19. S R = R. In words, the set of all squares and all rectangles
is itself simply the set of all rectangles.
Answer to Exercise 20. All real numbers are either rational or irrational. Hence, the
set of all rationals and irrationals is itself simply the set of all reals or R.
Answer to Exercise 21. (a) (4, 7] (6, 9) = (6, 7]. (b) [1, 2] [5, 6] = . (c) (, 3)
[16, 7) = [16, 3).
Answer to Exercise 22. S R = S. In words, the intersection of these two sets is simply
itself the set of all squares. This is because the only objects that are BOTH squares AND
rectangles are squares.
Answer to Exercise 23. It is the empty set (). This is because there is no object that
is BOTH rational AND irrational.
Answer to Exercise 24. R = {x R x < 0}, Q = {x Q x < 0}, and Z = {x Z x <
0}. Also, R0 = {x R x 0}, Q0 = {x Q x 0}, and Z0 = {x Z x 0}.
Answer to Exercise 25.
(a, b) = {x R a < x < b}, [a, b] = {x R a x b},
(a, b] = {x R a < x b}, and [a, b) = {x R a x < b}.
Answer to Exercise 26. The set of all living Singapore Prime Ministers (current or
former) is X = {Goh Chok Tong, Lee Hsien Loong}.
Answer to
R < x < 3, 5 < x < }.
Exercise 27. (a) (, 3) (5, ) = {x
(b) (, 2] (e, ) (, ) = {x R < x < 2, e < x < , < x < }. (c)
(, 3) (0, 7) = {x R 0 < x < 3}.
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90.2
Answer to Exercise 28. The error is in Step #5. Since x = y, we have x y = 0. Hence,
we cannot divide both sides by x y.
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90.3
Answer to Exercise 29. f (1) = 1 + 1 = 2, g(1) = 17(1) = 17, and h(1) = 31 = 3. i(1) is
simply undefined because 1 is not in the domain Z = {1, 2, 3, ...}.
Answer to Exercise 30. (i) Yes. (ii) Every element in the domain is assigned to exactly
one element in the codomain. Specifically, 5 10, 6 12, and 7 14. (iii) The function
f {5, 6, 7} { 6, 4, 2, 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . } is defined by x 2x (or alternatively, f (x) = 2x).
Answer to Exercise 31. (i) No. (ii) By the rule, the function would map 0 to 3 and/or
4. Thus, this violates the requirement that every element in the domain is assigned to
exactly one element in the codomain, because the element 0 in the domain is assigned to
more than one element in the codomain. (iii) NA.
Answer to Exercise 32. (i) No. (ii) By the rule, the function would map 2 to no element
in the codomain; and 4 to 3. Thus, this violates the requirement that every element in the
domain is assigned to exactly one element in the codomain, because the element 2 in the
domain is not assigned to any element in the codomain. (iii) NA.
Answer to Exercise 33. (i) Yes. (ii) By the rule, the function would simply map 1 in
the domain to 1 in the codomain. And so every element in the domain is assigned to one
(and exactly one) element in the codomain, as required. (iii) The function f {1} {1} is
defined by x x (or alternatively, f (x) = x).
Answer to Exercise 34. (i) Yes. (ii) By the rule, the function would simply map 1 in
the domain to 1 in the codomain. And so every element in the domain is assigned to one
(and exactly one) element in the codomain, as required. (iii) The function f {1} {1, 2}
is defined by x x (or alternatively, f (x) = x).
Answer to Exercise 35. (i) No. (ii) By the rule, the function would map 1 in the
domain to 1 in the codomain, but it would fail to map 2 in the domain to any element in
the codomain. This fails the requirement that every element in the domain is assigned to
exactly one element in the codomain. (iii) NA.
Answer to Exercise 36. (i) No.
(ii) By the rule, the function would map 1 to no
element in the codomain, because 1 R. Thus, this violates the requirement that every
element in the domain is assigned to exactly one element in the codomain, because the
element -1 in the domain is not assigned to any element in the codomain. (iii) NA.
Answer to Exercise 37.
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Answer to Exercise 38. Let the domain instead be R+0 . Then now the domain simply
consists of non-negative real numbers. And the square root of any non-negative real number
is simply itself a real number. And so indeed, every element in the domain can be mapped
to exactly one element
in the codomain. Formally
wed say, The function f R+0 R is
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+
Answer
to Exercise 43. (a) To check whether the function f R0 R defined by
x x is one-to-one, we need to show that every element y in the range corresponds to
exactly one element x in the codomain. To this end, pick any element y in the range and
write:
y=
x y 2 = x.
Thus, indeed, this function is one-to-one every element y in the range corresponds to
exactly one element in the domain, namely y 2 .
(b) To check whether the function g R+0 R defined by x x2 is one-to-one, we need
to show that every element y in the range corresponds to exactly one element x in the
codomain. To this end, pick any element y in the range and write:
y = x2
y = x.
x,
y = x y =
x,
if x 0,
if x < 0.
The domain consists of only non-negative reals. And so it is impossible that x < 0. So this
function is indeed one-to-one every element y in the range corresponds to exactly one
element in the domain, namely y.
(e) The function j R R defined by x sin x is not one-to one for example, 0 is
hit by infinitely many elements in the domain, namely . . . , 2, , 0, , 2, . . . . This is
because sin(2) = 0, sin() = 0, etc.
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x
f
y 2 = x.
1
(y)
So g 1 has mapping rule y sin1 y. (For a brief review of the arcsine function, see
Section 26.6 and the sections that follow.)
(c).
1. The function h R R defined by x x3 has range R. So the inverse function has
domain R.
2. The domain of h is R. So the inverse function has codomain R.
3. Pick any element y in the range and write:
y = h(x) y = x3
y = x.
h (y)
3
y.
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Answer to Exercise 45. Pick y = 1 in the range. It corresponds to two elements in the
domain, namely 2 and 1. And so this function is not one-to-one.
Now restrict the domain of the function f to create the function g (1, ) R defined by
1
x
.
(x 1)2
1. The function g has range (0, ). So the inverse function has domain (0, ).
2. The domain of g is (1, ). So the inverse function has codomain (1, ).
3. Pick any element y in the range and write:
y
= g(x)
x 1 =
1
1
(x 1)2 = (y 0)
2
(x 1)
y
1
1
x = 1
.
y
y
y =
1
1
We know that the domain
of g and hence the codomain of g is (1, ). So h has
1
.
mapping rule y 1 +
y
y = x.
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Answer to Exercise 47. (a) The range of g is [1, ) and this is indeed a subset of the
domain of f (which is R). So the composite function f g R R exists and is defined by
2
2
2
x f (g(x)) = f (x2 + 1) = ex +1 . Thus, f g(1) = e1 +1 = e2 and f g(2) = e2 +1 = e5 .
(b) The range of g is R+ and this is indeed a subset of the domain of f (which is R). So the
2
composite function f g R R exists and is defined by x f (g(x)) = f (ex ) = (ex ) + 1 =
e2x + 1. Thus, f g(1) = e2(1) + 1 = e2 + 1 and f g(2) = e2(2) + 1 = e4 + 1.
(c) The range of g is R R+ and this is indeed a subset of the domain of f (which is
R R+ ). So the composite function f g R R+ R R+ exists and is defined by
1
1
x f (g(x)) = f ( ) = 1/ ( ) = 2x. Thus, f g(1) = 2(1) = 2 and f g(2) = 2(2) = 4.
2x
2x
(d) The range of g is R R+ and this is indeed a subset of the domain of f (which is
R R+ ). So the composite function f g R R+ R R+ exists and is defined by
1
1
x
1
2
x f (g(x)) = f ( ) =
= . Thus, f g(1) = and f g(2) = = 1.
x
2 1/x 2
2
2
Answer to Exercise 48. (a) The range of f is R+ and this is indeed a subset of the
domain of f (which is R). So the composite function f 2 R R exists and is defined by
x
1
2
x f (f (x)) = ef (x) = ee . Hence, f 2 (1) = ee and f 2 (2) = ee .
(b) The range of f is R and this is indeed a subset of the domain of f (which is R). So
the composite function f 2 R R exists and is defined by x f (f (x)) = 3f (x) + 2 =
3(3x + 2) + 2 = 9x + 8. Hence, f 2 (1) = 17 and f 2 (2) = 26.
(c) The range of f is [1, ) and this is indeed a subset of the domain of f (which is R).
So the composite function f 2 R R exists and is defined by
x f (f (x))
2
= 2 [f (x)] + 1
= 2(2x2 + 1)2 + 1
= 2(4x4 + 4x2 + 1) + 1
= 8x4 + 8x2 + 3
Hence, f 2 (1) = 8 + 8 + 3 = 19 and f 2 (2) = 8(16) + 8(4) + 3 = 163.
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90.4
Answer to Exercise 49. (a) No, it is impossible to rewrite the equation x2 + y 2 = 1 into
the form of a single function. For every value of x, there can be two corresponding values of
y. For example, if x = 0, then either y = 1 or y = 1 will satisfy the equation. There is thus
no way to write y as a function of x. Conversely, for every value of y, there can likewise be
two corresponding values of x. There is thus no way to write x as a function of y.
(b) Although it is impossible to rewrite the equation x2 + y 2 = 1 into the form of a single
function, it is nonetheless possible
Namely,
7
6
5
4
y = ex
3
2
1
x
0
-2
-1
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7
6
5
y = 3x + 2
4
3
2
1
x
0
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
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10
y
9
8
y = 2x2 + 1
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
0
-2
-1
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90.5
=
=
( 8)
( 8)
30
30
15
=
=
= .
8
2 2
2
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On the other hand, it is certainly true that (xa ) = xab . The reason is that:
b times
a
a b
(x ) = (x ) (xa ) (xa )
b times
a times
a times
a times
= x x x x x x x x x
= xab .
x
y
x2
y2
+1
( xy +
x
y
x
y
x2
y2
+1
2
+ 1) ( xy xy2 + 1)
x2
y2
x2
y2
+1
2
2
2
( xy ) ( xy2 + 1)
2
x
x
y
y2 + 1
( xy2 + 1)
2
x
x
y
y2 + 1
x2
y2
1
x2
x
=
+1 .
2
y
y
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90.6
Answer to Exercise 54. (a) The graph of the equation x2 +y 2 = 1 intersects the horizontal
axis at the points (1, 0) and (1, 0); and intersects the vertical axis at the points (0, 1)
and (0, 1).
(b) The graph of the equation y = x2 4 intersects the horizontal axis at the points (2, 0)
and (2, 0); and intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, 4).
(c) The graph of the equation y = x2 + 2x + 1 intersects the horizontal and vertical axes at
the point (0, 0).
(d) The graph of the equation y = x2 + 2x + 2 does not intersect the horizontal axis, but
does intersect the vertical axis at the point (0, 2).
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90.7
Answer to Exercise 55. (a) Given the point (3, 17), its reflection in the line y = x is
(17, 3) and its reflection in the line y = x is (17, 3).
(b) Given the point (1, 5), its reflection in the line y = x is (5, 1) and its reflection in the
line y = x is (5, 1).
(c) Given the point (0, 0), its reflection in the line y = x is (0, 0) and its reflection in the
line y = x is (0, 0).
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90.8
1,
Answer to Exercise 56. Given f R R defined by f (x) =
2,
lim f (x) = 1,
x5
if x 0,
if x > 0,
we have
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90.9
g (1) = 2 = g(1) = 8.
dx x=1
The 3rd derivative of g is the function with domain and codomain both R and mapping
3
d3 g
(3)
rule x 24x 6. It may be denoted g or
g.
Evaluated at 1, we have g (3) (1) =
or
3
dx
3
d3 g
= g(1) = 18.
dx3 x=1
The 4th derivative of g is the function with domain and codomain both R and mapping
4
d4 g
d4 g
(4)
rule x 24. It may be denoted g or 4 or g. Evaluated at 1, we have g (4) (1) = 4 =
dx
dx x=1
4
g(1) = 24.
For n 5, the nth derivative of g is the function with domain and codomain both R
n
dn g
(n)
g (1) = n = g(1) = 0.
dx x=1
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1
). So g (0) = 0.
x+1
x
x
d x
x
g(x) xg (x)
d
(mv). (In words,
dt
d
dm
dv
(mv) =
v+m .
dt
dt
dt
dm
dv
= 0, so that F = m .
dt
dt
dy
dy
d
1
1
2
2
sin y . But sin y +cos y = 1, so sin y = 1 x2 . Thus,
=
sin1 x =
=
.
dx
dx dx
sin y
1 x2
d
Rewrite y = tan1 x as x = tan y and then apply
(implicit differentiation) to get 1 =
dx
dy
dy
d
1
1
sec2 y . But 1 + tan2 y = sec2 y, so
=
sin1 x =
=
.
2
dx
dx dx
sec y 1 + x2
Page 1026, Table of Contents
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90.10
decreasing on [ + 2k,
+ 2k], strictly increasing on ( + 2k, + 2k), and strictly
2
2
2
2
3
+ 2k).
decreasing on ( + 2k,
2
2
Answer to Exercise 63.
(i) Every point a R is a maximum point with corresponding maximum value f (a) = 100;
(ii) Every point a R is a minimum point with corresponding maximum value f (a) = 100;
(iii) No point is a strict maximum;
(iv) No point is a strict minimum;
(v) Every point a R is a global maximum point with corresponding global maximum
value f (a) = 100;
(vi) Every point a R is a global minimum point with corresponding global maximum
value f (a) = 100;
(vii) No point is a strict global maximum;
(viii) No point is a strict global minimum.
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Answer to Exercise 64. (c) Given the function h [1, 2] R defined by x x2 ...
(i) Only x = 2 is a maximum with corresponding maximum value h(2) = 4;
(ii) Only x = 1 is a minimum point with corresponding minimum value h(1) = 1;
(iii) Only x = 2 is a strict maximum point with corresponding strict maximum value
h(2) = 4;
(iv) Only x = 1 is a strict minimum point with corresponding strict minimum value h(1) = 1;
(v) Only x = 2 is a global maximum with corresponding global maximum value h(2) = 4;
(vi) Only x = 1 is a global minimum point with corresponding global minimum value
h(1) = 1;
(vii) Only x = 2 is a strict global maximum point with corresponding strict global maximum
value h(2) = 4;
(viii) Only x = 1 is a strict global minimum point with corresponding strict global minimum
value h(1) = 1.
Answer to Exercise 65. (a) It is false that every maximum point or minimum point is
a stationary point see Points A and E in Example 144.
(b) It is also false that every maximum point or minimum point is a turning point again,
see Points A and E in Example 144.
(c) It is false that every stationary point is a maximum point or minimum point see
Point D in Example 144.
(d) By Definition 143, it is true that every turning point is a maximum point or minimum
point.
(e) By Definition 143, it is true that every turning point is a stationary point.
(f) It is false that every stationary point is a turning point again, see Point D in Example
144.
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x
-2
-1
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7 72 4(8)(6) 7 241
x = 0, or x =
=
.
2(8)
16
(a) g (x) = 56x6 + 42x5 30x4 . So
g (0) = 0,
241
7
+
241
7
) > 0, and g (
) > 0.
g (
16
16
7 241
(b) So
are both minimum points. The 2DT is inconclusive about 0. By
16
sketching the graph, we observe that 0 is an inflexion point (this is an informal
argument).
2. There are no non-interior points.
Altogether, we
conclude that there are no maximum points and the only two minimum
7 241
.
points are
16
(b) h ( , ) R defined by x tan x.
2 2
1. Identify all the stationary points. h (x) = sec2 x is never equal to 0, so there are no
stationary points.
2. There are no non-interior points.
Altogether, we conclude that there are no maximum points and no minimum points.
(c) i [0, 2] R defined by x sin x + cos x.
1. Identify all the stationary points. i (x) = cos x sin x = 0 x =
5
, .
4 4
5
(b) So is a maximum point and
is a minimum point.
4
4
2. The only two non-interior points are 0 and 2. The former is a minimum point and the
latter is a maximum point.
Altogether, we conclude that the two maximum points are and 2, and the two minimum
4
5
points are
and 2.
4
Page 1031, Table of Contents
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Answer to Exercise 70 (a). (i) The graph below is of the equation y = 2ex + x.
(ii) The graph intersects the vertical and horizontal axes at (0, 2) and (0.8526, 0) (calculator).
dy
= 2ex + 1 is never equal to zero. Hence, there are no stationary points (and thus no
dx
turning points either).
(iii)
20 y
18
y = 2ex + x
16
14
12
10
8
6
y=x
Asymptote
4
2
x
0
-4
-2
-2
-4
-6
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(iii)
x
(iv) By observation, the graph has infinitely many lines of symmetry of the form y = + k
3
x
(for any k R) for example, y = 2 (illustrated below) is a line of symmetry.
3
Another line of symmetry is trivial the line y = 3x + 2 is its own line of symmetry. Of
course, every line is symmetric in itself.
(v) By observation, there are no asymptotes.For each of the following equations, (i) sketch
its graph. (ii) Write down the points at which it intersects the axes. (iii) Identify any turning
points. (iv) Write down the equations of any lines of symmetry and also (v) asymptotes.
4
3
y=2-x/3
One of infinite
lines of symmetry
2
1
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-1
5
x
-2
y = 3x + 2
-3
-4
-5
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Answer to Exercise 70 (c). (i) The graph below is of the equation y = 2x2 + 1.
(ii) The point at which the graph intersects the vertical axis is (0, 1) and there is no point
at which it intersects the horizontal axis.
dy
= 4x is equal to zero if and only if x = 0. Hence, this is also the only stationary
dx
point. By observation (or by the second-derivative test), this is a minimum turning point.
(iii)
(iv) By observation, the graph is symmetric in the line x = 0 (which is also the vertical
axis).
(v) By observation, there are no asymptotes.
10
y
9
8
y = 2x2 + 1
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
0
-2
-1
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90.11
Answer to Exercise 71. The graphs of all three equations are below: (a) y = 2x2 + x + 1
(red). (b) y = 2x2 + x + 1 (blue). (c) y = x2 + 6x + 9 (green).
(a) Since b2 4ac = 12 4(2)(1) = 1 8 = 7 < 0, there are no horizontal intercepts. The
b
1
vertical intercept is c = 1. The turning point is at x = = = 0.25.
2a
4
(b) Since b2
4ac = 12
4(2)(1) = 1 + 8 = 9 > 0, there are two horizontal intercepts,
b 9 1 9
namely
=
= 1, 0.5. The vertical intercept is c = 1. The turning point is
2a
4
b 1
at x = =
= 0.25.
2a 4
(c) Since b2 4ac = 62 4(1)(9) = 36 36 = 0, there is one horizontal intercept, namely
b
6
b
= = 3. The vertical intercept is c = 9. The turning point is at x = = 3.
2a
2
2a
6
y = 2x2 + x + 1
y = x2 + 6x + 9
x
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-2
y = -2x2 + x + 1
-4
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90.12
Answer to Exercise 72. Below, alongside the graph of f (in red), are the graphs of
y = 2f (3x) (in green), y = f (x 1) (in blue), and (in purple).
(a) To get the graph of y = 2f (3x) (in green), stretch the red graph horizontally (out1
wards from the vertical axis) by a factor of , then stretch the new graph vertically (upwards
3
from the horizontal axis) by a factor of 2, and finally reflect all points for which y < 0 on
the vertical axis.
(b) To get the graph of y = f (x 1) (blue), shift the red graph rightwards by 1 unit, then
reflect all points for which x < 1 on the vertical line x = 1.
(c) To get the graph of y 2 = f (x) + 4 (in purple), shift the red graph upwards by 4 units,
then for all points for which f (x) + 4 0, take both the positive and negative square roots.
y = |2f(3x)|
-5
-4
-3
30 f(x), y
29
28
27
y = f(|x - 1|) 26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-2
-1
1
-1 0
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
-8
-9
-10
x
2
y2 = f(x) + 4
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Answer to Exercise 73. The series of transformations that would transform the graph
1
1
of y = to y = 3
is:
x
5x 2
1
1. Stretch the graph horizontally, outwards from the vertical axis, by a scale factor of to
5
1
get the graph of y = .
5x
1
.
2. Move the graph rightward by 2 units to get the graph of y =
5x 2
1
3. Reflect the graph on the horizontal axis to get the graph of y =
.
5x 2
1
.
4. Move the graph upward by 3 units to get the graph of y = 3
5x 2
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90.13
x2 y 2
Answer to Exercise 74. The equation 2 + 2 = 1 is the special case of the equation
a
b
1
1
1 1
1
=where A = 2 , B = 0, C = 2 , D = 0, E = 0, and F = 1. We have B 2 4AC = 02 4 2 2 < 0,
a
b
a b
so that this is indeed an ellipse.
x2 y 2
1
1
1
2 = 1 is the special case of the equation =where A = 2 , B = 0, C = 2 ,
2
a
b
a
b
1
1
D = 0, E = 0, and F = 1. We have B 2 4AC = 02 4 2 2 > 0, so that this is indeed a
a b
hyperbola.
The equation
y 2 x2
1
1
1
=
1
is
the
special
case
of
the
equation
=where
A
=
,
B
=
0,
C
=
,
b2 a2
a2
b2
1 1
D = 0, E = 0, and F = 1. We have B 2 4AC = 02 4 2 2 > 0, so that this is indeed a
a b
hyperbola.
The equation
ax + b
can be rewritten as cxy +dy = ax+b or cxy ax+dy b = 0, with the
cx + d
d
ax + b
additional condition that x (otherwise the denominator is 0). The equation y =
c
cx + d
1
is thus the special case of the equation =where A = 0, B = c, C = 0, D = a, E = d, and
d
F = b, with the additional condition that x . We have B 2 4AC = c2 4(0)(0) > 0, so
c
that this is indeed a hyperbola.
The equation y =
ax2 + bx + c
can be rewritten as dxy + ey = ax2 + bx + c or ax2 + dxy
dx + e
e
bx + ey c = 0, with the additional condition that x (otherwise the denominator is 0).
d
ax2 + bx + c
1
The equation y =
is thus the special case of the equation =where A = 0, B = c,
dx + e
e
C = 0, D = a, E = d, and F = b with the additional condition that x . We have
d
B 2 4AC = c2 4(0)(0) > 0, so that this is indeed a hyperbola.
The equation y =
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(y + d)
(x + c)
+
= 1 is simply
Answer to Exercise 75. Observe that the equation
a2
b2
x2 y 2
the same as the equation for the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, but shifted leftwards by c units and
a
b
downwards by d units. So it is the exact same ellipse with only one difference: Instead of
being centred on the origin (0, 0), it is centred on the point (c, d).
(i) See graph below.
(ii) It intersects the vertical axis at (c, d + b) and (c, d b) and the horizontal axis at
(c + a, d) and (c a, d).
(iii) There is one maximum turning point (c, d + b) and one minimum turning point
(c, d b).
(iv) There are two lines of symmetry y = d and x = c.
(v) There are no asymptotes.
(x + c)2 / a2 + (y + d)2 / b2 = 1
(- c, - d + b)
x
y = -d
Line of Symmetry
(- c - a, - d)
(-c, -d)
Centre
x = -c
Line of
Symmetry
(- c + a, - d)
(- c, - d - b)
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16x + 3
, we have
5x 2
3.2
5x 2 16x +3
16x 6.6
9.6
The quotient is 3.2 and the remainder is 4x + 3. Hence,
16x + 3
9.6
= 3.2 +
.
5x 2
5x 2
(b) Given
4x2 3x + 1
, we have
x+5
4x 23
x + 5 4x2 3x
+1
2
4x +20x
23x
23x 115
114
x2 + x + 3
, we have
x2 2x + 1
1
x2 2x + 1 x2 +x +3
x2 +2x 1
x +4
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3x + 2
Answer to Exercise 77 (a). The graph below is of the equation y =
. By long
x+2
division,
y=
3x + 2
4
=3
.
x+2
x+2
13
y = -x + 1
line of
symmetry
11
y=x+5
line of
symmetry
y = (3x + 2) / (x + 2)
y=3
horizontal
asymptote
(-2, 3)
Centre
-12
-8
1
-4
-1
x = -2
vertical
asymptote
-3
-5
-7
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x2
Answer to Exercise 77 (b). The graph below is of the equation y =
. By long
2x + 1
division,
y=
x2
1.5
= 0.5
.
2x + 1
2x + 1
4.5
y = -x
line of
symmetry
y=x-1
line of
symmetry
y = (x - 2) / (-2x + 1)
2.5
0.5
-4.5
-2.5
-0.5
1.5
3.5
5.5
(-0.5, 0.5)
Centre
y = -0.5
horizontal
asymptote
-1.5
-3.5
x = 0.5
vertical
asymptote
-5.5
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3x + 1
Answer to Exercise 77 (c). The graph below is of the equation y =
. By long
2x + 3
division,
y=
3x + 1
5.5
= 1.5 +
.
2x + 3
2x + 3
3.5
y = -x - 3
line of
symmetry
y=x
line of
symmetry
1.5
-6.5
-4.5
-2.5
-0.5
-0.5
1.5
3.5
x
y = (-3x + 1) / (2x + 3)
-2.5
(-1.5, -1.5)
Centre
y = -1.5
horizontal
asymptote
x = -1.5
vertical
asymptote
-4.5
-6.5
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x2 + 2x + 1
Answer to Exercise 78 (a). Consider the equation y =
. By long division.
x4
x2 + 2x + 1
25
=x+6+
.
x4
x4
(4, 10)
Centre
Maximum
Turning
Point
-16
-12
-8
30
y
y = (x2 + 2x + 1) / (x - 4)
28
26
24
y=x+6
22
Oblique
20
Asymptote
18
Minimum
16
Turning
14
Point
12
10
y = (1 - 2) x + 6 + 42
Line of Symmetry
8
6
x=4
4
vertical
asymptote
2
x
0
-4 -2 0
4
8
12
16
20
24
-4
y = (1 + 2) x + 6 - 42
-6
Line of Symmetry
-8
-10
Lets summarise the graphs characteristics. This is a hyperbola and so there are two
distinct branches.
1. Intercepts. The graph intersects the vertical axis at the point (0, 0.25) and the horizontal axis at the point (1, 0).
2. There are two turning points (1, 0) is a maximum turning point and (9, 18.125)
is a minimum turning point.
dy
25
= 1
. Setting this equal to zero, we see that
dx
(x 4)2
there are two stationary points: x = 1, 9.
These were found by computing
d2 y
50
=
, which when evaluated at x = 1 is negative and
2
dx
(x 4)3
when evaluated at x = 9 is positive. And so the first stationary point is a maximum turning
point and the second is a minimum turning point.
The second derivative is
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By observation, y can take on any value except those between these two turning points.
The range of y is thus (, 0] [18.125, ).
3. Asymptotes. As x 4, y . Hence, there is one vertical asymptote: x = 4. As
x , y x+6. Hence, there is one oblique asymptote: y = x+6. The two asymptotes
are not perpendicular and so this is not a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (4, 10).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes
and pass through the centre. Again, you dontneed to know
how to find their
equations.
Nonetheless, Ill tell you that they are y = (1 + 2) x+64 2 and y = (1 2) x+6+4 2.
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x2 + x 1
Answer to Exercise 78 (b). Consider the equation y =
. By long division,
x+1
x2 + x 1
3
= x + 2
.
x+1
x+1
13
y=
(-x2
+ x - 1) / (x + 1)
11
9
7
y=-x+2
Oblique
Asymptote
Minimum
Turning Point
y = (-1 + 2) x + 2 - 2
Line of Symmetry
3
1
-6
-5
-4
-3
(-1, 3)
Centre
-2
-1 -1 0
1
2
3
4
x = -1
vertical
-3
asymptote
y = (- 1 - 2) x + 2 + 2
Line of Symmetry
-5
Maximum
-7 Turning Point
2. There are two turning points (1 3, 6.464) is a maximum turning point and
d2 y
6
The second derivative is 2 =
,
which
when
evaluated
at
x
=
1
3 is positive and
dx (x + 1)3
when evaluated at x = 1 + 3 is negative. And so the first stationary point is a minimum
turning point and the second is a maximum turning point.
These were found by computing
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By observation, y can take on any value except those between these two turning points.
The range of y is thus (, 0.464] [6.464, ).
3. Asymptotes. As x 1, y . Hence, there is one vertical asymptote: x = 1.
As x , y x + 2. Hence, there is one oblique asymptote: y = x + 2. The two
asymptotes are not perpendicular and so this is not a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (1, 3).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes
and pass through the centre. Again, you dont need
how to find their
equations.
to know
Nonetheless, Ill tell you that they are y = (1+ 2)x+2 2 and y = (1 2)x+2+ 2.
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2x2 2x 1
Answer to Exercise 78 (c). Consider the equation y =
. By long division,
x+4
2x2 2x 1
39
= 2x 10 +
.
x+4
x+4
22
y = (2x2 - 2x - 1) / (x + 4)
-14
-12
-10
-8
-6
y = (2 - 5) x - 10 + 45
Line of Symmetry
14
y = (2 + 5) x - 10 + 45
Line of Symmetry
6
-4
-2 -2 0
-10
-18
y = 2x + 10
Oblique
Asymptote
-26
x = -4
vertical
-34
asymptote
6
x
Minimum
Turning
Point
(-1, -18)
Centre
-42
Maximum
Turning
Point
-50
-58
zontal axis at the points (0.5(1 3), 0) and (0.5(1 + 3), 0), because 0.5(1 3) are
the zeros of 2x2 2x 1.
2. There are two turning points (4 39/2, 35.664) is a maximum turning point
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d2 y
78
The second derivative is 2 =
, which when evaluated at x = 4 39/2 is negative
dx
(x
+ 4)3
and when evaluated at x = 4 + 39/2 is positive. And so the first stationary point is a
maximum turning point and the second is a minimum turning point.
By observation, y can take on any value except those between these two turning points.
The range of y is thus (, 35.664] [0.336, ).
3. Asymptotes. As x 4, y . Hence, there is one vertical asymptote: x = 4.
As x , y 2x 10. Hence, there is one oblique asymptote: y = 2x 10. The two
asymptotes are not perpendicular and so this is not a rectangular hyperbola.
4. The centre (point at which the two asymptotes intersect) is (4, 18).
5. We know that the two lines of symmetry bisect the angles formed by the asymptotes
and pass through the centre. Again, you dont need
to find their equations.
to know how
5)x
10
+
4
5
and
y
=
(2
4
5)x
Nonetheless,
Ill
tell
you
that
they
are
y
=
(2
+
4
10 4 5.
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90.14
Answer to Exercise 79. (a) Note that sin 0 = 0 and cos 0 = 1. And so at time t = 0, the
particle P is at position (1, 0) and in contrast, the particle Q is at position (0, 1). (b) The
particle P travels anti-clockwise and in contrast, the particle Q travels clockwise.
d2 x
dx
= a sin t, 2 = a cos t. y = b sin t
Answer to Exercise 80. x = a cos t
dt
dt
dy
d2 y
= b cos t, 2 = b sin t.
dt
dt
2
2
2
This means that it is moving leftwards at a velocity of a
ms1 . Moreover, its acceleration
2
2
leftwards is a
ms2 .
2
2
In the y-direction, its velocity is b cos = b
and its acceleration is b sin = b
. This
4
2
4
2
2
ms1 . Moreover, it is decelerating at
means that it is moving upwards at a velocity of b
2
2
a rate of b
ms2 .
2
In the x-direction, its velocity is a sin = a and its acceleration is a cos = 0. This
2
2
1
means that it is moving leftwards at a velocity of a ms . Moreover, its acceleration is 0
ms2 .
In the y-direction, its velocity is b cos = 0 and its acceleration is b sin = b. This means
2
2
that it is moving upwards at a velocity of 0 ms1 . (Or equivalently, it is moving downwards
at a velocity of 0 ms1 .) Moreover, it is accelerating in the downwards direction at a rate
of b ms2 .
(c) At time t = 2, the particles position is (a cos(2), b sin(2)) = (a, 0).
In the x-direction, its velocity is a sin(2) = 0 and its acceleration is a cos(2) = a. This
means that it is moving leftwards at a velocity of 0 ms1 . Moreover, it is accelerating in
the leftwards direction at a rate of a ms2 .
In the y-direction, its velocity is b cos(2) = b and its acceleration is b sin(2) = 0. This
means that it is moving upwards at a velocity of b ms1 . Moreover, it is not accelerating
in the y- direction.
Page 1050, Table of Contents
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Answer to Exercise 81. (a) The set {(x, y) x = tan t, y = sec t, t R} is equal to the set
{(x, y) y 2 x2 = 1}.
(b)
dx
= sec2 t = y 2 is always positive and so the particle is always moving rightwards.
dt
(c) We know that at t = 0, we have x = tan t = 0 and y = sec t = 1, and so the particle must
be at position B.
At t = 1, t [0, ), we have x = tan t 0 and y = sec t > 0, and so the particle is in the
2
top-right quadrant. The particle must thus be at position C.
At both t = 2 and 3, t ( , ], we have x = tan t 0 and y = sec t < 0, and so the particle
2
is in the bottom-left quadrant. We know moreover that tan 3 > tan 2, so that the particle
is further to the right at time t = 3 than at time t = 2. So at time t = 2, the particle is at
position D; and at time t = 3, the particle is at position E.
3
], we have x = tan t 0 and y = sec t < 0, and so the particle is in the
2
bottom-right. The particle must thus be at position F .
At t = 4, t (,
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y
x+1
= cos2 t and
= sin t. Since cos2 t + sin2 t = 1
3
2
y
x+1 2
for all t, the set can be rewritten as {(x, y) + (
) = 1} or even more simply as
3
2
x+1 2
) = 3 0.75(x + 1)2 }.
{(x, y) y = 3 3 (
2
When t = 0, x = 1 and y = 3.
dx
dy
Moreover, we can compute vx =
= 2 cos t and vy =
= 6 cos t( sin t). And so when
dt
dt
t = 0, vx = 2 and vy = 0 meaning the particle is moving to the right.
4
Instantaneous Direction of Travel
3
y = 3 - 0.75 (x + 1)2
2
1
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
t = 0, x = - 1, y = 3
vx = 2 cos (t) ms-1 = 2-3
ms-1
vy = - 6 sin(t) cos(t) ms-1 = 0 ms-1
-4
-5
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1 2
1
Answer to Exercise 82 (b). Write t = 1+ and y = (1 + ) +1. The set can be rewritten
x
x
2
1
as {(x, y) y = (1 + ) + 1}.
x
When t = 0, x = 1 and y = 1.
1
dy
dx
=
and vy =
= 2t. And so when t = 0, vx = 1
2
dt (t 1)
dt
and vy = 0 meaning the particle is moving to the left.
Moreover, we can compute vx =
This particle actually travels in rather strange ways. As t goes from 0 to 1, the particle
hurtles leftwards towards x = . Then as t goes from just under 1 second to just over 1
second, it magically reappears on the extreme right, at x = . Thereafter it continues to
travel leftwards again, towards the vertical axis.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
0
-10
-8
-5
-3
10
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Answer to Exercise 82 (c). Write t = x + 1. Then the set can be rewritten as {(x, y)
y = ln(2x + 3)}.
When t = 0, x = 1 and y = ln 1 = 0.
dx
dy
2
Moreover, we can compute vx =
= 1 and vy =
=
. And so when t = 0, vx = 1 and
dt
dt 2t + 1
vy = 2 meaning the particle is moving to the northeast.
y
y = ln (2x + 3)
2
Instantaneous
Direction
of Travel
1
t = 0, x = - 1, y = 0
vx = 1 ms-1
vy = 2 ms-1
x
0
-2
-1
-1
-2
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90.15
2x + 1
> 0 one of the following is true:
3x + 2
1. 2x + 1 > 0 AND 3x + 2 > 0 x > 1/2 AND x > 2/3 x > 1/2; OR
2. 2x + 1 < 0 AND 3x + 2 < 0 x < 1/2 AND x < 2/3 x < 2/3.
Altogether then,
2x + 1
> 0 x < 2/3 OR x > 1/2.
3x + 2
Or in set notation,
(b)
2x + 1
> 0 x (2/3, 1/2).
3x + 2
x1
> 0 one of the following is true:
4
(c)
x1
> 0 x < 1.
4
1
> 0 one of the following is true:
4
(d)
1
> 0 is always true and, in particular, true for any value of x.
4
1
> 0 one of the following is true:
4
1
> 0 is always false and, in particular, false for every value of x.
4
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(e)
3x 18
> 0 one of the following is true:
9x 14
1. 3x 18 > 0 AND 9x + 14 > 0 x < 6 and x > 14/9, but these two inequalities
are mutually contradictory, so together they are impossible; OR
2. 3x 18 < 0 AND 9x + 14 < 0 x > 6 and x < 14/9 x (6, 14/9).
Altogether then,
(f)
3x 18
> 0 x (6, 14/9).
9x 14
2x + 3
< 9
x + 7
2x + 3
>0
x + 7
2x + 3
9 +
>0
x7
9x 63 + 2x + 3
>0
x7
11x 60
> 0.
x7
9
Altogether then,
2x + 3
60
> 0 x > 7 OR x < .
x + 7
11
Or in set notation,
2x + 3
60
> 0 x (, ) (7, ).
x + 7
11
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x2 + 2x + 1
Answer to Exercise 84 (a). When is 2
> 0?
x 3x + 2
b
= 1
2a
(i.e. it just touches the horizontal axis at x = 1). Hence, x2 + 2x + 1 > 0 x 1. Also,
it is never the case that x2 + 2x + 1 < 0.
The numerator x2 + 2x + 1 is a -shaped quadratic with one real zero given by
x2 + 2x + 1
> 0 x 1 AND x < 1 OR x > 2 x (, 1)
x2 3x + 2
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x2 1
Answer to Exercise 84 (b). When is 2
> 0?
x 4
The numerator x2 1 is a -shaped quadratic with two real zeros given by 1, 1. Hence,
x2 1 > 0 x < 1 or x > 1. Also, x2 1 < 0 x (1, 1).
The denominator x2 4 is a -shaped quadratic with two real zeros given by 2, 2. Hence,
x2 4 > 0 x < 2 or x > 2. Also, x2 4 < 0 x (2, 2).
So
x2 1
> 0
x2 4
x2 1
> 0 x < 2 or x > 2 OR x (1, 1) x (, 2)
x2 4
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x2 3x 18
Answer to Exercise 84 (c). When is
> 0?
x2 + 9x 14
The numerator x2 3x 18 has a -shaped graph with two real zeros given by 6, 3. Hence,
x2 3x 18 > 0 x < 3 OR x > 6. Also, x2 3x 18 < 0 x (3, 6).
The denominator x2 + 9x 14 has a -shaped graph and has two real zeros given by 2, 7.
Hence, x2 + 9x 14 > 0 x < 2 OR x > 7. Also, x2 + 9x 14 < 0 x (2, 7).
So
x2 3x 18
> 0
x2 + 9x 14
x2 3x 18
> 0 x (, 3) (2, 6) (7, ).
x2 + 9x 14
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x+1
x + 2
>
x + 4
2x 1
x + 2
x+1
x2
(x + 1)(2x 1) + (x 2)(x + 4)
x+1
> 0
+
> 0
> 0.
x + 4 2x 1
x + 4 2x 1
(x + 4)(2x 1)
(x + 1)(2x 1) + (x 2)(x + 4) 2x2 + x 1 x2 + 6x 8
x2 + 7x 9
And
=
=
.
(x + 4)(2x 1)
(x + 4)(2x 1)
(x + 4)(2x 1)
x+1
x + 2
x2 + 7x 9
Hence, the inequality
>
is equivalent to the inequality
> 0.
x + 4 2x 1
(x + 4)(2x 1)
When is this latter inequality true?
Its numerator x2 + 7x 9 is a -shaped quadratic with zeros given by
7 85
.
x=
2
And so x2 +7x9 > 0 x < 0.5 (7 85) OR x > 0.5 (7 = 85). Also, x2 +7x9 < 0
x2 + 7x 9
> 0
(x + 4)(2x 1)
1. x < 0.5 (7
, 4); OR
2. x (0.5 (7
85) , 0.5 (7 +
85) , 0.5).
x2 + 7x 9
Altogether then,
> 0 x (0.5 (7 85) , 0.5) (0.5 (7 + 85) , 4).
(x + 4)(2x 1)
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Answer to Exercise 85 (b). Rewrite the inequality as xcos x > 0. Graph y = xcos x
on your graphing calculator.
Conclude:
Zoom In Once.
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1
Answer to Exercise 85 (c). Rewrite the inequality as
x3 sin x > 0. Graph
2
1x
1
3
y=
x sin x on your graphing calculator.
1 x2
Previously, we already learned how to identify vertical asymptotes. In this case, there are
two, namely at x = 1 and at x = 1.
