Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Engine Performance
GROUP No.: 7
BATCH 2009-2010
NAME
SEAT NO.
1. Saad Saleem
AU-09037
2. Moghees Qureshi
AU-09022
AU-09012
CERTIFICATE
GROUP No.: 7
BATCH 2009-2010
NAME
SEAT NO.
1 Saad Saleem
AU-09037
2 Moghees Qureshi
AU-09022
AU-09012
Internal Advisor
Sir Munir Ahmed
Assistant Professor
Automotive Engineering Department
Examiner 1
Examiner 2
ABSTRACT
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful and to our Project Advisor Mr. Munir Ahmed, due to his involvement,
technical and project management guidance from start till the end of the project. We also
express our acknowledgement to Chairman Prof. Dr.-Ing. Syed Mushahid Hussain
Hashmi for giving us the opportunity to work on this project and for his appreciations
regarding the content of this project and allowing us to work on Hydra Engine test bench.
Thanking as well Project coordinator Mr Assad Anis for his appreciations.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE ..................................................................................................................... i
ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. ix
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. x
Nomenclature .....................................................................................................................xii
1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.2
HISTORY.............................................................................................................. 5
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7
2.3.8
2.3.9
2.3.10
Applications: .................................................................................................. 9
2.4
2.5
2.5.1
Torque .......................................................................................................... 12
2.5.2
Power ........................................................................................................... 12
iv
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.5.5
Volumetric Efficiency.................................................................................. 13
2.5.6
2.6
2.7
3.2
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
GT Post: ....................................................................................................... 23
3.4
INTRODUCTION TO GT-POWER................................................................... 24
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.5
3.6
GEM 3D .............................................................................................................. 27
3.7
3.7.1
3.7.2
3.7.3
3.7.4
3.7.5
3.7.6
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.10.1
3.10.2
3.10.3
3.10.4
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.4.1
4.5
4.5.1
4.6
4.7
SIMULATION RESULTS:................................................................................. 46
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................... 51
5.2
RICARDOENGINES .......................................................................................... 51
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
5.4
DYNAMOMETER ............................................................................................. 55
5.4.1
Inertial Dynamometers................................................................................. 55
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.4
5.4.5
5.4.6
5.4.7
5.5
5.5.1
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
Fuel Flow Metering using Pressure Sensor with Dip Tube level
Measurement .............................................................................................................. 67
6.4.3
6.4.4
6.5
7
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.4.1
7.4.2
7.4.3
7.4.4
7.4.5
7.4.6
FlowSplits .................................................................................................... 85
7.5
7.6
7.7
CYLINDER ......................................................................................................... 93
7.8
7.9
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.5
COMPARISION, PAST EXPERIMENTS REVIEWS AND DIFFERENCES
HIGHLITING............................................................................................................... 104
8.6
9
B.
C.
D.
viii
LIST OF TABLES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
xi
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol
Description\Abbreviations
________________________________________________________________________
1D
One dimensional
3D
Three dimensional
A/F
Air-fuel ratio
IC
Internal combustion
EC
External combustion
BSFC
Brake Power
Indicated work
Frictional Power
Indicated Power
Mechanical efficiency
Volumetric efficiency
Mass of air
Air density
Displaced cylinder volume
Number of crank revolutions per power stroke
TDC
Top-Dead-Center
BDC
Bottom-Dead-Center
GDI
HCCI
WOT
ID
Ignition Delay
OHV
Overhead Valve
xii
OHC
Overhead Cam
Air mass flow rate
Mass of fuel
ISO
EGR
VVT
VVL
DOHC
BTDC
Before top-dead-center
ABDC
After bottom-dead-center
BBDC
Before bottom-dead-center
ATDC
After top-dead-center
DC
Direct Current
AC
Alternating Current
ICE
SI
Spark Ignition
CAE
CAD
ADC
Rpm
xiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) tools are used widely not just for industrial
applications but also in the classroom as a learning tool. The attractiveness of
CAE software packages can be generalized irrespective of whether that software is
for structural analysis, thermal analysis, kinematics, etc. CAE software packages have
become popular because they can accomplish the analysis of complex tasks that would be
very time consuming by conventional analytical methods and costly to conduct physical
testing.