For all x (1, 1),
1
1
3
sin
x
>
0
and
for
all
x
>
1,
x3 sin x < 0.
2
2
1x
1x
There appears to be only one horizontal intercept. And the graph is above the x-axis to
the left of this horizontal intercept. Lets find out what this horizontal intercept is.
After Graphing the Graph.
Dont panic when you see your TI84 giving you something weird that reads Y = 1.5E13.
This notation just means Y = 1.5 1013 , which is approximately zero. So this just says,
as usual, that the horizontal intercept is at x = 1.179.
Conclude:
1
x3 sin x > 0 if and only if x < 1.179 or x (1, 1).
2
1x
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Answer to Exercise 86. Let A, B, and C be the present-day age of Apu, Beng, and
Caleb.
Let k be the number of years ago when Apu was 40 years old. From the first sentence, we
1
2
3
4
know that A k = 40 and B k = 2(C k). From the second sentence: A = 2B and C = 28.
3
Beng is 32 years old today. And from =, Apu is 64 years old today.
Answer to Exercise 87. At 3pm, Plane A is 300 km northeast of the starting point and
Plane B is 600 km south of it. The angle formed by their flight paths is 3/4. The distance
between the two planes is the third side of the triangle, two of whose sides are 300 km and
600 km, and whose angle between those two sides is 3/4.
By the Law of Cosines (Proposition 263) from O-Level, the third
side of a triangle is given
2
by: c2 = a2 +b2 2ab cos C = 90000+3600002(300)(600)(
) 195442. Hence, c 442.
2
Thus, at 3pm, the two planes are 442 km apart. From 3pm, the distance between the two
planes is shrinking by 300 km/h. Hence, it will be another 442/300 hours, or about 1h 28m
before they collide. Hence, they will collide at around 4:28pm.
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Answer to Exercise 88. The given information provides this system of equations
2
Answer to Exercise 89. The turning point (which is a minimum turning point if a is
b
b 2
b
b2 b2
b2
positive) of the equation is at x = and y = a ( ) + b ( ) + c =
+c = c .
2a
2a
2a
4a 2a
4a
We know that at the minimum point, x = 0 and y = 0. So b = 0 and c = 0. Since (1, 2)
satisfies the equation y = ax2 + bx + c, we also have
2
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1 x2 .
1 x2 .
After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
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1
, y = x5 x3 + 2.
1+ x
1
.
1+ x
Our goal is to find the horizontal intercepts of this equation. These horizontal intercepts
will give us the solutions to the above system of equations.
1. Graph the equation y = x5 x3 + 2
1
.
1+ x
It looks like there are no horizontal intercepts. Conclusion: This system of equations has
no solutions.
After Step 1.
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1
, y = x3 + sin x.
2
1x
1
x3 sin x.
2
1x
Our goal is to find the horizontal intercepts of this equation. These horizontal intercepts
will give us the solutions to the above system of equations.
1. Graph the equation y =
1
x3 sin x.
2
1x
1 x2 1 (1.1790)2
2.5633. Altogether, this system of equations has one solutions: (1.1790, 2.5633).
After Step 1.
After Step 2.
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91
Answer to Exercise 91. (a) A corresponding function for the finite sequence (1, 4, 9, 16
, 25 , 36 , 49, 64, 81, 100) is a function f with
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = n2 for all n.
(b) A corresponding function for the finite sequence (2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20) is a function f
with
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = 3n 1 for all n.
(c) A corresponding function for the finite sequence (0.5, 4, 13.5, 32, 62.5, 108, 171.5) is a
function f with
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) =
n3
for all n.
2
(d) A corresponding function for the finite sequence (2, 6, 6, 12, 10, 18, 14, 24, 18, 30, 22, 36,
26 , 42) is a function f with
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = 2n for all odd n and f (n) = 3n for all even n.
(e) There is no obvious pattern here. So a corresponding function for the finite sequence
(18, 14.5) is a (trivial) function f with
Domain {1, 2};
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (1) = 18 and f (2) = 14.5.
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Answer to Exercise 92. (a) A corresponding function for the finite sequence (3, 4, 9, 64,
3969) is the function f with
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
Codomain is R; and
2
Mapping rule is f (1) = 3 and f (n) = [f (n 1) 1] (the recurrence relation) for all n 2.
(b) A corresponding function for the finite sequence (1, 2, 10, 290, 252010) is the function
f with
Domain {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
Codomain is R; and
2
Mapping rule is f (1) = 1 and f (n) = 3 [f (n 1)] f (n 1) (the recurrence relation) for
all n 2.
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91.2
Answer to Exercise 93. (a) A corresponding function for the infinite sequence (1, 4, 9, 16,
25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, . . . ) is a function f with
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = n2 for all n.
(b) A corresponding function for the infinite sequence (2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, . . . ) is a function
f with
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = 3n 1 for all n.
(c) A corresponding function for the infinite sequence (0.5, 4, 13.5, 32, 62.5, 108, 171.5, . . . )
is a function f with
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) =
n3
for all n.
2
(d) A corresponding function for the infinite sequence (2, 6, 6, 12, 10, 18, 14, 24, 18, 30, 22, 36,
26, 42, . . . ) is a function f with
Domain Z+ ;
Codomain R; and
Mapping rule f (n) = 2n for all odd n and f (n) = 3n for all even n.
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91.3
n3
(c) 0.5 + 4 + 13.5 + 32 + 62.5 + 108 + 171.5= .
n=1 2
(2 n)
n=2
= [2 (2)]
2
+ [2 (1)]
3
+ [2 0] + [2 1]
+ [2 2] + [2 3] + [2 4] + [2 5]
(c) Remember: we can choose any name (letter) we like for the index or dummy variable.
Weve usually been using n. But here I chose to use the letter x instead. This makes no
difference.
33
x=31
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91.4
Answer to Exercise 96. (a) The common difference in the arithmetic series 2 + 7 + 12 +
199
17 + 22 + 27 + 32 + + 997 = (2 + 5n) is 5. There are in total 200 terms. By Fact 13, its
n=0
200
sum of series is (2 + 997)
= 99900.
2
100
(b) The common difference in the arithmetic series 3+20+37+54+71+ +1703 = (3 + 17n)
n=0
101
is 17. There are in total 101 terms. By Fact 13, its sum of series is (3 + 1703)
= 86153.
2
(c) The common difference in the arithmetic series 81 + 89 + 97 + 105 + 113 + + 8081 =
1000
(81 + 8n) is 8. There are in total 1001 terms. By Fact 13, its sum of series is (81 +
n=0
8081)
1001
= 4085081.
2
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91.5
has common ratio 2. There are in total 8 terms. Thus, the geometric sum of series is
1 28
255
7
=7
= 1785.
12
1
5
(b) The geometric series 20+10+5+ + 5/8 = [7 (1/2) ] has common ratio 1/2. There are
n=0
1 6
1
63 1
in total 6 terms. Thus, the geometric sum of series is 20 [1 ( ) ] / (1 ) = 20 / =
2
2
64 2
63 315
40
=
.
64
8
5
1 n
1
(c) The geometric series 1 + + + +
= ( ) has common ratio . There are
3
n=0 3
6
1
728 2
1
/ =
in total 6 terms. Thus, the geometric sum of series is 1 [1 ( ) ] / (1 ) =
3
3
729 3
3 728 364
=
.
2 729 243
1/3
1/9
1/243
3 n
Answer to Exercise 98. (a) The geometric series 6 + 9/2 + 27/8 + = [6 ( ) ] has
4
n=0
6
common ratio 3/4. Thus, its sum is
= 24.
1 3/4
1 n
1
(b) The geometric series 20 + 10 + 5 + = [20 ( ) ] has common ratio . Thus, its
2
2
n=0
20
sum is
= 40.
1 1/2
(c) The geometric series
1
sum is 1/ (1 ) = 3/2.
3
1 n
1
== ( ) has common ratio . Thus, its
3
n=0 3
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91.6
Answer to Exercise 99. Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the proposition that
2
k(k + 1)
] .
r = [
2
r=1
k
r3 = 13
r=1
1(1 + 1)
=[
] .
2
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is,
2
j(j + 1)
] .
r = [
2
r=1
j
(j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1]
] .
r = [
2
r=1
j+1
r = r3 + (j + 1)3
r=1
r=1
j(j + 1)
=[
] + (j + 1)3
2
(j + 1)2 2
[j + 4(j + 1)]
=
4
(j + 1)2 2
(j + 4j + 4)
=
4
(j + 1)2
=
(j + 2)2
4
2
(j + 1)(j + 2)
=[
]
2
2
(j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1]
=[
] ,
2
as desired.
Page 1074, Table of Contents
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Answer to Exercise 100. Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the proposition that
k
rar = a
r=1
1 (k + 1)ak + kak+1
.
(1 a)2
(1 a)2
=a
(1 a)2
1 (1 + 1)a1 + 1 a1+1
=a
(1 a)2
ra = a
r
r=1
1 2a + a2
(1 a)2
1 (k + 1)ak + kak+1
.
=a
(1 a)2
=a
rar = a
r=1
1 (j + 1)aj + jaj+1
.
(1 a)2
rar = a
r=1
1 (j + 2)aj+1 + (j + 1)aj+2
.
(1 a)2
1 (j + 1)aj + jaj+1
+ (j + 1)aj+1
2
(1 a)
r=1
j
j+1
1 (j + 1)a + ja + (j + 1)aj (1 a)2
=a
(1 a)2
1 (j + 1)aj + jaj+1 + (j + 1)aj (1 2a + a2 )
=a
(1 a)2
1(j + 1)aj + jaj+1 +jaj 2jaj+1 + jaj+2 +aj 2aj+1 + aj+2
=a
(1 a)2
1(j + 2)aj+1 + jaj+2 + aj+2
1 (j + 2)aj+1 + (j + 1)aj+2
=a
=a
,
(1 a)2
(1 a)2
j
r=1
as desired.
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Answer to Exercise 101. Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the proposition that
k
r4 =
r=1
r4 =
r=1
r4 =
r=1
j+1
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92
92.1
Answer to Exercise 102. The other 8 vectors are ad = (4, 4), ba = (4, 3), bc = (4, 2),
= (0, 1),
ca
cb = (4, 2), da = (4, 4), db = (0, 1), and dc = (4, 3).
Answer to Exercise 103. (a) If the vector (4, 3) has tail (0, 0), then its head is
(0, 0) + (4, 3) = (4, 3). (b) If it has head (0, 0), then its tail is (0, 0) (4, 3) = (4, 3).
(c) If it has tail (5, 2), then its head is (5, 2) + (4, 3) = (9, 1). (d) If it has head (5, 2),
then its tail is (5, 2) (4, 3) = (1, 5).
+
Answer to Exercise 104.
ac
cb = ab, dc +
ca = da, bd + da = ba, ad cd = ad + dc =
ac,
dc bd = cd + db = cb, and bd + db = bb = (0, 0). Note that this last vector bb carries us
from the point b to the point b; in other words, it carries us nowhere. Hence, it is the zero
(4, 1), dc
ca = (4, 3)(0, 1) = (4, 2), bd da = (0, 1)(4, 4) = (4, 5), ad+ cd = (4, 4)+
(4, 3) = (8, 7), dc + bd = (4, 3) + (0, 1) = (4, 2), and bd db = (0, 1) (0, 1) = (0, 2).
Answer to Exercise 106. These are all lengths (or magnitudes). Specifically,
ac
cb =
2
2
2
(4, 1) = (4) + 1 = 17, dc ca = (4, 2) = (4) + 22 = 20, bd da = (4, 5) =
2
2
2
4 + (5) = 41, ad + cd = (8, 7) =
82 + (7) = 113, dc + bd = (4, 2) =
2
2
2
(4) + 2 = 20, and bd db = (4, 2) = 02 + (2) + = 4 = 2.
2
2
The distance between (18, 4) and (1, 2) is [18 (1)] + [4 (2)] = 192 + 62 =
397.
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Answer to Exercise 108. 2ab = 2(4, 3) = (8, 6) and indeed 2ab = 82 + (62 ) =
. 4
3
ac
ad = 4(4, 4) = (16, 16) and indeed 4ad = 162 + (162 ) = 512 = 4 32 = 4 ad
.
Answer to Exercise 109. The unit vector in the direction ab is 1/5(4, 3). That in the
directions 2ab, 3
ac, and 4ad are the same.
7
Answer to Exercise 110. (i) Write + 7 = 0 and 3 + 5 = 1. Solving, we have =
16
1
7
1
and = . Thus, (0, 1) = (1, 3) (7, 5).
16
16
16
(ii) Write + 7 = 1 and 3 + 5 = 0. Solving, we have = 5/16 and = 3/16. Thus,
3
5
(1, 0) = (1, 3) + (7, 5).
16
16
1
1
and = . Thus,
(iii) Write + 7 = 1 and 3 + 5 = 1. Solving, we have =
8
8
1
1
(1, 1) = (1, 3) + (7, 5).
8
8
Answer to Exercise 111. (a) We have p =
Hence, the point is p = (
21 32
, ).
11 11
6
5
6
5
21 32
a + b = (1, 2) + (3, 4) = ( , ).
11
11
11
11
11 11
1
5
1
5
11 19
11 19
(b) We have p = a + b = (1, 4) + (2, 3) = ( , ). Hence, the point is p = ( , ).
6
6
6
6
6 6
6 6
2
3
2
3 2
3 2
3
(c) We have p = a + b = (1, 2) + (3, 4) = ( , ). Hence, the point is p = ( , ).
5
5
5
5
5 5
5 5
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Answer to Exercise 112 (a). (2, 0) is a vector that points purely to the right and
(0, 17) is a vector that points purely up. So the angle between them must be . Now verify
2
that the formula gives us this angle:
(2, 0) (0, 17)
)
(2, 0) (0, 17)
2 0 + 0 17
= cos1 (
)
(2, 0) (0, 17)
= cos1 0 = .
= cos1 (
(b) (5, 0) is a vector that points purely to the right and (3, 0) is a vector that points
purely to the left. So the angle between them must be . Now verify:
= cos1 (
(5, 0) (3, 0)
)
(5, 0) (3, 0)
5 (3) + 0 0
= cos
52 + 02 (3)2 + 02
15
) = cos1 (1) = .
= cos1 (
53
1
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Answerto Exercise 112 (c). Recall that the right-angled triangle whose base is 1 and
3
side is
has angle
between the base and the hypothenuse. Hence,
is the angle
3
6
6
3
). Now verify:
between i and (1,
3
(1,
0)
(1,
3/3)
1
1
+
0
3/3
= cos1
= cos1
2
(1, 0) (1, 3/3)
2
2
2
1 + 0 1 + ( 3/3)
= cos1
3
1
= cos1 ( ) = .
6
1 4/3
2
(d) Recall that the right-angled triangle whose base is 1 and side is 3 has angle between
3
the base and the hypothenuse. Hence, is the angle between i and (1, 3). Now verify:
3
1
+
0
3)
3
(1,
0)
(1,
cos1
== cos1
2
(1, 0) (1, 3)
2
2
2
1 + 0 1 + ( 3)
= cos1 (
1
1
) = cos1 ( ) = .
2
3
1 4
rad
i
rad i
x
Page 1080, Table of Contents
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Answer to Exercise 114. (a) The length of the projection of (1, 0) on (33, 33) is the
same as the length of the projection of (1, 0) on (1, 1), which is:
1
1
(1, 1)] =
(1, 0) (1, 1)
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
1
2
2 2
= (1 1 + 0 1) = =
= 2.
2
2
2
(1, 0) (1,
1) = (1, 0) [
1
1
(1, 0)] =
(33, 33) (1, 0)
(1, 0)
(1, 0)
1
= (33 1 + 33 0) = 33.
1
(1, 3) (1, 0)
=
(1, 3) (1, 0)
1
(1, 3) (0, 1)
1
3
3
and its y-direction cosine is
= . Hence, its unit vector is ( , ).
(1, 3) (1, 0)
10
10
10 10
Answer to Exercise 115. (a) Given the vector (1, 3), its x-direction cosine is
(4, 2) (1, 0)
4
= and its y-direction
(4, 2) (0, 1)
20
(4, 2) (0, 1)
2
4
2
cosine is
= . Hence, its unit vector is ( , ).
(4, 2) (0, 1)
20
20 20
(1, 2) (1, 0)
1
= and its y(1, 2) (1, 0)
5
(1, 2) (0, 1)
2
1 2
direction cosine is
= . Hence, its unit vector is ( , ).
(1, 2) (0, 1)
5
5 5
(c) Given the vector (1, 2), its x-direction cosine is
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92.2
Answer to Exercise 116. (a) A three-dimensional (3D) vector is an arrow that has
two characteristics: direction and length. Just like a point, it can be described by an
ordered triple of real numbers. The vector a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) carries us from the origin to
the point (a1 , a2 , a3 ).
a1
(b) a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) =
a2 = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k = a . If we let a refer to the point (a1 , a2 , a3 ),
a3
(i.e. the vector that carries us from the
then we can also write a as the position vector
oa
origin to the point a).
(c) Given two points a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ), (i) there is no such thing as a+b; (ii)
+
ob is the vector (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 );
oa
a + ob is the point (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ); (iii)
and (iv)
oa
ba is the vector ob.
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Answer to Exercise
117. (a)
of the vectors
The length
a = (1, 2, 3), b = (4, 5, 6), and
2
2
2
2
2
2
a
3 = 14, b = 4 + 5 + 6 = 77, and a b = (3, 3, 3) =
b are a = 1 + 2 +
(3)2 + (3)2 + (3)2 = 27.
(b)
the vectors 2a = (2, 4, 6), 3b = (12, 15, 18), and 4(a b) are respectively
Thelengths of
2 14, 3 77, and 4 27.
1
1
= 1 (4, 5, 6), and a
= (1, 2, 3), b
(c) The unit vectors are a
b = (3, 3, 3).
14
77
27
(d) (1, 2, 3) (4, 5, 6) = 1 4 + 2 5 + 3 6 = 32 and (2, 4, 6) (1, 2, 3) = (2) 1 + 4 (2) +
(6) 3 = 28.
(e) (i) The angle between the vectors (1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6) is
32
0.226.
cos1 [a b/ (a b)] = cos1 [32/ ( 14 77)] = cos1
1078
(e) (ii) The angle between the vectors (2, 4, 6) and (1, 2, 3) is
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(g) By the Ratio Theorem, the vector p that divides the line segment ab in the ratio 2 3
is given by
a+
b
+
+
3
2
=
(1, 2, 3) +
(4, 5, 6)
2+3
2+3
1
= (11, 16, 21).
5
p=
1
Hence, the point is p = (11, 16, 21).
5
(h) (i) Given the vector (1, 3, 2), its x-, y-, and z-direction cosines are, respectively
(1, 3, 2) (0, 1, 0)
(1, 3, 2) (0, 0, 1)
(1, 3, 2) (1, 0, 0)
1
3
2
= ,
= , and
= .
(1, 3, 2) (1, 0, 0)
(1, 3, 2) (0, 0, 1)
14 (1, 3, 2) (0, 1, 0)
14
14
1
3
2
Hence, its unit vector is ( , , ).
14 14 14
(ii) Given the vector (4, 2, 3), its x-, y-, and z-direction cosines are, respectively
(4, 2, 3) (0, 1, 0)
(4, 2, 3) (0, 0, 1)
(4, 2, 3) (1, 0, 0)
4
2
3
= ,
= , and
= .
(4, 2, 3) (1, 0, 0)
(4, 2, 3) (0, 0, 1)
29 (4, 2, 3) (0, 1, 0)
29
29
4
2
3
Hence, its unit vector is ( , , ).
29 29 29
(iiii) Given the vector (1, 2, 4), its x-, y-, and z-direction cosines are, respectively
(1, 2, 4) (1, 0, 0)
1 (1, 2, 4) (0, 1, 0)
2
(1, 2, 4) (0, 0, 1)
2
= ,
= ,
= .
(1, 2, 4) (1, 0, 0)
21 (1, 2, 4) (0, 1, 0)
21 (1, 2, 4) (0, 0, 1)
21
1
2
2
Hence, its unit vector is ( , , ).
21 21 21
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92.3
Answer to Exercise 118. (a) If u = (0, 1, 2) and v = (3, 4, 5), then u v = (3, 6, 3).
Lets verify that u v is orthogonal to u, by computing (u v) u = (3, 6, 3) (0, 1, 2) =
0+66 = 0 . Similarly, lets verify that uv is orthogonal to v, by computing (u v)v =
(3, 6, 3) (3, 4, 5) = 9 + 24 15 = 0 .
(b) If u = (1, 2, 3) and v = (1, 0, 5), then u v = (10, 2, 2). Lets verify that u v
is orthogonal to u, by computing (u v) u = (10, 2, 2) (1, 2, 3) = 10 2 6 = 0 .
Similarly, lets verify that u v is orthogonal to v, by computing (u v) v = (10, 2, 2)
(1, 0, 5) = 10 + 0 + 10 = 0 .
(u v) u =
uz vx ux vz uy
ux vy uy vx uz
= (uy vz uz vy ) ux + (uz vx ux vz ) uy + (ux vy uy vx ) uz
= ux uy vz ux vy uz + vx uy uz ux uy vz + ux vy uz vx uy uz
= ux uy vz ux vy uz + vx uy uz ux uy vz + ux vy uz vx uy uz
=0
uy vz uz vy vx
(u v) v =
uz vx ux vz vy
ux vy uy vx vz
= (uy vz uz vy ) vx + (uz vx ux vz ) vy + (ux vy uy vx ) vz
= vx uy vz vx vy uz + vx vy uz ux vy vz + ux vy vz vx uy vz
= vx uy vz vx vy uz + vx vy uz ux vy vz + ux vy vz vx uy vz
=0
Answer to Exercise 120. (a) Given u = (1, 2, 3) and v = (4, 5, 6), u v = (3, 6, 3) and
v u = (3, 6, 3) and hence u v = v u.
(b) By definition,
uy vz uz vy
uv=
uz vx ux vz
ux vy uy vx
and
vy uz vz uy
v u=
vz ux vx uz
vx uy vy ux
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92.4
Answer to Exercise 121. (a) The line 5x y 1 = 0 can also be written as r = (0, 1) +
(1, 5) ( R).
(b) The line x 2y 1 = 0 can also be written as r = (1, 0) + (2, 1) ( R).
(c) The line y 4 = 0 can also be written as r = (0, 4) + (1, 0) ( R).
(d) The line x 4 = 0 can also be written as r = (4, 0) + (0, 1) ( R).
Answer to Exercise 122. (a) The line r = (1, 3) + (1, 2) ( R) has cartesian
equations
x = 1 + ,
y = 3 2.
Eliminating , we have y = 2x + 1 or
y1 x
= .
2
1
(b) The line r = (5, 6) + (7, 8) ( R) has cartesian equations
x = 5 + 7,
y = 6 + 8.
Eliminating , we have y = 8x/7 + 2/7 or
y 2/7
x
=
.
1
7/8
(c) The line r = (0, 3) + (3, 0) ( R) has cartesian equations
x = 3,
y = 3.
Eliminating , we have y = 3.
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Answer to Exercise 123. (a) The line r = (1, 1, 1) + (3, 2, 1) ( R) has cartesian
equations
x+1 y1 z1
=
=
.
3
2
1
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above two
equations.
x z1
=
.
3
1
That is, this is the line that contains the points (x, y, z) which satisfy the above two
equations.
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7x 2 0.3y 5 8z
=
=
5
7
7
x 2/7 y 50/3 z
into 5
= 70
= 7 . And so this is also the line r = (2/7, 50/3, 0)+ (5/7, 70/3, 7/8) ( R).
/7
/3
/8
Answer to Exercise 124. (a) We can transform the equations
x
y
z
=
=
. And so this is also the
1/2
1/3
1/5
3y 1
x 4/17 y 1/3 z
= 3z into 1
= 2
= 1 . And
2
/17
/3
/3
4
1
1
2
1
so this is also the line r = ( /17, /3, 0) + ( /17, /3, /3) ( R).
(c) We can transform the equations 17x 4 =
x 3 z 2/5
x 3 5z 2
=
, 3y = 11 into
= 7 , y = 11/3.
2
7
2
/5
And so this is also the line r = (3, 0, 2/5) + (2, 0, 7/5) ( R).
(d) We can transform the equations
Answer to Exercise 125. (a) Given the points a = (3, 1, 2), b = (1, 6, 5), and c = (0, 1, 0),
first take the line through a and b. The vector from a to b is (2, 5, 3) and the line passes
through a. Hence, the line can be written as r = (3, 1, 2) + (2, 5, 3) ( R).
Then check whether c is on the line: Is there such that c = (0, 1, 0) = (3, 1, 2)+(2, 5, 3)?
Rearranging, we have (3, 2, 2) = (2, 5, 3), which we can write out as:
3 = 2,
2= 5,
2 = 3.
Clearly, there is no such that the above three equations can be true. And so the point c
is not on the line through a and b. Hence, the three points are not collinear.
(b) Given the points a = (1, 2, 4), b = (0, 0, 1), and c = (3, 6, 10), first take the line through
a and b. The vector from a to b is (1, 2, 3) and the line passes through a. Hence, the
line can be written as r = (1, 2, 4) + (1, 2, 3) ( R).
Then check whether c is on the line: Is there such that c = (3, 6, 10) = (1, 2, 4) +
(1, 2, 3)? Rearranging, we have (2, 4, 6) = (1, 2, 3), which we can write out as:
2 = ,
4= 2,
6 = 3.
Clearly, all three of the above equations are true if = 2. And so c is also on the line.
Hence, the three points are collinear.
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92.5
Answer to Exercise 126. (a) The plane containing a = (7, 3, 4), b = (8, 3, 4), and
(b) The plane containing a = (8, 0, 2), b = (4, 4, 3), and c = (2, 7, 2) contains also the vectors
(c) The plane containing a = (8, 5, 9), b = (8, 4, 5), and c = (5, 6, 0). contains also the
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Answer to Exercise 128. (a) r (3, 6, 2) = 4 can be rewritten as r (3/7, 6/7, 2/7) = 4/7.
(b) r (1, 2, 2) = 1 can be rewritten as r (1/3, 2/3, 2/3) = 1/3.
(c) r (8, 1, 4) = 0 can be rewritten as r (8/9, 1/9, 4/9) = 0.
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92.6
Answer to Exercise 129 (a). Given the point a = (7, 3, 4) and the line l described
= (1, 0, 0) and so
2 = 12 = 1. Also,
v
=
and so (
pa
. Hence, the length of the side is
2 + 32 + 72
139
139
9
1 81/139 = 58/139 0.646. This is the distance between point a and the line l. And
9 (9, 3, 7)
139 139
(81, 27, 63)
= (8, 3, 4)
139
(1031, 390, 493)
=
.
139
b = (8, 3, 4)
Not to scale.
a = (7, 3, 4)
Distance between
a and b is 0.646
l
b = (7
,2
,3
p = (8, 3, 4)
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Answer to Exercise 129 (b). Given the point a = (8, 0, 2) and the line l described by
= (4, 4, 1) and so
2 = 42 + 42 + 12 = 33. Also,
r = (4, 4, 3) + (2, 7, 2), we have:
pa
pa
(4, 4, 1) (2, 7, 2)
484
22
2
v
v
=
) =
pa
pa
= and so (
. Hence, the length of the side is
2 + 72 + 22
57
57
2
1397
484
33
=
4.951. This is the distance between point a and the line l. And
57
57
22 (2, 7, 2)
b = (4, 4, 3)
57
57
22 (2, 7, 2)
= (4, 4, 3)
57
(184, 74, 127)
=
.
57
Not to scale.
a = (8, 0, 2)
Distance between
a and b is 3.170
l
b = (1
,2
p = (4, 4, 3)
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Answer to Exercise 129 (c). Given the point a = (8, 5, 9) and the line l described
= (0, 1, 4) and so
2 = 12 + 42 = 17. Also,
by r = (8, 4, 5) + (5, 6, 0), we have:
pa
pa
(0, 1, 4) (5, 6, 0)
36
6
2
v
v
=
) =
pa
pa
= and so (
. Hence, the length of the side is
2 + 62 + 02
61
61
5
1001
36
17
=
4.051. This is the distance between point a and the line l. And
61
61
6 (5, 6, 0)
b = (8, 4, 5) +
61
61
6 (5, 6, 0)
= (8, 4, 5) +
61
(518, 280, 305)
=
.
61
Not to scale.
a = (8, 5, 9)
Distance between
a and b is 4.051
l
b = (8
, 5)
p = (8, 4, 5)
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Answer to Exercise 130 (a). Given the point a = (7, 3, 4) and the line
l described by
9
58
9
) + 18 (
)+1=
.
ab is 1392 + 18 + 1 = 139 (
139
139
139
So b = (8, 3, 4)
Answer to Exercise 130 (b). Given the point a = (8, 0, 2) and the line
l described by
r = (4, 4, 3)+(2, 7, 2), we have: ra = (42, 47, 12) and so ra = 572 + 44 + 33,
which is minimised at 114 + 44 = 0 or = 44/114 = 22/57.
1
22
(2, 7, 2) =
(184, 74, 127). Moreover, the length of the line segment ab
57
57
22
22
1397
is 572 + 44 + 33 = 57 ( ) + 44 ( ) + 33 =
.
57
57
57
So b = (4, 4, 3)
Answer to Exercise 130 (c). Given the point a = (8, 5, 9) andthe line l described by
= (5, 1 6, 4) and so
= 612 12 + 17, which
r = (8, 4, 5) + (5, 6, 0), we have:
ra
ra
is minimised at 122 12 = 0 or = 12/122 = 6/61.
6
1
(5, 6, 0) = (518, 280, 335). Moreover, the length of the line segment ab
61
61
6
6
1001
is 612 12 + 17 = 61 ( ) 12 ( ) + 17 =
.
61
61
61
So b = (8, 4, 5) +
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Answer to Exercise 131 (a). Consider the point a = (7, 3, 4) and the plane r (9, 3, 7) =
109.
Convert the vector equation of the plane to Hessian normal form:
r (
=
So n
9
3
7
109
,
,
)=
139 139 139
139
1
109
100
=
(9, 3, 7), d =
, and a n
.
139
139
139
9
=
Altogether then, the distance between the point and the plane is d a n
and the
139
foot of the perpendicular is
1
9
) n
= (7, 3, 4) +
(9, 3, 7)
a + (d a n
139 139
(1054, 444, 619)
=
.
139
By the way, notice that in this example, n points in the same direction as ab. And so
. And moreover, d a n
> 0.
ab = n
a = (7, 3, 4)
Not to scale.
Distance
between
a and b
Plane
p = (8, 3, 4)
b=
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Answer to Exercise 131 (b). Consider the point a = (8, 0, 2) and the plane r(2, 7, 2) = 42.
Convert the vector equation of the plane to Hessian normal form:
2
7
2
42
r ( , , ) = .
57 57 57
57
42
20
1
= .
= (2, 7, 2), d = , and a n
So n
57
57
57
22
= and the
Altogether then, the distance between the point and the plane is d a n
57
foot of the perpendicular is
22 (2, 7, 2)
) n
= (8, 0, 2) +
a + (d a n
57
57
(458, 154, 158)
=
.
57
By the way, notice that in this example, n points in the same direction as ab. And so
. And moreover, d a n
> 0.
ab = n
a = (8, 0, 2)
Not to scale.
Distance
between
a and b
Plane
p = (4, 4, 3)
b=
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Answer to Exercise 131 (c). Consider the point a = (8, 5, 9) and the plane r(5, 6, 0) = 64.
Convert the vector equation of the plane to Hessian normal form:
8
5
9
64
r ( , , ) =
61 61 61
61
=
So n
(5, 6, 0) 64
70
= .
, d = , and a n
61
61
61
6
= and the
Altogether then, the distance between the point and the plane is d a n
61
foot of the perpendicular is
6 (5, 6, 0)
) n
= (8, 5, 9)
a + (d a n
61
61
(458, 269, 549)
=
.
61
By the way, notice that in this example, n points in the opposite direction from ab. And
< 0.
so ab =
n. And moreover, d a n
a = (8, 5, 9)
Not to scale.
Distance
between
a and b
Plane
p = (8, 4, 5)
b=
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92.7
(1, 1) (2, 3)
5
5
5
= = . So = cos1
(1, 1) (2, 3)
2 13
26
26
2.944. This is the obtuse angle between the two lines. So the acute angle between the two
lines is 2.944 = 0.197.
Answer to Exercise 132. (a)
(1, 5) (8, 1)
13
13
1
1
= =
= . So = cos1 1.249. This is
(1, 5) (8, 1)
26 65
13 2 13 5
10
10
the acute angle between the two lines.
(b)
(2, 6) (3, 2)
9
9
9
18
. So = cos1
0.661. This is the
= = =
(2, 6) (3, 2)
40 13
10 13
130
130
acute angle between the two lines.
(c)
(1, 1, 0) (2, 3, 4)
5
5
5
= = . So = cos1
(1, 1, 0) (2, 3, 4)
2 29
58
58
2.287. This is the obtuse angle between the two lines. So the acute angle between the two
lines is 2.287 = 0.855.
Answer to Exercise 133. (a)
19
(1, 5, 6) (8, 1, 1)
19
= . So = cos1 1.269. This is the acute angle
(1, 5, 6) (8, 1, 1)
62 66
62 66
between the two lines.
(b)
(2, 6, 7) (3, 2, 1)
25
25
= . So = cos1 0.784. This is the acute angle
(2, 6, 7) (3, 2, 1)
89 14
89 14
between the two lines.
(c)
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Answer to Exercise 134. (a) The angle between the line r = (1, 2, 3) + (1, 1, 0)
( R) and the plane r (3, 4, 5) = 1 is:
sin1
vn
(1, 1, 0) (3, 4, 5)
1
= sin1
= sin1 = sin1 (0.1) 0.100.
v n
(1, 1, 0) (3, 4, 5)
2 50
(b) The angle between the line r = (1, 2, 3) + (0, 2, 6) ( R) ( R) and the plane
r (1, 3, 5) = 2 is:
sin1
(0, 2, 6) (1, 3, 5)
36
vn
= sin1
= sin1 1.295.
v n
(0, 2, 6) (1, 3, 5)
40 35
(c) The angle between the line r = (1, 2, 3) + (1, 9, 8) ( R) and the plane r (2, 8, 2) = 3
is:
sin1
(1, 9, 8) (2, 8, 2)
90
vn
= sin1
= sin1 1.071.
v n
(1, 9, 8) (2, 8, 2)
146 72
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Answer to Exercise 135. (a) Consider the planes r (1, 2, 3) = 1 and r (3, 4, 5) = 2.
The angle between them is
= cos1 (
(1, 2, 3) (3, 4, 5)
26
) = cos1 ( ) 2.955.
(1, 2, 3) (3, 4, 5)
14 50
This is the obtuse angle. So the acute angle between the two planes is 2.955 = 0.186
radian.
(b) Consider the planes described, respectively, by the vector equations r (1, 2, 3) = 3 and
r (5, 1, 1) = 4. The angle between them is
= cos1 (
10
(1, 2, 3) (5, 1, 1)
) = cos1 ( ) 1.031.
(1, 2, 3) (5, 1, 1)
14 27
(c) Consider the planes described, respectively, by the vector equations r (1, 1, 8) = 5 and
r (3, 0, 10) = 6. The angle between them is
= cos1 (
This is the obtuse angle. So the acute angle between the two planes is 2.934 = 0.207
radian.
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92.8
Answer to Exercise 136. (a) The lines r = (8, 1, 5) + (3, 2, 1) and r = (1, 2, 3) + (5, 6, 7)
( R) are not parallel because their direction vectors cannot be written as scalar multiples
of each other. Lets see if they have an intersection point. If they intersect, then there are
reals and such that (8, 1, 5) + (3, 2, 1) = (1, 2, 3) + (5, 6, 7), or
1
8 + 3 = 1 + 5, 1 + 2 = 2 + 6, and 5 + = 3 + 7.
3
(b) The lines r = (0, 0, 6) + (3, 9, 0) and r = (1, 1, 1) + (1, 3, 0) ( R) have direction
vectors that can be written as scalar multiples of each other, so they are parallel. Thus,
they are also coplanar or equivalently, they are not skew.
Remember: We need two distinct vectors and a point to determine a plane. Here, the
direction vectors of the two lines are not distinct. So we need another vector. This is
not difficult. Simply consider a vector from a point on the first line to the second, e.g.
(1, 1, 1) (0, 0, 6) = (1, 1, 5). Now, the plane that contains both lines has normal vector
(1, 1, 5)(1, 3, 0) = (15, 15, 2). And so the plane that contains both lines is r(15, 15, 2) =
12.
(c) The lines r = (6, 5, 5) + (1, 0, 1) and r = (8, 3, 6) + (0, 1, 1) ( R) are not parallel are
not parallel because their direction vectors cannot be written as scalar multiples of each
other. Lets see if they have an intersection point. If they intersect, then there are reals
and such that (6, 5, 5) + (1, 0, 1) = (9, 3, 6) + (0, 1, 1), or
1
6 + = 9, 5 = 3 + , and 5 + = 6 + .
3
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Answer to Exercise 137. (a) Given the line r = (4, 5, 6) + (2, 3, 5) ( R) and the plane
r (10, 0, 4) = 26, we have (2, 3, 5) (10, 0, 4) = 0 and so they are parallel.
The point (4, 5, 6) on the line is not on the plane, as we can easily verify (4, 5, 6)
(10, 0, 4) = 16 26. And so they do not intersect at all.
(b) Given the line r = (5, 5, 6) + (2, 3, 5) ( R) and the plane r (10, 0, 4) = 26, we have
(2, 3, 5) (10, 0, 4) = 0 and so they are parallel.
The point (5, 5, 6) on the line is on the plane because (5, 5, 6) (10, 0, 4) = 26. Since the
line and plane are parallel and share at least one intersection point, it must be that the line
lies completely on the plane.
(c) Given the line r = (4, 5, 6) + (2, 3, 5) ( R) and the plane r (10, 0, 3) = 26, we have
(2, 3, 5) (10, 0, 3) 0 and so they are not parallel.
They must therefore intersect at exactly one point. Lets find it.
Plug in a generic point of the line into the equation for the plane: (4 + 2, 5 + 3, 6 + 5)
(10, 0, 3) = 26 40 20 + 18 + 15 = 26 4 = 5 = 4/5. So the
intersection point is (4, 5, 6) + 4/5(2, 3, 5) = (5.6, 7.4, 10).
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Answer to Exercise 138. (a) The planes are r (4, 9, 3) = 61 and r (1, 1, 2) = 19. Clearly,
(4, 9, 3) cannot be written as a scalar multiple of (6, 2, 8). So the two planes are not parallel
and share an intersection line that has direction vector (4, 9, 3) (1, 1, 2) = (15, 5, 5) or
(3, 1, 1).
Find a point (x, y, z) where the two planes intersect:
1
4x + 9y + 3z = 61,
2
x + y + 2z = 19.
1
Use the plug in x = 0 trick. Then = minus 9 = yields 15z = 110 or z = 22/3. And so
y = 13/3. Hence, the intersection line is r = (0, 13/3, 22/3) + (3, 1, 1) ( R).
(b) The planes are r (1, 1, 0) = 4 and r (1, 6, 8) = 60. Clearly, (1, 1, 0) cannot be written
as a scalar multiple of (1, 6, 8). So the two planes are not parallel and share an intersection
line that has direction vector (1, 1, 0) (1, 6, 8) = (8, 8, 5).
Find a p = (x, y, z) where the two planes intersect:
1
x + y = 4,
2
x + 6y + 8z = 60.
1
Use the plug in x = 0 trick. Then = implies that y = 4. And so from =, z = 4.5. And
so one intersection point of the two planes is (0, 4, 4.5). Hence, the intersection line is
r = (0, 4, 4.5) + (8, 8, 5) ( R).
(c) The planes are r (4, 4, 8) = 56 and r (1, 1, 2) = 12. Clearly, (4, 4, 8) can be written as
a scalar multiple of (1, 1, 2). So the two planes are parallel. Do they not intersect at all or
are they identical?
The point (1, 3, 5) is on the first plane, but is not on the second because (1, 3, 5) (1, 1, 2) =
14 12. And so they are parallel planes that do not intersect at all.
(d) The planes are r (4, 4, 8) = 48 and r (1, 1, 2) = 12. Clearly, (4, 4, 8) can be written as
a scalar multiple of (1, 1, 2). So the two planes are parallel. Do they not intersect at all or
are they identical?
The point (1, 3, 4) is on the first plane and is also on the second because (1, 3, 4)(1, 1, 2) = 12.
And so they are exactly identical planes.
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x + z = 1,
2
y z = 1.
Use the plug in x = 0 trick to see that one intersection point is (0, 0, 1). Hence the
intersection line of P1 and P2 is r = (0, 0, 1) + (1, 1, 1) ( R). Call this line l1 .
The planes P1 and P3 share an intersection line with direction vector (1, 0, 0) (1, 1, 0) =
(1, 1, 1). Lets look for an intersection point (x, y, z):
1
x + z = 1,
2
x + y = 2.
Use the plug in x = 0 trick to see that one intersection point is (0, 2, 1). Hence the
intersection line of P1 and P3 is r = (0, 2, 1) + (1, 1, 1) ( R). Call this line l2 .
The planes P2 and P3 share an intersection line with direction vector (0, 1, 1) (1, 1, 0) =
(1, 1, 1) or (1, 1, 1). Lets look for an intersection point (x, y, z):
1
y z = 1,
2
x + y = 2.
Use the plug in x = 0 trick to see that one intersection point is (0, 2, 3). Hence the
intersection line of P2 and P3 is r = (0, 2, 3) + (1, 1, 1) ( R). Call this line l3 .
Step #3. Determine where, if at all, the 3 intersection lines intersect.
Clearly, all 3 lines are parallel (because they all have the same direction vector). But l1
and l2 are distinct, because (0, 0, 1) is on l1 but not on l2 .
Thus, we must be in Case 3a, where all 3 lines are distinct and do not intersect.
Conclusion.
Altogether, we conclude that the 3 intersection lines do not intersect. The 3 planes form 3
distinct intersection lines. (So we are in Case 3a.)
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93
93.1
3i
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
0
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
4 4 + 2i
Yes Yes
Yes No
No Yes
No No
No No
i
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
3
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Answer to Exercise 141. We rewrite each, by rationalising any denominators with surds
and also writing out the sine or cosine values.
3 2
2
2
2
3
2
3
2
a=(
)(
) i, b = (
)(
) i, c = (
)(
) i, and d = (
)(
) i.
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Comparing the real and imaginary parts, we see that only c = d.
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
93.2
3 + 2 2 + (6 2) i.
Answer to Exercise 145. (2 + i)2 = 4 1 + 4i = 3 + 4i.
(2 + i)3 = (2 + i)(2 + i)2 = (2 + i)(3 + 4i) = 6 + 8i + 3i 4 = 2 + 11i.
Hence, az 3 + bz 2 + 3z 1 = a(2 + i)3 + b(2 + i)2 + 3z 1 = a(2 + 11i) + b(3 + 4i) + 3(2 + i) 1 =
2a + 3b + 5 + (11a + 4b + 3)i. Two complex numbers are equal if and only if their real and
1
2
2
1
imaginary parts are equal. So 2a + 3b + 5 = 0 and 11a + 4b + 3 = 0. Take 3 = minus 4 = to
get 33a + 9 (8a + 20) = 25a 11 = 0. So a = 11/25 and b = 49/25.
Answer to Exercise 146. (a) z = 5 2i. So 1/z = z / (52 + 22 ) = (5 2i)/29.
(b) z = 3 + i. So
1
z
3+i
= 2 2=
.
z 3 +1
10
1
z
1 2i
(c) z = 1 2i. So = 2 2 =
.
z 1 +2
5
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1 + 3i 1 + 3i i i + 3i2 i 3
=
=
=
= 3 + i.
i
i
i
i2
1
2 3i 2 3i 1 i 2 3i 2i + 3i2 1 5i
=
=
=
= 0.5 2.5i.
(b)
1+i
1+i 1i
1 i2
2
2 i
2 i 3 + 2i 3 2 + 2i 3i 2i2
2(3 + ) + (2 3)i
=
=
(c)
=
.
9 2i2
11
3 2i 3 2i 3 + 2i
(d)
=
=
= 2 11i.
i
i
i
i2
1
(e)
3
3
2 i 6 + 3i 6 + 3i
=
=
=
= 1.2 + 0.6i.
2+i 2+i 2i
4 i2
5
(f)
=
.
5+i
5+i 5i
25 i2
26
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93.3
Answer to Exercise 148. (a) The roots to the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0 are given by
x=
b2 4ac 1 3
1
3 1
1
3
=
=
=
i.
2a
2
2
2
2
2
b2 4ac 2 4
4 1
=
= 1
= 1 i.
2a
2
2
b2 4ac 3 3
3 1
3
1
1
=
=
=
i.
2a
6
2
6
2
6
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22 4(1)(2)
= 1 1 2 = 1 i.
2
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14x 39
14x
26x
+12x 39
+12x 39
0.
So the polynomial also has quadratic factor x2 2x 3, which we observe can in turn be
factorised as (x 3)(x + 1). So the four zeros of the polynomial are 2 3i, 3, and 1.
And if we want to write down the four factors of the polynomial, we can easily do so:
x4 6x3 + 18x2 14x 39 = [x (2 3i)] [x (2 + 3i)] (x 3)(x + 1).
(b) Again, we know that a quadratic factor for the polynomial is x2 4x + 13, so go ahead
and do the long division:
2x2 +13x
x2 4x + 13 2x4 +21x3
2x4 +8x3
13x3
13x3
15
93x2 +229x 195
26x2
67x2 +229x
52x2 +169x
15x2 +60x 195
15x2 +60x 195
0.
So the other quadratic factor is 2x2 +13x15. If its not obvious how this can be factorised,
then go ahead and use the quadratic formula:
x=
13
132 4(2)(15) 13
=
2(2)
169 120 13 7
=
= 5, 1.5.
4
4
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93.4
4
2i = (0, 2)
3
1 + 2i = (1, 2)
2
1
-3 = (-3, 0)
1 = (1, 0)
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-1 - 3i = (-1, -3)
-4
-5
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Answer to Exercise 153. 4 = 42 + 02 = 4, arg 4 = 0.
3 = (3)2 + 02 = 3, arg(3) = .
2i = 02 + 22 = 2, arg(2i) = /2.
1 + 2i =
1 3i =
(1)2 + (3)2 =
2
1.107 rad.
1
3
1.893 rad.
10, arg(1 3i) = tan1
1
4
3
2i = (0, 2)
2
1 + 2i = (1, 2)
1.107 rad
-3 = (-3, 0)
x
0
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
4
5
4 = (4, 0)
-2
-3
-1 - 3i = (-1, -3)
-4
-1.893 rad
-5
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Answer to Exercise 155. We already calculated the modulus and arguments of these
complex numbers in Exercise 153. So
Answer to Exercise 156. We already calculated the modulus and arguments of these
complex numbers in Exercise 153. So
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93.5
Answer to Exercise 157. (a) z = 1 has modulus 1 and argument 0. w = 3 has modulus
3 and argument . Hence, zw has modulus 1 3 = 3 and argument 0 + + 2k = + 2k =
(k = 0). So zw = 3 (cos + i sin ) = 3ei . (You can easily verify that 3ei = 3, which is
indeed equal to 1 (3).)
2
(b) z = 2i has modulus 2 and argument . w = 1+2i has modulus 5 and argument tan1 .
2
1
1
Hence, zwhas modulus 2 5 and argument
/2+tan
2+2k
2.678+2k
=
2.678
(k
=
0).
3
(c) z = 1 3i has modulus 10 and argument tan1
. w = 3 + 4i has modulus 5 and
1
4
4
argument tan1 . Hence, zw has modulus 105 and argument tan1 3+tan1 +2k
3
3i(0.965)
.
0.965+2k = 0.965 (k = 0). So zw = 5 10 [cos (0.965) + i sin (0.965)] = 5 10e
Answer to Exercise 158. (a) z = 1 has modulus 1 and argument 0. w = 3 has modulus 3
z
1
and argument . Hence, has modulus and argument 0 +2k = +2k = (k = 1).
w
3
z cos + i sin ei
ei
1
So
=
=
. (You can easily verify that
= , which is indeed equal to
w
3
3
3
3
1
.)
3
2
z
2
5
2
tan1 . Hence,
has modulus =
= 0.4 5 and argument tan1 2 + 2k
1
w
2
5 5
0.464 + 2k = 0.464 (k = 0). So zw = 0.4 5 (cos 0.464 + i sin 0.464) = 0.4 5ei(0.464) .
3
10 and argument tan1
. w = 3 + 4i has modulus 5 and
1
4
z
10
4
argument tan1 . Hence, has modulus
= 0.2 10 and argument tan1 3tan1 +
3
w
5
3
z
2k 2.820 + 2k = 2.820 (k = 0). So
= 0.2 10 [cos (2.820) + i sin (2.820)] =
w
i(2.820)
0.2 10e
.
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(0.9)
3ei(0.2) 3ei(0.9) = 3 2 sin
ei(0.20.9+)/2 = 6 sin(0.55)ei(0.15) .
2
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+
2
(ei
+ ei(
)
2
) = ei
+
2
(2 cos
).
2
)]
2
+
2
(2 cos
= arg (ei
+
2
+
+ 2k,
2
) + 2k
2
) = ei 2 2 cos
2
2
= 2 cos
.
= 1 2 cos
2
2
ei + ei = ei
+
2
(2 cos
+
That is, ei + ei has modulus 2 cos
and argument
. In other words, ei + ei =
2
2
i( + )
2 cos
e 2 , as desired. Similarly,
2
ei ei = ei
+
2
(ei
ei(
+
2
)
2
) = ei
(2i sin
+
2
(2i sin
).
2
)]
2
) + 2m
2
+
++
=
+ + 0 + 2m =
+ 2m,
2
2
2
= arg (ei
+
2
) = ei 2 2i sin
2
2
= 1 2 sin
= 2 sin
.
2
2
ei ei = ei
+
2
(2i sin
++
and argument
. In other words, ei ei =
2
2
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93.6
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93.7
Radius r
Radius r
(a)
(a, b)
(a, b)
(d)
(c)
Radius r
(a, b)
(a, b)
Radius r
x
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(e)
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Answer to Exercise 162. (a) The line equidistant to the points (1, 4) and (5, 0) has
equation y = 1.5x 1, as we now show through two methods:
M ethod #1.
(x 1, y 4) = (x (5), y 0)
2x + 1 8y + 16 = 10x + 25
12x 8y 8 = 0
y = 1.5x 1.
Method #2. (This second method assumes we already know that the given locus is a line.)
The desired line is perpendicular to the line connecting the points (1, 4) and (5, 0). The
04
latter line has slope
= 2/3 and midpoint (2, 2).
5 1
The desired line thus has equation y = 1.5x + c. The desired line passes through the
midpoint (2, 2) hence, 2 = 1.5(2) + c c = 2 3 = 1.
Altogether then, the desired line has equation y = 1.5x 1.
(b) {(x, y) (x 17, y 3) = (x + 2, y + 11)} is the line that is equidistant from the points
(17, 3) and (2, 11).
M ethod #1.
(x 17, y 3) = (x + 2, y + 11)
19
173
x+
.
14
28
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Answer to Exercise 163. The locus {(x, y) x2 + y 2 = 1, x > 0} describes the right half
(of the circumference) of the unit circle centred on the origin. It is illustrated in green in
the figure below. Note that it excludes the endpoints (indicated by black circles).
y
{(x, y): x = 0}
{(x, y): x2 + y2 = 1}
x
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93.8
2
2
(b) Let z = (x, y) and c = (a, b). Then z c = (x a, y b) = (x a) + (y b) and so
2
2
2
2
the equation z c = r is equivalent to (x a) + (y b) = r or (x a) + (y b) = r2 .
So the locus {z C z c r} describes the circumference of the circle of radius r centred
on c.
(c) The locus {z C z c r} describes the entire interior of the circle centred on c, with
radius r, including the circumference of the circle.
(d) The locus {z C z c < r} describes the entire interior of the circle centred on c, with
radius r, excluding the circumference of the circle.
Answer to Exercise 165. (a) z c z b is the closed half-plane of points that are at
least as close to point c as to point b.
(b) z c < z b is the open half-plane of points that are at least as close to point c as to
point b.
(c) z c z b is the closed half-plane of points that are at least as close to point b as
to point c.
(d) z c > z b is the open half-plane of points that are at least as close to point b as to
point c.
Answer to Exercise 166. The locus {z C z = 1, < arg z < 0} describes the lower
half of the circumference of the unit circle centred on the origin, excluding the endpoints
on the horizontal axis.
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Answer to Exercise 167 (a) - (b). z 2 2i = 1 describes a unit circle centred on the
point C = (2, 2). A quick sketch is helpful.
y
F
|z - 2 - 2i | = 1
U
A
N
D
O
is the angle the
line y = x makes
with the positive
x-axis.
1
1
1
or CA = . And AN = . Hence,
2
2
2
1
1
N = (2 , 2 ).
2
2
1
1
Symmetrically, F = (2 + , 2 + ).
2
2
Page 1123, Table of Contents
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
F
|z - 2 - 2i | = 1
U
A
N
D
O
is the angle the
line y = x makes
with the positive
x-axis.
(c) The points U and D at which arg z is maximised and minimised are also where the
tangents OU and OD from the origin touch the circle. By the properties of the circle, OU
is perpendicular to CU . Similarly, OD is perpendicular to CD.
The angle the upper half of the line y = x makes with the positive x-axis is = . The
4
1 1
1 1
angle COU is sin . Hence, arg U = + COU = + sin .
4
8
8
1
sin1 .
4
8
1
Symmetrically, U = 7 and arg U = + sin1 .
4
8
Symmetrically, arg D = COD = COU =
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93.9
Answer to Exercise 168. Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the proposition that
k
j+1
j+1
4
0.927.
3
12
+ ) + 2k 3.125 (k = 3). So
5
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
1
= 0.75.
1
(b) 2 + i =
1
5 = 50.5 and arg (2 + i) = tan1 .
2
1
So z 10 = 55 and arg z 10 = 10 tan1 + 2k 4.636 + 2k 1.647 (k = 1). Altogether
2
then, in polar and exponential forms,
z 10 = 55 [cos (1.647) + i sin (1.647)] , z 10 = 55 ei(1.647) .
1
For the standard form, just punch into your calculator 55 cos (10 tan1 ) = 237 and
2
1
55 sin (10 tan1 ) = 3116 to get z 10 = 237 3116i.
2
(c) 1 3i =
3
10 = 100.5 and arg (1 3i) = tan1 .
1
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1
=
1
and arguments
1
3 and argument tan1 . So the roots of the equation z 11 = 2+i
2
1
tan (1/2) + 2k
, for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. Altogether
have modulus 31/22 and arguments
11
then,
(b) z 11 = 2+i has modulus
z = 31/22 ei[tan
(1/2)+2k]/11
, for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
z = 101/24 ei[tan
(3)+2k]/12
, for k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
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94
94.1
d
to get
dx
dy
2xy + cos x
dx
x2
2 dy
2xy + x
+ cos x = 0. So
=
(for x 0). And
=
(for
dx
dx
x2
dy
2xy + cos x
2xy + cos x 0).
Answer to Exercise 172.
dx
d
, we could also have applied
to the given equation:
dy
dy
dx
dx
x2
dx
2
=
.
2x y + x + cos x = 0 and so again,
dy
dy
dy
2xy + cos x
Alternative Method. To find
dy
et 3t2
dy
= et 3t2 . So
=
(for sin t + 2t 0).
dt
dx sin t + 2t
dx
=
dt
dy dy dx 4t3 1
=
= 4
(for 5t4 + 1 0).
dx dt dt 5t + 1
And so at t = 0,
While at t =
1
y = (x 2) =
2
dy 4t3 1
=
= 1 and so the tangent line at t = 0 has equation y = x.
dx 5t4 + 1
dy
4t3 1
3
1
1,
= 4
=
=
and so the tangent line at t = 1 has equation
dx
5t + 1
6
2
1
x 1.
2
1
2
And so at their intersection, we have x = x 1 or x = . So their intersection point is
2
3
2 2
( , ).
3 3
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1
Answer to Exercise 175. (a) The volume is fixed as 1 = r2 h. So r =
3
r2 + h2 =
3
.
h
3
+ h2 .
h
(c) The total external surface area of the cone (including the base) is
A = rl =
3
h
3
+ h2 =
h
9
3h
+
=
2 h2
9
+ 3h.
h2
18
dA
3 h63
3 h63
dA
6 1/3
h3 + 3
(d) Compute
=
=
=
. So
= 0 h = ( ) .
dh 2 9 + 3h 2 9 + 3h 2 A
dh
h2
h2
3
=
dh2 2
18
h4 A (
h63 ) dA
dh
A2
3
=
2
18
h4 A (
h63 ) 23
A2
h63
A
12
9 h4 A2 ( h3 )
=
4
A3
12 2
6 2 12 9
6 2
A
)
=
(
+
3h)
)
h4
h3
h4 h2
h3
(f)
108 36
36 12
72 24
2
+
(
+
)
=
+ 3 2.
6
3
6
3
6
h
h
h
h
h
h
1
This is a -shaped quadratic in 3 , whose determinant is (24)2 4(72)( 2 ) = 864 2 > 0.
h
So this expression is always positive.
d2 A
d2 A
(g) The numerator of our expression for
is
always
positive.
So
is always positive.
dh2
dh2
dA
is always strictly increasing. So the stationary point we found in (d) must also
That is,
dh
be the global minimum point.
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94.2
(3)
(3)
,
i
(0)
=
1,
i
(x)
=
2
,
and
i
(0)
=
2.
Thus,
M
(x)
=
x
+ .
i (x) =
3
(1 + x)2
(1 + x)3
2 3
(d) Given i R R defined by x ln(1 + x), we have i(0) = 0, i (x) =
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
Answer to Exercise 177. sin 0 = 0. And M0 (0) = 0, M1 (0) = 0, M2 (0) = 0, and indeed
Mn (0) = 0 for all n. So it does appear plausible that sin 0 = M (0).
M0 ( ) = 0,
2
M1 ( ) = M2 ( ) = 1.571,
2
2
2
M3 ( ) = M4 ( )
2
2
(/2)3
0.925,
2
3!
M5 ( ) = M6 ( )
2
2
(/2)3 (/2)5
+
1.004,
2
3!
5!
M7 ( ) = M8 ( )
2
2
1.000,
2
3!
5!
7!
Mn ( ) 1.000,
2
for all n 7.
It does appear plausible that sin () = M (), because sin = 0 and ...
M0 () = 0,
M1 () = M2 () = 3.141,
M3 () = M4 ()
()3
=
2.026,
3!
M5 () = M6 ()
()3 ()5
+
0.524
3!
5!
M7 () = M8 ()
0.075
3!
5!
7!
M9 () = M10 ()
+
0.007
3!
5!
7!
9!
M9 () = M10 ()
Mn () 0.000,
0.000
3!
5!
7!
9!
11!
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, so f (0) =
2
2
1+x
(1 + x)
1 + x (1 + x)
Hence, M3 (x) = 0 + 0 +
2 2 3 3
1
x + x = x2 x3 .
2!
3!
2
3
[ln (x + 1)]
+
Answer to Exercise 180. For ln x R, we have sin [ln (x + 1)] = ln (x + 1)
3!
x2 x3
. . . . For x (1, 1], we have ln (x + 1) = x + . . . . Hence, for x (1, 1] (this is the
2
3
range of values for which the Maclaurin series for sin [ln(1 + x)] converges), we have
x2
2
x3
3
...)
(x x2 + x3 . . . )
3!
+ ...
1 1
x2 x3
x2
+ x3 ( ) + = x
+
+ ...
2
3 3!
2
6
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94.3
Answer to Exercise 181. (a) F (x) = 4 sin 4x, so that indeed F is an indefinite integral
for f . And:
G (x) = 8 (2 sin x cos3 x 2 sin3 x cos x) = 16 sin x cos x (cos2 x sin2 x)
= 8 sin 2x cos 2x = 4 sin 4x,
so that indeed G is an indefinite integral for f .
(b) Although F and G seem to be very different functions, they actually differ only by a
constant (namely 1), as we now show:
G(x) = 8 sin2 x cos2 x = 2 (2 sin x cos x) (2 sin x cos x) = 2 sin2 2x
= 1 (1 2 sin2 2x) = 1 cos 4x = 1 + F (x).
So this example does not contradict the assertion that the indefinite integral is unique up
to a constant.
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94.4
d
(kx + C) = x for all x, so by definition, k dx = kx + C.
dx
d xn+1
(
+ C) = xn
dx n + 1
d x
(e + C) = ex
dx
xn+1
x dx = n + 1 + C,
x
x
e dx = e + C,
d
( cos x + C) = sin x
dx
sin x dx = cos x + C,
d
(sin x + C) = cos x
dx
cos x dx = sin x + C,
d
[F (x) G(x) + C] = f (x) g(x) f (x) g(x) dx = F + G + C,
dx
d
[kF (x) + C] = kf (x)
dx
kf (x) dx = kF + C.
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d
1
sin1 x =
(for x < 1). Hence,
dx
1 x2
d
x
1
1
1
.
[sin1 ( ) + C] =
=
2 x2
dx
a
x 2a
a
1 (a)
1
x
So indeed
dx = sin1 ( ) + C (for x < a).
a
a2 x2
a+x
0.
ax
d 1
a+x
d 1
a+x
1 d
( ln
+ C) =
( ln
+ C) =
[ln(a + x) ln(a x)]
dx 2a
ax
dx 2a a x
2a dx
=
1
1
1
1 a x + (a + x) 1 2a
1
(
+
)=
=
=
,
2a a + x a x
2a (a + x) (a x) 2a a2 x2 a2 x2
1
a+x
1
dx
=
ln
+ C.
so that indeed 2
a x2
2a
ax
Case #2:
a+x
< 0.
ax
d 1
a+x
d 1
a+x
1 d
( ln
+ C) =
( ln
+ C) =
[ln(a + x) ln(x a)]
dx 2a
ax
dx 2a x a
2a dx
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
(
)=
(
+
)= 2
,
2a a + x x a
2a a + x a x
a x2
1
1
a+x
dx =
so that indeed 2
ln
+ C.
2
a x
2a
ax
(... Answer continued on the next page ...)
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Answer to Exercise 183. (f) Let x not be an integer multiple of , so that sin x 0.
Case #1: sin x 0.
d
d
cos x
(ln sin x + C) =
(ln sin x + C) =
= cot x,
dx
dx
sin x
so that indeed cot x dx = ln sin x + C.
Case #2: sin x < 0.
d
cos x
d
(ln sin x + C) =
[ln ( sin x) + C] =
= cot x,
dx
dx
sin x
so that again cot x dx = ln sin x + C.
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Answer to Exercise 183. (g) Let x not be an integer multiple of , so that csc x + cot x
is well-defined.
Case #1: csc x + cot x 0.
d
d
csc x cot x csc2 x
( ln csc x + cot x + C) =
[ ln (csc x + cot x) + C] =
dx
dx
csc x + cot x
=
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Answer to Exercise 183. (h) Let x not be an odd-integer multiple of /2, so that
sec x + tan x is well-defined.
Case #1: sec x + tan x 0.
d
d
sec x tan x + sec2 x
(ln sec x + tan x + C) =
[ln (sec x + tan x) + C] =
dx
dx
sec x + tan x
=
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cos 2x + 1
1
sin 2x
dx = x +
+ C.
2
2
4
P Q
P +Q
P Q
P +Q
cos
. So let mx =
and nx =
.
2
2
2
2
So P = (m + n)x and Q = (m n)x. Thus,
(d) Recall that sin P + sin Q = 2 sin
sin(mx) cos(nx) =
1
{sin [(m + n)x] + sin [(m n)x]}
2
P Q
P +Q
P Q
P +Q
sin
. So let mx =
and nx =
.
2
2
2
2
So P = (m + n)x and Q = (m n)x. Thus,
(e) Recall that cos P cos Q = 2 sin
1
sin(mx) sin(nx) = {cos [(m + n)x] cos [(m n)x]}
2
} + C.
sin(mx) sin(nx) dx = 2 {
mn
m+n
P +Q
P Q
P +Q
P Q
cos
. So let mx =
and nx =
.
2
2
2
2
So P = (m + n)x and Q = (m n)x. Thus,
(f) Recall that cos P + cos Q = 2 cos
cos(mx) cos(nx) =
1
{cos [(m + n)x] + cos [(m n)x]}
2
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Answer to Exercise 185. (a) (i) Note that the given substitution x = 3 sec u implies
x
dx
u = sec1 ( ) and
= 3 sec u tan u. Now,
3
du
9
9
1
dx =
dx =
dx
2 2
x x 9
9 sec2 u 9 sec2 u 9
3 sec2 u sec2 u 1
=
1
1
1
dx =
dx
2
3 sec u tan u
3 sec2 u tan2 u
1
dx
du + C1 =
3 sec2 u tan u du
1
x
du + C1 = cos u du + C1 = sin u + C = sin (sec1 ( )) + C.
sec u
3
3 sec2 u tan u
3 sec u tan u du + C1
du
= 1).
du
3
dx
3
9
implies
=
.
and
u
=
1
du 2(1 u)3/2
x2
1u
9
9
9
3
3
1
du
+
C
=
du + C1
dx =
2 2
3/2
9
9
2(1
u)
x x 9
x2 x2 9 2(1 u)3/2
9
1u
1u
(1 u)3/2
1u
3
3
=
du
+
C
=
du + C1
1
3/2
3/2
9
2(1
u)
2(1
u)
9
9(1
u)
1u 9
1
9
= du + C1 = u + C = 1 2 + C.
x
2 u
1
du
= 1).
du
Hypothenuse
(a) (iii) Let y =
. Fix Adjacent = 1, so that Hypothenuse = y and
Adjacent
y2 1
=
y
1
.
y2
x
1
9
1
= 1 2.
sin (sec1 ( )) =
2
3
x
(x)
3
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(b) (i) x =
3
2x
dx 3 2
tan u implies u = tan1 ( ) and
= sec u. Now,
2
3
du 2
x3
3/2
(4x2 + 9)
dx =
( 23 tan u)
[4 ( 23
tan u) + 9]
3/2
dx =
( 23 tan u)
2
3/2
(9 tan u + 9)
dx
( 23 tan u)
1
tan3 u
1
3
=
dx
=
dx
=
sin u dx
3
3/2
2
8
sec
u
8
(9 sec u)
1
1
1
3
sin3 u
3 dx
3 3
2
sin
u
du
+
C
=
sin
u
sec
u
du
+
C
=
du + C1
1
1
8
du
8
2
16 cos2 u
3
1 cos2 u
3
sin u
=
sin
u
du
+
C
=
sin u du + C1
1
16
cos2 u
16
cos2 u
3
1
1
3
1 2x
+ C,
=
+
cos
(tan
(
(
+ cos u) + C =
))
1
2x
16 cos u
16 cos (tan ( 3 ))
3
du
= 1).
du
du
u 9 1/2 1
1/2
) = (u 9) and
= 8x. Now,
(b) (ii) u = 4x + 9 implies x = (
4
2
dx
2
x3
(4x2 + 9)
dx =
3/2
1
u 9 1 du
u9
1
8x
dx
=
dx
=
du + C1
3/2
4u3/2 8 dx
32u3/2
(4x2 + 9) 8
x2
1
1 0.5
4x2 + 18
0.5
0.5
(2u + 18u ) + C = u
+ C,
=
(u + 9) + C =
32
16
16 4x2 + 9
1
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Opposite
(b) (iii) Let y =
. Fix Adjacent = 1, so that Opposite = y and Hypothenuse
Adjacent
2
2
2
2
= Adjacent + Opposite = 1 + y = 1 + y 2 . So
cos (tan1 y) =
Adjacent
1
=
.
Hypothenuse
1 + y2
2x
1
)) =
.
3
2x 2
1+( 3 )
We now show that the answers in (i) and (ii) are exactly identical!
2x
3
2x
1
1
3
1
=
+
cos
(tan
(
))
1
+
(
)
+
2
16 cos (tan1 ( 2x
3
16
3
))
2x
3
1 + ( 3 )
2x
2x
3 1+( 3 ) +1 3 2+( 3 )
18 + 4x2
.
=
=
=
2
16
16
2x 2
2x 2
16
9
+
4x
1+( 3 )
1+( 3 )
v
u
2
x sin x dx = uv u v dx = x cos x + 2 x cos x dx
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94.5
Answer to Exercise 187. For the Lower Sum SL12 , each rectangle has width (or base)
0.5. The first rectangle has height f (0), the second f (0.5), the third f (1), ..., the twelfth
f (5.5). And so
1
11
1
1
11
1
+ 1 + +
+ 1 15.116.
SL12 = [f (0) + f ( ) + + f ( )] = ( 0 + 1) +
2
2
2
2
2
For the Upper Sum SL12 , each rectangle again has width (or base) 0.5. The first rectangle
has height f (0.5), the second f (1), the third f (1.5), ..., the twelfth f (6). And so
1
1
1 1
SU 12 = [f ( ) + f (1) + + f (6)] =
+1 +
+ 1 + + ( 6 + 1) 16.341.
2
2
2 2
2
Answer to Exercise 188. We do not know which the area function is, amongst the
infinitely-many indefinite integrals of f . We merely know that the area function is one of
them. Hence, we use the indefinite article an, rather than the definite article the.
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
94.6
Method #2. y = x x = y
1/3
. So A =
y=2
y=1
4/3
3
24/3 1
) = (24/3 1) .
(1 +
4
4
x dy =
2
1
y 1/3 dy =
3 4/3 2 3 4/3
[y ]1 = (2 1).
4
4
y
y=2
A
y=1
D
B
C
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A=
/6
3 .
3
sin x0.5 dx =
5/6
[ cos x 0.5x]/6
5
5
3
3
)+
=
= cos +cos + = (
6
6 12 12
2
2 3
Answer to Exercise 191. By the quadratic formula, the two curves intersect at 2/2.
So
A=
2/2
2/2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 x2 (x2 + 1) dx = [x
] =[
] [
+
]=
.
3 2/2
2
12
2
12
3
2x3
2/2
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x5
32
32
256
x 16 dx = [ 16x] = ( 32) (
+ 32) =
.
5
5
5
5
2
4
y
x
A
Answer to Exercise
193. (Again,
it helps to graph this on your calculator.) Note that
3
3
y = 1 t = 2; y = 2 t = 3; and dy/dt = 3t2 . So the area can be computed as:
t= 3 3
y=2
3t5
6t4
(t + 2t) 3t dt = [
+
]
y=1 x dy = t=
3
3
5
4
2
2
=[
3 35/3 6 34/3
3 25/3 6 24/3
38/3 3 25/3 37/3 3 24/3
+
][
+
]=
+
.
5
4
5
4
5
2
0 y dx = 0
Page 1146, Table of Contents
1
sin 2x 2
sin x dx = [ x
] = .
2
4 0 2
2
www.EconsPhDTutor.com
94.7
ex
y = (sin x cos x) + C is the general solution.
2
v
e0
Given also the initial condition x = 0 y = 1, we find that 1 = (sin 0 cos 0) + C =
2
ex
C 0.5 C = 1.5. Thus, the particular solution is y = (sin x cos x) + 1.5.
2
Rearranging,
dx
1
= 2
. So the general solution is
dy
y +1
1
x = 2
dy = tan1 y + C (Proposition 10). Rearranging, the general solution is
y +1
y = tan (x + D) (where D = C).
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1
x
ex
= (sin x cos x) + C1
2
v
dy
dx
dy
dx
y=
=
dy
ex
dx =
(sin x cos x) + C1 dx
dx
2
1 ex
[ (sin x cos x) + C2 ex cos x dx + C1 x]
2 2
1 ex
ex
[ (sin x cos x) + C2 (sin x + cos x) + C3 + C1 x]
2 2
2
1
(ex cos x + C1 x + C4 ) ,
2
dy 1
= (ex cos x + C1 x + C4 ).
dx 2
1
2 = (e/2 cos + C1 + 2.5) C1 = 1.5.
2
2
2
1=
dy 1
= (ex cos x + 1.5x + 2.5).
dx 2
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GM m
, where G R is
r2
d
(mv).
dt
dm
dv
d
(mv) =
v + m . Assuming that m is constant, we
(ii) By the Product Rule, F =
dt
dt
dt
dm
dv
have
= 0 and hence F = m .
dt
dt
(c) Taking the Earth is immobile, the force of gravitation is the rate of change of momentum
of the small ball. That is,
F=
GM m
dv
=
m
.
r2
dt
The ball drops towards the surface of the Earth at an increasing speed. By assumption,
downwards is the negative direction. Hence the negative sign.
Cancelling out the ms yields
dv
GM
=
.
r2
dt
1 R
Gm1
R+x r2 dr = Gm1 [ r ]
R+x
R
(d) (i)
r=R
(ii)
r=R dr
dv
r=R+x dt dr = r=R+x dt dv
1
1
vs2
(iii) Gm1 ( +
)=
R R+x
2
= Gm1 (
v=vs
v=0
1
1
+
).
R R+x
v
v2 s
vs2
v dv = [ ] = .
2 0
2
vs =
2Gm1 (
1
1
).
R R+x
By
assumption, downwards is the negative direction. So for (d) (iii), we must have vs =
1
1
2Gm1 (
).
R R+x
(... Answer continued on the next page ...)
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(e) This is simply the same process as before, but in reverse. The ball will keep moving
upwards, but the force of gravitation will keep pulling it down, reducing its velocity at a
Gm1
dv
rate given by the equation 2 = . Eventually, the velocity of the ball will hit 0 and
r
dt
then start going negative (i.e. the ball will start falling down towards the Earth).
1
1
Hence, if x is the maximum height attained by the ball, we have V = 2GM (
).
R R+x
(f) In order for the ball to never fall back down to earth, it must be that the ball keeps
going upwards and never reaches any maximum height. That is, x . Thus, ve = lim V =
x
1
1
2GM
2GM (
)=
.
R R+x
R
ve =
2GM
=
R
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d2 y
dy
x2
dy
Answer to Exercise 199. Given 2 , we have
= x dx = + C1 and y =
dx =
dx
dx
2
dx
x3
+ C1 x + C2 .
6
Given also the initial condition x = 0 y = 1, we find that C2 = 1. Hence, the general
x3
+ C1 x + 1.
solution is y =
6
Sketched below are five members of the family of solution curves, specifically where x =
2, 1, 0.
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95
Answer to Exercise 200. Taking the green path, there are 3 ways. Taking the red
path, there are 2 ways. Hence, there are 3 + 2 = 5 ways to get from the Starting Point to
the River.
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Answer to Exercise 203. We must choose three 4D numbers. Choosing the first 4D
number involves four decisions what to put as the first, second, third and fourth digits,
with the condition that no digit is repeated.
____
1 2 3 4
Thus, by the MP, there are 10 9 8 7 = 5040 ways to choose the first 4D number.
If we ignored the fact that we already chose the first 4D number, then thered similarly be
5040 ways to choose the second 4D number (given the condition that this second 4D number
does not have any repeated digits). However, there is an additional condition namely,
the second 4D number cannot be the same as the first. Thus, there are 5040 1 = 5039
ways to choose the second 4D number.
By similar reasoning, we see that there are 5040 2 = 5038 ways to choose the third 4D
number.
Altogether then, by the MP, there are 5040 5039 5038 = 127, 947, 869, 280 ways to choose
the three 4D numbers.
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95.2
Answer to Exercise 209. The problem of choosing a president and vice-president from
a committee of 11 members is equivalent to the problem of filling 2 spaces with 11 distinct
objects. The answer is thus P (11, 2) = 11!/9! = 11 10 = 110.
Answer to Exercise 210. Let B and S stand for brother and sister, respectively.
(a) First consider the problem of permuting the seven letters in BBBBSSS, without any
two Bs next to each other. There is only 1 possible arrangement, namely BSBSBSB.
There are 4! ways to permute the brothers and 3! ways to permute the sisters.
Hence, there are in total 1 4!3! = 144 possible ways to arrange the siblings in a line, so
that no two brothers are next to each other.
(b) First consider the problem of permuting the seven letters in BBBBSSS, without any
two Ss next to each other. Well use the AP.
1. B in position #1.
(a) B in position #2. Then the only way to fill the remaining five positions is SBSBS.
Total: 1 possible arrangement.
(b) S in position #2. Then we must have B in position #3.
i. B in position #4. Then the only way to fill the remaining three positions is
SBS. Total: 1 possible arrangement.
ii. S in position #4. Then we must have B in position #5. And there are two
ways to fill the remaining two positions: either BS or SB. Total: 2 possible
arrangements.
(... Answer to Exercise 210 continued on the next page ...)
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(... Answer to Exercise 210 continued from the previous page ...)
2. S in position #1. Then we must have B in position #2.
(a) B in position #3. Then, like in 1(b), we are left with two Bs and two Ss to fill
the remaining four positions. Hence, Total: 3 possible arrangements.
(b) S in position #3. Then we must have B in position #4. There are three ways
to fill the remaining three positions: SBB, BSB, and BBS. Total: 3 possible
arrangements.
By the AP, there are 1 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 3 = 10 possible arrangements.
Again, there are 4! ways to permute the brothers and 3! ways to permute the sisters.
Hence, there are in total 10 4!3! = 1440 possible ways to arrange the siblings in a line, so
that no two sisters are next to each other.
(c) We saw that there was only 1 possible (linear) permutation of BBBBSSS that satisfied
the restriction, namely BSBSBSB.
If we now arrange the siblings in a circle, there will necessarily be two brothers next to each
other.
We thus conclude: There are 0 possible ways to arrange the siblings in a circle so that no
two brothers are next to each other.
(d) In part (b), we found 10 possible (linear) permutations of BBBBSSS that satisfied
the restriction.
Of these, 3 have sisters at the two ends: SBSBBBS, SBBSBBS, and SBBBSBS. If
arranged in a circle, these 3 arrangements would involve two sisters next to each other. So
we must deduct these 3 arrangements.
We are left with 7 possible arrangements: BBSBSBS, SBBSBSB, BSBBSBS,
SBSBBSB, BSBSBBS, SBSBSBB, and BSBSBSB. But of course, these are simply one and the same fixed circular permutation! (This is consistent with Fact 64, which
tells us to simply divide by 7.)
And now again, we must now take into account the fact that the brothers are distinct and
the sisters are distinct. We conclude that there are in total 1 4!3! = 144 possible ways to
arrange the siblings in a circle, so that no two sisters are next to each other.
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95.3
n (n 1) (n k + 1) (n k) (n k 1) 1
k!(n k) (n k 1) 1
n (n 1) (n 2) (n k + 1)
k!
(mass cancellation).
4!
43
4!
=
=
2!(4 2)! 2!2! 2 1
= 6,
C(6, 4) =
6!
65
6!
=
=
4!(6 4)! 4!2! 2 1
= 15,
C(7, 3) =
7!
7!
765
=
=
= 35.
3!(7 3)! 3!4! 3 2 1
3 7 5
= 630.
1 2 2
17!
17!
17 16 17 16 15
+
=
+
2!15! 3!14!
21
321
= 17 8 + 17 8 5 = 17 8 6 =
18 17 16
.
321
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7
7
7
7
7
= 35,
= 35,
= 21,
= 7,
= 1,
4
3
2
1
0
7
7
7
= 21,
= 7,
= 1.
5
6
7
3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3
x +
x +
x +
x = 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3 .
0
1
2
3
7 7 7
7
+
+
+ +
.
0 1 2
7
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4 4 0 4 3 1 4 2 2 4 1 3 4 4 4
3x +
3x +
3x +
3x +
3x
0
1
2
3
4
4
= 4 ways of choosing the two Tan sons
2
3
= 3 ways of choosing the two Wong daughters.
2
Having chosen these sons and daughters, there are only 2! = 2 1 possible ways of matching
them up. This is because for the first chosen Tan Son, we have 2 possible choices of brides
for him. And then for the second chosen Tan Son, there is only 1 possible choice of bride
left for him.
Altogether then, there are
4 3
2 = 24 ways of forming the two couples.
2 2
6
9
= 6 ways of choosing the five Lee sons and
= 126 ways of choosing
5
5
the five Ho daughters.
(b) There are
Having chosen these sons and daughters, there are 5! = 5 4 3 2 1 possible ways of
matching them up. This is because for the first chosen Tan Son, we have 5 possible choices
of brides for him. And then for the second chosen Tan Son, there are 4 possible choices of
brides left for him. Etc.
Altogether then, there are
6 9
5! = 6 126 5! = 90, 720 ways of forming the five
5 5
couples.
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95.4
S = {A, K, Q, . . . , 2, A, K, Q, . . . , 2, A, K, Q, . . . , 2, A, K, Q, . . . , 2} .
(a) (ii) Since there are 52 possible outcomes, there are 252 possible events. Hence, the
event space contains 252 elements. It is too tedious to write this out explicitly.
(a) (iii) As always, P has domain and R. We have P({3}) = P({5}) = 1/52 and
P({3, 5}) = 2/52. In general, given any event A , we have
P(A) =
A A
=
.