The design of an internal combustion (IC) engine is a complex compromise between
performance, fuel economy and emissions. These three factors are interrelated and they
cannot be simultaneously optimized. Furthermore once the physical parameters such as
displacement, cam profile, compression ratio, intake/exhaust manifold design, etc. are
determined, a conventional engine has nearly fixed performance, fuel economy and
emissions properties.
The challenges for developing and improving the conventional engine are constantly in
demand to reduce the environmental pollutions, meet fuel economy and performance. So
uses of sophisticated methods to overcome these challenges and to get optimized results,
computational methods are being used.
This project will document the use of engine simulation software as a CAE tool for the
predicting the performance of real available SI Engine with generating several
performance results and correlating with experimental results and study of parameters
required to perform the solution of the engine model.
1.1
Therefore simulation could point out cause-effect relationships more clearly, and a
validated model could be a very useful tool to study new type of engines or engines
running with new type of fuels.
With the need of high performance and efficient engine and technological development of
the engines, their testing, optimizing calibration is in progress with the use of high
computational methods virtually with the aid of high performance computers which can
perform big and complex solutions without a break. Engine simulation softwares with
capability of powerful modeling and solving capabilities with the speed and accuracy onscreen work has progressed very far keeping correlation with real life results.
With the powerful CAE packages like GT Suite, Ricardo Wave, AVL, etc. which are
more inclined to be use for Power train side of the vehicle which includes analyzing
Engine performance, Thermal analysis, Mechanical work, Cooling system, Drive line,
Combustion analysis, etc.
The creating of an engine model requires a broad range of experimental data. To make an
accurate model, the data must span the entire range of operating conditions. However,
sometimes experimental data, theoretical data or assumption needs to be done. This
project focuses on how an engine model is created from data of the real engine and how
to use the model to perform certain simulations.
In this report the abilities of GT-Power will specifically be explored. Most of the
simulations performed will be on steady state conditions. The simulations will show the
effect of various variable parameters affecting on engine performance with respect to
change in speed of engine and correlating it with experimental results also calibration of
those results.
1.2
PROJECT OBJECTIVE
1.3
PROJECT METHODOLOGY
1.4
This report is compiled according to the order of the tasks done, literature, theories;
background required to know and needed to perform the project in the step by step
completion manner. Work Break Down structure is shown of the project, but performed
in sequential way.
Software Learning and
Background
GT Power
GT Post
GT Valve
GT GEM3D
Tutorial
modeling
Result
correlations
Calibration
of engine
model
Benchmark
Simulation
Reports
search, Data
collection
and
Data
conditioning
Engine
Modeling
Data
Acquiring
Hydra
Modeling
Fuel Flow
Meter
Experimental
Run
Engine data
Measuring,
collecting
Geometric,
operating
parameters
Fuel
Flow
Calculations
Experimental
Cases testing
Data
Conditioning
Simulations,
Cases Run
Fuel
Flow
hardware
making
Correlating
Results,
comparing
2.1
Engine is the device which converts chemical/thermal energy into mechanical energy.
The chemical reaction of the fuel inside the engine cylinder which is the combustion of
fuel, is the basic source of energy. This energy later converts into mechanical energy by
the reciprocating motion of piston (in reciprocating engines).
In this chapter of Literature Review of ICE, following will be discussed before
proceeding to project work, for which initial know how of engine is required:
History of Engines, Types, Working, Components, Terminologies and
Characteristics
Engines are basically the power plants of the vehicles; they provide power to the vehicle
by burning the fuel. Automotive engines are usually internal combustion engines because
the fuel that runs them is burned internally, or inside the engines.A heat engine may also
serve as a prime mover, a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a
fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by an internal combustion engine
may make use of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices derive their
power from the engine.
2.2
HISTORY
The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to the interest
in light and powerful engines. The lightweight petrol internal combustion engine,
operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has been the most successful for light automobiles,
while the more efficient Diesel engine is used for trucks and buses.