S 52
In words, given any event A, its probability P(A) is simply the number of elements it
contains, divided by 52. So for example, P ({3, 5, A}) = 3/52, as we would expect.
(a) (iv) John might argue that since packs of poker cards usually come with Jokers, there
is the possibility that we mistakenly included one or more Jokers in our deck of cards. He
might thus argue that to cover this possibility, we should set our sample space to be
S = {A, K, , . . . , 2, A, K, . . . , 2, A, K, . . . , 2, A, K, . . . , 2, Joker} .
The event space would be appropriately adjusted to contain 253 elements.
The mapping rule of the probability function would be appropriately adjusted, based on
Johns belief of the probability of selecting a Joker. For example, if he reckons that the
probability of selecting a Joker is 1/10, 000, then he might assign P ({Joker}) = 1/10, 000
and for any other card C, P ({C}) = 9999/(10000 52). The probability of any other event
A is as given by the Additivity Axiom.
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Answer to Exercise 220(b). (i) The appropriate sample space is S = {HH, HT, T H, T T }.
(b) (ii) Since there are 4 possible outcomes, there are 24 = 16 possible events. Hence, the
event space contains 16 elements. It is not too tedious to write these out explicitly:
(b) (iii) As always, P has domain and R. We have P({HH}) = P({HT }) = 1/4 and
P({HT, HT, T H}) = 3/4. In general, given any event A , we have
P(A) =
A A
=
.
S
4
In words, given any event A, its probability P(A) is simply the number of elements it
contains, divided by 4. So for example, P ({T H, T T }) = 2/4, as we would expect.
(b) (iv) John might, as before, argue that there is the possibility that a coin lands on its
edge. He might thus argue that the sample space should be
S = {HH, HT, HX, T H, T T, T X, XH, XT, XX} .
The event space would be appropriately adjusted to contain 29 = 512 elements.
The mapping rule of the probability function would be appropriately adjusted. For example,
if John believes that any given coin flip has probability 1/6000 of landing on its edge, then
we might assign P ({XX}) = 1/60002 , P ({HH}) = (5999/6000)2 , P ({XH}) = (1/6000)
(5999/6000), etc.
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S=
,...,
,...,
,...,
(c) (ii) Since there are 36 possible outcomes, there are 236 possible events. Hence, the
event space contains 236 elements.
(c) (iii) As always, P has domain and R. We have P = P
2
P ,
= . In general, given any event A , we have
36
A A
P(A) =
=
.
S 36
1
and
=
36
In words, given any event A, its probability P(A) is simply the number of elements it
= , as we would expect.
contains, divided by 52. So for example, P ,
,
,
36
(c) (iv) John might argue that there is the possibility that a die lands on a vertex. He
might thus argue that the sample space contains 72 = 49 outcomes and should be
S=
,...,
,...,
V
,...,
V
1
999999 2
1000000
10000002
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(b) The events A, Ac B, and Ac B c C are mutually exclusive. Moreover, their union
is A B C. Hence, by the Additivity Axiom (applied twice),
P(A B C) = P(A) + P (Ac B) + P (Ac B c C) .
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95.5
Answer to Exercise 222. Let A be the event that we rolled at least one even number
and B be the event that the sum of the two dice was 8. We have P(B) = 5/36 (see Exercise
228).
And A B can occur if and only if the two dice were
3/36.
, or
. Hence, P(A B) =
Altogether then,
P(AB) =
P(A B) 3/36 3
=
= .
P(B)
5/36 5
1
.
10, 000, 000
1
.
10, 000, 000
There is reason to believe that P (Blood stain is not John Browns) is much greater than
P (DNA match) and thus that P (Blood stain is not John BrownsDNA match) is much
greater than P (DNA matchBlood stain is not John Browns).
One important factor is that if the DNA database is large, then invariably wed expect to
find, purely by coincidence, a DNA match to the blood stain at the murder scene. As of
May 2016, the US National DNA Index contains over the DNA profiles of over 12.3 million
1
individuals. And so, even if it were true that there is only probability
that two
10, 000, 000
random individuals have a DNA match, wed expect to find a match, simply by combing
through the entire US National DNA Index!
The error here is similar to the lottery example, where we conclude (erroneously) that a
lottery winner must have cheated, simply because it was so unlikely that she won.
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95.6
Answer to Exercise 225. First, note that P (H1 ) = P (T1 ) = P (H2 ) = 0.5.
(a) P (H1 H2 ) = 0.25 = 0.5 0.5 = P (H1 ) P (H2 ), so that indeed H1 and H2 are independent.
(b) P (H2 T1 ) = 0.25 = 0.50.5 = P (H2 ) P (T1 ), so that indeed H2 and T1 are independent.
(c) Observe that H1 T1 = (it is impossible that the first coin flip is heads AND also
the first coin flip is tails).
Hence, P (H1 T1 ) = P () = 0 0.25 = 0.5 0.5 = P (H1 ) P (T1 ), so that indeed H1 and T1
are not independent.
Answer to Exercise 226. No, the journalist is incorrectly assuming that the probability
of one family member making the NBA is independent of another family member making
the NBA. But such an assumption is almost certainly false.
The same excellent genes that made Rick Barry a great basketball player, probably also
helped his three sons. Not to mention that having an NBA player as your father probably
helps a lot too.
The two events family member #1 in NBA and family member #2 in NBA are probably
not independent. So we cannot simply multiply probabilities together.
Answer to Exercise 227. First, note that P (H1 ) = P (T2 ) = P(X) = 0.5.
(a) P (H1 T2 ) = 0.25 = 0.5 0.5 = P (H1 ) P (T2 ), so that indeed H1 , T2 are independent.
P (H1 X) = 0.25 = 0.5 0.5 = P (H1 ) P (X), so that indeed H1 , X are independent.
P (T2 X) = 0.25 = 0.5 0.5 = P (T2 ) P (X), so that indeed T2 , X are independent.
Altogether then, H1 , T2 , and X are indeed pairwise independent.
(b) The event H1 T2 X is the same as the event H1 T2 . Thus, P (H1 T2 X) =
P (H1 T2 ) = 0.25 0.5 0.5 0.5 = P (H1 ) P (T2 ) P(X), so that indeed the three events are
not independent.
Page 1165, Table of Contents
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95.7
(a)
P(X = k)
1
36
10
11
12
2
36
3
36
4
36
5
36
.
6
36
5
36
4
36
3
36
2
36
1
36
3
2
1
6 1
+
+
=
= .
36 36 36 36 6
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(P Q)
= 3 and Q
= 5 and P
= 4.
= 3.
= 15 and (P Q)
= 12.
1,
2,
3,
4.
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S=
,...,
,...,
,...,
The event space is the set of all possible subsets of S and contains 2216 elements.
The probability function P R is defined by P(A) = A/216, for any event A .
(b) (ii) The range of X is {3, 4, 5, . . . , 18}. We now count the number of ways there are for
the three dice to reach a sum of 3, to reach a sum of 4, etc. This will enable us to write
down the mapping rule of the function X S R.
To get a sum of 3, the three dice must be
3!
= 1 possibility.
3!
, or permutations thereof.
, or permutations
, or permutations
, or
, or
By symmetry, there are also 27 ways to get a sum of 11; also 25 ways to get a sum of 12,
etc.
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(... Answer to Exercise 231(b) continued from the previous page ...)
So X S R is defined by
=X
=X
= 3,
=X
=X
= 4,
=X
=X
=X
= 5,
(b)(iii)
P(X = 3) =
1
,
216
P(X = 4) =
3
,
216
P(X = 5) =
6
,
216
P(X = 6) =
10
,
216
P(X = 7) =
15
,
216
P(X = 8) =
21
,
216
P(X = 9) =
25
27
27
, P(X = 10) =
, P(X = 11) =
,
216
216
216
P(X = 12) =
25
21
15
, P(X = 13) =
, P(X = 14) =
,
216
216
216
P(X = 15) =
10
6
3
, P(X = 16) =
, P(X = 17) =
,
216
216
216
P(X = 18) =
1
,
216
P(X = k) = 0,
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95.8
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95.9
2 2 6 6 1 2
1 2 5 1 1 1 1 1 25
20
1
46
+ =
+
+
=
.
2 1 6 6 2 2 6 6 144 144 144 144
(b) P (X + Y = 3) is simply the probability of 2 heads and 1 six OR 1 head and 2 sixes. So
1 1 2 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 10
2
12
P (X + Y = 3) =
+
=
+
=
.
2 2 1 6 6 1 2 2 6 6 144 144 144
(c) P (X + Y = 4) is simply the probability of 2 heads and 2 sixes. So P (X + Y = 4) =
1 1 1 1
1
=
.
2 2 6 6 144
E[X + Y ]
(d)
=
P (X + Y = k) k
kRange(X+Y )
= P (X + Y = 0) 0 + P (X + Y = 1) 1 + P (X + Y = 2) 2
+ P (X + Y = 3) 3 + P (X + Y = 4) 4
=
25
60
46
12
1
60 + 92 + 36 + 4 192 4
0+
1+
2+
3+
4=
=
= .
144
144
144
144
144
144
144 3
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Answer to Exercise 234(a). The range of X consists simply of the possible prizes from
the big game. Range(X) = {2000, 1000, 490, 250, 60, 0}. (Dont forget to include 0.)
Similarly, Range(Y ) = {3000, 2000, 800, 0}.
1
,
10000
P (X = 250) = P (X = 60) =
10
,
10000
P (X = 0) =
9977
,
10000
1
,
10000
P (Y = 0) =
9997
.
10000
E[X] =
(c)
kRange(X)
E[Y ] =
2000
1000
490
250 10 60 10 9977 0
+
+
+
+
+
= 0.659
10000 10000 10000 10000
10000
10000
P (Y = 2000) k
kRange(Y )
1
1
1
9997
3000 +
2000 +
800 +
0 = 0.3 + 0.2 + 0.08 + 0 = 0.58.
10000
10000
10000
10000
(d) For every $1 staked, the big game is expected to lose you $0.341 and the small
game is expected to lose you $0.42. Thus, the big game is expected to lose you less
money.
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95.10
3
1
25704
1
32 +
42 + +
182 =
= 119.
216
216
216
216
Hence,
V[Z] = E [Z 2 ] 2 = 119 10.52 =
105
.
12
65
35
20 cm +
30 cm = 26.5 cm.
100
100
V [Y ] =
35
65
2
2
(20 cm 26.5 cm) +
(30 cm 26.5 cm) = 22.75 cm2 .
100
100
SD [Y ] =
V [Y ] 4.77 cm.
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95.11
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95.12
Answer to Exercise 238. Let X B (20, 0.01) be the number of components in engine
#1 that fail. Let Y B (35, 0.005) be the number of components in engine #2 that fail.
The probability that engine #1 fails is
P (X 2) = 1 P (X 1) = 1 P (X = 0) P (X = 1)
20
20
0.010 0.9920
0.011 0.9919
0
1
0.0169.
=1
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95.13
Answer to Exercise 239. (a) The rate at which cats are killed is probably not constant.
There are probably periods of months or years when cat-killers are particularly active, and
other periods when the cat-killers are either in jail or inactive. (Indeed, between 2011 and
2014, relatively few cats were killed in northern Singapore. However, during 2015-2016,
there were unusually many cats killed in northern Singapore.)
Thus, the Poisson random variable is not a suitable model for the number of cats killed in
northern Singapore.
(b) It is reasonable to suppose that errors occur at a constant rate and that the author is
no more or less likely to make an error, regardless of when his last error was committed.
Thus, the Poisson random variable is arguably a suitable model for the number of errors
in this textbook.
On the other hand, one could argue that errors do not occur at a constant rate. It is
conceivable that the author is sometimes tired while working, and is thus more error-prone
during such occasions. Other times he is high on caffeine (and possibly other stimulants)
and is thus less error-prone.
(c) The rate at which you receive emails is probably not constant. For example, most of
your emails received are probably during the day, because that is when most people are
awake. Thus, the Poisson random variable is not a suitable model for the number of emails
you receive in a 24-hour timespan.
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where was obtained, either by reading off a Poisson table, using a graphing calculator, or
manually doing the calculations on a calculator.
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95.14
0,
if k < 3,
if k > 5.
1,
0.5, if k [3, 5]
(b) fY (k) =
otherwise.
0,
(c) P (3.1 Y 4.6) = 0.75 is in blue and P (4.8 Y 4.9) = 0.05 is in red.
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95.15
-4
-3
-2
-1
-4
-3
-2
-1
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Weve just shown that the PDF of X N(, 2 ) when = 0 and 2 , is the same as the PDF
of the SNRV Z N(0, 1). Hence, the SNRV is indeed simply a normal random variable
with mean = 0 and variance 2 = 1.
with a = and b =
:
X X
= + . Now simply use Fact 79,
X X
1 2
= +
N( +
, ) = N (0, 1) .
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3. E [X] = E [Z + ] = E [Z] + = .
4. We know from Fact 78 that the standard normal PDF attains a global maximum
at 0. That is, (0) (a), for all a R. Since X = Z + , this is equivalent to
fX ( 0 + ) fX ( a + ), for all a R. Equivalently, fX () fX (b), for all b R.
That is, fX attains a global maximum at .
5. V [X] = V [Z + ] = 2 V [Z] = 2 .
6. We know from Fact 78 that for any a R, we have P (Z a) = P (Z < a). Equivalently,
for all a R, P (X a + ) = P (X < a + ). Equivalently, for all b R, P (X b) =
P (X < b).
7. We know from Fact 78 that is symmetric about 0. Since X = Z + , fX must likewise
be symmetric about 0 + = .
a
a
a
). By Fact 78, P (Z ) = P (Z ).
a
Now again by Corollary 6, P (Z ) = P (X a). Altogether then, P (X + a) =
8. First use
P (1 Z
9. First use
P (2 Z
10. First use
P (3 Z
11. By Fact 78, has two points of inflection, namely at 1. That is, changes concavity at
1. Since by Corollary 6, X = Z+, fX must likewise change concavity at 1+ = .
That is, fX has two points of inflection, namely at .
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Answer to Exercise 249. We are given that X N(2.14, 5) and Y N(0.33, 2).
(a) P (X 1) = P (Z
P (Y 1) = P (Z
1 2.14
1 (0.33)
0.1735.
(b)
(2) 2.14
(1.5) 2.14
Z
) P (1.8515 Z 1.6279)
5
5
= P (1.6279 Z 1.8515) = (1.8515) (1.6279) 0.9679 0.9482 = 0.0197.
P (2 X 1.5) = P (
(2) (0.33)
(1.5) (0.33)
Z
) P (1.1809 Z 0.8273
2
2
= P (0.8273 Z 1.1809) = (1.1809) (0.8273) 0.8812 0.7959 = 0.0853
P (2 Y 1.5) = P (
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Answer to Exercise 250. (a) Let W N (25000, 64000000) and E N (200, 10000).
Let B = 0.002W + 0.3E be the total bill in a given month. Then
B N (0.002 25000 + 0.3 200, 0.0022 64000000 + 0.32 10000)
= N (50 + 60, 256 + 900) = N (110, 1156) .
Thus, P (B > 100) 0.6157 (calculator).
(b) Let B1 N (110, 1156), B2 N (110, 1156), . . . , B12 N (110, 1156) be the bills in each
of the 12 months.
Then the total bill in a year is T = B1 +B2 + +B12 N (12 110, 12 1156) = N (1320, 13872).
Thus, P (T > 1000) 0.9967 (calculator).
50 200x
256 + 10000x2
) = 0.9
50 200x
1.2815.
256 + 10000x2
One can rearrange, do the algebra (square both sides), and use the quadratic formula.
Alternatively, one can simply use ones graphing calculator to find that x 0.084. We
conclude that the maximum value of x is approximately 0.084, in order for the probability
that the total utility bill in a given month exceeds $100 is 0.1 or less.
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From our earlier work, we know that each die roll has mean
The CLT says that since n = 30 20 is large enough and the distribution is nice enough
(we are assuming this), X can be approximated by the normal random variable Y
N (30 3.5, 30 35/12) = N (105, 1050/12). Thus, using also the continuity correction, we
have P(100 X 110) P(99.5 Y 111.5) 0.4782 (calculator).
Answer to Exercise 252. Let X be the random variable that is the sum of the weights
of the 5, 000 Coco-Pops.
The CLT says that since n = 5000 20 is large enough and the distribution is nice
enough (we are assuming this), X can be approximated by the normal random variable
Y N (5000 0.1, 5000 0.004) = N (500, 20). Thus, P (X 499) P (Y 499) 0.4115
(calculator).
Answer to Exercise 253. Assume that the probability that a student passes is independent of whether or not other students pass.
Assume also that the distribution is nice enough, so that since n = 1000 20 is big
enough, we can use the CLT.
Let X be the number of passes. Then X can be approximated by the normal random
variable Y N (1000 0.9, 1000 0.9 0.1) = N (900, 90). Thus, using also the continuity
correction, we have P (X 920) P (Y 919.5) 0.0199 (calculator).
(This turns out to be a decent approximation because the exact probability, computed
using the binomial distribution, is P (X 920) 0.0176.)
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95.16
3 + 14 + 2 + 8 + 8 + 6 + 0 41
=
and
7
7
s2 =
n
i=1 x 1885
=
= 188.5,
n
10
2
(i=1n x)
378, 265 1885
10
=
2550.
n1
9
n
n
i=1 x2
[ (x 50)]
n
378, 265 1885
i=1 (xi 50) i=1 ni
10
2
s =
=
2550.
n1
9
2
Answer to Exercise 257. (a) Assume that the weights of the five Singaporeans sampled
are independently- and identically-distributed. Then unbiased estimates for the population
mean and variance 2 of the weights of Singaporeans are, respectively, the observed
sample mean x and observed sample variance s2 :
xi 32 + 88 + 67 + 75 + 56
=
= 63.6,
n
5
x2 322 + 882 + 672 + 752 + 562 4 63.6
x2i n
2
s =
=
= 448.3.
n1
4
x =
(b) We dont know! And unless we literally gather and weigh every single Singaporean, we
will never know what exactly the average weight of a Singaporean is.
All weve found in part (a) is an estimate (63.6 kg) for the average weight of a Singaporean.
We know that on average, the estimator we uses gets it right.
However, it could well be that were unlucky (and got 5 unusually heavy or unusuully light
persons) and the estimate of 63.6 kg is thus way off.
Page 1186, Table of Contents
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= E[
E [X]
x1 + x2 + + x10
= 0.7,
n
2
(b) Yes, the observed sample mean x = 0.7 is an unbiased estimate for the true population
mean (i.e. the true proportion of coin flips that are heads).
And yes, the observed sample variance s2 = 0.23 is an unbiased estimate for the true
population variance 2 .
(c) No, this is merely one observed random sample, from which we generated a single
estimate (guess) namely x = 0.7 of the true population mean .
is an unbiased estimator for the true population
All we know is that the sample mean X
will equal .
mean . That is, the average estimate generated by X
However, any particular estimate x may or may not be equal to . Indeed, if were unlucky,
our particular estimate may be very far from the true .
= V [ 1 (X1 + X2 + + Xn )] = 1 V [X1 + X2 + + Xn ] =
Answer to Exercise 260. V [X]
n
n2
2
1
1
2
(n
)
(V
[X
]
+
V
[X
]
+
+
V
[X
])
=
=
.
1
2
n
n2
n2
n
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(b) The population variance is the number defined by = (xi ) /k. It measures
i=1
/ (n 1).
(d) The sample variance S is a random variable defined by S = (Xi X)
i=1
x1 + x2 + x3 1 + 1 + 0 2
=
= .
3
3
3
The observed sample mean is the average of all values in an observed random sample.
(i) Given an observed random sample, e.g. (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (1, 1, 0), we can calculate the
corresponding observed sample variance as
2
The observed sample variance measures the dispersion across the observed sample variances.
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95.17
Answer to Exercise 262. Let be the probability that a coin-flip is heads. The null
and alternative hypotheses are
H0 = 0.5 and HA > 0.5.
Our random sample is 20 coin-flips: (X1 , X2 , . . . , X20 ), where Xi takes on the value 1 if
the ith coin-flip is heads and 0 otherwise.
Our test statistic is the number of heads: T = X1 + X2 + + X20 .
In our observed random sample (x1 , x2 , . . . , x20 ), there are 17 heads. So the observed
test statistic is t = 17.
Assuming H0 were true, wed have T B (20, 0.5). Thus, the p-value is
P (T 17H0 ) = P (T = 17H0 ) + P (T = 18H0 ) + P (T = 19H0 ) + P (T = 20H0 )
=
20 17 3 20 18 2 20 19 1 20 20 0
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 0.0013.
17
18
19
20
Answer to Exercise 263. Let be the true long-run proportion of coin-flips that are
heads. The null and alternative hypotheses are
H0 = 0.5 and HA 0.5.
Our random sample is 20 coin-flips: (X1 , X2 , . . . , X20 ), where Xi takes on the value 1 if
the ith coin-flip is heads and 0 otherwise.
Our test statistic is the number of heads: T = X1 + X2 + + X20 .
In our observed random sample (x1 , x2 , . . . , x20 ), there are 17 heads. So the observed
test statistic is t = 17.
Assuming H0 were true, wed have T B (20, 0.5). Thus, the p-value is
P (T 17, T 3H0 ) = P (T = 0H0 ) + + P (T = 3H0 ) + P (T = 17H0 ) + + P (T = 20H0 )
=
20 0 20 20 1 19 20 17 3
20 20 0
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 + +
0.5 0.5 0.0026.
0
1
17
20
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20 14 6 20 15 5
20 20 0
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 + +
0.5 0.5 0.05766.
14
15
20
20 20 0
20 14 6 20 15 5
0.5 0.5 0.02069.
0.5 0.5 + +
0.5 0.5 +
20
15
15
Thus, the critical value is 15 (this is the value of t at which we are just able to reject H0 at
the = 0.05 significance level).
And the critical region is {15, 16, . . . , 20} (this is the set of values of t at which wed be able
to reject H0 at the = 0.05 significance level).
(b) The competing hypotheses are H0 = 0.5, HA 0.5.
The test statistic T is the number of heads (out of the 20 coin-flips).
For t = 14, the corresponding p-value is
P (T 14, T 6H0 ) = 1 P (7 T 13H0 )
= 1 [P (T = 7H0 true) + P (T = 8H0 true) + + P (T = 13H0 true)]
20 7 13 20 8 12
20
13
7
= 1
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 + +
0.5 0.5 0.1153.
8
13
7
20 6 14 20 7 13
20
13
7
= 1
0.5 0.5 +
0.5 0.5 + +
0.5 0.5 0.1153.
7
14
6
Thus, the critical value is 15 and the critical region is {15, 16, . . . , 20}.
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35 + 35 + 31 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 31 + 34 + 35 + 34
= 33.4.
10
33.4 34
34.6 34
=P Z
+P Z
0.5271.
9/10
9/10
The large p-value does not cast doubt on or provide evidence against H0 . We fail to reject
H0 at the = 0.05 significance level.
33.4 34
34.6 34
CLT
P Z
+P Z
0.04550.
9/100
9/100
The large p-value casts doubt on or provides evidence against H0 . We reject H0 at the
= 0.05 significance level.
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33.4 34
34.6 34
CLT
P Z
+P Z
0.07300.
11.2/100
11.2/100
The fairly small p-value casts some doubt on or provides some evidence against H0 . But
we fail to reject H0 at the = 0.05 significance level.
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35 + 35 + 31 + 32 + 33 + 34 + 31 + 34 + 35 + 34
= 33.4.
10
33.4 34
34.6 34
= P T9
+ P T9
0.2598.
2.489/10
2.489/10
The large p-value does not cast doubt on or provide evidence against H0 . We fail to reject
H0 at the = 0.05 significance level.
Answer to Exercise 269. The observed sample mean is x = 68 and the observed sample
variance (use Fact 81(a)) is
n
[n xi ]
50 5000 (6850)
50
=
383.7.
49
2
Let be the true average weight of a Singaporean. The competing hypotheses are H0 =
75 and HA < 75.
(This is a one-tailed test, because your friends claim is that the average American is heavier
than the average Singaporean. If the claim were instead that the average Americans weight
is different from the average Singaporeans, then wed have a two-tailed test.)
Since the sample size n = 50 is large enough, we can appeal to the CLT. The p-value is
68 75
68H0 ) CLT
p = P (X
P Z
0.0058.
383.7/50
The small p-value casts doubt on or provides evidence against H0 . We can reject H0 at any
conventional significance level ( = 0.1, = 0.05, or = 0.01).
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95.18
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
p ($)
0
0
10
12
= (8 7.8) (300 470) + (9 7.8) (250 470) + + (8 7.8) (400 470) = 2480,
2
2
2
2
2
= (8 7.8) + (9 7.8) + (4 7.8) + (10 7.8) + (8 7.8) = 20.8 4.56070170,
2
2
2
= (300 470) + (250 470) + + (400 470) = 368000 606.63003552.
Thus,
n
2480,
i=1 (pi p) (qi q)
r=
0.8964.
2
2
4.56070170 606.63003552
n
n
i=1 (pi p) i=1 (qi q)
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i=1
i=1
i
1
2
3
4
5
pi ($)
8
9
4
10
8
qi
300 250 1000 400 400
qi
446 327 923 208 406
ui = qi qi 146 77 77 192 46
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
p ($)
0
(c)
10
(d) The SSR is u2i (146) + (77) + 772 + 1922 + (46) = 72308.
i=1
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After Step 2.
After Step 3.
After Step 4.
After Step 5.
After Step 6.
After Step 7.
After Step 8.
After Step 9.
The TI84 tells us that r = .8963881445 and the regression line is y = ax+b = 119.2307692+
1400. This is indeed consistent with the answers from the previous exercises.
Answer to Exercise 274. In the previous exercises, we already calculated that the OLS
line of best fit is q = 1400 119.2p. Thus,
(a) By interpolation, a barber who charged $7 per haircut sold 1400 119.2 7 566
haircuts.
(b) By extrapolation, a barber who charged $200 per haircut sold 1400119.2200 = 22440
haircuts. This is plainly absurd.
The second prediction is obviously absurd and thus obviously less reliable than the first.
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(a) r 0.954.
(b) r 0.984.
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96
dy
a
Answer to Exercise 276 (9740 N2015/I/1). (i) Compute
= 2 3 + b. From the
dx
x
a
a
1
2
+1.6b+c = 2.4,
information given, we have this system of equations:
0.7b+c =
2
2
1.6
(0.7)
RRR
dy RR
a
3
3.6,
RRR = 2 3 + b = 2.
dx RR
1
Rx=1
So a 3.593, b 5.187, c 7.303 (calculator).
(ii)
a
+ bx + c = 0 x 0.589 (calculator).
x2
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Answer to Exercise 277 (9740 N2015/I/2). (i) You can easily graph these two
equations on your calculator and copy. But as an exercise, Ill do this without a calculator.
x+1
x+1
2
First draw the graph of y =
. Write
= 1 +
. This is a hyperbola with two
1x
1x
1x
distinct branches.
Intercepts. The graph of y =
axis at (1, 0).
x+1
crosses the vertical axis at (0, 1) and the horizontal
1x
x+1
x+1
, so that the graph of y =
has
1x
1x
vertical asymptote x = 1. And as x , (x + 1)/(1 x) 1, so that the graph of
x+1
y=
has horizontal asymptote y = 1.
1x
The centre is thus (1, 1).
The two lines of symmetry run through the centre and bisect the angles formed by
the asymptotes.
Asymptotes. Observe that as x 1,
x+1
x+1
, it is easy to draw the graph of y =
simply
1x
1x
x+1
where y < 0 in the horizontal axis. We can also
reflect the parts of the graph of y =
1x
draw y = x + 2.
(0, 1) y
Vertical
intercept
x=1
vertical
asymptote
(-1, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
y = -1
horizontal
asymptote
y=x+2
x=1
vertical
asymptote
x
R
y = -1
horizontal
asymptote
P
(0, 1)
x
(-1, 0) Vertical intercept
Horizontal intercept
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Answer to Exercise 277 (9740 N2015/I/2) (ii) Using your graphing calculator, the
intersection points have x-coordinates Px 1.732, Qx 0.414, and Rx 1.732. Hence, the
inequality holds if and only if x (1.732, 0.414) (1.732, ).
As an exercise, let me also do this without a calculator.
x+1
x+1
x+1
= x + 2 (a)
= x + 2 AND x [1, 1) OR (b)
= x + 2 AND
1x
1x
1x
x [1, 1).
x+1
= x + 2 x + 1 = (1 x)(x + 2) x2 + 2x 1 = 0 x = 1 2. So
1x
x+1
= x + 2 x + 1 = (1 x)(x + 2) x2 3 = 0 x = 3. So condition
1x
x+1
Altogether then,
= x + 2 x ( 3, 1 + 2) ( 3, ).
1x
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Answer to Exercise 278 (9740 N2015/I/5). (i) First, move (the graph of the equation
y = x2 ) 3 units rightwards to get the graph of the equation y = (x 3)2 . Then stretch it
vertically, outwards from the horizontal axis by a factor of 0.25 to get the graph of the
equation y = 0.25(x 3)2 .
(ii) The easy way is to use your graphing calculator and copy. But as an exercise, Ill do
it without a calculator.
f (1) = 1 and lim f (x) = 1. Similarly, f (3) = 0 and lim f (x) = 0. (These say that f is
x1
x3
continuous at both 1 and 3.)
y
2
y = 1 + f (0.5x)
The point
(0, 0) is not
in either
graph.
y = f(x)
x
0
-1
(iii) Again, the easy way is by graphing calculator, but again as an exercise, lets also do
it without a calculator. First, stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally, outwards from
the vertical axis by a factor of 2, to get the graph of y = f (0.5x). Then move it upwards
vertically by 1 unit to get the graph of the equation y = 1 + f (0.5x).
Note though that the transformations must be done piece-wise. The piece or region
0 x 1 in the old graph corresponds to the region 0 x 2 in the new graph. And the
region 1 < x 3 in the old graph corresponds to the region 2 < x 6 in the new graph. (To
save space, Ive plot this on the same diagram.).
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Answer to Exercise 279 (9740 N2015/II/3). (a) (i) The range of f is (, 0). Pick
1
1
any element y in the range of f and write: y =
= 1 x2 (the division by y is
2
1x
y
1
1
permissible y 0) x2 = 1 x = 1 .
y
y
We can reject the negative value of x since x > 1. Altogether
then, every y in the range
1
corresponds to a unique element in the domain, namely
1 . And so this function is
y
invertible.
(ii) From our work above, the inverse function is f 1 (, 0) (1, ) defined by y
1
1 .
y
2+x
. Rearranging, yx2 + x + 2 y = 0. This is a quadratic. Since x R, the
2
1x
determinant of this quadratic must be non-negative 12 4y(2 y) 0.
(8)2 4(4)(1)
8
=
Rearranging, 4y 2 8y+1 0. This is a -shaped quadratic with zeros
2(4)
1
1
)=
=
1x
1 1/(1 x)
To show that f 2 (x) = f 1 (x), we need merely show that f 2 (y) = x f (x) = y. To this
1
1
1
1
end, write f 2 (y) = x 1 = x f (x) = f (1 ) =
=
= y.
y
y
1 (1 1/y) 1/y
(ii) f 3 (x) = f f 2 (x) = f f 1 (x) = x.
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Answer to Exercise 281 (9740 N2014/I/4). (i) Recall that any y 2 = f (x) graph is
symmetric in the horizontal axis (see section 15.9).
Also, it is empty where f (x) < 0. So the graph of y 2 = f (x) is empty to the left of A and
between B and C.
We note that y = f (x) has turning point (0, d). And so y 2 = f (x) has turning points (0, d)
D = (0, d)
Vertical
intercept
A = (-a, 0)
B = (b, 0)
C = (c, 0)
x
y = f(x)
y2 = f(x)
Horizontal
intercept
for both graphs
(ii) The tangents to the curve y 2 = f (x) at the points where it cross the x-axis are vertical.
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dy dy dx
Answer to Exercise 282 (9740 N2014/II/1). (i) We are given that
=
=
dx dt dt
6 1
= = 0.4. So t = 2.5.
6t t
(ii) The writers of this question seem to assume that p = 0, so that is what Ill assume
too.95
The tangent line at (3p2 , 6p) has equation y 6p =
y-axis, we have y 6p =
1
(x 3p2 ). Where this line meets the
p
1
(0 3p2 ) = 3p or y = 3p. So D = (0, 3p).
p
3p2 + 0 6p + 3p
The mid-point of P D is (
,
) = (1.5p2 , 4.5p). So the cartesian equation for the
2
2
2
locus of the mid-point of P D is x = 1.5 (y/4.5) = y 2 /13.5.
(6)2 4(1)(3)
y=
= 3 12 = 3 2 3.
2
2 3
2 3
So the last inequality is true if and only if y (, 3
] [3 +
, ).
3
3
6
95
If p = 0, then P = (0, 0) and the tangent at P is vertical, so that D could be any point on the y-axis.
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x+1
1.5
= 0.5 +
.
2x 1
2x 1
Intercepts. The graph crosses the vertical axis at (0, 1) and the horizontal axis at
(1, 0).
Asymptotes. As x 0.5, y . Hence, x = 0.5 is a vertical asymptote. As x ,
y 0.5. Hence, y = 0.5 is a horizontal asymptote.
The intersection of the two asymptotes is (0.5, 0.5) this is also the centre of the hyperbola.
There are two lines of symmetry, each running through the centre, and each bisecting an
angle formed by the two asymptotes.
y
y=1-x
Line of
symmetry
(0.5, 0.5)
Centre
y = 0.5
horizontal asymptote
y=x
Line of
symmetry
y = (x + 1) / (2x - 1)
x
(-1, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
x = 0.5
vertical
asymptote
(0, -1)
Vertical
intercept
x+1
(ii)
< 1 x + 1 < 2x 1 AND 2x 1 > 0 OR x + 1 > 2x 1 AND 2x 1 < 0
2x 1
2 < x AND x > 0.5 OR 2 > x AND x < 0.5 x > 2 OR x < 0.5.
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Answer to Exercise 285 (9740 N2013/II/1). (i) The range of g is not a subset of
the domain of f for example, 1 g(R), but 1 is not in the domain of f .
(ii) gf (x) = g (
2+x
2+x
)=12
.
1x
1x
gf (x) = 5 1 2
(gf )1 (5) = 4/
2+x
2+x
= 5 4 = 2
2x 2 = 2 + x x = 4. So
1x
1x
Answer to Exercise 286 (9740 N2012/I/1). Let x, y, and z be the costs of, respec1
tively, the under-16, 16-65, and over-65 tickets. The system of equations is 9x + 6y + 4z =
2
3
$162.03, 7x + 5y + 3z = $128.36, 10x + 4y + 5z = $158.50.
So x = $7.65, y = $9.85, z = $8.52 (calculator).
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Answer to Exercise 287 (9740 N2012/I/7). (i) Let g 1 = g. It suffices to show that
g 1 (g(x)) = x:
g(x) + k
g (g(x)) =
=
g(x) 1
1
x+k
x1
x+k
x1
+k
1
x + k + k(x 1) x(1 + k)
=
= x.
x + k (x 1)
k+1
(ii) Intercepts. The graph crosses the vertical axis at (0, k) and the horizontal axis at
(k, 0).
Asymptotes. As x 1, y . Hence, the graph has a vertical asymptote x = 1.
Moreover, as x , y 1. Hence, the graph has a horizontal asymptote y = 1.
y
y = -x
Line of
symmetry
(-k, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
(1, 1)
Centre
y = (x + k) / (x - 1)
y=1
horizontal asymptote
x
y=x
Line of
symmetry
x=0
vertical
asymptote
(0, -k)
Vertical
intercept
x+k
k+1
1
x+k
=1+
. Hence, to transform y = into y =
:
x1
x1
x
x1
1
.
x1
2. Stretch it vertically by a factor of k + 1, outwards from the horizontal axis to get the
k+1
graph of y =
.
x1
k+1 x+k
=
.
3. Move the graph upwards by 1 unit to get the graph of y = 1 +
x1 x1
1. Move the graph rightwards by 1 unit to get the graph of y =
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Answer to Exercise 288 (9740 N2012/II/3). (i) Graph on your calculator and copy.
y
y = |f(x )|
y = f(x )
(v) f (x) = 4 x3 + x2 2x 4 = 4.
1
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x2 + x + 1
Answer to Exercise 289 (9740 N2011/I/1). When is 2
< 0?
x +x2
The numerator x2 + x + 1 is a -shaped quadratic with discriminant b2 4ac = 12 4(1)(1) =
3 < 0. So it is always positive. The above inequality thus holds if and only if the denominator is negative.
Lets check when the denominator is negative.
The denominator x2 + x 2 is a -shaped quadratic with zeros 2 and 1. So x2 + x 2 < 0
if and only if x (2, 1).
Altogether then, the inequality holds if and only if x (2, 1).
Answer to Exercise 290 (9740 N2011/I/2). (i) The given information forms this
1
2
2
2
2
system of equations: a (1.5) + b (1.5) + c = 4.5, a (2.1) + b (2.1) + c = 3.2, a (3.4) +
3
b (3.4) + c = 4.1.
So a 0.215, b 0.490, and c 3.281 (calculator).
49
1.140.
43
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x = - 0.5
Vertical
asymptote
for f (x)
(0, 3)
Vertical
intercept
(0.5 [e -3 -1] , 0)
Horizontal
intercept
(0, 0.5 [e -3 - 1])
Vertical
intercept
y = f -1(x)
(3, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
y = f(x )
y = - 0.5
Horizontal
asymptote
for f -1(x)
(iii) If the graph of f intersects the line y = x, then it also intersects the graph of f 1 at
the points where x = f (x). In this case, x = f (x) x = ln(2x + 1) + 3 x 0.485,
5.482 (calculator).
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Answer to Exercise 292 (9740 N2010/I/5). (i) First, translate the graph 2 units
rightwards to get the graph of y = (x 2)3 .
The wording of the second step is ambiguous. I shall interpret after the stretch of scale
factor 0.5 parallel to the y-axis to mean a horizontal stretch outwards from the
vertical axis. If so, then after this stretch, we have the graph of y = (2x 2)3 .96
Finally, translate the graph 6 units downwards to get the graph of y = (2x 2)3 6.
3
The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 14) and the x-axis at (0.5 6 + 1, 0).
In sketching our graph, it helps to keep in mind that the cubic equation y = x3 has a single
stationary inflexion point and has no turning points. And thus, the same must be true for
y = (2x 2)3 6.
(ii) The graph of f 1 is simply the reflection of the graph of f in the line y = x.
y
(0, 0.5
+ 2)
Vertical
intercept of
y = f -1(x)
y = f -1(x)
x
(-14, 0)
Horizontal
intercept of
y = f -1(x)
(0.5
, 0)
Horizontal
intercept of
y = f(x)
y = f (x) = (2x - 2)3 - 6
(0, -14)
Vertical
intercept of
y = f(x)
96
If instead this is interpreted to mean a vertical stretch outwards from the horizontal axis, then after the stretch, we have
the graph of y = 2(x 2)3 .
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Answer to Exercise 293 (9740 N2010/II/4). (i) Graph on your calculator and copy.
The asymptotes are x = 1.
y = f (x)
y=0
Horizontal
asymptote
x
x = -1
Vertical
asymptote
(0, -1)
Vertical
intercept
x=1
Vertical
asymptote
(ii) By observation, the graph of f is symmetric in the vertical axis and if the domain of f
is restricted to R+0 , the new function thus formed would be invertible. Hence, the smallest
k for which f 1 exists is k = 0.
(iii) f g(x) = f (g(x)) = f (
=
1
1
(x 3)2
)=
=
2
1 2
x3
( x3
) 1 1 (x 3)
(x 3)2
(x 3)2
=
.
[1 (x 3)] [1 + (x 3)] (4 x)(x 2)
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(v) Method #1 (non-rigorous). Graph f g on your calculator. Observe that f g(x) is always
less than 1 or more than 0. Be very careful to note that f g(x) 0 for any x, because 3 is
not in the domain of f g. Hence, the range of f g is (, 1) (0, ).
y
y = fg (x)
x
The point
(3, 0) is not
part of the
graph of y
= fg (x).
1
.
(4 x)(x 2)
(x 3)2
x2 6x + 9
1
=
=
1
+
=
(4 x)(x 2) x2 + 6x 8
x2 + 6x 8
Observe also that (4 x)(x 2) is a -shaped quadratic with maximum value 1 (at x = 3).
But given the restrictions that x 2, x 3, x 4, we have (4 x)(x 2) (, 0) (0, 1).
So
1
(, 0) (1, ).
(4 x)(x 2)
And 1 +
1
(, 1) (0, ). The range of f g is (, 1) (0, ).
(4 x)(x 2)
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Answer to Exercise 294 (9740 N2009/I/1). Let an2 + bn + c be the quadratic poly1
nomial. The given information yields this system of equations: a (12 ) + b(1) + c = 10,
2
17
(17)2 4(3)(166) 17
=
6
We can discard the negative root. The positive root that remains is approximately 10.8.
Bearing in mind that n must be an integer, we conclude that the set of values for which un
is greater than 100 is {11, 12, 13, . . . }.
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C2 is an ellipse that crosses the vertical axis at (0, 3) and (0, 3), and the horizontal
y
y=x+3
Line of
symmetry
(0.5, 0.5)
Centre
(0,
)
Vertical
intercepts (-1, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
y = (x - 2) / (x + 1)
y = 0.5
horizontal asymptote
x
(0, -1)
Vertical
intercept
x = 0.5
vertical
asymptote
(
, 0)
Horizontal
intercepts
y=-x-1
Line of
symmetry
(x 2)2
. Plug this into the equation for
(x + 2)2
2(x 2)2
C2 :
+
= 1 x +
= 6 x2 (x + 2)2 + 2(x 2)2 = 6(x + 2)2
6
3
(x + 2)2
2(x 2)2 = 6(x + 2)2 x2 (x + 2)2 = (x + 2)2 (6 x2 ), as desired.
x2
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Answer to Exercise 296 (9740 N2009/II/3). (i) This is a rectangular hyperbola with
a
a
a
a
horizontal asymptotes x = and y = . So the range of f is (, ) ( , ).
b
b
b
b
a
a
Let f 1 have domain (, ) ( , ) (this is simply the range of f ) and codomain
b
b
a
a
(, ) ( , ) (this is simply the domain of f ). For the mapping rule of f 1 , write
b
b
ax
ay
y = f (x) =
y(bx a) = ax ay = x(a by)
= x (the division
bx a
by a
is permitted because y a/b).
So f 1 has mapping rule y
ay
.
by a
Altogether then, f 1 = f . And thus f 2 (x) = f f (x) = f f 1 (x) = x. The range of f 2 is simply
a
a
(, ) ( , ).
b
b
a
a
(ii) The range of g is (, 0) (0, ), while the domain of f is (, ) ( , ). Since
b
b
a/b 0, the range of g is not a subset of the domain of f and so f g does not exist.
(iii) We have f 1 (x) = x
Thus, x = 0 or x = 2
ax
= x ax = x(bx a) 0 = x(bx 2a).
bx a
a
solves f 1 (x) = x.
b
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(i) f (x) =
ad bc
. Since ad bc 0, f (x) 0 for any x and so there are no turning points.
2
(cx + d)
(ii) If ad bc = 0, then f (x) = 0 for all x. Hence, the graph is simply a horizontal line.
dy 3 1 (7) 2
17
=
=
which is always positive. Hence, the
2
dx
(2x + 1)
(2x + 1)2
graph has a positive gradient at all points.
(iii) In this case,
y = (3x - 7) / (2x + 1)
x = - 0.5
vertical
asymptote
y = 1.5
horizontal asymptote
y=
horizontal
asymptotes
y2 = (3x - 7) / (2x + 1)
(7 / 3, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
for both graphs
(0, -7)
Vertical
intercept
(iv) (a) This is a rectangular hyperbola that crosses the vertical axis at (0, 7) and the
7
3x 7
8.5
horizontal axis at ( , 0). Since
= 1.5
, there is a vertical asymptote x = 0.5
3
2x + 1
2x + 1
and a horizontal asymptote y = 1.5.
(b) The graph of y 2 = f (x) is symmetric in the horizontal axis. It crosses the horizontal
7
axis at ( , 0). It has vertical asymptote x = 0.5 and horizontal asymptotes y = 1.5.
3
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Answer to Exercise 298 (9233 N2008/I/14). (i) The curve crosses both the vertical
x
x
and horizontal axes at (0, 0). Since 2
=
, the horizontal asymptote is
x 1 (x + 1)(x 1)
y = 0 and the vertical asymptotes are x = 1.
(ii) y 2 = f (x) is symmetric in the horizontal axis and empty where f (x) < 0. At the origin,
the tangent to the curve is vertical.
x=1
vertical
asymptotes
y
y = x / (x2 - 1)
y=0
horizontal asymptote
for both graphs
x
y2 = x / (x2 - 1)
(0, 0)
Horizontal and
vertical intercepts
for both graphs
x
x
x
and
y
=
e
are
given
by
= ex x = ex (x2 1)
2
2
x 1
x 1
xex = x2 1 1 + xex = x2 , as desired.
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y = f (x)
The point (1, 4) is
not part of the
graph of y = f -1(x).
8
7
y = f -1(x)
6
5
4
3
y=x
line
1
0
-2
8
x
-1
(ii) The inverse function f 1 has domain (1, ) (this is simply the range of f ) and codomain
2
(4, ) (this is simply the domain
of f ). For the mapping
9 92 4(17) 9 13
x =
=
. We can reject the smaller root because it is less than
2
2
9 + 13
.
4. Hence, the solution is
2
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2x2 x 19
x2 4x 21
>
1
> 0.
x2 + 3x + 2
x2 + 3x + 2
Answer to Exercise 301 (9740 N2007/I/2). (i) f has domain (, 3) (3, ) and
range (, 0) (0, ). g has domain R and range R.
Hence, the range of f is a subset of the domain of g. And so the composite function gf
exists. It has the same domain as f , namely (, 3) (3, ) and the same codomain as g,
1
1
)=
.
namely R. Its mapping rule is gf x g (f (x)) = g (
x3
(x 3)2
In contrast, the range of g is not a subset of the domain of f . And so the composite function
f g does not exist.
1
(ii) To find the mapping rule for the inverse function f 1 , write: y = f (x) =
x3
1
1
= x 3 (division is permitted y 0) + 3 = x.
y
y
Hence, the inverse function f 1 has domain (, 0) (0, ) (this is simply the range of f ),
1
codomain (, 3) (3, ) (this is simply the domain of f ), and mapping rule y + 3.
y
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2x + 7
3
Answer to Exercise 302. (9740 N2007/I/5) Write y =
= 2+
. The sequence
x+2
x+2
of transformations is:
1
.
x+2
2. Stretch it vertically by a factor of 3, outwards from the horizontal axis to get the graph
3
of y =
.
x+2
3
3. Move it up by 2 units to get the graph of y = 2 +
.
x+2
1. Move the graph of y = 1/x to the left by 2 units to get the graph of y =
Intercepts. The graph intersects the vertical axis at (0, 3.5) and the horizontal axis at
(3.5, 0).
Asymptotes. As x 2, y and so x = 2 is a vertical asymptote. Also, as
x , y 2 and so y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.
y=-x
Line of
symmetry
y
y = (2x + 7) / (x + 2)
(-2, 2)
Centre
y=x +4
Line of
symmetry
y=2
horizontal asymptote
(0, -3.5)
Vertical
intercept
x = -2
vertical
asymptote
(-3.5, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
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Answer to Exercise 303 (9740 N2007/II/1). Let x, y, and z be the prices per
kilogram of, respectively, the pineapples, mangoes, and lychees. The system of equations
1
2
3
is 1.15x + 0.6y + 0.55z = 8.28, 1.2x + 0.45y + 0.3z = 6.84, and 2.15x + 0.9y + 0.65z = 13.05.
So x = 3.50, y = 2.6, z = 4.9, and the total amount paid by Lee Lian was 7.65 dollars
(calculator).
13
4x + 1
= 4+
. So x = 3
Answer to Exercise 304. (9233 N2007/II/4) (i) Write y =
x3
x3
is a vertical asymptote and y = 4 is a horizontal asymptote.
1
1
(ii) The graph intersects the vertical axis at (0, ) and the horizontal axis at ( , 0).
3
4
y
y = (4x + 1) / (x - 3)
y=-x+7
Line of
symmetry
(3, 4)
Centre
y=x +1
Line of
symmetry
y=4
horizontal asymptote
x
(- 1 / 4, 0)
Horizontal
intercept
x=3
vertical
asymptote
(0, - 1 / 3)
Vertical
intercept
(iii) The range of f is (, 4) (4, ), so this is also the domain of f 1 . Write y = f (x) =
13
13
13
4+
y 4 =
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Answer to Exercise 305 (9233 N2006/I/3). The domain of f is (0, ) and that of g
is (0, ). The range of g is (0, ). The range of g is a subset of the domain of f and so
the composite function f g exists. The range of g is a subset of the domain of g and so the
composite functions g 2 and g 35 also exist.
The composite function f g has domain (0, ), codomain (0, ), and mapping rule f g
15
3
+ 3.
x f (g(x)) = f ( ) =
x
x
The composite function g 2 has domain (0, ), codomain (0, ), and mapping rule g 2 x
3
3
g (g(x)) = g ( ) = 3/ ( ) = x.
x
x
The composite function g 4 has domain (0, ), codomain (0, ), and mapping rule g 4 x
g 2 (g 2 (x)) = g 2 (x) = x.
The composite function g 6 has domain (0, ), codomain (0, ), and mapping rule g 6 x
g 2 (g 4 (x)) = g 2 (x) = x.
The composite function g 34 has domain (0, ), codomain (0, ), and mapping rule g 34
x g 2 (g 32 (x)) = g 2 (x) = x.
The composite function g 35 has domain (0, ), codomain (0, ), and mapping rule g 35
x g (g 34 (x)) = g(x) = 3/x.
h(x) = 5f (x) + 3.
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Answer to Exercise 306 (9233 N2006/II/1). As usual, rearrange the inequality into
N
N
x9
x 9 x2 + 9
what I call standard form ( > 0 or
0): 2
1
0
D
D
x 9
x2 9
x x2
x(x 1)
0
x2 9
(x 3)(x + 3)
The numerator x(x 1) is a -shaped quadratic with zeros 0 and 1. Hence, x(x 1) 0
x 0 OR x 1. Also, x(x 1) 0 x [0, 1].
The denominator (x 3)(x + 3) is a -shaped quadratic with zeros 3 and 3. Hence,
(x 3)(x + 3) > 0 x < 3 OR x > 3. Also, (x 3)(x + 3) < 0 x (3, 3).
So
x(x 1)
0
(x 3)(x + 3)
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96.2
50
=
2
50T + 49 50 = 50T + 2450 seconds to complete. The required time interval (in seconds) is
[5400, 6300]. So we need 50T + 2450 [5400, 6300]. Or equivalently, we need T [59, 77].
Answer to Exercise 307 (9740 N2015/I/8). (i) Athlete A will take (2T +492)
1 1.0250
= 50t(1.0250 1) seconds to complete. The required
(ii) Athlete B will take t
1 1.02
time interval (in seconds) is [5400, 6300]. So we need 50t(1.0250 1) [5400, 6300]. Or
equivalently, we need t [63.845, 74.486].
(iii) T = 59 and t = 63.845. So Athlete A completes the last lap in T + 49 2 = 157 s, while
athlete B completes it in t 1.0249 168 s. And so the difference is 11 s.
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Answer to Exercise 307 (9740 N2015/II/4). (a) Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the
proposition that
k
r(r + 2)(r + 5) =
r=1
1
k(k + 1)(3k 2 + 31k + 74).
12
1
1(1 + 1)(3 12 + 31 1 + 74).
12
r(r + 2)(r + 5) =
r=1
1
j(j + 1)(3j 2 + 31j + 74).
12
r(r + 2)(r + 5) =
r=1
1
(j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [3(j + 1)2 + 31(j + 1) + 74] .
12
r=1
r=1
=
6
=
7
=
8
=
9
=
4
=
3
=
2
1
j(j + 1)(3j 2 + 31j + 74) + (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 2] [(j + 1) + 5]
12
1
j(j + 1)(3j 2 + 31j + 74) + (j + 1)(j + 3)(j + 6)
12
j+1
[j(3j 2 + 31j + 74) + 12(j + 3)(j + 6)]
12
j+1
(3j 3 + 31j 2 + 74j + 12j 2 + 108j + 216)
12
j+1
(3j 3 + 43j 2 + 182j + 216)
12
1
(j + 1)(j + 2) (3j 2 + 37j + 108)
12
1
(j + 1)(j + 2) (3j 2 + 6j + 3 + 31j + 31 + 74)
12
1
(j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [3(j + 1)2 + 31(j + 1) + 74] ,
12
as desired.
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A
B
(2r + 3)A + (2r + 1)B
+
=
2r + 1 2r + 3
(2r + 1)(2r + 3)
=
(2A + 2B)r + 3A + B
.
4r2 + 8r + 3
,
4r2 + 8r + 3 2r + 1 2r + 3
as desired.
(ii)
n
n
2
1
1
=
)
2
(
4r
+
8r
+
3
2r
+
1
2r
+
3
r=1
r=1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + + (
)
3 5
5 7
7 9
2n + 1 2n + 3
=
(iii)
1
1
.
3 2n + 3
1
0.001 1000 2n + 3 n 498.5. So the smallest n is 499.
2n + 3
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Answer to Exercise 309 (9740 N2014/I/6). (i) Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the
1
proposition that pk = (7 4k ). Our goal is to show that P(k) is true for all k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
3
1
Step #2. Verify that P(1) is true: p1 = 1 = (7 41 ).
3
pj+1 = 4pj 7
as desired.
(ii)
n
n
1
=
pr = (7 4r )
r=1
r=1 3
n
1 n
= ( 7 4r ) =
3 r=1
r=1
1
4(1 4n )
= [7n +
]=
3
3
(b) (i) As n ,
1 n
(7 4r )
3 r=1
1
4(1 4n )
[7n
]
3
14
4 7n 4n+1
+
.
9 3
9
1
0 and so Sn 1.
(n + 1)!
(ii)
1
1
1
1
(1 ) =
(n + 1)!
n!
n! (n + 1)!
1
n
=
[n + 1 1] =
.
(n + 1)!
(n + 1)!
un = Sn Sn1
=1
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(i) (a) (4 + 4) + 2 (4 + 4) + 3 (4 +
n
n
metres. Set (8 + 8n) = 5000 and solve: 4n2 + 4n 5000 = 0
2
2
n2 + n 1250 = 0
(b) (8 + 8n)
12 4(1)(1250)
= 0.5 0.5 5001.
n=
2
The negative root can be ignored. The positive root is 0.5 + 0.5 5001 34.859. Hence,
the athlete needs to complete at least 35 stages.
1
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Answer to Exercise 311 (9740 N2013/I/7). (i) The 1st piece is 128 cm. The 2nd
n1
is 2/3 128 cm. ... The nth is p = (2/3) 128 cm. Taking ln of both sides of this last
equation, we have:
ln p = ln [(2/3)
n1
128]
n1
= ln (2/3) + ln 128
= (n 1) ln (2/3) + ln 27
= (n 1) [ln 2 ln 3] + 7 ln 2
= (n + 6) ln 2 + (n + 1) ln 3.
(ii) The total length of string cut off approaches (i.e. keeps getting closer to, but never
reaches) 384 cm:
2 1
2 2
2 3
128
128 + ( ) 128 + ( ) 128 + ( ) 128 + . . .
= 384.
3
3
3
1 2/3
(iii) If n pieces are cut off, the total length cut off is
n
128 [1 (2/3) ]
2 1
2 2
2 3
2 n
128 + ( ) 128 + ( ) 128 + ( ) 128 + + ( ) 128 =
.
3
3
3
3
1 2/3
We want to find n such that this last expression equals 380:
n
128 [1 (2/3) ]
n
= 380 384 [1 (2/3) ] = 380
1 2/3
95
95
n
n
1 (2/3) =
1
= (2/3)
96
96
1
1
n
= (2/3)
ln
= n ln (2/3)
96
96
ln(1/96)
=n
n 11.257.
ln(2/3)
So 12 pieces must be cut off before the total length cut off is greater than 380 cm.
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k
1
r(2r2 + 1) = k(k + 1)(k 2 + k + 1).
2
r=1
r(2r2 + 1) = 1(2 12 + 1)
r=1
=3
1
= 1 (1 + 1)(12 + 1 + 1).
2
1
= k(k + 1)(k 2 + k + 1).
2
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is,
j
1
r(2r2 + 1) = j(j + 1)(j 2 + j + 1).
2
r=1
Our goal is to show that P(j + 1) is true. That is,
j+1
1
r(2r2 + 1) = (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [(j + 1)2 + (j + 1) + 1] .
2
r=1
r(2r + 1) = r(2r2 + 1) + (j + 1) [2 (j + 1) + 1]
2
r=1
r=1
2 1
2
= j(j + 1)(j 2 + j + 1) + (j + 1) [2 (j + 1) + 1]
2
1
5
= (j + 1) [j(j 2 + j + 1) + 4(j + 1)2 + 2]
2
6 1
= (j + 1) (j 3 + 5j 2 + 9j + 6)
2
4 1
= (j + 1) (j + 2) (j 2 + 3j + 3)
2
3 1
= (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [(j + 1)2 + (j + 1) + 1] ,
2
as desired.
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(ii)
f (r) f (r 1)
r2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + + n2
r=1
f (n) f (n 1)
f (1) f (0) f (2) f (1) f (3) f (2)
+
+
+ +
6
6
6
6
3
2
f (n) f (0) 2r + 3r + r + 24 24
=
=
6
6
3
2
2n + 3n + n n(2n + 1)(n + 1)
=
.
=
6
6
=
r=1
r=1
n
= r(2r + 1) + 3r + 24
r=1
n
r=1
n
r=1
= r(2r2 + 1) + 3 r2 + 24n
r=1
r=1
1
n(2n + 1)(n + 1)
= n(n + 1)(n2 + n + 1) + 3
+ 24n,
2
6
left unsimplified, as instructed.
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3(2) 1 5
3(5/6) 1
= and u3 =
=
6
6
6
(ii) As n , un+1 un 0
3un 1
3un 1
1
un =
0 un .
6
6
3
(iii) Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the proposition that
14 1 k 1
uk =
( ) .
3 2
3
Our goal is to show that P(k) is true for all k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Step #2. Verify that P(1) is true.
14 1 1 1 7 1
( ) = = 2.
3 2
3 3 3
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is,
14 1 j 1
uj =
( ) .
3 2
3
Our goal is to show that P(j + 1) is true. That is,
14 1 j+1 1
uj+1 =
( ) .
3 2
3
To this end, write:
j
1
1
3 [ 14
3un 1
3 (2) 3] 1
uj+1 =
=
6
6
j
j
14 ( 21 ) 1 1
14 ( 21 ) 2
=
=
6
6
j
14 1 1
1 14 1 j+1 1
=
( )( ) =
( ) ,
3 2 2
3 3 2
3
as desired.
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Answer to Exercise 314 (9740 N2012/II/4). (i) Let January 2001 be the 1st month.
Then on the nth month, Mrs As account has 100 + (100 + 1 10) + (100 + 2 10) + +
n
n
[100 + (n 1) 10] = [200 + (n 1) 10] = (190 + 10n) = 5n2 + 95n.
2
2
Set 5n2 + 95n = 5000 and solve:
n=
95
952 4(5)(5000)
= 9.5 33.019.
10
We can ignore the negative root. We have 9.5 + 33.019 = 23.519. So Mrs As account first
became greater than $5000 on the 24th month that is, on December 1 2002.
(ii) On the last day of the 1st month, Mr As account has 100 (1.005) dollars. On the
last day of the 2nd month, it has [100 (1.005) + 100] 1.005 = 100 1.0052 + 100 1.005
dollars. Etc. So on the nth month, Mr As account has
1 1.005n
1 1.005
= 20100 (1.005n 1) .
50
201
251
n ln 1.005 = ln
201
1.005n 1 =
251
201
251
n = ln
ln 1.005
201
1.005n =
n 44.541.
So Mr Bs account first became greater than $5000 on the 45th month that is, in
September 2004.
(iii) Let 100r be the monthly percentage interest rate. Then on the second day of the 36th
month, Mr Bs account has (note that the initial $100 has only earned interest 35 times,
while the last $100 deposited hasnt earned any interest)
1 (1 + r)36
1 (1 + r)
(1 + r)36 1
= 100
.
r
(1 + r)36 1
(1 + r)36 1
= 5000
= 50.
r
r
r 0.0179575 (calculator). And so the required monthly interested rate to achieve this is
approximately 1.796%.
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(i)
(ii) cos(r) =
cos(r)
r=1
n
(iii) Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the proposition that
k
sin(r) =
r=1
sin(r) = sin
r=1
2 sin sin(0.5)
2 sin(0.5)
2 cos(0.5) cos(1 + 0.5)
=
.
2 sin(0.5)
4
2 sin sin(0.5)
2 sin(0.5)
3 2 sin [0.5(2)] sin [0.5()]
=
2 sin(0.5)
5
To get from = to =, I used the fact that cos P cos Q = 2 sin [0.5(P + Q)] sin [0.5(P Q)],
which is actually printed on your List of Formulae! (So heres another exam tip: Whenever
you see trigonometric functions and are stuck, go look up the List of Formulae.)
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is,
Page 1235, Table of Contents
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sin(r) =
r=1
sin(r) =
r=1
r=1
r=1
as desired. (Again, to get from = to =, I used the same trigonometric identity as before. )
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Answer to Exercise 316 (9740 N2011/I/9). (i) The depth drilled on the 10th day is
256 9 7 = 193.
256
= 2304 metres. The depth drilled at the end
1 8/9
1 (8/9)n
. We want the latter quantity to be more than 99% of
1 8/9
the former. That is, we want 1 (8/9)n > 0.99 or 0.01 > (8/9)n or ln 0.01 > n ln(8/9) or
n > ln 0.01 ln(8/9) 39.099. So it takes 40 days.
of the nth day is 256
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1
r(r + 2) = 1(1 + 2) = 3 = (1)(1 + 1)(2 1 + 7).
6
r=1
1
r(r + 2) = j(j + 1)(2j + 7).
6
r=1
Our goal is to show that P(j + 1) is true. That is,
j+1
1
r(r + 2) = (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [2(j + 1) + 7] .
6
r=1
r=1
r=1
4 1
= j(j + 1)(2j + 7) + (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 2]
6
1
5
= (j + 1) {j(2j + 7) + 6 [(j + 1) + 2]}
6
1
6
= (j + 1) (2j 2 + 7j + 6j + 18)
6
7 1
= (j + 1) (2j 2 + 13j + 18)
6
3 1
= (j + 1)(j + 2)(2j + 9)
6
2 1
= (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [2(j + 1) + 7] .
6
as desired.
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.
r(r + 2)
r
r+2
Hence,
n
1
r=1 r(r + 2)
n
n
0.5 0.5
1
1
= (
) = 0.5 (
)
r
r
+
2
r
r
+
2
r=1
r=1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1 1
)+(
)]
= 0.5 [( ) + ( ) + ( ) + + (
1 3
2 4
3 5
n1 n+1
n n+2
1 1
1
1
3
1
1
= 0.5 [ +
]=
, as desired.
1 2 n+1 n+2
4 2(n + 1) 2(n + 2)
3
1
1
3
1
=
.
4 2(n + 1) 2(n + 2) 4
r=1 r(r + 2)
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(ii)
n
n
1
2
1
1
= 0.5 (
+
)
3
r r+1
r=2 r 1
r=2 r r
1 2 1
1 2 1
1 2 1
= 0.5[ ( + ) + ( + ) + ( + )
1 2 3
2 3 4
3 4 5
1 2 1
1 2 1
1
2
1
+ ( + ) + ( + ) + + (
+
)]
4 5 6
5 6 7
n1 n n+1
1
1 1
).
= 0.5 ( +
2 n n+1
(iii) As n ,
1
1
0 and
0. So as n ,
n
n+1
n
1 1
1
1
1
1
=
0.5
(
+
)
0.5
(
)
=
.
3
2 n n+1
2
4
r=2 r r
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1
r2 = 1= (1)(1 + 1)(2 1 + 1).
6
r=1
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is,
j
1
r2 = j(j + 1)(2j + 1).
6
r=1
Our goal is to show that P(j + 1) is true. That is,
j+1
1
r2 = (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [2(j + 1) + 1] .
6
r=1
2 1
r = r2 + (j + 1)2
r=1
r=1
5 1
= (j + 1) [j(2j + 1) + 6(j + 1)]
6
7 1
= (j + 1) (2j 2 + 7j + 6)
6
1
2
= (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [2(j + 1) + 1] ,
6
4 1
= j(j + 1)(2j + 1) + (j + 1)2
6
6 1
= (j + 1) (2j 2 + j + 6j + 6)
6
3 1
= (j + 1)(j + 2)(2j + 3)
6
as desired.
Second part of the question.
2n
2n
r=1
r = r r2
r=n+1
r=1
1
1
= 2n(2n + 1) [2(2n) + 1] n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
6
6
n(2n + 1)
=
[2(4n + 1) (n + 1)]
6
n(2n + 1)
=
(7n + 1) .
6
Page 1241, Table of Contents
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1 r25
272.257 cm.
1r
2L/25 10
0.491 cm.
24
25
. So
2
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Sj+1 = Sj + uj+1
4 1
= j(j + 1)(4j + 5) + (j + 1) [2(j + 1) + 1]
6
5 1
= (j + 1) [j(4j + 5) + 6(2j + 3)]
6
1
6
= (j + 1) (4j 2 + 5j + 12j + 18)
6
1
7
= (j + 1) (4j 2 + 17j + 18)
6
1
3
= (j + 1)(j + 2)(4j + 9)
6
1
2
= (j + 1) [(j + 1) + 1] [4(j + 1) + 5] ,
6
as desired.
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Answer to Exercise 323 (9740 N2008/I/10). (i) In the 1st month (Jan 2009), she
has saved 10 dollars. In the 2nd (Feb 2009), she has saved 10 + (10 + 1 3) dollars. So
in the nth month, she has saved 10 + (10 + 1 3) + (10 + 2 3) + . . . [10 + (n 1) 3] =
n
[20 + (n 1) 3] = 8.5n + 1.5n2 dollars. Set 8.5n + 1.5n2 = 2000 and solve:
2
(ii) (a) At the end of 2 years, her original$10 has earned 10 1.0224 10 6.084 dollars in
compound interest.
(b) At the end of 2 years, the total in her account is:
1 1.0224
10 1.02 + 10 1.02 + 10 1.02 + + 10 1.02 = 10 1.02
1 1.02
24
23
22
1 1.02n = 2000
1 + 2000
0.02
10.2
0.02
= 1.02n
10.2
n = ln (1 + 2000
0.02
) ln(1.02)
10.2
80.476.
So it is only at the end of 81 complete months that her total savings first exceed $2000.
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Answer to Exercise 324 (9233 N2008/I/14). (i) Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the
proposition that
2
1 + 2x + 3x + + kx
k1
1 (k + 1)xk + kxk+1
=
.
(1 x)2
1 + 2x + 3x + + jx
j1
1 (j + 1)xj + jxj+1
=
.
(1 x)2
=
3
=
4
=
5
=
6
=
2
1 + 2x + 3x2 + + (j + 1)xj
1 (j + 1)xj + jxj+1
+ (j + 1)xj
2
(1 x)
1 (j + 1)xj + jxj+1 + (1 x)2 (j + 1)xj
(1 x)2
1 (j + 1)xj + jxj+1 + (1 2x + x2 )(j + 1)xj
(1 x)2
1 (j + 1)xj + jxj+1 + (j + 1)xj 2(j + 1)xj+1 + (j + 1)xj+2
(1 x)2
1 + jxj+1 2(j + 1)xj+1 + (j + 1)xj+2
(1 x)2
1 (j + 2)xj+1 + (j + 1)xj+2
, as desired.
(1 x)2
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=
=
=
=
=
=
=
d
[ (1 + 2x + 3x2 + + nxn1 ) dx]
dx
d
[x + x2 + x3 + + xn + c]
dx
d x(1 xn )
[
+ c]
dx
1x
(1 x) [(1 xn ) + x (nxn1 )] x(1 xn )(1)
(1 x)2
(1 x) [1 xn nxn ] + x(1 xn )
(1 x)2
(1 x) [1 (n + 1)xn ] + x(1 xn )
(1 x)2
1 (n + 1)xn x + (n + 1)xn+1 + x xn+1
(1 x)2
1 (n + 1)xn + nxn+1
,
(1 x)2
(c R)
(geometric series)
(quotient rule)
as desired.
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Answer to Exercise 325 (9233 N2008/II/2). Let the AP have common difference d
and the GP have common ratio r. Then from the information given,
1
=1
82 4(4)(3)
2(4)
Since the geometric progression is convergent, it must be that r < 1 and so r = 0.5. Hence,
0.5
its sum to infinity is simply
= 1.
1 0.5
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Answer to Exercise 326 (9740 N2007/I/9). (i) 0.619 and 1.512 (calculator).
(ii) If the sequence converges to some limit L, then
1 xn
e xn+1 0
3
1
eL L = 0
3
eL 3L = 0.
So L is either or .
(iii) If x1 = 0, then x2 = 1/3, x3 0.465, x4 0.531, x5 0.567, x6 0.588, . . . , x15 0.619.
So the sequence converges to 0.619.
If x1 = 1, then x2 = 0.906, x3 0.825, x4 0.761, x5 0.713, x6 0.680, . . . , x17 0.619. So
the sequence converges to 0.619.
If x1 = 2, then x2 = 2.463, x3 3.913, x4 16.690, x5 5903230.335, ... So the sequence
diverges.
(iv) We are given the graph of y = ex 3x, which shows that if < xn < , then ex 3x < 0 or
equivalently 1/3ex x < 0. And if x < or x > , then ex 3x > 0 or equivalently 1/3ex x > 0.
Hence,
1 xn
< 0,
xn+1 xn = e xn
> 0,
if < xn < ,
if xn < or xn > .
Equivalently,
xn+1 < xn
xn+1 > xn
if < xn < ,
ifxn < or xn > ,as desired.
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Answer to Exercise 326 (9740 N2007/I/10). (i) From the information given, the first
term of the geometric series is a and moreover
ar a
,
3
ar a
ar2 = a + 5d
ar2 = a + 5
3
2
3r = 3 + 5(r 1)
3r2 5r + 2 = 0.
ar = a + 3d
d=
( )n > 8
9 9
(19 n) n > 72
0 > n2 19n + 72
19 192 4(1)(72)
n=
2
19 73
=
.
2
n2 19n + 72 is a -shaped quadratic with zeros 0.5 [19 192 4(1)(72)] = 5.228, 13.772.
So n2 19n + 72 < 0 n {6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13}.
(
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Answer to Exercise 328 (9740 N2007/II/2). (i) Step #1. Let P(k) stand for the
proposition that uk = 1/k 2 . Our goal is to show that P(k) is true for all k = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Step #2. Verify that P(1) is true: u1 = 1 = 1/12 .
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is, uj = 1/j 2 .
Our goal is to show that P(j + 1) is true. That is, uj+1 =
1
.
(j + 1)2
2j + 1
j 2 (j + 1)2
1
2j + 1
= 2 [1
]
j
(j + 1)2
1
2j + 1
j 2 j 2 (j + 1)2
1 (j + 1)2 (2j + 1)
= 2[
]
j
(j + 1)2
1
j2
1 j 2 + 2j + 1 (2j + 1)
]= 2[
]
= 2[
j
(j + 1)2
j (j + 1)2
=
(ii)
1
,
(j + 1)2
as desired.
N
2n + 1
=
(un un+1 )
2
2
n=1
n=1 n (n + 1)
= (u1 u2 ) + (u2 u3 ) + (u3 u4 ) + + (uN uN +1 )
1
.
= u1 uN +1 = 1
(N + 1)2
N
1.
2 (n + 1)2
2
n
(N
+
1)
n=1
N
2
2
2
n=2 n (n 1)
n=1 (n + 1) (n + 1 1)
N
N 1
n=1
2n + 1
1
=
1
.
n2 (n + 1)2
N2
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sin rx =
r=1
2 sin x sin(0.5x)
2 sin(0.5x)
2 sin x sin(0.5x) 1 cos(0.5x) cos [(1 + 0.5)x]
=
=
.
2 sin(0.5x)
2 sin(0.5x)
sin rx = sin x
r=1
= uses the identity cos P cos Q = 2 sin [0.5 (P + Q)] sin [0.5 (P Q)].
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is,
j
sin rx =
r=1
sin rx =
r=1
r=1
r=1
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r=1
r+2
2n
= 3 3r
r=1
1
= 9 (3 + 32 + 33 + + 32n )
3 (1 32n )
=9
13
27
(1 32n )
=
2
27 2n
(3 1) .
=
2
2
321
16
= a + ar = 4(1 + r)
3
1
r = .
3
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1
r3 = 1 = 12 (1 + 1)2 .
4
r=1
Step #3. Show that P(j) implies P(j + 1) (for all j = 1, 2, 3, . . . ).
Assume that P(j) is true. That is,
j
1
r3 = j 2 (j + 1)2 .
4
r=1
Our goal is to show that P(j + 1) is true. That is,
j+1
1
2
r3 = (j + 1)2 [(j + 1) + 1] .
4
r=1
3 1
r = r3 + (j + 1)3
r=1
r=1
2 1
= j 2 (j + 1)2 + (j + 1)3
4
5 1
4 1
= (j + 1)2 [j 2 + 4(j + 1)] = (j + 1)2 (j + 2)2
4
4
3 1
2
= (j + 1)2 [(j + 1) + 1] ,as desired.
4
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r=1
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96.3
(ii) BC = OC OB = 0.6a b and so the line BC can be written as r = b + (0.6a b) =
0.6a + (1 )b, for R, as desired.
5
AD = OD OA = /11b a and so the line AD can be written as r = a + (5/11b a) =
(1 )a + 5/11b, for R, as desired.
(iii) Where the lines meet, we have 0.6a + (1 )b = (1 )a + 5/11b. Equating the
1
2
1
coefficients, we have 0.6 = 1 and 5/11 = 1 . From =, we have = 1 0.6. Plugging
2
this into =, we have 5/11 (1 0.6) = 1 1 0.6 = 11/5 11/5 8/5 = 6/5
= 3/4. And = 0.55. Altogether then, the position vector of E is 0.45a + 0.25b.
AE = 0.55a 0.25b and ED = 0.45a + 9/44b. We observe that AE = 9/11ED and so the
desired ratio is 9/11.
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(2, 3, 6) (1, 0, 0)
2
) = cos1 ( ) 1.281.
(2, 3, 6) (1, 0, 0)
49 1
(1 2)2
+ (7 3)2
+ (2 + 6)2
492 70 + 54.
(iii) The plane is parallel to the vectors (2, 3, 6) and (2, 5, 6) (1, 2, 4) = (1, 7, 2).
It thus has normal vector (2, 3, 6) (1, 7, 2) = (36, 2, 11). Moreover, we know that
(1, 2, 4) is on the plane. Hence, a cartesian equation is 36x 2y + 11z = 36 1 2 (2) +
11 (4) = 4.
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Answer to Exercise 335 (9740 N2014/I/3). (i) One possibility is that one or both are
zero vectors. And if neither is a zero vector, then they point either in the same direction
or a
=b
= b.
or in the exact opposite directions or equivalently, either a
(1, 2, 2)
.
(ii) (1,
2, 2) =
3
(iii) It is
(1, 2, 2) (0, 0, 1) 2
= .
31
3
Answer to Exercise 336 (9740 N2014/I/9). (i) The plane q is parallel to the vectors
(1, 2, 3) and (2, 1, 4). It thus has normal vector (1, 2, 3) (2, 1, 4) = (5, 10, 5) and
hence also normal vector (1, 2, 1). It contains the point (1, 1, 3). Altogether then, it has
cartesian equation x + 2y + z = 0.
(ii) Line m has direction vector (1, 2, 1) (1, 2, 3) = (8, 2, 4) and hence also direction
vector (4, 1, 2).
To find a point that is on both planes, try plugging in x = 0. Then from the equation of
q, we have z = 2y. Now plug this also into the equation of p to get 2y 3(2y) = 12 or
y = 1.5. Hence, an intersection point is (0, 1.5, 3).
Altogether then, the line m has vector equation r = (0, 1.5, 3) + (4, 1, 2), for R.
(iii) AB = OB OA = (4, 1.5 + , 3 + 2) (1, 1, 3) = (4 1, 2.5 + , 6 + 2). So
2
AB = (4 1)2 + (2.5 + )2 + (6 + 2)2 = 212 27 + 43.25. This lattermost expression
is a -shaped quadratic, with minimum point given by 42 27 = 0 or = 9/14. So
18 15 12
B = (4, 1.5 + , 3 + 2) = ( , , ).
7 7
7
Answer to Exercise 337 (9740 N2013/I/1). (i) From the equation for p, we have
1
z = 0.5x 2.
1
Now plug = and = into the equation for r to get 5x 4(1.25x 4) + (0.5x 2) = 9
3
4 4 50
0.5x + 25 2 = 0 x =
.
119
25
38
,y =
, and z = .
3
6
3
(ii) From =, if = 0, then we have 250, a contradiction. So the three planes do not intersect.
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Answer to Exercise 338 (9740 N2013/I/6). (i) Every vector in the plane can be
expressed as the linear combination of any two vectors with distinct directions (see Fact
23).
4a + 3c
(ii) By the Ratio Theorem, ON =
.
7
(iii) The area of triangle ON C is
4a + 3c
c
0.5 ON OC = 0.5
7
= 1/14 (4a + 3c) c
= 1/14 4a c + 3c c
(distributivity of vector product)
= 1/14 4a c
(v v = 0)
= 1/14 4a (a + b)
= 1/14 4a a + 4a b (distributivity of vector product)
2
= 1/14 4a b = .
7
Similarly, the area of triangle OM C is
0.5 OM OC = 0.5 0.5b c
= 1/4 b c
= 1/4 b (a + b)
= 1/4 b a + b b (distributivity of vector product)
= 1/4 b a
(v v = 0)
= 1/4 b a .
Altogether then, 2/7 = /4 or = 8/7.
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Answer to Exercise 339 (9740 N2013/II/4). (i) The angle between two planes is
given by the scalar product of their normal vectors:
cos =
(2, 2, 1) (6, 3, 2)
16
16
16
= =
= .
(2, 2, 1) (6, 3, 2)
9 49 3 7 21
So = 0.705.
(ii) The intersection line of two planes has direction vector given by the vector product of
their normal vectors: (2, 2, 1) (6, 3, 2) = (7, 10, 6).
A point that is on both planes satisfies both equations 2x 2y + z = 1 and 6x + 3y + 2z = 1.
Plugging in x = 0, the first equation yields z = 1 + 2y, which when plugged into the second
equation yields y = 3/7. So a point that is on both planes is (0, 3/7, 1/7).
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Answer to Exercise 340 (9740 N2012/I/5). (i) The area of triangle OAC is
0.5 OA OC = 0.5 a (a + b)
= 0.5 a a + a b
(distributivity of vector product)
= 0.5 a b
(v v = 0)
= 0.5 (1, 1, 1) (1, 2, 0)
Answer to Exercise 341 (9740 N2012/I/9). (i) r = (7, 8, 9) + (8, 16, 8).
v
) v
, where v is the direction vector of the
(ii) The position vector of N is given by p + (
pa
(1, 2, 1)
line, p is a point on the line, and a is the given point (1, 8, 3). Compute (8,
16, 8) =
6
and now:
(7, 8, 9) +
12
(6, 0, 6) (1, 2, 1) (1, 2, 1)
(5, 4, 7) =
7
, we have 5 + 5 = 7 or = 1/3. So the ratio AN N B = 1 = 1/3 1 =
Solving 5 =
+1
1 3.
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Answer to Exercise 342 (9740 N2011/I/7). (i) m = 0.5 (p + q) = 1/6a + 3/10b. The
area of triangle OM P is
0.5 m p = 0.5 0.5 (p + q) p
= 0.25 p p + q p
(distributivity of vector product)
= 0.25 q p
(v v = 0)
= 0.25 3/5b 1/3a
= 0.05 b a = 0.05 a b .
(ii) (a) Since a is a unit vector, (2p)2 + (6p)2 + (3p)2 = 1 or 49p2 = 1 or p = 1/7.
(b) a bis the length of the projection vector of b on a.
(c) a b = 1/7(2, 6, 3) (1, 1, 2) = 1/7(9, 7, 8).
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Answer to Exercise 343 (9740 N2011/I/11). (i) A normal vector to the plane is
(4 (2), 1 (5), 3 2) (4 4, 1 (3), 3 (2))
= (6, 4, 5) (0, 2, 1) = (6, 6, 12).
Another normal vector to the plane is a scalar multiple of the above, namely (1, 1, 2). We
have (4, 1, 3) (1, 1, 2) = 3. Hence, a cartesian equation of p is x + y + 2z = 3.
x1
1
= z + 3 x = 2(z + 3) + 1 = 2z + 7 and
2
(1, 5, 7) (1, 1, 2)
8
4
) = cos1 ( ) = cos1 ( ) 1.957.