In 1862 Nikolaus Otto designed an indirect-acting free-piston compression-less engine
whose greater efficiency won the support of most of the market, which at that time, was
mostly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas. Then, in 1876 working with
Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach developed a practical four-stroke cycle (Otto
cycle) engine.
In 1879, Karl Benz developed an internal combustion engine based on Nikolaus Ottos
design of the four-stroke engine. Later Benz designed and built his own four-stroke
engine that was used in his automobiles, which became the first automobiles in
production.
2.3
CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINES
Heat engines are mainly classified into two types, internal combustion engines and
external combustion engines.
5
W-engine:
Engines of two different cylinder arrangements have been classified as W-engines in the
technical literature. One type is the same as a V-engine except with three banks of
cylinders on the same crankshaft. Another type of W engine is the modern 16 cylinder
engine made for the Bugatti automobile (W16). This engine is essentially two V8 engines
connected together on a single crankshaft.
Opposed piston engine:
Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber in the center between the
pistons.. These engines are generally of large displacement, used for power plants, ships,
or submarines.
Radial engine:
Engines with pistons positioned in a circular plane around a circular crankshaft. The
connecting rods of the piston are connected to a master rod, which in turn, is connected to
the crankshaft. Operating on a four-stroke cycle every other cylinder fires and has a
power stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium and
large size propeller driven aircraft use radial engines.
2.3.5 Air Intake Process
Naturally Aspirated: No intake air pressure boosts system.
Super charged: Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the
engine crankshaft.
Turbo charged: Intake air pressure increased with the turbine compressor driven by the
engine exhaust gases.
Crankcase compressed: Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase as the intake
air compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design and construction
of four-stroke cycle engines with crank case compression.
2.3.6 Method of fuel input for spark ignition engines
Carbureted: A device for mixing air and fuel to facilitate the combustion process
Multipoint port fuel injection: One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.
Throttle body fuel injection: Injectors upstream in intake manifold.
Gasoline direct injection: Injectors mounted in combustion chambers with injection
directly into cylinders.
To understand the mechanical differences between a two stroke and four stroke engine,
lets first consider how the four stroke engine works as Figure 2. The four strokes are:
Intake: The piston travels down the cylinder while the intake valve is opened to
allow a mixture of fuel and air to enter the combustion chamber.
Compression: The intake valve is closed and the piston travels back up the cylinder
thereby compressing the gasses.
Combustion: The spark plug ignites the compressed gas causing it to explode, which
forces the piston down.
Exhaust: The piston rises up the cylinder as the exhaust valve is opened, allowing the
piston to clear the chamber to start the process over.
Each time the piston rises and falls it turns the crankshaft that is responsible for turning
the wheels. This is how fuel is converted into forward motion. Of note here is that the
spark plug only fires once every other revolution. Also, there is a sophisticated set of
mechanisms working in synchronization to create the four strokes. A camshaft must
alternately tip a rocker arm attached either to the intake or exhaust valve. The
rocker arm returns to its closed position via a spring. The valves must be seated properly
in the cylinder head to avoid compression leaks. In other words, a symphony of
mechanical events occurs.
The ideal four stroke SI engine cycle is shown in fig. It consists of four internally
reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
10
The execution of the Otto cycle in a pistoncylinder device together with P-v diagram is
illustrated in Fig 2. The ideal model for two stroke SI engine is same but the actual cycle
and processes differ. Since the four stroke engine is our mainly concern in passenger
vehicles, we will mainly discuss the four stroke internal combustion in our report.
In the Two stroke engine, all four events are integrated into one simple downward
stroke, and one upward stroke. Intake and exhaust are both integrated into the
compression and combustion movement of the piston, eliminating the need for valves.
This is accomplished by an inlet and exhaust port in the wall of the combustion chamber
itself. As the piston travels downward from combustion, the exhaust port is
exposed allowing the spent gasses to rush out of the chamber. The downward
stroke also creates suction that draws in new air/fuel through an inlet, located lower in the
chamber. As the piston rises again, it blocks off the inlet and exhaust port,
compressing the gasses at the top of the chamber. The spark plug fires and the process
start over. Significantly, the engine fires on every revolution, giving the two stroke its
power advantage.