(1, 5, 7) (1, 1, 2)
75 4
5 2
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(ii)
(i) b = 1 + 22 + 22 = 9 = a =
6
9
18
6
9
18
(a + b) (a b) = ( + 1, + 2, + 2) ( 1, 2, 2)
7
7
7
7
7
7
13 115 128
=
+
= 0.
49 49
49
2
Answer to Exercise 345 (9740 N2010/I/10). (i) The line has direction vector
(3, 6, 9), which is a scalar multiple of the planes normal vector (1, 2, 3). So the line is
perpendicular to the plane.
(ii) From the equations of the line, we have y = 2x + 19 and z = 3x + 27. Plug these in to
the equation of the plane to get x 2(2x + 19) 3(3x + 27) = 0 14x 119 = 0
x = 119/14 = 8.5. And so y = 2 and z = 1.5. So the point of intersection is (8.5, 2, 1.5).
(iii) We can easily verify that the given point satisfies the equations for the line:
23 + 1 33 + 3
4=
=
. The point is therefore on the line.
6
9
2 10
=
3
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Answer to Exercise 346 (9740 N2009/I/10). (i) The angle between the two planes
is given by
= cos1 (
(2, 1, 3) (1, 2, 1)
3
) = cos1 ( ) 1.237.
(2, 1, 3) (1, 2, 1)
14 4
(ii) The line l has direction vector (2, 1, 3) (1, 2, 1) = (5, 5, 5) and thus also direction
vector (1, 1, 1).
1
A point (x, y, z) that lies on both planes satisfies 2x+y +3z = 1 and x+2y +z = 2. Plugging
1
2
in x = 0, = yields y = 1 3z and now = yields z = 0. So (x, y, z) = (0, 1, 0).
Altogether then, the line l has vector equation r = (0, 1, 0) + (1, 1, 1), for R.
(iii) The line l is parallel to the plane p3 , as we now verify: (1, 1, 1) (2 k, 1 + 2k, 3 + k) =
2 k + 1 + 2k 3 k = 0. Moreover, the point (0, 1, 0), which is on the line l, is also on the
plane p3 , as we now verify: 2 0 + 1 + 3 0 1 + k(0 + 2 0 + 0 2) = 0. Altogether then,
the line l lies in p3 for any constant k.
We want to find k such that (2, 3, 4) satisfies 2x + y + 3z 1 + k(x + 2y + z 2) = 0.
That is, 2 2 + 3 + 3 4 1 + k(2 + 2 3 + 4 2) = 18 + 6k. So k = 3. So the plane is
2x + y + 3z 1 3(x + 2y + z 2) = 0 or 5x 5y + 5 = 0 or x y + 1 = 0.
Answer to Exercise 347 (9740 N2009/II/2). (i) Let p = OP . By the Ratio Theorem,
2(11, 13, 2) + (14, 14, 14)
= (12, 4, 6). So the point P is (12, 4, 6).
p=
3
(iii) c = (12,
4, 6) = (6,
2, 3) =
=
. a c is the length of the
7
62 + (2)2 + 32
projection vector of a on p.
(iv) a p = (140, 84, 224). a p is the area of the parallelogram formed with a and p as
its sides,
where the heads of a and p are the same point. The area of the triangle OAP is
a p = 1402 + 842 + (224)2 139.
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Answer to Exercise 348 (9740 N2008/I/3). (i) OP = OA + OB = (6, 3, 3).
(ii) The angle AOB is equal to the angle between the vectors OA and OB:
cos1 (
1
(1, 4, 3) (5, 1, 0)
) = cos1 ( ) 1.532.
(1, 4, 3) (5, 1, 0)
26 26
(iii) It is OA OB 25.981.
Answer to Exercise 349 (9740 N2008/I/11). You can either find the intersection
point using a graphing calculator or painfully by hand, as I do now:
5
2
1
1
From p1 , z = 1 x + y. Plug = into the equation for p2 to get 3x + 2y 5z = 3x + 2y
3
3
5
19
19
2
2
1
3
5 (1 x + y) = 5 or x y = 0 or x = y. And so from =, we have z = 1 + x. Now plug
3
3
3
3
3
2
in = and = into the equation for p3 to get 5x + x + 17(1 + x) = or (22 + )x = 17 or
17
0.4
4
4
4 7
x=
=
= . So the point of intersection is ( , , ).
22 +
1.1
11
11 11 11
(i) The line has direction vector (2, 5, 3) (3, 2, 5) = (19, 19, 19) and thus also direction
vector (1, 1, 1). From our work above, x = y at the intersection of the two planes. Plug in
x = 0 to find that the two planes intersect at (0, 0, 1). Altogether then, the line has vector
equation r = (0, 0, 1) + (1, 1, 1), for R.
(ii) Two points on the line are (0, 0, 1) and (1, 1, 0). Plug these into the equation for
plane p3 to get 17 = and 5 = , so that = 22.
(iii) The line l must be parallel to the plane p3 , so that (1, 1, 1) (5, , 17) = 0 or = 22.
Moreover, the point (0, 0, 1) on the line is not on the plane, so that 17.
(iv) Another vector that is parallel to the plane to be found is (1, 1, 3)(0, 0, 1) = (1, 1, 2).
The plane thus has normal vector (1, 1, 1) (1, 1, 2) = (3, 1, 2). Compute also d =
(0, 0, 1) (3, 1, 2) = 2. Altogether then, the plane has cartesian equation 3x y 2z = 2.
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Answer to Exercise 350 (9233 N2008/I/11). (i) From the equations of the first line,
we have y = 2x 2 and z = 5 x. Plugging these into the equations of the second line, we
have
x 1 1 2x 2 + 3 2 5 x 4
=
=
.
1
3
1
1
Both = and = imply that x = 4 and so indeed the two lines intersect. (If they didnt intersect,
1
2
then = would contradict =.) So the point of intersection is (4, 6, 1).
(1, 2, 1) (1, 3, 1)
8
) = cos1 ( ) 2.967.
(1, 2, 1) (1, 3, 1)
4 11
(ii) By the Ratio Theorem, OM = 1/3 [2(1, 1, 2) + (2, 4, 1)] = 1/3(4, 2, 5).
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Answer to Exercise 352 (9740 N2007/I/8). (i) The line l has vector equation r =
(1, 2, 4) + (3, 1, 3), for R. Plugging this into the equation for the plane, we have
3(1 3) (2 + ) + 2(4 3) = 17 9 16 = 17 = 0.5. So the point of
intersection is (1, 2, 4) 0.5(3, 1, 3) = (2.5, 1.5, 5.5).
16
(3, 1, 3) (3, 1, 2)
) = cos1 ( ) 2.946.
(3, 1, 3) (3, 1, 2)
19 14
So the angle between the line and the plane is 2.946 /2 1.376.
8
4 14
17 (1, 2, 4) (3, 1, 2) 17 9
=
=
= =
2.138.
(iii) d a n
7
14
14
14
Answer to Exercise 353 (9233 N2007/I/7). The foot of the perpendicular a point A
) v
, where Q is any point on the line and v is the lines direction
to a line is Q + (QA v
vector. Hence,
(4, 5, 5) (2, 2, 3) (2, 2, 3)
17
17
17(2, 2, 3)
= (3, 8, 3)
= (5, 6, 0).
17
P = (3, 8, 3) +
AP = (6, 3, 2) = 49 = 7.
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Answer to Exercise 354 (9233 N2007/II/2). (i) OD = 0.75(1, 3, 4). So the line AD
has direction vector (3.25, 3.25, 0) and hence also direction vector (1, 1, 0). So the line AD
has equation r = (4, 1, 3) + (1, 1, 0), for R.
(ii) OC = 0.25(4, 1, 3). So the line BC has direction vector (0, 3.25, 3.25) and hence also
direction vector (0, 1, 1). So the line BC has equation r = (1, 3, 4) + (0, 1, 1), for R.
Setting the equations of the two lines equal to each other, we have 4 + = 1, 1 + = 3 + ,
and 3 = 4 , so that = 3 and = 1. And the point of intersection is (1, 2, 3).
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96.4
w
a ib
a ib
a ib
a + ib
3
2
2
2
3
2
a ab + 2a bi + a ib ib 2ab
=
a2 + b2
1
= 2 2 [(a3 3ab2 ) + i (3a2 b b3 )]
a +b
is purely imaginary if and only if a3 3ab2 = 0. But a3 3ab2 = a(a2 3b2 ) = a (a 3b) (a + 3b).
(ii)
z1 z2 = 2ei(0.7) 2ei(0.9)
= 2ei(0.1) (ei(0.8) + ei(0.8) )
= 2ei(0.1) 2i sin 0.8
(Fact 53)
where the last line uses the fact that sin( x) = sin x.
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=
=
=
.
z 3 11 2i 11 2i 11 + 2i 112 (2i)2 121 + 4
125
q
11 + 2i
11
2
(ii) Since pz 2 + 3 = p(3 + 4i) + q
= (3p
q) + i (4p +
q) is real, we have
z
125
125
125
q
q
4p + 2
= 0 or q = 250p. And pz 2 + 3 = 19p.
125
z
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Answer to Exercise 358 (9740 N2014/II/4). (a) (i) This is simply a circle with
1
radius 4 centred on the point 5 + i. It has cartesian equation (x + 5)2 + (y 1)2 = 42 .
y
{z
: |z + 5 - i| = 4}
Radius 4
(-5, 1)
So to find the intersection points of the line and the circle, plug
= into = to get
(x + 5)2 +
2
1
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(iii) By the complex conjugate roots theorem, 1 2i is also a root for the equation. Write
27z 3 + 5z 2 + 17z + 295 = 27 [z (1 + 2i)] [z (1 2i)] (z k)
= 27 [(z 1)2 (2i)2 ] (z k)
= 27 (z 2 2z + 5) (z k)
= 27 [z 3 (k + 2)z 2 (2k + 5)z 5k] .
So 295 = 27 (5k) or k = 59/27. The roots are 1 2i and 59/27.
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(ii) z is the top-right quarter of the circumference of the circle of radius r, centred on the
origin.
Take the position vector of z, rotate it clockwise by /3 radians about the origin, double
its length this is the position vector of w.
y
re i / 2
2re i / 6
re i 0
x
{z = re i :
[0, / 2]}
2re i (- / 3)
from
z 10
8 + 2 + 2k = , so =
(with k = 0).
3
24
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(iii) z = 1 i 3 = z ei arg z = 2ei(/3) . z n = 2n > 1000 if and only if n > ln 1000/ ln 2 9.966.
So the smallest positive integer n is 10.
z 10 = 210 and arg z 10 = 10(/3) + 2k = 2/3 (k = 2).
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{z
: |z - (7 - 3i )| = 4}
x
o
a
Radius 4
c = (7, -3)
b
Radius 4
d
(ii) (a) a is the point on the circles circumference that is closest to the origin a. The line
l through the origin and the centre of the circle passes through a (see Fact 56).
But the distance of the centre of the circle from the origin is 72 + 32 = 58. The distance
of the centre of the circle to the point a is 4
(this is simply the length of the radius). Hence,
the distance of the origin to the point a is 58 4.
(b) abc is right. So ab2 + bc2 = ca2 = 42 = 16.
3
(because it runs through the origin and the point 7 3i) and
7
3
3 2
49
7
28
so ab = bc. Hence, ( ) bc2 + bc2 = 16. Or bc2 = 16 . Or bc = 4 = . And
7
7
58
58
58
12
28
12
ab = . Hence, a = (7 , 3 + ).
58
58
58
(iii) By observation, d is the point where arg z is as large as possible. arg z = arg(7 3i) +
cod.
4
3
But cod is right. So cod = sin1 . Moreover, arg(7 3i) = tan1 .
7
58
Altogether then, arg z = tan1
3
4
+ sin1 = 0.9579.
7
58
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Answer to Exercise 363 (9740 N2011/I/10). (i) Let (x + iy)2 = x2 y 2 + i(2xy) = 8i.
1
2
2
So x2 y 2 = 0 and 2xy = 8. From =, we observe that x and y must have opposite signs.
1
From =, x = y and by our observation of the previous sentence, we must have x = y. And
2
now from =, we have 2(y) y = 8 or 2y 2 = 8 or y = 2. Altogether then, z1 = 2 + 2i
and z2 = 2 2i.
(ii) Using the quadratic formula and part (i),
w=
42 4(1)(4 + 2i)
= 2 4 (4 + 2i) = 2 2i = 2 (1 + i) = 3 i, 1 + i.
2
(iii) (a) This is simply the line that is equidistant to z1 = (2, 2) and z2 = (2, 2). By
observation, it has cartesian equation y = x.
|z - z1 | = |z - z2 |
|w - w1 | = |w - w2 |
x
(b) This simply the line that is equidistant to w1 = (3, 1) and w2 = (1, 1). By observation, it has cartesian equation y = x + 2.
(iv) The two lines are parallel and do not intersect.
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Answer to Exercise 364 (9740 N2011/II/1). (i) This is simply the circle with radius
3 and centre 2 + 5i, including all the points within the circle.
{z
: |z - (2 + 5i )| 3}
b
P
Radius 3
c = (2, 5)
P2
Radius 3
a
P1
(6, 1)
x
(ii) The points on the circles circumference that are closest to and furthest from the origin
o are a and b. The line l through the origin and the centre of the circle passes through both
a and b (see Fact 56).
oc = 22 + 52 = 29 and ac = 3. Hence, oc = 29 3.
Symmetrically, ob = 29 + 3. The
maximum and minimum possible values of z are thus 29 3.
(iii) The locus of points that satisfy both z 2 5i 3 and 0 arg z /4 is the blue
closed segment.
By observation, z 6 i is maximised either at P1 or P2 . These points are are given by
(p 2)2 + (p 5)2 = 3 2p2 14p + 20 = 0
p2 7p + 10 = 0 (p 5)(p 2) = 0.
So P1 =(2, 2) and
P2 = (5, 5).
of these points to the point (6, 1) are respec The distances
tively, 42 + 12 = 17 and 12 + 42 = 17. So both are, equally, the furthest point from
(6, 1).
Page 1277, Table of Contents
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2
Answer to Exercise 365 (9740 N2010/I/8). (i) For z1 , r = 12 + ( 3) = 2 and
1 3
2
1
= tan ( 3/1) = /3. For z2 , r = (1)2 + (1) = 2 and = tan1
=
.
1
4
3
Altogether then, z1 = 2 [cos + i sin ] and z2 = 2 [cos
+ i sin
].
3
3
4
4
(ii)
z1
z1
2
z1
3 13 11
=
= = 2. arg ( ) = arg z1 arg z2 = /3
=
=
.
z2
z2
z2
4
12
12
2
11
z1
11
Hence, ( ) = 2 [cos
+ i sin
].
z2
12
12
(iii) (a) This is simply the circle with centre z1 and radius 2.
y
|z - z 1| = 2
arg (z - z 2) = / 4
z 1= (1,
z 2 = (-1, -1)
(b) This is simply the ray from the point z2 (but excluding the point z2 ) that makes an
angle /4 with the horizontal.
(iv) We want to find x > 0 such that (x, 0) (1, 3) = 2 or (x 1)2 + 3 = 4 or (x 1)2 = 1
or x = 0, 2. So (2, 0) is where the locus z z1 = 2 meets the positive real axis.
Page 1278, Table of Contents
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(6)2 4(1)(34)
=3
2
100
= 3 5i.
2
= [(x + 2) i2 ] (x2 + cx + d)
= (x2 + 4x + 5) (x2 + cx + d)
= x4 + (4 + c)x3 + (5c + 4d)x + 5d.
Comparing coefficients, we have c = 0 and d = 4. So x2 + cx + d = x2 4 = (x 2)(x + 2). So
the other two roots are 2.
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Answer to Exercise 367 (9740 N2009/I/9). (i) z 7 = 1 + i = 21/2 ei/4 = 21/2 ei(1/4+2k) .
By de Moivres Theorem, z = 21/14 ei(1/28+2k/7) , for k = 0, 1, 2, 3.
(ii)
(iii) z z1 = z z2 is the line (blue) that is equidistant to the points z1 = 21/14 ei(1/28) and
z2 = 21/14 ei(1/28+2/7)
Explanation #1: 0 satisfies the equation z z1 = z z2 as we can easily verify 0 z1 =
0 z2 = 21/14 . So 0 is in the locus z z1 = z z2 .
Explanation #2: The perpendicular bisector of a chord runs through the centre of the
circle. So in this case, the perpendicular bisector of the chord z1 z2 runs through the origin
(which is the centre of the circle).
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3i) (1 +
(ii) 0 = 2z 3 + az 2 + bz + 4
= 12 2a + b + i 3 (2a + b)
1
=0
=0
3
2
2z 3z + 6z + 4 = 2 [z (1 + 3i)] [z (1 3i)] (z c)
= 2 (z 1 3i) (z 1 + 3i) (z c)
2
2
= 2 [(z 1) ( 3i) ] (z c)
= 2 (z 2 2z + 4) (z c)
= 2 [z 3 + (c 2)z 2 + (4 + 2c)z 4c] .
Comparing coefficients, we have c = 0.5, which is also the third root for the equation.
y
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w
w
Answer to Exercise 369 (9740 N2008/II/3). (a) p = = = 1 and arg p =
w
w
w
arg = arg w arg w = () = 2.
w
arg p5 = 10 + 2k. The argument of a positive real number is 2m for some integer m.
Hence, = n/5 for integers n. Given also the restriction that (0, /2), we have = /5
or 2/5.
(b) z 6 is a circle of radius 6 centred on the origin, including the interior of the circle.
z = z 8 6i is a line that is equidistant to the origin and the point (8, 6).
So the locus of z is the line segment AB.
y
8 + 6i
|z | 6
B
x
|z | = |z - 8 - 6i |
(i)
(ii) Observe that arg z is maximised and minimised at A and B. arg A = COX + AOC,
6
3
arg B = COX BOC. Moreover, COX = arg(8 + 6i) = tan1 = tan1 .
8
4
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Answer to Exercise 370 (9740 N2008/I/9). (i) This is the circle centred on 2i with
radius 2.
y
- 2i
Radius 2
|z + 2i | = 2
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Answer to Exercise 370 (9740 N2008/I/9) (iii). This is the region bounded by and
including the rays arg(z + 1 3i) = /6 and arg(z + 1 3i) = /3.
/3
1 + 3i
/6
/ 6 arg (z + 1 3i) / 3
x
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Remark 10. Do not make the mistake of concluding that by the complex conjugate roots
theorem, 1 + i is the other root of the equation w2 = 2i. The theorem applies only for
polynomials whose coefficients are all real. It does not apply here because there is an
imaginary coefficient.
(ii)
3 + 5i 2i 3 + 5i (1 i)
=
=
= 2 + 2i, 1 + 3i.
2
2
3 + 5i
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13
|z + 2 - 3i | =
-2 + 3i
Radius
x
(b) (a + ib)(a ib) + 2(a + ib) = 3 + 4i or a2 + b2 + 2a + 2bi = 3 + 4i. Two complex numbers are
1
2
equal if and only if their real and imaginary parts are equal. So a2 + b2 + 2a = 3 and 2b = 4.
2
1
From =, b = 2. Plug this into = to find that a2 + 2a + 1 = 0 or a = 1. So w = 1 + 2i.
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(iii) First use what we found in part (ii). Then use what we found in part (i):
z 6 + 64
z 2 2(2) cos(/6)+22
z 2 2(2) cos(5/6)+22
= (z 2ei/6 ) (z 2ei/6 )(z 2e3i/6 ) (z 2e3i/6 )(z 2e5i/6 ) (z 2e5i/6 )
z 2 2(2) cos(3/6)+22
= (z 2 2 3 + 4) (z 2 + 4) (z 2 + 2 3 + 4) .
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Answer to Exercise 374 (9233 N2007/I/9). First part of the question. By the
complex conjugate roots theorem, another root is ki. Altogether then,
az 4 + bz 3 + cz 2 + dz + e = a (z ki) (z + ki) (z 2 + f z + g)
= a (z 2 + k 2 ) (z 2 + f z + g)
= a [z 4 + f z 3 + (k 2 + g)z 2 + k 2 f z + gk 2 ] .
1
d
27
b
2
1
=
= 9 = 3. So the two desired
From = above, f = = 3. So from =, k =
a
af
13
roots are 3i.
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Answer to Exercise 375 (9233 N2007/II/5). The locus of P is the ray from (but
excluding) the point 2i that makes an angle /3 with the horizontal. This is one half of
y
P : arg (z 2i) = / 3
(1,
(1, 2)
)
/3
Q : |z + 2| = |z 4|
(-2, 0)
(4, 0)
2
[1 + i ( 3 + 2)] [1 i ( 3 + 2)] = 1 + ( 3 + 2) = 1 + 3 + 4 + 4 3 = 8 + 4 3.
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y
|z + 4 - 4i| = 3
A = (-4, 4)
C = (0, 1)
(ii) Given a point (C here), the line connecting it to the centre of a circle (A here) also
passes through the point on the circumference (B here) that is closest to the given point
(see Fact 56).
2
2
The distance between A and C is (4 0) + (4 1) = 42 + 32 = 5. So the distance
between B and C is 5 3 = 2.
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(i)
(2)2 4(1)(2)
= 1 1 2 = 1 i.
2
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96.5
Answer to Exercise 378 (9740 N2015/I/3). (i) This question is simply asking you to
explain the intuition behind the definite and Riemann integral (see Chapter 481).
1
See figure below. There are 10 rectangles. Each has width . The leftmost blue rectangle
10
1
2
has height f ( ). The second-leftmost rectangle has height f ( ). Etc. The total area
10
10
1
1
1
2
10
of the 10 rectangles is
[f ( ) + f ( ) + + f ( )]. It approximates f (x) dx,
10
10
10
10
0
which is the area under the graph of f , between 0 and 1.
By increasing the number of rectangles, we improve the approximation. In the limit, it is
plausible that we have
1
1
1
2
n
lim { [f ( ) + f ( ) + + f ( )]} = f (x) dx.
n n
n
n
n
0
x
1
(ii) Let f R R be defined by x 3 x. Then by part (i), the given expression is equal
1
1
1
to f (x) dx = 3 x dx = 3/4 [x4/3 ]0 = 3/4.
0
0
Answer to Exercise 379 (9740 N2015/I/4). The total perimeter of the two shapes is
d = 2(x + y) + 2x + x. Rearranging, y = 0.5d x(2 + 0.5).
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The total area of the two shapes is A = xy + 0.5x2 . The total area is maximised where
dA
= 0 or
dx
dA
dy
= y + x + x = 0.5d x(2 + 0.5) x (2 + 0.5) + x = 0.5d 4x = 0.
dx
dx
So x =
d
and
8
2 + 0.5
d 2
d
d) + 0.5 ( )
A = (0.5d
8
8
8
1
1
d2
=(
+
) d2 = .
16 32 128 128
32
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(2x)2 (2x)3
Answer to Exercise 380 (9740 N2015/I/6). (i) ln (1 + 2x) = (2x)
+
+ =
2
3
8
2x 2x2 + x3 + . . . .
3
(ii) ax (1 + bx)
1
2
3 8
Comparing coefficients, a = 2, abc = 2, and 0.5ab2 c(c 1) = .
3
1
Solve this system of equations using your calculator or manually, as I do now: From = and
1
c1 8
1 8
3
5
2
3
=, we have b = . Now from =, we have
= or 1 = or c = . And b = .
c
c
3
c 3
5
3
Altogether then, the coefficient of x4 is
3
5
3
8
13
ab3 c(c 1)(c 2) 2 ( 3 ) ( 5 ) ( 5 ) ( 5 )
104
=
=
.
6
6
27
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/2
0
= 1.
The area between y = cos x and y = sin x between the origin and P is A2 =
0
/4
/4
/4
sin x dx = [sin x]0 [ cos x]0 = 2 1.
So A1 = 2
/4
cos x dx
2. And
A1 2 2 2 2
2+1 22+ 2
=
=
=
= 2.
A2
1
21
21
2+1
(iii)
0
0.5 2
0.5 2
0
x2 dy =
0.5 2
0
(sin1 y) 2 dy.
(sin1 y) 2 dy
/4
v
u
/4
/4
2
2
2
u cos u du = u sin u 2 u sin u du
u d (sin u) =
=
0
0
0
u
/4
3 2
3 2
/4
=
2 [u( cos u) ( cos u) du] =
+ 2 [u cos u sin u]0
16 2
16 2
0
3 2
2
2
2 2
=
+ 2 (
)=
( + 2) .
16 2
4 2
2
2
16 2
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(i)
dy dy dx
=
dy
= 0 2 cot tan = 0 2 = sin2 / cos2 = tan2 tan = 2. So
dx
d2 y
d
d 2 csc2 sec2
2
2
=
(2 cot tan ) = (2 csc sec )
=
.
dx2 dx
dx
3 sin2 cos
=
2, we have cos > 0 and so the denominator
is negative. Altogether then, at tan = 2, the second derivative is negative, so that this
is indeed a maximum turning point.
(iii) By observation, y 0 (for 0 0.5) and thus C is entirely above the x-axis. So the
desired area is simply
=0.5
=0
y dx =
=
=0.5
=0
0.5
0
0.5
(iv) The intersection points of the line and the curve C are given by 3 sin2 cos = a sin3
or 3/a = tan , as desired.
2 = 3/a a = 3/ 2 = 1.5 2.
Answer to Exercise 383 (9740 N2015/II/1). (i) The maximum height is attained
dh
= 0 h = 32 m.
when
dt
(ii)
1
16 0.5h
dh =
1
dt
10
(16 0.5h)0.5
1
+C = t
0.5 (0.5)
10
t = A 40(16 0.5h)0.5 .
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d
to the given equation:
dx
dy
dy
+ y 2 + x(2y) = 0.
dx
dx
dy
= 1 implies that x2 + y 2 = 0 or y = x. What weve just shown is that
Plugging in
dx
dy
= 1 only if y = x.
dx
First plug in y = x into the original equation: x3 +x3 +54 = 54 = 0 clearly, this equation
is never true.
Next plug in y = x into the original equation: 2x3 + 54 = 0 x = 3. So the one and
only point at which the gradient is 1 is (3, 3).
Answer to Exercise 385 (9740 N2014/I/7). (i) 1.885 (calculator).
The intersection points of
the curve with the line y= 7 are given by 7 = x6 3x4 7 or
x4 (x2 3) = 0. So x = 0, 3. By observation, = 3.
3
0
a2 4b
4
2
2
And now solving the quadratic equation x + ax + b = 0, we have x =
.
2
Observe that a2 4b < 0, so that both values of x2 are imaginary. The square roots of the
above values of x2 yield the other four roots, all of which are also imaginary:
x=
2
2
2
2
2
a a 4b
3 ( 3) 28/
=
.
2
2
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x
Answer to Exercise 386 (9740 N2014/I/8). (i) f (x) dx = sin1 + C, where C is
3
the constant of integration.
(ii)
f (x)
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
= (9 x2 )
= 90.5 [1 (x/3)2 ]
= [1 (x/3)2 ]
3
2
3
1
3
1
3
5
x 2
x 2
2
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
[
]
[
]
1
1
x
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
= 1 + ( ) [ ( ) ] +
+
+ . . .
3
2
3
2!
3!
1
1
5
1
x2 + 4 3 x4 + 7 4 x6 + . . .
= + 3
3 3 2
3 2
3 2
(iii)
1
5
1
1
4
6
2
f (x) dx = 3 + 33 2 x + 34 23 x + 37 24 x + . . . dx
1
1
1
5
5
=C + x+ 4
x3 +
x
+
x7 + . . .
4
3
7
4
3
3 2
53 2
73 2
sin1
x 1
1
1
5
5
= x+ 4
x3 +
x
+
x7 + . . .
4
3
7
4
3 3
3 2
53 2
73 2
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Answer to Exercise 387 (9740 N2014/I/10). (i) 0.25 = k (1 + 0.5 0.52 ) = 1.25k
k = 0.2.
2
1
1.25 (x 0.5)
dx = 0.2 dt
1
1.25 + (x 0.5)
ln
+ C = 0.2t
2 1.25
1.25 (x 0.5)
5 (2x 1)
+ B = t.
5 ln
5 + (2x 1)
5 (2x 1)
t = 5 ln
.
5 + (2x 1)
(iii)(a)
(iii)(b)
(iv)
t(x = 0.25) =
t(x = 0) =
5 + 0.5
5 ln
.
5 0.5
5+1
.
5 ln
51
2 5
5 (2x 1)
e
=
= 1 +
5 + (2x 1)
5 + (2x 1)
2 5
= 5 + 2x 1
et/ 5 + 1
5
x =
+ 0.5 (1 5) .
et/ 5 + 1
t/ 5
x = f (t)
O
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42 r2 = 16 r2 . So V =
3
2
3
2
2r /3 + r h/3 = 2r /3 + r 16 r2 /3.
dV
0.5(2r)
r
r2
= 2r2 + (2r 16 r2 + r2
) = 2r2 +
(2 16 r2
)
dr
3
3
16 r2
16 r2
r
32 3r2
[2 (16 r2 ) r2 ] = r [2r +
= 2r2 +
].
3 16 r2
3 16 r2
dV
32 3r2
= 0 r = 0 (clearly not the maximum) or 2r +
=0
dr
3 16 r2
1
2r (3 16 r2 ) = 3r2 32 36r2 (16 r2 ) = 9r4 + 322 6 32r2
0 = 45r4 768r2 + 1024.
(ii) r 1.207, 3.951 (calculator).
dV
dV
0,
= 0.97
dr r1.207
dr r3.951
Presuming that V is maximised at a positive root to the equation 0 = 45r4 768r2 + 1024,
we have r1 3.951 and h 0.625460188.
(iii)
(iv)
V
O
97
dV
dV
1
= 0. So how can it be that
Heres a simple example to illustrate: Say we have the equation x = 2. We square both sides to get x2 = 4. We now
conclude that x = 2. But in fact the additional solution x = 2 should be rejected.
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9x2 + x 13
dx
(2x 5)(x2 + 9)
2
RRR <0 RRR
3x + 8
8
x
3
3 RR 3
+ 2
dx = ln RRRRR2x 5RRRRR + ln (x2 + 9) + tan1 ( )
=
2 RR
x +9
3
3
0 2x 5
RRR 2
R
R
R
0
3 (5 2 2)(22 + 9) 8
2
0
3
13
8
2
= ln
+ [tan1 ( ) tan1 ( )] = ln + tan1 ( ) .
2
59
3
3
3
2 45 3
3
2
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Answer to Exercise 390 (9740 N2013/I/5).
x 2
1( )
a
x 2
2
implies [f (x)] + ( ) = 1, so this portion of the graph describes an ellipse with horizontal
a
intercepts a and vertical intercepts 1. The graph in the regions [4a, a) and [2a, 5a) looks
the same as that in the region [a, 2a). Altogether then:
y y
y = f(x)
x
3a/2
3a/2
3
f (x) dx =
(ii) Note that
a < a. And so
2
a/2
a/2
x2
dx.
a2
a/2
3a/2
/3
a2 sin2
a cos d =
1
1 sin2 a cos d
2
a
/6
/3
/3 cos 2 + 1
/3
a sin 2
2
a
a cos d =
=
d = [
+ ]
2
2
2
/6
/6
/6
/3
a sin 2
a
a 0.5 3 0.5 3
= [
+ ] = [
+ ]=
.
2
2
2
2
3 6
12
/6
/3
x2
1 2 dx =
a
/6
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1
Answer to Exercise 391 (9740 N2013/I/10). (i)
dz = dx
3 2z
0.5 ln (3 2z) = x + C z = 1.5 0.5e2(x+C) = 1.5 0.5Ae2x , where C is the
constant of integration and A = e2C .
(ii)
(iii)
dy
= 1.5 0.5Ae2x . So y = 1.5x + 0.25Ae2x + B, where B is the constant of integration.
dx
d2 y
= Ae2x . So Ae2x = a (1.5 0.5Ae2x ) + b. And thus, a = 2 and b = 3.
dx2
(iv) Two of these lines have equations y = 1.5x (where A = 0 = B) and y = 1.5x + 1 (where
A = 0, B = 1) .
A non-linear member of the family of curves is y = 1.5x + e2x (where A = 4). For this
member, as x , y 1.5x, so it has y = 1.5x has an asymptote.
y
y = 1.5x + e-2x
y = 1.5x
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dy dy dx
=
= 6t2 6t = t.
dx dt dt
(iii) The point M is on the curve C and thus satisfies x = 3t2 and y = 2t3 . It is also on the
2
3
1
2
3
curve L and thus satisfies x = y 2 + 1. Plug = and = into = to get 3t2 = (2t3 ) + 1 = 4t6 + 1 or
4t6 3t2 + 1 = 0, as desired.
By observation, t2 = 1 solves this last equation. So t = i are a pair of possible solutions.
But these two imaginary solutions cannot possibly correspond to M .
Lets look for the other two solutions. We have that 4t6 3t2 + 1 = (t2 + 1) (4t4 + at2 + b) =
4t6 + (a + 4) t4 + (a + b)t2 + b. So a = 4 and b = 1. Altogether then, 4t6 3t2 + 1 =
2
(t2 + 1) (4t4 4t2 + 1) = (t2 + 1) (2t2 1) .
So the other two solutions are t = 0.5. At the point M , y 0, so it must be that t = 0.5
2
3
and M = (3 ( 0.5) , 2 ( 0.5) ) = (1.5, 0.5).
2
2x x
= 1.5 x1.5 .
(iv) At least for the region illustrated, the curve C can be written as y =
3
3 3
And so the area below the curve C and above the x-axis between x = 0 and x = 1.5 is
A=
1.5
0
y dx =
1.5
0
2 1.5
2 1
2.5 1.5
[x
]0
x
dx
=
31.5
31.5 2.5
2 1
1.52.5 = 0.8(0.5)1.5 (1.5) = 1.2(0.5)1.5 = 0.6 0.5 = 0.3 2.
= 1.5
3 2.5
At least for the region illustrated, the curve L can be written as y = x 1. L intersects
the x-axis at x = 1. And so the area below the curve L and above the x-axis between x = 0
and x = 1.5 is
1
2
1
1
1.5
[(x 1)1.5 ]1 = 0.51.5 =
0.5 =
2.
1.5
3
3
6
1
1
2
Altogether then, the desired area is A B =
2.
15
B=
1.5
y dx =
1.5
x 1 dx =
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Answer to Exercise 393 (9740 N2013/II/2). (i) AD has length x tan = 3x. So
3
too does BE. Hence, DE has length a 2 3x. This is also the length of each side of
the equilateral triangle shown in Fig. 2. So that triangle has area 0.5 (a 2 3x) sin =
3
2
0.25 3 (a 2 3x) .
The prism has volume equal to the area we just calculated multiplied by its height x:
2
V = 0.25 3 (a 2 3x) x, as desired.
A
D
x
a
E
Fig. 2
x
Fig. 1
Fig. 3
2
dV 1
=
3 [2 (a 2 3x) (2 3) x + (a 2 3x) ]
dx 4
1
1
=
3 (a 2 3x) (4 3x + a 2 3x) =
3 (a 2 3x) (a 6 3x)
4
4
dV
a
a
So
= 0 x = , .
dx
2 3 6 3
(ii)
These are the two stationary points of V as a function of x. To determine their nature, we
use the second derivative test:
d2 V 1
=
3
[2
3
(a
6
3x)
6
3
(a
2
3x)]
dx2 4
3
3
= [ (a 6 3x) 3 (a 2 3x)] = (12 3x 4a) .
2
2
a
The second derivative is positive when evaluated at x = and negative when evaluated
2 3
a
a
at x = . Thus, the maximum value of V occurs when x = :
6 3
6 3
2
1
1
a 2 a
1 4 2 a a3
V =
3 (a 2 3x) x =
3 (a ) =
a = .
4
4
3 6 3 49
6 54
Page 1305, Table of Contents
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2 cos x
2 cos 0
f (0) =
= 2,
1 + 2 sin x
1 + 2 sin 0
=
=
2
f
(0)
=
2
= 4,
(1 + 2 sin x)2
(1 + 2 sin x)2
(1 + 2 sin 0)2
(1 + 2 sin x)4
1 (2)2(1)(2)
(1 + 2 sin 0)2 cos 0 (sin 0 + 2)2(1 + 2 sin 0)(2 cos 0)
= 2
= 14.
f (0) = 2
4
(1 + 2 sin 0)
1
So f (x) = 0 + 2x
4 2 14 3
7
x + x + = 0 + 2x 2x2 + x3 + . . .
2!
3!
3
(nx)3
(ax)2 (ax)3
+
+ . . . ] [0 + nx + 0
+ ...]
(ii) e sin nx = [1 + ax +
2!
3!
3!
a2 n n3 3
= nx + anx2 + (
)x .
2
6
ax
We are told that 2 = n and 2 = an, so a = 1. Hence, the third non-zero term in the
8
x3
Maclaurin series for eax sin nx is (1 ) x3 = .
6
3
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x3
ln (1 + x4 )
Answer to Exercise 395 (9740 N2012/I/2). (i)
dx =
+ C.
1 + x4
4
(ii) Observe that dx = 2xdu. So
x
0.5
1
1 2
1 + x4 dx = 1 + u2 du = 0.5 (tan u) + C = 0.5 (tan x ) + C.
(iii) 0.186 (calculator).98
sin ( 3
4 )
sin ( 4 )
sin ( 3
4 )
1
.
cos sin
= sin = cos .
4
4
4
98
Its actually possible to show, albeit with a lot of work, that this definite integral is equal to
1
8x3
2
2
1
1
[ 2 ln [(x + 1 2x) / (x + 1 + 2x)] + 2 2 tan (1 + 2x) 2 2 tan (1 2x) + 4
]
32
x +1 0
1
[ 2 ln (3 2 2) + 2 + 4] 0.186.
= ... more work ... =
32
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d
to the equation:
dx
dy
dy
dy
= 2(x + y) (1 + ) = 2(x + y) + 2(x + y)
dx
dx
dx
dy
1 2x 2y = (2x + 2y + 1)
dx
1 2x 2y dy
=
(provided 2x + 2y + 1 0)
2x + 2y + 1 dx
2
dy
2
dy
1 +
=
=1+ ,
2x + 2y + 1 dx
2x + 2y + 1
dx
1
(ii) Apply
dy
is undefined.)
dx
d
to the equation found in (i):
dx
2
dy
4
dy
d2 y
=
(2
+
2
)
=
(1
+
)
dx2 (2x + 2y + 1)2
dx
(2x + 2y + 1)2
dx
2
2
dy
dy 3
= (
) (1 + ) = (1 + ) , as desired.
2x + 2y + 1
dx
dx
dy
= 0. So at any such point, the second derivative
dx
is equal to (1 + 0)3 = 1 < 0. So by the second derivative test, the turning point is a
maximum.
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Answer to Exercise 399 (9740 N2012/I/10). (i) The Lower Part of the concert
2
hall has volume r2 h and the Upper Part has volume r3 . So the total volume is V =
3
2
3
r
k
2
k
2r
dh
2k 2
3
r2 h + r3 = k. So h =
=
and
=
.
3
r2
r2 3
dr
r3 3
Lower Part has external surface area r2 + 2rh and Upper Part has external surface area
d
2r2 . So the total external surface area is A = r (r + 2h + 2r) = 3r2 + 2rh. Apply :
dr
dA
dh
k
2
2k 2
= 6r + 2 (h + r ) = 6r + 2 [ 2 r + r ( 3 )]
dr
dr
r
3
r
3
4
2k
8
2k 10
2k
k
= 6r + 2 [ 2 r 2 ] = 6r r 2 = r 2 .
r
3
r
3
r
3
r
dA
10
2k
10 3
3k 1/3
= 0
r 2 = 0
r = 2k r = ( ) .
dr
3
r
3
5
The minimum point is where
dA
1/3
= 0 4r3 + 2k 4 = 0 or r = [(2 k)/2] . And
dr
k
2r k 5 2/3 2 3k 1/3
k 1/3 5 2/3 2 3 1/3
3k 1/3
h= 2
= ( ) ( ) = ( ) [( ) ( ) ] = ( ) .
r
3 3k
3 5
3
3 5
5
1
(ii) We are now instead given that V = r2 h + 2r3 /3 = 200 and A = 3r2 + 2rh = 180. So
r 6.75874, 3.03721, 3.72153 (calculator).
We can reject the negative solution. So the two possible values of r are 3.03721 and 3.72153.
The corresponding values of h are h =
90
1.5r 4.88, 2.12.
r
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dy dy dx
sin
2 sin (0.5) cos (0.5) cos (0.5)
=
=
=
=
= cot (0.5) .
dx d d 1 cos
sin (0.5)
2 sin2 (0.5)
dy
is undefined where = 0 or = 2.
dx
R
dy
dy
dy RRRR
lim
RRR = 0,
= ,
lim
= .
0 dx
2 dx
dx RR
R=
So at C, the gradient is 0. As 0, 2, the tangents to C become vertical.
Note that
dy
= cot = 0.
dx
2
(ii) You can certainly use your graphing calculator as an aid, but in this case we can easily
figure out the graph even without your calculator and so thats what Ill do as an exercise.
At C,
First figure out the endpoints: At the endpoints, = 0 (x, y) = (0, 0) and = 2
(x, y) = (2, 0).
dy
dy
dy
= cot with
as 0, 2. Moreover,
= 0 when
In between, we know that
dx
2
dx
dx
= . So the curve C starts with vertical slope at = 0, keeps increasing but at a decreasing
rate until = , then keeps decreasing at an increasing rate.
y
Tangents vertical
2
x
0
x=2
(iii)
x=0
y dx =
=2
=0
2
0
1 2 cos + cos2 d
cos 2 + 1
sin 2 2
= [ 2 sin +
d] = [1.5 2 sin +
] = 3.
2
4 0
0
p
(iv) The normal to C at P has equation y (1 cos p) = [x (p sin p)] / cot . Where it
2
crosses the x-axis, we have
p
0 (1 cos p) = [x (p sin p)] / cot
2
p
x = cot (1 cos p) + (p sin p) = p.
2
=sin p (See above)
Page 1310, Table of Contents
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dy
= 16x 3x3 + A and y =
dx
8x2 0.75x4 + Ax + B, where A and B are constants of integration.
(a)
1 1
4 + 3u
1
7
1
du
=
dt
ln
+C
=
t,
where
C
=
ln
. Altogether,
16 9u2
243
4 3u
24
1
1
4 + 3u
t=
(ln
ln 7).
24
4 3u
(b)
dy dy dx
2
1
Answer to Exercise 401 (9740 N2011/I/3). (i)
=
= 2 (2t) = 3 . So
dx dt dt
t
t
2
1
x 3
2
the equation of the tangent at the given point is y = 3 (x p ) or y = 3 + .
p
p
p
p
(ii) The horizontal intercept is given by 0 =
x 3
+ or x = 3p2 . So Q = (3p2 , 0).
3
p
p
3
3
The vertical intercept is given by y = 0 + . So R = (0, ).
p
p
(iii) The mid-point is of QR is (1.5p2 ,
{(x, y) x = 1.5p2 , y =
1.5
). The locus of the mid-point as p varies is
p
1.5
, p R R+ }.
p
1.53
.
y2
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x2 x4
Answer to Exercise 402 (9740 N2011/I/4). (i) cos x = 1 + ! + = 1 0.5x2 +
2! 4
x4
+ . . . . Thus:
24
6
x4
x4
2
cos x = (1 0.5x +
+ . . . ) = [1 + (0.5x +
+ . . . )]
24
24
2
x4
65
x4
2
2
= 1 + 6 (0.5x +
+ ...) +
(0.5x +
+ ...) + ...
24
2
24
x4
x4
2
= 1 3x +
+ 15 + = 1 3x2 + 4x4 + . . .
4
4
6
(ii)(a)
So where a = /4,
0
cos6 x dx =
a
0
= a a3 + 0.8a5 + . . .
/4
3
5
/4
cos6 x dx 0.4746. Using the first few terms of the Maclaurin series as an approx0
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2 x,
f (x) =
2 + x,
2 x,
f (x) =
for x < 0.
x 2,
for x 0,
for x 2,
for x > 2.
The graph of y = f (x) is simply that of y = f (x) but with the region where x < 0 replaced
by the reflection in the vertical axis of the graph y = f (x) in the region where x > 0.
The graph of y = f (x) is simply that of y = f (x) but with the region where y < 0 replaced
by its reflection in the horizontal axis.
y
y
(0, 2)
y = f (|x |)
(0, 2)
x
y = |f (x) |
(2, 0)
(-2, 0)
x
(2, 0)
(ii) You can simply write down what you observe from the graphs: f (x) = f (x)
x [0, 2].
Or if we want to solve this algebraically and rigorously ... For x > 2, f (x) = f (x)
2 x = x 2 x = 2 (NA). For x [0, 2], f (x) = f (x) 2 x = 2 x, which is
always true. For x < 0, f (x) = f (x) 2 + x = 2 x x = 0 (NA). Altogether then,
f (x) = f (x) x [0, 2].
(iii)
a
1 f (x) dx = 1 (2 + x) dx + 0
2
1 f (x) dx = 1 (2 x) dx + 2
x2
x2
(2 x) dx = [2x + ] + [2x ] = 3.
2 1
2 0
2
x2
x2
(x 2) dx = [2x ] + [ 2x] = 0.5a2 2a + 2.5.
2 1
2
2
42 4(1)(1)
= 2 4 + 1 = 2 5.
2
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1
1
10 + v
Answer to Exercise 404 (9740 N2011/I/8). (i)
dv
=
ln
+ C,
100 v 2
20 10 x
where C is the constant of integration.
1
(ii) (a)
dv = dt
10 0.1v 2
10
100 v 2 dv = t.
1
10 + v
1
10
So t = ln
+ D. At t = 0, v = 0, so D = ln = 0. Moreover, v 10. Hence,
2
10 v
2
10
1 10 + v
.
t = ln
2 10 v
t(v = 5) =
(b) t =
1 15 1
ln
= ln 3.
2
5 2
1 10 + v
10 + v
20
20
ln
e2t =
= 1 +
v = 10 2t
.
2 10 v
10 v
10 v
e +1
At t = 1, v = 10
20
.
e2 + 1
Answer to Exercise 405 (9740 N2011/II/2). (i) The box has length 2(nx), breadth
n 2x, and height x. It thus has volume V = 2(n x)(n 2x)x = 2n2 x 6nx2 + 4x3 .
(ii)
dV
dV
= 2n2 12nx + 12x2 .
= 0 if and only if
dx
dx
The larger value of xmay be rejected because in that case, the breadth of the box would
be
3n
3
n2x = n2 (0.5n +
) < 0. So the only stationary value of V occurs at x = (0.5
) n.
6
6
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2e
2x n
e
dx = [x
]
0 x
2
0
0
= 0.5n2 e2n + [x
2 2n
= 0.5n e
2n
n
e2x
2e
2x
dx = n
+ x e2x dx
2
2
0
n
e2x
0.5ne
]
0
2n
n
0
e2x
2
dx
e2x
+ 0.5 [
]
2 0
1
1
= 0.5n2 e2n 0.5ne2n 0.25 (e2n 1) = e2n (2n2 + 2n + 1) + .
4
4
(ii)
(b)
2 2x
xe
1
1
dx = lim x2 e2x dx = lim [ e2n (2n2 + 2n + 1) + ]
n 0
n
4
4
1
1
= lim [e2n (2n2 + 2n + 1)] +
4 n
4
1 1
1
= [ lim (2e2n n2 ) + lim (2e2n n) + lim (2e2n )] + = .
n
n
4 n
4 4
/4
4x 2
4 tan 2 2
y dx = ( 2
(
) dx =
) sec d
x +1
0
0
tan2 + 1
/4 tan sec 2
/4 tan sec 2
(
)
d
=
16
= 16
0 ( sec2 ) d
0
tan2 + 1
/4 1 cos 2
/4
/4 tan 2
2
sin d = 16
) d = 16
d
= 16
(
sec
2
0
0
0
sin 2 /4
1
= 16 [
] = 16 ( ) = 2 2 4.
2
4 0
8 4
2
(ii) (1 +
So 3 =
4x n
4nx n(n 1) 4x 2
4nx 8n(n 1)x2
) =1+
+
( ) + = 1 +
+
+ ....
3
3
2
3
3
9
4n
9
8n(n 1)
5
or n = . And so
= 2 = 2.5, as desired.
3
4
9
4
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d
Answer to Exercise 408 (9740 N2010/I/4). (i) Apply
to the given equation:
dx
dy
dy
dy
dy y + x
2x 2y + 2y + 2x = 0 2(x y) = 2(x + y)
=
, where the division
dx
dx
dx
dx y x
by xy is permitted because it is impossible that y x = 0. If x = y, then the given equation
implies 2x2 + 4 = 0, which has no real solutions.
dy
= 0 or y + x = 0 or y = x. Plugging this
dx
2
2
2
2
into
the
given
equation,
we
have
x
2x
+
4
=
0
of
x
=
2
or
x
=
Answer to Exercise 409 (9740 N2010/I/6). (i) 0.347 and 1.532 (calculator).
(ii)
x2
x4
x 3x + 1 dx = [ 3 + x] 0.781417.
4
2
(iii) The red line has equation y = 1. It intersects the curve at x = 0 and again at x = 3.
So the desired area is
0
x2
3 9
x4
9
3
] = +3 = .
x
3x
dx
=
[
3
4
2 3
4
2 4
0
(iv) The graph of the equation x3 3x + 1 = k always has maximum and minimum turning
points x = 1 and x = 1. To ensure that there are three real distinct roots, the maximum
turning point must be above the horizontal axis AND the minimum turning point must be
below the horizontal axis.
Hence, we must have (1)3 3(1) + 1 k > 0 or k < 3 AND 13 3(1) + 1 k < 0 or k > 1.
Altogether, k (1, 3).
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d
Answer to Exercise 410 (9740 N2010/I/7). (i) The differential equation is
=
dt
d
k(20 ). We are told that initially, t = 0, = 10,
= 1. Hence, k = 0.1. So the differential
dt
d
= 0.1(20 ) = 2 0.1.
equation is
dt
1
d = dt 10 ln(20) = t+C, where C is the constant of integration.
2 0.1
Rearranging, = 20 e0.1(t+C) = 20 Be0.1t , where B is the constant of integration.
So
20
= 20 - 10e-0.1t
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A = 2xy +6xy +3x2 +2kxy +6kxy +3x2 = (8+8k)xy +6x2 . Plugging in =, A = 100
Differentiating:
100
.
x2
8 + 8k
+6x2 .
x
dA
8 + 8k
= 100 2 + 12x
dx
x
dA
= 0 100(8 + 8k) + 12x3 = 0
dx
1/3
1/3
100(8 + 8k)
200
x = [
] =[
(1 + k)] .
12
3
(ii)
y 100
100
200(1 + k)
3
1.5
= 2 /x = 3 = 100/
=
=
.
x x
x
3
2(1 + k) 1 + k
(iii) k (0, 1]
1.5
[0.75, 1.5).
1+k
(iv) I interpret ends to mean the sides of the box that have equal y and base x. In which
y
case, = 1 k = 0.5.
x
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dy dy dx 1 + t2 t2 + 1
Answer to Exercise 412 (9740 N2010/I/11). (i)
=
=
=
, for
dx dt dt 1 t2 t2 1
t 0, 1. So at the point P , the tangent has equation
1 p2 + 1
1
= 2
(x p )
p p 1
p
1
1
(p2 1) y + (p2 1) (p + ) = (p2 + 1) (x p )
p
p
1
1
(p2 + 1) x (p2 1) y = (p2 + 1) (p + ) + (p2 1) (p + ) = 4p.
p
p
yp+
2
2 2
1
2 2
2
( ) + ( ) = 0.5 ( 8p) ( 8 ) = 4.
(2p, 2p) ( , ) = 0.5 (2p)2 + (2p)2
2
p p
p
p
p
2
(iii) Observe that x + y = 2t and x y = . Hence, (x + y)(x y) = 4 or x2 y 2 = 4.
t
This of course is simply an east-west hyperbola, with horizontal intercepts 2, asymptotes
y = x, centre (0, 0), and lines of symmetry y = 0 and x = 0.
y
x2 - y 2 = 4
(-0, 0)
Centre
x=0
Line of
Symmetry
y=0
Line of
Symmetry
2
Horizontal
Intercept
-2
Horizontal
Intercept
y=x
Linear
Asymptote
y = -x
Linear
Asymptote
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.
x+2
x + 2 dx x + 2
4
1.5
> 0, so this is a minimum
Evaluated at x = , the second derivative equals
3
4/3 + 2
turning point.
So the curve
may
be
decomposed
into
the
graphs
of
two
functions
f
x
x + 2 and
2
Thus, the two possible values of the gradient at the point where x = 0 are f (0) = = 2
2
and g (0) = 2.
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Answer to Exercise 413 (9740 N2010/II/3) (b) The easy way is to just use your
graphing calculator and copy.
But as an exercise, lets try to do this without a graphing calculator. We first
graph y = x2 (x + 2) = x3 + 2x2 . This is the cubic with horizontal intercepts 2 and 0 and
d2 y
dy
= 3x2 + 4x = x(3x + 4) and
= 6x + 4. So the two stationary
vertical intercept 0.
dx
dx2
points are 0 and 4/3, the former being a minimum turning point and the latter a maximum
turning point.
We now graph y 2 = x2 (x+2). Recall that this is symmetric in the horizontal axis. Moreover,
where x2 (x + 2) < 0, the graph is empty.
y = x2 (x + 2)
y2 = x2 (x + 2)
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Answer to Exercise 413 (9740 N2010/II/3) (iii) The easy way is to just use your
graphing calculator and copy.
But as an exercise,
lets try to do this without a graphing
calculator. Observe
2.25x2 + 6x + 4
1.5x + 2
1
. Hence, we want to graph y = 2.25x + 1.5 +
.
that
=
x+2
x+2
x+2
2.25x2 + 6x + 4
1
= 2.25x+1.5+
. This is the hyperbola with asymptotes
x+2
x+2
y = 2.25x + 1.5 and x = 2 and centre (2, 3).
1
is simply the region of the graph of
Now note that the graph of y = 2.25x + 1.5 +
x+2
1
y 2 = 2.25x + 1.5 +
where y > 0.
x+2
We first graph y =
2.25x2 + 6x + 4
has asymptotes y = 2.25x + 1.5 and x = 2,
Note that since the graph of y =
x+2
2.25x2 + 6x + 4
the graph of y =
must also have asymptotes y = 2.25x + 1.5 and x = 2.
x+2
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x = -2
vertical asymptote
y = (2.25x2 + 6x +4) / (x + 2)
-12
-8
-4
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0
0 -3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
-21
-24
-27
-30
-33
x
4
8
y = f '(x)
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1
1 1
1
1
1
1
dx
=
(
+
)
dx
=
[ ln(2 x) + ln(2 + x)]0
2
4x
4 0 2x 2+x
4
1
ln 3
= [0 + ln 3 + ln 2 ln 2] =
.
4
4
0
So p =
1/2p
1/2p
sin1 (px)
]
dx = [
p
1 p2 x 2
0
1
sin1 (0.5)
= .
p
6p
4
2
=
.
6 ln 3 3 ln 3
Answer to Exercise 415 (9740 N2009/I/4). (i) f (27) = f (3) = 5 and f (45) = f (1) =
6. So f (27) + f (45) = 11.
(ii)
y
y = f (x)
(iii)
f (x) dx =
=
2
4
2
0
f (x) dx +
7 x2 dx +
2
0
2
4
f (x) dx +
2
0
2x 1 dx +
f (x) dx +
2
3
2
7 x2 dx +
f (x) dx
3
2x 1 dx
x3
4
3
= 2 [7x ] + [x2 x]2 + [x2 x]2
3 0
2
8
= 2 (14 ) + 16 4 + 9 3 2 (4 2) = 36 .
3
3
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cos 0
cos x
and so f (0) = 0 e
cos 0 = e. So e
= e + 0x + (e) = e 0.5ex2 .
2!
1
1
b 2 1 1
b 2
1
b
1
(ii)
=
(1
+
x
)
=
[1
+
(1)
(
x
)
+
.
.
.
],
so
e
=
and
0.5e
=
.
Or
a
=
a + bx2 a
a
a
a
a
a2
e
1
and b = 0.5ea2 = .
2e
Answer to Exercise 417 (9740 N2009/I/11). (i)
y
y = f (x)
2
2
2
(ii) f (x) = ex + xex (2x) = ex (1 2x2 ) = 0 x = 0.5. These are the two
stationary points. Remember that stationary points are either turning points or points of
inflexion. Here we are asked for the turning points. So we need to check whether these
two points are turning points or points of inflexion.
2
2
2
f (x) = ex (2x) (1 2x2 )+ex (4x) = 2xf (x)4ex x. f ( 0.5) > 0 and f ( 0.5) <
0, so the former is a minimum turning point and the latter is a maximum turning point.
n2
n2
1
0
y dx =
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Answer to Exercise 418 (9740 N2009/II/1). (i) Use your graphing calculator and
copy. (You are not supposed to know how to graph this without a graphing calculator.)
dy
dy
dx
3t2 + 2t
3 22 + 2 2
= ( )( ) =
, which when evaluated at t = 2 is equal to
= 2.
dx
dt
dt
2t + 4
22+4
So the equation of l is y = 2x + c, where c = 23 + 22 2 (22 + 4(2)) = 12. So the equation of
l is y = 2x 12.
(ii)
(iii) The intersection points of l and C are given by t3 +t2 = 2 (t2 + 4t)12 or t3 t2 8t+12 = 0.
We want to find the solutions to this last equation. We know that t = 2 is one, because P
is an intersection point.
Now write t3 t2 8t + 12 = (t 2) (t2 + at + b) = t3 + (a 2)t2 + (b 2a)t 2b. So a = 1 and
b = 6. So t3 t2 8t + 12 = (t 2) (t2 + t 6) = (t 2)(t + 3)(t 2). So a = 1 and b = 6.
So there is one other intersection point, given by t = 3.
((3)2 + 4(3), (3)3 + (3)2 ) = (3, 18).
This corresponds to Q =
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Answer to Exercise 419 (9740 N2009/II/4). (i) dn/dt = 10t 3t2 + C and n =
5t2 t3 + Ct + D, for constants of integration C and D.
When t = 0, n = 100, so D = 100. Below are sketched the curves of n = 5t2 t3 + 100,
n = 5t2 t3 + t + 100, and n = 5t2 t3 + 2t + 100.
100
n = 5t 2 - t 3 + 2t + 100
n = 5t 2 - t 3 + t + 100
n = 5t 2 - t 3 + 100
t
O
(ii) Under the given model,
dn
0 and n 150.
dt
1
3 0.02n dn = dt
1
dn = t + A = 50 ln (150 n)
50
150 n
t+A
e 50 = 150 n
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y 1.5
8 a1.5
y dy = [
] =
.
1.5 a
1.5
x3
7
x dx = [ ] = .
3 1 3
2
7 = 16 2a1.5
2a1.5 = 9
a = 4.52/3 2.726.
dy
0.
dx
(iv)
y
y = 1.5 ln (x2 + 1) + 2
y = 1.5 ln (x2 + 1) + 1
y = 1.5 ln (x2 + 1)
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1/ 3
(ii)
1/ 3
1
tan (3x)
dx
=
[
]
1 + 9x2
3
0
tan1 3 = .
3
9
e
e xn+1 1
xn+1
n
ln x]
dx
x ln x dx = [
n
+
1
1 n+1x
1
e xn
en+1
xn+1
en+1
dx =
[
]
=
n+1
n+1
(n + 1)2 1
1 n+1
en+1 en+1 1 en+1 1 en+1
=
=
+
.
n + 1 (n + 1)2 n + 1 (n + 1)2
4 + 32 + . . . . So AC = 4 + 32 + . . . 4 + 32 , as desired.
0.5
0.5
= 1.
4
f (x) = 4 sec2 (2x + ) tan (2x + ) 2 and so f (0) = 8 sec2 tan = 16.
4
4
4
4
16x2
Hence, f (x) = 1 + 4x +
+ = 1 + 4x + 8x2 + . . .
2!
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Answer to Exercise 424 (9740 N2008/I/7). The total time to build the wall is
1
3 (x + 2y) + 9 (0.5x) = 180. Rearranging, y = 30 (0.75 + 0.5)x.
1
The flower-bed has area A = xy + 0.5(x/2)2 . Plug in = to get A = x [30 (0.75 + 0.5)x] +
0.5(x/2)2 . This is a -shaped quadratic with maximum point given by
b
30
15
=
=
2
2a 2 [0.5(1/2) (0.75 + 0.5)] (0.75 + 0.5) 0.5(1/2)2
15
120
=
=
.
0.75 + 0.5 /8 5 + 4
x=
90 + 60 60 + 60
+1
=
= 60
.
5 + 4
5 + 4
5 + 4
120
5 + 4
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Answer to Exercise 425 (9740 N2008/II/1). (i) Use your calculator and copy.
y = x + x2 + x3 / 6
y = ex sin x
(ii) ex sin x = (1 + x +
x2 x3
x3
x3 x3
x3
+
+ . . . ) (x
+ . . . ) = x + x2 + + = x + x2 + + . . . .
2
6
6
2
6
3
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(ii)
1
0
y dx =
x 1 x dx 0.998879 (cal-
0
0
u1.5 u2.5
4
x 1 x dx = (1 u) u du = [
] = .
1.5 2.5 1 15
1
d
dy
to the equation: 2y
= 1 x + x(0.5)(1 x)0.5 (1).
dx
dx
dy
At the maximum point,
= 0. So 1 x = 0.5x(1 x)0.5 or 1 x = 0.5x or x = 2/3.
dx
(iii) Apply
= cos 2x (1 + x )
= [1
+ . . . ] [1 + (0.5)x2 + . . . ]
2!
1 + x2
= 1 0.5x2 2x2 = 1 2.5x2 a = 1, b = 2.5.
1
1
1 e2x
e2x
1 2 1 e2x
2x
x e
dx = [x
]
dx = e + [
]
2 0 0 2
2
2 2 0
u
1
1
1 3
= e2 (e2 1) = e2 .
2
4
4 4
Answer to Exercise 429 (9233 N2008/I/4).
e3
3 1
3 1
1
1 3 2
t
dx =
e dt =
dt = [ ] = .
x(ln x)2
t 1 3
1 et t2
1 t2
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x a,
Answer to Exercise 430 (9233 N2008/I/6). (i) x a =
a x,
for x a,
for x < a.
y = |x a |
x
-b
(a, 0) b
(ii)
b
x2
x2
x a dx = a x dx + x a dx = [ax ] + [ ax]
2 b
2
a
b
a
2
2
2
2
a
b
b
a
= a2 + ab + + ab + a2 = a2 + b2 .
2
2 2
2
a
1
1
1
1 tan1 x2
dx =
dx = [
]
4 + x2
4 1 + 41 x2
4
1/2 a
a
1
a
a
= (tan1 tan1 ) = 0.5 tan1 .
2
2
4
2
1/2
3/2
3/2
dx = [sin x]1/2 = = .
3 6 6
1 x2
1
a
0.5 tan1 =
4
2 6
Page 1333, Table of Contents
1
= tan [2 ( )] = tan =
2
4 6
6
3
2
a= .
3
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dz
) = x2 + x2 z 2
dx
dz
dz
dz
) = x2 x2 (1 xz ) = 0. So if x 0, then xz
= 1, as desired.
dx
dx
dx
1
z2
y 2 /x2
(ii) z dz =
dx
= ln x + C
= ln x + C, provided x 0.
x
2
2
C = 0.5 (62 /22 ) ln 2 = 4.5 ln 2. So the solution is
y 2 = x2 (2 ln x + 9 2 ln 2) for x 0 and y = 0 for x = 0.
dy dy dx
3 sin2 t cos t
Answer to Exercise 433 (9233 N2008/I/13). (i)
=
=
=
dx dt dt 3 cos2 t ( sin t)
sin t
.
cos t
So the normal to the curve has gradient cos t/ sin t. Its equation is cos t (x cos3 t) =
sin t (y sin3 t) or x cos t y sin t = cos4 t sin4 t, as desired.
(ii) cos4 t sin4 t = (cos2 t + sin2 t) (cos2 t sin2 t) = 1 cos 2t = cos 2t.
(iii) The horizontal intercept of the normal at P is given by y = 0 and thus xA cos t =
cos 2t
cos4 t sin4 t = cos 2t or xA =
.
cos t
The vertical intercept of the normal at P is given by x = 0 and thus yB sin t = cos4 tsin4 t =
cos 2t
cos 2t or yB =
.
sin t
cos 2t 2
cos 2t 2
1
1
(
) + (
) = cos 2t
+
cos t
sin t
cos2 t sin2 t
sin2 t + cos2 t
1
cos 2t
cos 2t
=
cos
2t
=
=
= 2 cot 2t.
= cos 2t
sin2 t cos2 t
sin2 t cos2 t sin t cos t 0.5 sin 2t
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1 /3
3
1 sin 4x sin 6x /3
sin 5x sin x dx =
cos 4x cos 6x dx = [
] =
.
2 0
2
4
6 0
16
=
+
=
1 + x x + 2 (x + 2)2 1 + x
(x + 2)2
1 + x (x + 2)2
x2
(x + 2)2 4(1 + x)
=
.
=
(1 + x)(x + 2)2
(1 + x)(x + 2)2
We are supposed to say that ln(1 + x) R 1 + x > 0, and so the above expression is
never negative. But see remark in footnote.99
2x
(ii) When evaluated at x = 0, the expression ln(1+x)
= 0. Or equivalently, ln(1+x) =
x+2
2x
.
x+2
2x
We showed in (i) that the expression ln(1 + x)
is non-decreasing. And so ln(1 + x)
x+2
2x
2x
0 for all x 0. Or equivalently, ln(1 + x)
.
x+2
x+2
1
(i) 4
dI = dt
2 3I
4
2 e0.75(t+C) 2
ln 2 3I = t + C I =
= + Ae0.75t .
3
3
3
2
(1 + 2e0.75t ).
3
(ii) As t , I 2/3.
99
Authors remark: The writers of this question made the elementary mistake of failing to state the domain and codomain of
the function. They simply presumed that the codomain MUST somehow be C. But now that weve learnt about complex
numbers, theres no reason why we cannot have, for example, ln(1 + x) C. In which case we could certainly have 1 + x < 0,
because it turns out that, for example, ln(1) = i.
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Answer to Exercise 437 (9740 N2007/I/11). (i) The easy way is to plot the curve
on your graphing calculator and just copy. But as an exercise, lets try sketching the
curve without using a calculator.
dy dy dx
3 sin2 t cos t
=
=
= 1.5 sin t,
dx dt dt 2 cos t( sin t)
d2 y
d
d
dt
1.5 cos t
3
=
(1.5
sin
t)
=
(1.5
sin
t)
=
=
, for t 0.
dx2 dx
dt
dx 2 cos t( sin t) 4 sin t
So the graph is decreasing throughout, but at a decreasing rate.
At the endpoints, t = 0 (x, y) = (1, 0) and t = 0.5 (x, y) = (0, 1). Altogether
then, we have
Curve
(ii) The equation of the tangent at the given point is y sin3 = 1.5 sin (x cos2 ). At
Q, y = 0 and so x = 2/3 sin2 +cos2 . At R, x = 0 and so y = 1.5 sin cos2 +sin3 . Altogether
then, OQR has area 0.5 Base Height, or:
0.5 (2/3 sin2 + cos2 ) (1.5 sin cos2 + sin3 )
1
=
sin (2 sin2 + 3 cos2 ) (3 cos2 + 2 sin2 )
12
1
2
=
sin (3 cos2 + 2 sin2 ) , as desired.
12
x=1
(iii)
x=0
y dx =
=
t=0
t=0.5
1
0
0.5
0
2 cos t sin4 t dt
u5
2
2u du = 2 [ ] = .
5 0 5
4
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1)(1
+
x)
and
dx2
dx2
d3 (1 + x)n
d3 (1 + x)n
n3
x=0 = n(n 1)(n 2).
= n(n 1)(n 2)(1 + x)
and
dx3
dx3
Hence, (1 + x)n = 1 + nx +
(ii)
(4 x)1.5 (1 + 2x2 )
1.5
1.5
3 1
3 1
)
)
2 ( x
2 ( 12 ) ( x
x
3
3
2
4
2
4
+
+
+ . . . [1 + (2x2 ) + . . . ]
= 8 1 +
2 4
2!
3!
2
3
3
1
= 8 (1 x + 7 x2 + 10 .x3 + . . . ) (1 + 3x2 )
8
2
2
3
1
= (8 3x + 4 x2 + 7 .x3 + . . . ) (1 + 3x2 )
2
2
3 2 1 3
= 8 3x + 4 x + 7 .x + 24x2 9x3 + . . .
2
2
13 2
127 3
= 8 3x + 24 x 8
x + ...
16
128
(iii) The binomial series expansions in (ii) are valid provided 0.25x < 1 AND 2x2 < 1
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5/3
1
cos
2x
3
3
sin
2x
5
5
sin2 x dx =
dx = 0.5 [x
]
= 0.5 ( +
)=
+
.
0
2
2 0
3
4
6
8
0
5/3
5/3
5
3
5
3
5/3
2
2
cos x dx =
1 sin x dx = [x]0 ( +
)=
.
0
6
8
6
8
0
5/3
5/3
(ii)(a)
u
0.5
2
0.5
(ii) (b)
0
0.5
0.5
0
0.5
u
= 2 x cos x dx
0
v
0.5
= + 2 [cos x]0
= 2.
By the way, with a lot of work, it is actually possible to show that the exact area is
2 ( 4 + 20 2 120) /320.
( 5 ) ( 32 ) ( 12 ) ( 12 ) ( 43 )
405
2.5 2
4
= =
.
4!
1024
0.5 3
0.5
y dx =
0.5 3
0.5
0.5 3
1
tan (2x)
dx
=
[
]
1 + 4x2
2
0.5
2
= ( )= .
2 3 4
24
dt =
cos u du = u cos u2 du.
2
2
1t
1 sin u
0
/4
(sin1 t) cos [(sin1 t) ]
/2
sin u2
2
2
dt =
u cos u du = [
] = 0.5 sin
0.312.
2 0
4
0
1 t2
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Answer to Exercise 443 (9233 N2007/I/10). (i) y = cos x and y = sin x intersect
5
at x =
and x =
. Hence, with the aid of a sketch, we see that cos x > sin x
4
4
5
x [0, ) ( , 2].
4
4
(ii)
0
=
cos x sin x dx
/4
0
cos x sin x dx +
/4
5/4
/4
sin x cos x dx +
5/4
2
5/4
cos x sin x dx
2
2
2
5
5
=
+
1 2 (sin
+ cos ) + (sin + cos ) + 1 = 4 2.
2
2
4
4
4
4
4 1
5x + 4
x
4
2
[ln
(x
dx
=
dx
=
x
0.5
ln
+
4)]
1
(x 5)(x2 + 4)
x2 + 4
1 x5
20
= ln 4 0.5 ln
= 1.5 ln 4 = ln 8.
5
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dy
sec x tan x
Answer to Exercise 445 (9233 N2007/I/13). (i)
=
= tan x,
dx
sec x
d3 y
d3 y
d2 y dy
2
sec2 x,
=
2
sec
x
tan
x.
And
so
indeed
=
2
, as desired.
dx3
dx3
dx2 dx
d2 y
=
dx2
d4 y
(ii) 4 = 2 (2 sec2 x tan2 x + sec4 x), which equals 2 when evaluated at x = 0.
dx
(iii) ln(sec x) = 0 + 0x +
1 2 0 3 2 4
x2 x4
x + x + x + =
+
+ ....
2!
3!
4!
2 12
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d
Answer to Exercise 446 (9233 N2007/I/14). (i) Apply
to the given equation:
dx
dy
2x 2y
= A.
dx
Provided x 0, from the given equation, we have A =
dy x2 + y 2
=
.
dx
2xy
x2 y 2
dy x2 y 2
. So 2x 2y
=
x
dx
x
Strictly speaking, we need to also check the case where x = 0, but I doubt this was expected
on the exams, so Ill just put this bit in a footnote.100
dy
dv
dv
2vx2
2v
dv
3v + v 3
(ii)
= v + x . So v + x = 2
=
x =
.
dx
dx
dx
x + v 2 x2
1 + v2
dx
1 + v2
1
1
1 + v2
dv =
dx ln 3v + v 3 +A = ln x (where A is the constant of in(iii)
3
3v + v
x
3
3
3 1/3
tegration) B 3v + v
= x (where B = eA ) B 3 = x 3v + v 3 = 3x3 v + x3 v 3 =
3x2 y + y 3 .
So indeed, 3x2 y + y 3 = C (where C = B is some constant of integration).
100
dy
dy
= A, we see that
is undefined except in the special case where A = 0. If
dx
dx
dy
A = 0, then the curve is simply x2 y 2 = 0 or y = x, which is a big cross on the cartesian plane and
= 1. Which can
dx
dy
also be written
= (x2 + y 2 ) /(2xy).
dx
If x = 0, then y = 0 and so from 2x 2y
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r2 h
Answer to Exercise 447 (9233 N2006/I/7). The volume of a cone is V =
. In
3
h3
this case, r = h (because of the given semi-vertical angle 45 ). So in this case, V =
.
3
3V 1/3
Equivalently, h = ( ) .
dV 1
= 2 (i.e. the volume of liquid in the cone is decreasing by 2 cm3 per
dt
dh
dV 2 2 dh
2
1
2
= h
. Together, = and = imply
= 2.
second). But we also have
dt
dt
dt
h
We are given that
After 3 minutes (180 seconds), the remaining liquid has volume V = 390 180 2 = 30 cm3 .
dh
2
90 1/3
t = 1/3 2/3 .
So at this point, h = ( ) . And
dt
90
The instantaneous rate of decrease of the depth of the liquid at 3 minutes is 2 1/3 902/3
cm per second.
Answer to Exercise 448 (9233 N2006/I/8). The tangent is parallel to the x-axis
d
dy
dy
dy
= 0. Apply
to the equation of the curve to get: 6x + y + x + 2y
= 0 or
where
dx
dx
dx
dx
dy
(x + 2y) = 6x y.
dx
dy
1
1
= 0 6x y = 0 or y = 6x. Now plug = into the equation of the curve to
dx
get 3x2 + x(6x) + (6x)2 = 33 or 3x2 = 33 or x = 11. So the two desired points are
( 11, 6 11).
So
= sec tan .
d sec
2
2
= (cos ) ( sin ) = sin (cos ) =
d
/3
1
1
dx =
sec tan d
21
/4 sec sec2 1
(x + 1) x2 + 2x
/3 1
=
tan d = .
12
/4 tan
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(i)
1 + x 2x2
A
Bx + C A + 2C + (2B C)x + (A B)x2
=
+
=
.
(2 x)(1 + x2 ) 2 x 1 + x2
(2 x)(1 + x2 )
1
+
.
(2 x)(1 + x2 )
2 x 1 + x2
(ii)
x+1
1
+
2 x 1 + x2
1
1
= (1 0.5x) + (x + 1)(1 + x2 )1
2
1
= [1 + (1)(0.5x) + (1)(2)(0.5x)2 /2! + . . . ] + (x + 1) [1 + (1)x2 + . . . ]
2
1
= (1 + 0.5x + 0.25x2 + . . . ) + (x + 1) (1 x2 + . . . )
2
= (0.5 0.25x x2 /8 + . . . ) + (x + 1 x2 + . . . ) = 0.5 + 0.75x 9x2 /8.
(iii) The binomial series expansions in (ii) are valid if 0.5x < 1 and x2 < 1 x
(1, 1).
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c c
Answer to Exercise 451 (9233 N2006/I/14). (i) The gradient of QR is ( )
r q
1 1
qr
1
(cr cq) = ( ) (r q) =
= .
r q
qr(r q)
qr
(ii) The line through P perpendicular to QR has gradient qr. So it has equation y
qr(x cp).
c
=
p
c c
1 1
= qr(cv cp)
= qr(v p)
v p
v p
pv
1
1
= qr(v p)
= qr v =
.
vp
vp
pqr
d
dy
(iii) Observe that xy = c2 . Applying the
operator, we have y + x
= 0. So at P ,
dx
dx
c
dy
dy c
1
+ cp = 0 or
=
(cp) = 2 . So the gradient of the normal at P is p2 .
p
dx
dx p
p
c c 2 2
c c
1
2
= kp . Plug = into = to get = kp2 = (cp cs)p2 or
s p
s p
1 1
p
s
1
1
= (p s)p2 =
or
= p2 or s = 3 , as desired.
s p
sp
sp
p
1
1
1
and P R has gradient . Since these two lines are perpendicular,
qp
pr
1
1
1
1
we must have = 1 = pr = p2 . But is the gradient of QR and p2 is the
qp pr
qr
qr
gradient of the normal at P . So QR is parallel to the normal at P .
(v) QP has gradient
(i)
dz
0.5
1.5
= (x2 + 32)
+ x(0.5) (x2 + 32)
(2x)
dx
1.5
1.5
(x2 + 32 x2 ) = 32 (x2 + 32)
= (x2 + 32)
.
(ii)
1.5
2
2 (x + 32)
1
1
0.5 7
[7(81)0.1 2(36)0.5 ]
[x (x2 + 32) ] =
2
32
32
1 7 1
1
( )= .
=
32 9 3
72
dx =
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96.6
Answer to Exercise 453 (9740 N2015/II/5). (i) The manager may not have all the
required information to properly implement stratified sampling. For example, he may not
know what proportion of the sampling population each age group composes.
(ii) Decide what the age groups are and how many he wishes to survey from each group.
(That is, for each age group, set a quota of respondents to be surveyed.) Then simply go
around surveying customers he sees in the supermarket, until he meets the quota for each
age group.
(iii) The manager may unconsciously gravitate towards customers that look more friendly.
He may thus not get a representative sample of his customers (many of whom look unfriendly).
Answer to Exercise 454 (9740 N2015/II/6). (i) Let X be the number of red sweets
in the packet.
P(X 4) = 1 P(X < 4) = 1 P(X = 0) P(X = 1) P(X = 2) P(X = 3)
= 1 0.7510
10
10
10
0.759 0.25
0.752 0.258
0.753 0.257
1
2
3
= 1 0.7510
10
10
10
0.759 0.25
0.752 0.258
0.753 0.257
1
2
3
0.247501
(ii) X B(100, 0.25). Since np = 25 > 5 and n(1 p) > 5, the normal approximation
Y N (25, 18.75) is suitable. Hence, using also the continuity correction,
29.5 25
P(X 30) = 1 P(X < 30) 1 P(Y < 29.5) = 1 (
)
18.75
1 (1.039) 1 0.8506 = 0.1494.
(iii) Let p = P(X 30) 0.1494 and q = 1 P(X 30) 0.8506. Then the desired
probability is
15 15 15 14 15 2 13 15 3 12
q +
pq +
pq +
p q 0.8245.
0
1
2
3
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Answer to Exercise 455 (9740 N2015/II/7). (i) The rate at which errors are made
is independent of the number of errors that have already been made.
The rate at which errors are made is constant throughout the newspaper.
7.810
7.80 7.81
+
+ +
) 0.164770.
0!
1!
10!
(iii) Let F Po(1.3n). We are given that P(F < 2) < 0.05. That is,
e1.3n (
(1.3n)0 (1.3n)1
+
) < 0.05
0!
1!
Let f (n) = e1.3n (1+1.3n). From calculator, f (1), f (2), f (3) > 0.05 and f (4) < 0.05. Hence,
the smallest possible integer value of n is 4.
(ii) The null hypothesis is H0 0 = 0.9 and the alternative hypothesis is HA 0 < 0.9.
t=
0.8825 0.9
x 0
=
0.661860.
s/ n 0.005592857/ 9
Since, t < t7,0.1 = 1.415, we are unable to reject the null hypothesis at the 10% significance
level.
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P(A B C)
= P(A) + P(B) + P(C) P(A B) P(A C) P(B C) + P(A B C)
= 0.45 + 0.4 + 0.3 0.45 0.4 0.45 0.3 P(B C) + 0.1 = 0.935 P(B C)
P(A B C ) = 1 P(A B C) = 0.065 + P(B C).
(ii)
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30
(i)
25
20
15
10
5
0
x
0
(iii) We are apparently supposed to presume that the greater the PMCC, the better or
the more appropriate. So we are supposed to use (c) from part (ii).
The estimated regression equation is y y = b(x x), where b = xi yi / x2i . So in this
case, the estimated regression equation is
(iv) Let x be the height given in metres. Then 3x = h. Thus, the above equation may be
rewritten as
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(ii) There is only one arrangement where the latters are in alphabetical order, namely
AABBCEGS. Hence, the number of these arrangements in which the letters are not in
alphabetical order is 10080 1 = 10079.
(iii) Treating the two As as a single unit and the two Bs as a single unit, we have 6 units
altogether, so there are 6! arrangements.
(iv) Treating the two As as a single unit, we have 7 units altogether, so there are 7!/2!
arrangements.
Treating the two Bs as a single unit, we have 7 units altogether, so there are 7!/2! arrangements.