11
2.5
The practical engine performance parameters of interest are power, torque, and specific
fuel consumption. Power and torque depend on an engines displaced volume.
A set of normalized or dimensionless performance and emissions parameters were
defined to eliminate the effects of engine size.
2.5.1 Torque
Torque is the twisting force produced at the crankshaft of the engine; it can be measured
off the output shaft using a dynamometer
Unit = Nm
2.5.2 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done. The power P delivered by the engine and
absorbed by the dynamometer is the product of torque and angular speed:
P = 2NT Unit = Watt or j/s
Where N is the crankshaft rotational speed
Brake power is used to specify that the power is measured at the output shaft, this isthe
usable power delivered by the engine to the load. The brake power is less than the power
generated by the gas in the cylinders due to mechanical friction and parasitic loads (oil
pump, air conditioner compressor, etc.)
2.5.3 Specific Fuel consumption:
Specific fuel consumption, sfc, is a measure of how efficiently the fuel supplied to the
engine is used to produce power:
12
Thermal Efficiency
Combustion Rate and Efficiency
Gas Exchange Process and Scavenging
Inlet and Exhaust Port Pressure
Mean Effective Pressure(MEP)
Engine Air-flow and Ram-Air Effect
Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
Above are listed factors as Performance Parameters. The above listed factors are the
variables which affects the performance characteristics of an engine. These variables are
measured by analytical means of Engine Simulation. It is convenient to describe the
variation of some of these factors by crank angle interval over the whole cycle of
operation at specified RPM.
13
2.6
ENGINE COMPONENTS
Engine Block: Body of engine containing the cylinders made of cast iron or aluminum.
In many older engines the valves and the valve ports were contained in the block. The
block of water cooled engines includes a water jacket cast around the cylinders. On air
cooled engines the exterior surface of the block has cooling fins.
Engine Head: The piece that closes the end of cylinders, usually containing part of the
clearance volume of the combustion chamber. The head is usually cast iron or aluminum,
and bolts to the engine block. The head contains spark plug in the SI engines, and the fuel
injectors are CI engines and some SI engines. Most modern engines have the valves in the
head.
Oil sump: Reservoir for the oil system of the engine, commonly part of the crankcase.
Some automobile engines with overhead crankshafts have a secondary oil sump in the
engine head to supply the cam and valve mechanism. Some engines have a separate
closed reservoir called a dry sump.
Water jacket: System of liquid flow passages surrounding the cylinders usually
constructed as part of engine block and head. Engine coolant flows through the water
jacket and keeps the cylinder walls from overheating. The coolant is usually a water
ethylene glycol mixture.
Valves: Used to allow flow into and out (Intake/Exhaust) of the cylinder at the proper
time in the cycle. Most engines used poppet valves which are spring loaded closed, and
[pushed open by camshaft action. Rotary valves and sleeve valves are sometimes used but
are much less common. Many two stroke cycle engines have ports (slots) in the side of
cylinder walls instead of mechanical valves.
Piston: The cylindrically shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder
transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber rotating the crankshaft.
Connecting rod: Linkage connecting piston with rotating crankshaft usually made of
steel alloy forging or aluminum.
Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential groups around the piston and form a
sliding surface against the cylinder walls. Near the top of the piston are usually two or
more compression rings made with highly polished surfaces. The purpose of the rings is
to form a seal between the piston and cylinder walls and to restrict the high pressure gases
in the combustion chamber from leaking pass the piston into the crank case. Below the
compression rings on the piston is at least one oil ring, which assists in lubricating the
cylinder walls and scrapes away excess oil to reduce oil consumption.
Cylinders: The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons reciprocate
back and forth. The walls of the cylinder have highly polished hard surfaces.
14
Crankcase: Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating crankshaft in many engines
the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing. In some high performance engines the
crankcase is designed with windows between the piston bays to allow free airflow
between bays. This is to reduce air pressure build up on the backside of the pistons during
power and intake strokes.