Hence, the number of arrangements where there are at least two adjacent letters is 7!/2! +
7!/2! 6! = 7! 6!, where the subtraction of 6! is to avoid double counting.
Hence, he number of different arrangements with no two adjacent letters the same is
8!/ (2!2!) (7! 6!) = 5760.
Answer to Exercise 460 (9740 N2015/II/12). (i) Let A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , A5 be independent random variables with the identical distribution N (300, 202 ). Then F = A1 + A2 + A3 +
A4 + A5 N (5 300, 5 202 ) and
P(F > 1600) = 1 P(F 1600) = 1 (
1600 1500
)
520
2750 2715
) (0.650) 0.7422.
2903
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Answer to Exercise 461 (9740 N2014/II/5). (i) Arrange these 10000 customers by
name, alphabetically. If two customers have the exact same same, then randomly pick one
to precede the other.
From this list of alphabetically-sorted customers, pick every 20th customer to survey.
(i)
3 8 5 6
= 31500.
1 4 2 4
3 8 4 5
.
1 4 1 4
3 8 4 5
.
1 4 2 3
(iii) The club now has 3 goalkeepers, 8 defenders, 3 midfielders, 5 attackers, and one player
(call him Apu) who can either be a midfielder or a defender.
Ways to form a team without Apu =
3 8 3 5
= 3150.
1 4 2 4
3 8 3 5
= 3150.
1 4 1 4
3 8 3 5
= 2520.
1 3 2 4
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4.5 10
8.5 10
(0.520) (1.905)
50/6
50/6
45 46 47 48
P(5 A 8) P(5 B 8) = e ( + + + ) 0.349800.
5! 6! 7! 8!
4
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(ii) Its not at all clear which is the better model. But apparently we are supposed to say
that since the second model is better because the magnitude of its PMCC is greater.
In general, the estimated regression equation is y y = b(x x), where b = xi yi / x2i .
So in this case, the estimated regression equation is
P 72590 33659.728 (ln m 3.657)
P 33659.728 ln m + 195693.560.
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Answer to Exercise 465 (9740 N2014/II/9). (i) Let X be the number of minutes a
bus is late after the new company has taken over. Well assume X N (, 2 ).
Our null hypothesis is H0 = 0 = 4.3 and our alternative hypothesis is HA < 0 = 4.3.
(ii) The null hypothesis is not rejected if t > 0 t9,0.1 k/ n = 4.31.383 3.2/ 10 3.518.
(i) (b) The probability that no is displayed is 0.9 0.8 0.9 = 0.648. And so the probability
that t least one symbol is displayed is 1 0.648 = 0.352.
(i) (c) P( +) = 0.3 0.1 0.2, P( + ) = 0.3 0.3 0.4, P(+ ) = 0.4 0.1 0.4.
Thus, the desired probability 0.006 + 0.036 + 0.016 = 0.058.
(ii) The probability that there is exactly one is P( / / ) + P(/ / ) + P(// ) = 0.1 0.8
0.9 + 0.9 0.2 0.9 + 0.9 0.8 0.1 = 0.306.
The probability that the symbols are , +, (in any order) is
P ( + ) + P (+) + P (+ ) + P ( +) + P (+) + P ( + )
= 0.1(0.3 0.3 + 0.4 0.2) + 0.2(0.4 0.3 + 0.2 0.2) + 0.1(0.4 0.4 + 0.2 0.3)
= 0.017 + 0.032 + 0.022 = 0.071
Hence, the desired probability is 0.071/0.306 = 71/306 0.232026.
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Answer to Exercise 467 (9740 N2014/II/11). (i) (a) Let O Po(2) and P Po(11).
Then
P(P > 8) = 1 P(P 8) = 1 e11 (
110 111
118
+
+ +
) 0.768015.
0!
1!
8!
130 131
1314
+
+ +
) 0.675132.
0!
1!
14!
(ii) Let Q Po(2n). We are given that P(Q < 3) < 0.01. That is,
P(Q < 3) = e2n (
Let f (n) = e2n (1 + 2n + 2n2 ). From calculator, f (1), f (2), f (3), f (4) > 0.01 and f (5) <
0.01. Hence, the smallest possible integer value of n is 5.
(iii) Let R Po(5211) = Po(572). Given a large sample, we can use the normal distribution
S N (572, 572)as an approximation. Hence, using also the continuity correction,
550.5 572
)
572
1 (0.898960) = (0.898960) 0.8158.
(iv) Sales may be seasonal e.g. it may be that art collectors make most of their purchases
in the northern hemispheres summer months.
The sales of originals and prints may not be independent of each other. E.g., an art collector
who buys an original Picasso might wish to also buy a few copies thereof.
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(ii) Stratified sampling is more appropriate. If say 10% of employees are from India, 30%
from China, 20% from Thailand, and 40% from Singapore, then we could instead pick
from the list the first 9 Indian employees, the first 27 Chinese employees, the first 18 Thai
employees, and the first 36 Singaporean employees.
1.645
2a
) = 0.95
a
a
2a
1
) = 0.25
0.674 a 0.674 0.674
1.645
0.674
2 0.674
(1 +
) (1 +
) a 1.29a. That is, k 1.29.
1.645
1.645
P(Y < a) = P (Z <
Answer to Exercise 470 (9740 N2013/II/7). (i) The probability that one packet
contains a free gift is independent of why another packet contains a free gift.
There is no possibility that any one packet contains two or more free gifts.
20 1
1
19 19
(ii) Let F B (20, ). Then P(F = 1) =
( ) ( ) 0.377354.
20
1 20 20
(iii) Let F B (60,
for F is G Po (3).
1
). Since n = 60 is large and np = 3 is small, a suitable approximation
20
30 31 32 33 34 35
P(F 5) P(G 5) = 1 e ( + + + + + ) 0.184737.
0! 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
3
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(i)
x 0
12.8 13.8
=
1.862697.
s/ n
2.305714/8
Since t < t7,0.05 = 1.895, we are unable to reject the null hypothesis at the 5% significance
level.
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Answer to Exercise 473 (9740 N2013/II/10). (i) In blue is case (A), in red is case
(B), and in green is case (C).
y
(ii)
150
Distance, y
100
50
Speed, x
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
135
150
(iii) As a function of speed, the distance travelled decreases at an increasing rate. So (A)
is the most appropriate.
PMCC 0.939203.
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26
25
3!
98
= 2625398 = 140400.
2!
The number of ways to choose a code with exactly two digits the same, but not two letters
the same is
Repeated digit Three letters
9
26 25 24 = 9 26 25 24 = 140400.
Hence the desired probability is
100
26 25 3 9 8 + 9 26 25 24 25 4
=
=
0.19724.
263 92
132 3 1107
(iv) There are 4 ways to choose the even digit, 5 to choose the odd digit then 2 ways to
arrange these two digits. Hence, there are 4 5 2 = 40 ways to choose the two digits.
There are 5 ways to choose the vowel. There are 212 ways to choose the two consonants.
We can now slot in the vowel amidst the consonants in 3 different ways. Hence, there are
5 212 3 ways to choose the three letters.
Altogether then, there are 5 212 3 4 5 2 ways to choose a code with exactly one vowel
and exactly one even digit.
Hence the desired probability is
5 212 3 4 5 2 5 72 5 1225
=
=
0.18586.
263 92
133 3 6591
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Answer to Exercise 475 (9740 N2013/II/12). (i) #1. The number of people sick on
a particular day is independent of how many were sick the previous day. #2. The average
number of illnesses in any span of 30 days is the same, throughout the course of the year.
Condition #1 may not be met if the illness is contagious. If so, wed expect the number of
people sick on a particular day to depend (positively) on how many were sick the previous
day.
Condition #2 may not be met if the illnesses are seasonal. For example, due to influenza,
illnesses may be more common during the winter than during the summer.
(iii) Let C be the total number of days of absence across both departments, over a 5-day
period. Then C Po(19.5) and
P(C > 20) = 1 P(C 20) = 1 e
19.5
20
19.5i
0.396583.
i=0 i!
(iv) Let D be the total number of days of absence across both departments, over a 60-day
period. Then D Po(234). Since D = 234 is large, the normal distribution is a suitable
approximation. Let E N (234, 234). Then
P(200 D 250) P(199.5 E 250.5) = (
199.5 234
250.5 234
) (
)
234
234
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Answer to Exercise 476 (9740 N2012/II/5). (i) (a) Let +, , D, and N denote the
events positive result, negative result, has disease, and no disease. Then
P(+) = P(+D)P(D) + P(+N )P(N ) = p 0.001 + (1 p) 0.999 = 0.999 0.998p = 0.00599.
(i) (b) P(D+) = P(D +) P(+) = P(D)P(+D) P(+) = 0.001p 0.00599 0.166110.
0.001p
.
0.999 0.998p
(ii) H0 x N (14.0, 3.82 ). Since Z0.025 = 1.96, the values of x for which the null hypothesis
would not be rejected are
3.8
3.8
x ( Z0.025 , + Z0.025 ) = (14.0 1.96 , 14.0 + 1.96 ) (12.335, 15.665) .
n
n
20
20
(iii) The null hypothesis is rejected.
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There are 2 ways to arrange the 2 sisters as a single unit. Counting the 2 sisters as a single
unit, we have 14 units total, and there are 14! ways to arrange these 14 units. So, there
are in total 2 14! ways to arrange the 15 individuals so that the two sisters are together.
Hence, the probability that the sisters are next to each other is 2 14!/15! = 2/15 = 0.13.
(ii) There are 3! ways to arrange the 3 brothers as a single unit. Counting the 3 brothers
as a single unit, we have 13 units total, and there are 13! ways to arrange these 13 units.
So, there are in total 3! 13! ways to arrange the 15 individuals so that the three brothers
are together. We do not want the three brothers to be together.
Hence, the desired probability is 13!13!/15! = 16/ (14 15) = 11/35 = 34/35 0.97142857.
(iii) There are 2 ways to arrange the 2 sisters as a single unit and 3! ways to arrange the 3
brothers as a single unit. Counting the 2 sisters as a single unit and also the 3 brothers as
a single unit, we have 12 units in total, and there are 12! ways to arranges these 12 units.
So, there are in total 2 3! 12! ways to arrange the 15 individuals so that the 2 sisters are
together and the 2 brothers are together.
Hence, the desired probability is 2 3! 12!/15! = 12/(13 14 15) = 2/(13 7 5) = 2/455
0.0043956.
(iv) Let A and B denote the events that the sisters are next to each other and the
brothers are next to each other. Our desired probably is P(A B).
1
2
91 2
13
2
2
+
=
+
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100
(i)
Percentage mark, y
80
60
40
20
Week, x
0
0
(ii) The trend is one of steady improvement. After a terrible performance in Week 1, Amy
resolves to work hard. Her work pays off, with her mark improving week after week.
The only deviation from trend occurs on Week 5, because Amy happened to be experimenting with drugs that week.
(iii) A linear model would suggest that she eventually breaks the 100% barrier, which is
quite impossible.
A quadratic model would suggest that her mark eventually starts falling and moreover at
an increasing rate, which is quite improbable, unless of course she gets hooked on drugs.
(iv) PMCC 0.929744.
(v) We are supposed to say that the most appropriate choice is wherever the magnitude of
the PMCC is the largest. Hence, L = 92 is the most appropriate.
(vi) In general, the estimated regression equation is y
y = b(x
x), where b = xi yi / x2i .
So in this case, the estimated regression equation is
ln (92 y) 3.125912 0.279599(x 3.5)
ln (92 y) 0.279599x + 4.104510.
y 90 0.279599x + 4.104510 ln 2 x ? 12.2. So shell get at least 90% in Week
13.
(vii) As x , y L. An interpretation is thus that L is the best mark she can ever
hope to get, no matter how long she spends studying.
Page 1362, Table of Contents
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Answer to Exercise 480 (9740 N2012/II/9). (i) The choice must be binary a
voter must be said to either support the Alliance Party or not support it.
The probability that any one polled voter supports the Party is independent of whether
another polled voter supports the party.
30 4
30 3
p (1 p)27 +
p (1 p)26 0.373068.
4
3
(iii) (a) np = 16.5 > 5 and n(1 p) = 13.5 > 5 are both large and so yes, the normal
distribution N(16.5, 16.5 0.45)would be a suitable approximation for A.
(iii) (b) p is large. And so, while it is certainly possible to use the Poisson distribution as
an approximation, it would fare poorly.
30 15
p (1 p)15 0.06864.
15
1/15
30
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(iv) Let I Po(80). Since is large, the normal distribution J N(80, 80) is a suitable
approximation. Using also the continuity correction,
P(I 90) P(J 89.5) = 1 (
89.5 80
(v) Let P Po(3). Let Z be the number of gold coins and pottery shards found in 50 m2 .
Then Z Po(190). Since is large, the normal distribution Q N(190, 190) is a suitable
approximation for Z. Using also the continuity correction,
P (Z 200) P(Q 199.5) = 1 (
199.5 190
(vi) Let X and Y be, respectively, the numbers of gold coins and pottery shards found in
50 m2 . Then X Po(40) and Y Po(150). Our goal is to find P(Y 3X) = P(Y 3X 0).
Since X = 40 and Y = 150 are both large, the normal distributions A N(40, 40) and
B N(150, 150) are suitable approximations for X and Y , respectively. And in turn,
B 3A N(150 3 40, 150 + 32 40) = N(30, 510) is a good approximation for Y 3X.
Hence, using also the continuity correction,
30.5
0.5 30
) = (
) (1.3506) 0.9116.
P(Y 3X 0) P(B 3A 0.5) = 1 (
510
510
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Answer to Exercise 482 (9740 N2011/II/5). (i) P(X < 40.0) = P (Z <
40.0
1
0.05
1.645 1.645 + 40.0
40.0
)=
70.0
70.0
2
) = 0.975
1.96 1.96 + 70.0.
Comparing and , we have 1.645 + 40.0 1.96 + 70.0 3.605 30.0 8.3
and 53.7.
Answer to Exercise 483 (9740 N2011/II/6). (i) Decide what the age groups will
be. Decide how many from each age group are to be interviewed (these are our quotas).
Then pick, at random, residents on the street to be interviewed, until the quota for every
age group is fulfilled.
(ii) Residents who are on the street may not be a representative sample of the population.
(iii) Random sampling. Acquire a complete list of the city suburbs population. Use a
computer program to randomly pick a sample. Interview this sample.
No it is not realistic. First, one may be able to acquire a complete list of the city suburbs
population. Second, one may not be able to contact every member of ones sample.
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#2. The probability that one friend is contactable is independent of whether another friend
is contactable.
(ii) Assumption #1 may not hold because if say n = 100, I may run out of time before I
attempt to contact all 100 different friends.
Assumption #2 may not hold because my friends probably know each other and so they
might be watching a movie together and their handphones are switched off. This would
mean that the probability that one friend is contactable is dependent on whether another
friend is contactable.
5 i 5i
0.7 0.3 0.551774.
i=0 i
5
(iv) Since np = 28 > 5 and n(1 p) = 12 > 5 are both large, a suitable approximation to R
is the normal distribution S N (28, 8.4). Using also the continuity correction, we have
24.5 28
P(R < 25) P(S < 24.5) = (
) (1.2076)
8.4
= 1 (1.2076) 1 0.8863 = 0.1137.
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(i)
(ii) The PMCC is 0.992317 which is very large in magnitude. But this merely means
that the correlation between x and y is very strong. It does not also imply that their true
relationship is definitely linear. Indeed in this case, it appears that the relationship is not
linear.
(iii) We are supposed to say that the larger the magnitude of the PMCC, the better the
model. In this case, the PMCC of y and x2 is 0.999984. And so were supposed to conclude
that y = a + bx2 is the better model.
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(ii) (a) P(Exactly one faulty) = P(First faulty, second not) + P(Second faulty, first not) =
0.058 (1 0.058) + (1 0.058) 0.058 = 2 0.058 0.942 = 0.109272.
P(E F )
.
(ii) (b)P(Both made by AExactly one faulty) =
P(F )
But P(E F ) = P(E)P(F E) = 0.62 (0.05 0.95 + 0.95 0.05) = 0.0342. Hence P(EF ) =
0.0342/0.109272 0.312980.
Answer to Exercise 487 (9740 N2011/II/10). (i) We are given that T N(5.0, 38.0).
Let X be the time taken to install the component after background music is introduced.
Assume that X remains normally distributed with standard deviation 5.0 (these are questionable assumptions, but without these we cannot proceed). That is, X N (0 , 5.02 ).
The null hypothesis is H0 0 = 38.0 and the alternative hypothesis is HA 0 < 38.0.
< 0 Z0.05 / n =
(ii) Z0.05 1.645.
So
to
reject
the
null
hypothesis,
we
must
have
t
38.0 1.645 5.0/ n. Rearranging, n < (1.645 5.0/0.9)2 83.5. Thus, n {1, 2, . . . , 83}.
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30
ways
10
18 12
ways to choose the committee so that
4 6
there are exactly 4 women. Hence, the desired probability is
to choose the committee. There are
18 12
4 6
30
10
18171615 121110987
4!
6!
=
302921
10!
17 48
816
=
0.9410679.
29 13 23 8671
18 12
ways to choose the committee so that there are exactly r
r 10 r
18 12
women. Similarly, there are
ways to choose the committee so that there
r + 1 9 r
are exactly r + 1 women. We are given that the former number is greater than the latter,
i.e.
(ii) There are
18 12 18 12
>
r 10 r r + 1 9 r
18!
12!
18!
12!
>
(18 r)!r! (2 + r)!(10 r)! (17 r)!(r + 1)! (3 + r)!(9 r)!
(17 r)!(r + 1)!(3 + r)!(9 r)! > (18 r)!r!(2 + r)!(10 r)!
(as desired)
Continuing with the algebra, we have (r + 1)(3 + r) > (18 r)(10 r) r2 + 4r + 3 >
17
r2 28r + 180 32r > 177 r > 5 .
32
We have just proven that P(R = r) > P(R = r + 1) if and only if r = 6, 7, 8, 9. That is,
we have just shown that P(R = 6) > P(R = 7) > P(R = 8) > P(R = 9) > P(R = 10), but
P(R = 0) P(R = 1) P(R = 2) P(R = 3) P(R = 4) P(R = 5) P(R = 6).
We have thus shown that 6 is a most-probable-number-of-women and that 7, 8, 9, 10 are
not. We must rule out that 5 (or any smaller number) is a most-probable-number-of-women.
But clearly, 6!4! 5!5!, so that
18 12 18 12
.
6 4 5 5
Hence, it is indeed the case that P(R = 5) < P(R = 6). Thus, 6 is indeed the unique
most-probable-number-of-women.
Page 1369, Table of Contents
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Answer to Exercise 489 (9740 N2011/II/12). (i) Let X be the number of people
who join the queue in a period of 4 minutes. Then X Po(4.8) and
P(X 8) = 1 P(X 7) = 1 e
4.8
4.8i
0.113334.
i=0 i!
(ii) Let Y be the number of people who join the queue in a period of t minutes. Then
Y Po(1.2t/60) = Po(0.02t). We are told that P(Y 1) = 0.7. That is,
P(Y 1) = e0.02t (1 + 0.02t) = 0.7.
By calculator, t 54.8675.
(iii) Let Z be the number of people who leave the queue over 15 minutes. Then Z Po(27).
Let B be the number of people who join the queue over 15 minutes. Then B Po(18).
We wish to find P(35 + B Z 24) = P(Z B 11).
Since Z = 27 is large, a suitable approximation for Z is the normal distribution is A
N(27, 27). Since B = 18 is large, a suitable approximation for B is the normal distribution
is C N(18, 18). In turn, a suitable approximation for Z B is A C N(9, 45). Hence,
using also the continuity correction,
11.5 9
P(Z B 11) P(A C 11.5) = (
) (0.3727) 0.6453.
45
(iv) There might be certain periods of time when more planes arrive and other periods when
fewer arrive. So the rate at which people join the queue will probably not be constant.
Answer to Exercise 490 (9740 N2010/II/5). (i) Say we wish to stratify the spectators by age group. One problem is that we may not know what proportion of the spectators
belongs to each age group. As such, it would may be difficult to get a representative sample.
(ii) Order the spectators by their names, alphabetically. Choose every 100th spectator on
the list to survey.
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(i)
t 454.3
t =
=
= 41.3,
n
11
2
t2 ( t) /11 18779.43 454.32 /11
2
s =
=
= 1.684.
n1
10
(ii) The null hypothesis is H0 0 = 42.0 and the alternative hypothesis is HA 0 42.0.
T=
t 0 41.3 42.0
=
1.789.
s/ n
1.684/11
Since T < t10,0.05 = 1.812, we are unable to reject the null hypothesis.
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Answer to Exercise 493 (9740 N2010/II/8). (i) The probability that the number
is greater than 30000 is the probability that the first digit is 3, 4, or 5. Answer: 3/5 = 0.6.
(ii) The first three digits are odd and there are 3! ways to arrange them. The last two are
even and there are 2! ways to arrange them. The total number of ways to arrange the five
digits is 5!. Answer: 3!2!/5! = 1/10 = 0.1.
(iii) If the first digit is 3, the last digit must be 1or 5, and in each case, there are 3! ways
to arrange the middle 3 digits.
Similarly, if the first digit is 5, the last digit must be 1 or 3, and in each case, there are 3!
ways to arrange the middle 3 digits.
If the first digit is 4, the last digit can be 1, 3, or 5, and in each case, there are 3! ways to
arrange the middle 3 digits.
Altogether then, there are 7 3! ways to get such a number and the desired probability is
7 3!/5! = 7/20 = 0.35.
Answer to Exercise 494 (9740 N2010/II/9). (i) Our desired probability is P(Y >
2X) = P(Y 2X > 0). Now, Y 2X N (400 2 180, 602 + 22 302 ) = N (40, 7200). So
0 40
) (0.4714) 0.6813.
P(Y 2X > 0) = 1 (
7200
(ii) Our desired probability is P(0.12X + 0.05Y > 45). Now,
0.12X + 0.05Y N (0.12 180 + 0.05 400, 0.122 302 + 0.052 602 ) = N (41.6, 21.96)
45 41.6
P(0.12X + 0.05Y > 45) = 1 (
) 1 (0.7255) 1 0.7658 = 0.2342.
21.96
(iii) Our desired probability is P (0.12X1 + 0.12X2 > 45). Now,
0.12X1 + 0.12X2 N (0.12 180 + 0.12 180, 0.122 302 + 0.122 302 ) = N(43.2, 25.92)
45 43.2
P (0.12X1 + 0.12X2 > 45) = 1 (
) 1 (0.3536) 1 0.6381 = 0.3619.
25.92
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(i)
(iii) We are, as usual, supposed to say that the larger the magnitude of the PMCC, the
better the model. So F = c + dv 2 is the better model.
And F = 26.0 x
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128
0.0655233.
8!
(ii) Let Y be the number of calls received in a randomly chosen period of t seconds. Then
Y Po(3t/60) = Po(0.05t) and P(Y = 0) = e0.05t = 0.2. So t = (ln 0.2) /(0.05) 32.
P(Y = 0) = e12
128
0.0655233.
8!
(iii) Let Z be the number of calls received in a randomly chosen period of 12 hours.
Then Z Po(2160) and a suitable approximation therefor is the normal distribution A
N (2160, 2160). Hence, using also the continuity correction,
P(Z > 2200) P(A 2200.5) = 1 (
(iv)
2200.5 2160
6
0.19182 0.80824 0.2354.
2
(v) Let B be the number of busy days out of 30. Since np 5.754 > 5 and n(1 p) > 5, a
suitable approximation to B is the normal distribution C N (5.754, 4.650). So using also
the continuity correction,
P(B 10) P(C 10.5) = (
10.5 5.754
) (2.201) 0.9861.
4.650
Answer to Exercise 497 (9740 N2009/II/5). Simply survey people standing outside
the theatre waiting for the movie to start. Stop once the quota of 100 persons is met.
A disadvantage is that this may not be a representative sample. For example, there will be
no late-comers in our sample of 100.
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(i)
(ii) No. A linear model would imply that several centuries hence, the time taken to run a
mile would be negative, which is clearly impossible.
The scatter diagram similarly suggests that the rate of improvement is tapering off, rather
than linear.
(iii) A quadratic model would imply that the world record time taken to run a mile eventually bottoms out, then starts increasing. But by definition, it is impossible that the world
record time increases.
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Answer to Exercise 499 (9740 N2009/II/7). (i) Let E and F be the events that
a randomly chosen component that is faulty and a randomly chosen component was
supplied by A. Then
P(E) = 0.01p 0.05 + 0.01(1 p)0.03 = 0.03 + 0.02 0.01p = 0.035
0.01p 0.05
0.05p
7.5
P(F E)
=
=
= 2.5
.
F (E)
0.03 + 0.02 0.01p 3 + 0.02p
3 + 0.02p
f (p) = 7.5(3 + 0.02p)2 (0.02) > 0. This shows that the probability that a randomly chosen
component that is faulty was supplied by A is increasing in the percentage of electronic
components bought from A. Which is not very surprising.
Answer to Exercise 500 (9740 N2009/II/8). (i) We have 8 letters total, 3 of which
are repeated. Hence, there are 8!/3! = 6720 possible permutations.
(ii) Let TD or DT be a single letter. Then we have 7 letters total, 3 of which are
repeated, so there are 2! 7!/3! possible permutations that we do not want. So there are
6720 2! 7!/3! = 5040 possible permutations that we do want.
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N (2.5, 0.1 ). So P (M
> 2.53) =
Answer to Exercise 501 (9740 N2009/II/9). (i) M
n
2.53 2.5
= 1 (0.3 n) = 0.0668 (0.3 n) = 0.9332 0.3 n = 1.5
1
0.12 /n
n = 25.
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(i)
x 86.4
=
= 9.6,
n
9
2
x2 ( x) /n 835.92. 86.42 /9
2
s =
=
0.81.
n1
8
x =
x 0 9.6 10
4
=
= .
3
s/ n
0.81/9
Since t < t8,0.025 = 2.306, we are unable to reject the null hypothesis.
The sample size is small. And so we are unable to appeal to the CLT and claim that a
normal distribution is a suitable approximate distribution for x.
(Authors remark: It actually makes no sense to say that the CLT does not apply in this
context. The CLT certainly applies. It is merely that the normal distribution is a poor
approximation for the sample mean.)
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Answer to Exercise 503 (9740 N2009/II/11). (i) The probability that any observed
car is red is independent of whether any other observed car is red.
Each car is either strictly red or strictly not red.
(ii)P(4 R < 8) =
20
20
20
0.154 0.8516 +
0.155 0.8515 +
0.156 0.8514
4
5
6
+
20
0.157 0.8513 0.346354.
7
(iii) Since np and n(1p) are large, a suitable approximation to R is the normal distribution
X N (72, 50.4). Hence, using also the continuity correction,
59.5 72
P(R < 60) P(X < 59.5) = (
) 1 (1.761) 1 0.9609 = 0.0391.
50.4
(iv) Since n is large and p is small, a suitable approximation to R is the normal distribution
Y Po (4.8). Hence,
4.8 4.8
P(R = 3) = e
(v)P(R = 0) + P(R = 1) =
3!
0.152.
20 0
20 1
p (1 p)20 +
p (1 p)19
0
1
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(ii) We might want each level to be equally well-represented. For example, we might like
approximately one-sixth of the sample to be from Primary 1, another sixth from Primary
2, etc.
In which case wed probably prefer to do a stratified sample. The method might be something like this: Pick from the aforementioned ordered list the first 108 Primary 1 students,
the first 108 Primary 2 students, etc.
Answer to Exercise 505 (9740 N2008/II/6). Let the mass of calcium in a bottle
(after the extreme weather) be X N (0 , 2 ). (We have made the necessary assumption
that X is normally distributed.)
The null hypothesis is H0 0 = 78 and the alternative hypothesis is H0 0 78. Now,
t=
x 0
x/n 78
=
1.207.
2
s/ n
2
[ x ( x) /n] /(n 1)/ n
Since t < t14,0.025 2.145, we are unable to reject the null hypothesis.
Answer to Exercise 506 (9740 N2008/II/7). (i) Let A1 denote the event that A wins
the first set. Similarly define A2 , A3 , B1 , B2 , and B3 . P (A2 ) = P (A1 A2 ) + P (B1 A2 ) =
0.6 0.7 + 0.4 0.2 = 0.5.
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Answer to Exercise 507 (9740 N2008/II/8). (i) PMCC 0.9695281468. This large
PMCC merely suggests that there is a strong (positive) linear relationship between x and
t. However, the true relationship between x and t could be something other than linear.
(ii)
t
P
(iii) Without P , it appears that t is increasing, but at a decreasing rate. So a log model
might be appropriate.
(vi) This would be an extrapolation of the data, which may or may not be wise.
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(i) X Po(1.8).
(ii) Let Y be the total number of pianos sold in a given week. Then Y Po(4.4). P(Y =
4) = e4.4 4.44 /4! 0.191736.
(iii) Let Z be the number of grand pianos sold in 50 weeks. Then Z Po(90). Since Z
is large, a suitable approximation is the normal distribution A N (90, 90). Hence, using
also the continuity correction,
P(Z < 80) P(A < 79.5) = (
79.5 90
(iv) An organisation might buy a relatively-large number of grand pianos on any given
day. So it is not likely that the rate at which grand pianos are sold is constant throught
the year.
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(ii)
(iii)
3 4 5
= 3 4 10 = 120.
2 3 3
9
= 9.
8
5 7 5 7
= 5 35 + 1 35 = 210.
+
4 4 5 3
No diplomats from L is
9
;
8
8
;
8
No diplomats from M is 0.
12
. Hence the number of ways to
8
12 9 8
have at least 1 diplomat from each island is
+
= 495 (9 + 1) = 485.
8 8 8
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74
74
) = 0.0668
= 1.5.
146
146
146
) = 0.0668 (
) = 0.9332
= 1.5.
146 74
72
= 1.5 (1.5) =
= 3 = 24 and = 110.
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(ii) Let Y be the number of times the machine will break down in a period of four weeks.
Then Y Po(12).
P(Y 3) = e12 (1 + 12 + 122 /2 + 123 /6) 0.00229.
(iii) Let Z be the number of times the machine will break down in a period of 16 weeks.
Then Z Po(48). Since Z is large, a suitable approximation for Z is the normal distribution A N (48, 48). Hence, using also the continuity correction,
P(Z > 50) P(A > 50.5) = 1 (
50.5 48
Answer to Exercise 514 (9233 N2008/II/27). (i) Let the mass after the adjustment
be X N (0 , 2 ). It is necessary to assume that these masses remain normally distributed.
The null hypothesis is H0 0 = 32.40 and the alternative hypothesis is HA 0 32.40.
Now,
t=
x 0 32.00 32.40
=
2.104.
s/ n
2.892/80
(ii) This means that if H0 were true and we tested infinitely many size-80 samples (as done
above), wed reject H0 in 5% of the samples.
(iii) The one-tailed p-value is 0.0193. So the least level of significance is 1.93%.
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Answer to Exercise 515 (9233 N2008/II/29). (i) Let X N (50, 42 ). The probability
that Mr Sim is late on any given day is
P(X > 55) = 1 (
55 50
) = 1 (1.25) 1 0.8944 = 0.1056.
4
Assuming that the probability that hes late each day is independent of whether he was
late on any other day, the probability that he will be late no more than onc in 5 days is
5
5
0.10560 0.89445 +
0.10561 0.89444 0.910.
0
1
(ii) Let Y N (40, 52 ). Our desired probability is P(X Y 5 < 0). Assuming the journey
times of Messrs Sim and Lee are independent, X Y 5 N (5, 42 + 52 ). Thus,
05
P(X Y 5 < 0) = (
) 1 (0.7809) 1 0.7826 = 0.2174.
42 + 52
(iii) Assume that the journey times of Messrs Sim and Lee each day are independent. Then
the desired probability is
5
5
5
0.21743 0.78262 +
0.21744 0.78261 +
0.21745 0.7826 0.0722.
3
4
5
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=minus = yields
92.25
92.25 2
92.25
) = 0.2 (
) = 0.8
= 0.842.
5.75
= 2.017 2.85. And now 89.85.
2
(ii) Let X N (, 2 ). P ( 2 X + 2) = 0.8 P (X + 2) = 0.9 ( ) =
2
0.9
1.281 1.56.
2
+ 0.50) 0.1 1 ( 0.50
) 0.1
(iii) Let X N (, ). Then P(X
n
/ n
0.50 n
0.50 n 2
0.50 n
)
? 1.281
0.50 n 2 n 16.
0.9 (
(ii) Yes. If say the teacher teaches 10 different classes, we could stratify our sample by
class and pick 1 student from each class.
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(i)
10
10
10
0.241 0.769 +
0.242 0.768
0.240 0.7610 +
2
1
0
+
10
10
0.243 0.767 +
0.244 0.766
3
4
0.933.
(ii) Let X B(1000, 0.24) be the number of people in a sample of 1000 that have gene A.
Since np = 240 > 5 and n(1 p) = 760 > 5 are both large, a suitable approximation for X is
the normal distribution Y N (240, 182.4). Hence, using also the continuity correction,
260.5 240
229.5 240
P(230 X 260) P(229.5 Y 260.5) = (
) (
)
182.4
182.4
(1.5179) (0.7775) 0.9355 0.2180 0.7175.
(iii) Let Z B(1000, 0.003) be the number of people in a sample of 1000 that have gene B.
Since n is large and p is small, a suitable approximation for Y is the Poisson distribution
A Po (3). Hence,
P(2 Z < 5) P(2 Y < 5) = P(Y = 2) + P(Y = 3) + P(Y = 4)
= e3 (32 /2 + 33 /6 + 34 /24) 0.616.
(i)
x 4626
=
= 30.84
n
150
2
x2 ( x) /n
2
s =
33.7259.
n1
x =
(ii) Let H0 0 = 30 and HA 0 > 30 be the null and alternative hypotheses. Now,
Z=
x 0
30.84 30
1.772.
s/ n
33.7259/150
(iii) We used the Z-test. The sample size is large, so the normal distribution is a good
approximation provided the underlying distribution is nice enough.
Page 1388, Table of Contents
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Answer to Exercise 520 (9740 N2007/II/8). (i) Let C be the weight of a randomly
chosen chicken. Then C N (2.2, 0.52 ). Then 3C N (3 2.2, 32 0.52 ) = N (6.6, 1.52 ) and
P(3C > 7) = 1 (
7 6.6
4
) = 1 ( ) 0.3949.
1.5
15
(ii) Let T be the weight of a randomly chosen turkey. Then T N (10.5, 2.12 ). Then
5T N (5 10.5, 52 2.12 ) = N (52.5, 10.52 ) and
P(5T > 55) = 1 (
55 52.5
5
) = 1 ( ) 0.405904.
10.5
21
(i) (b) 6! 26 .
(ii) (a) 11!.
(ii) (b) Fix any man. Then we must have to his right: Woman, man, woman, man, etc.
So 6!5!.
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(i) P(1, 1, 1) =
1 1 1 1
= .
8 4 2 64
1 1 1 3 1 7 1 1 8 + 2 3 + 7 21
+ + =
=
.
8 4 8 4 4 8 8 4
256
256
(iii) Let E and F be the events that the third throw is successful and exactly two of
the three throws are successful.
P(E F ) = P(1, 0, 1) + P(0, 1, 1) =
P(F ) = P(E F ) + P(E F ) =
1 3 1 7 1 1 13
+ =
.
8 4 4 8 8 4 256
13
17
+ P(1, 1, 0) =
.
256
256
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Answer to Exercise 523 (9740 N2007/II/11). (i) In general, the estimated regression
equation is y y = b(x x), where b = xi yi / x2i . So in this case, the estimated
regression equation is
x 131.666667 0.259701 (t 32)
x 0.259701t + 66.194030.
(iii) PMCC 0.993839. Its magnitude is larger than 0.912 and very close to 1. It
would appear that the regression of ln x on t is a more appropriate model.
Answer to Exercise 524 (9233 N2007/I/4). (i) It cannot be that all three vertices
are collinear. Thus, one vertex must be chosen from the upper line segment and the other
must be chosen from the lower line segment. Hence, there are 3 6 = 18 possible triangles.
(ii) Consider triangles that do not have A as a vertex. Two vertices must be chosen from one
3
6
line segment and the third must be chosen from the other. So there are
7+4
=
2
2
21 + 60 = 81 possible triangles. Now, including also triangles with A as a vertex, we have
99 possible triangles.
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100
Answer to Exercise 525 (9740 N2007/II/23-9233). (i) X (30, 52 ) X
(30, 52 /100) = (30, 0.25). Since the sample size is sufficiently large, by the Central Limit
100 is the normal distribution Y N (30, 0.25). So
Theorem, a suitable approximation for X
100 30.8) P (29.2 Y 30.8) 0.945201 0.054799 0.890.
P (29.2 X
(ii) The distribution is sufficiently nice that with a sample size of 100, it is appropriate
to use the CLT.
Answer to Exercise 526 (9233 N2007/II/25). (i) P(W B) = 20/52 = 5/13 0.384615.
(ii) P(BW ) = 20/40 = 0.5.
(iii) P(B W ) = (40 + 32)/90 = 72/100 = 0.72.
(iv) P(W )P(B) = 0.4 0.52 P(B W ) and so W and B are not independent.
There are men who take chemistry (equivalently, P(M C) 0), so M and C are not
mutually exclusive.
Answer to Exercise 527 (9233 N2007/II/26). (i) Let X be the number of genuine
call-outs in a randomly chosen two-week period. Then X Po(4) and
P(X < 6) = e4 (1 + 4 +
42 43 44 45
+ + + ) 0.785130.
2! 3! 4! 5!
(ii) Let Y be the total number of call-outs in a randomly chosen six-week period. Then
Y Po(15) and since Y is large, a suitable approximation for Y is the normal distribution
Z N (15, 15). Hence, using also the continuity correction,
P(Y > 19) P(Z > 19.5) 1 (
19.5 15
) 0.123.
15
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7.9 8.0
8.2 8.0
) (
) 0.963 0.185 0.778.
P(7.9 L + H 8.2) = (
0.0125
0.0125
(ii) 0.74L + 0.86H N (0.74 5 + 0.86 3, 0.742 0.12 + 0.862 0.052 ) = N (6.28, 0.00728225).
So
6.1 6.28
6.2 6.28
) (
) 0.183 0.021 0.162.
P(6.1 0.74L + 0.86H 6.2) = (
0.00728225
0.00728225
Answer to Exercise 532 (9233 N2006/II/26). (i) Let X be the number of severe
floods in a randomly-chosen 100-year period. Then X Po(2). So
2
(ii) Let Y be the number of severe floods in a randomly-chosen 1000-year period. Then
Y Po(20). Since Y is large, a suitable approximation for Y is the normal distribution
Z N (20, 20). Hence, using also the continuity correction,
P(Y > 25) P(Z > 25.5) = 1 (
25.5 20
) 0.109.
20
5
= 10 possibilities).
2
None identical (
5
= 10 possibilities).
3
So total 26 possibilities.
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The sum of two scores is 9 if the dice are (3, 6), (4, 5), (5, 4), or (6, 3). So P(B) = 4/36 = 1/9.
P(A B) = 2/36 = 1/18 P(A)P(B), so A and B are not independent.
P(A B) = P(A) + P(B) P(A B) = 1/3 + 1/9 1/18 = 7/18.
2
s/ n
{(x 10000)2 [(x 10000)] /n} /(n 1)/ n
2510/80 + 10000 10000
=
1.795.
2
{2010203 (2510) /80} /79/ 80
Z=
(ii) If H0 is true and we conduct the above test on infinitely-many size-80 samples, wed
(falsely) reject H0 for 5% of the samples.
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Answer to Exercise 533 (9233 N2006/II/28). (i) Let the speed of any car (in km
h-1 ) be X N (, 2 ). We are given that P(X > 125) = 1/80 and P(X < 40) = 1/10.
P(X > 125) = 1/80 1 (
2.240.
P(X < 40) = 1/10 (
1
minus yields
(ii)
125
125
125 1
) = 1/80 (
) = 79/80
40
40 2
) = 1/10
1.282.
85
3.522 24.1 and 70.9.
10 0 10 10 1 9 10 2 8 10 3 7
0.1 0.9 +
0.1 0.9 0.987.
0.1 0.9 +
0.1 0.9 +
3
2
1
0
(iii) Let Y be the number of cars out of a random sample of 100 that are travelling at
speed less than 40 km h-1 . Then Y B(100, 0.1). Since np = 10 > 5 and n(1 p) = 90 > 5 are
both large, a suitable approximation to Y is the normal distribution Z N (10, 9). Hence,
using also the continuity correction,
P(Y 8) P(Z 8.5) = (
8.5 10
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