Crankshaft: Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external
systems. The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the main bearings. It is
rotated by the reciprocating pistons through connecting rods connected to the crankshaft,
offset from the axis of rotation.
Flywheel: Rotating mass with large moment of inertia connected to the crankshaft of the
engine. The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish a large angular
momentum that keeps the engine rotating between power strokes and smoothes out
engine operation.
Camshaft: Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the engine cycle
either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms, and
tappets). Most modern automobile engines have one or more camshafts mounted in the
engine head (Overhead cam).
Carburetor: Venturi flow device that meters the proper amount of fuel into the air flow
by means of pressure differential. For many decades it was the basic fuel metering system
on all automobile (and other) engines. It is still used on low cost small engines like lawn
mowers but is uncommon on new automobiles.
Spark plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by creating a
high voltage discharge spark across an electrode gap. Spark plug is usually made of metal
surrounded with ceramic insulation. Some modern spark plug has built-in pressure
sensors that supply one of the inputs into engine control.
Fuel Injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming Air on SI engines
or into the cylinder on CI engines. On SI engines, fuel injectors are located at the intake
valve ports on multipoint port injection systems, upstream at the intake manifold inlet on
throttle body injection systems and in the combustion chambers in the direct injection
systems.
Glow plug: Small electrical heater resistance mounted inside the combustion chamber of
many CI engines, used to preheat the chamber so that combustion will occur when first
starting a cold engine. The glow plug is turned off after the engine is started.
Intake Manifold: Piping systems that carries Air/Fuel mixture into the engine cylinders,
usually made of cast iron/Aluminum.
Exhaust Manifold: Piping systems that carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron.
15
2.7
The following terms and abbreviations are commonly used in engine technology literature
and are used throughout the world.
Top-Dead-Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away
from the crankshaft. Top because this position is at the top of most engines (not always)
and dead because the piston stops at this point. When the piston is at TDC, the volume in
the cylinder is a minimum called the clearance volume.
Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to
the crankshaft. Some sources call this Crank-End-Dead-Center (CEDC) because it is not
always at the bottom of the engine.
Direct Injection: Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine.
Indirect injection: Engines either have one main combustion chamber (open chamber) or
a divided combustion chamber made up of a main chamber and a smaller connected
secondary chamber. Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine with a
divided combustion chamber.
Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI): Spark ignition engine with fuel injectors mounted in
combustion chambers. Gasoline fuel is injected directly into cylinders during
compression stroke.
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI): Compression-Ignition engine
operating with a homogeneous air/fuel charge instead of the diffusion combustion
mixture normally used in CI engines.
Wide- Open throttle (WOT): Engine operated with throttle valve fully open when
maximum power and/or speed is desired.
Ignition Delay (ID): Time interval between ignition initiation and the actual start of
combustion.
Air Fuel Ratio: Ratio of mass air to mass of fuel input into engine.
Fuel-Air ratio: Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.
Overhead Valve (OHV): Valves mounted in engine head.
Overhead Cam (OHC): Camshaft mounted in engine head, giving more direct control of
valves which are also mounted in engine head.
17
Computer simulation has become a key part of the automotive development process.
Simulation is used in many contexts, such as simulation of technology for performance
optimization, safety engineering, testing, training, education, and video games. Often,
computer experiments are used to study simulation models. Simulation is also used with
scientific modeling of natural systems or human systems to gain insight into their
functioning. It can be used to show the eventual real effects of alternative conditions and
courses of action.
Engine Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-engine process or system
over time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be developed; this
model represents the key characteristics and functions of the selected physical system or
process. The model represents the system itself, whereas the simulation represents the
operation of the system over time. Major issues in simulation include acquisition of valid
source information about the relevant selection of key characteristics and behaviors, the
use of simplifying approximations and assumptions within the simulation, and fidelity
and validity of the simulation outcomes.
In this chapter of Intro to Modeling and Simulation, some important aspects of simulation
software and their requirement and modeling are necessary to discuss before writing
about the project work. This chapter includes:
Engine simulation by means of more or less detailed models is a crucial aid in the design
of the control system and of the subsystems: on the one hand, it avoids part of the
experimentation and reduces design costs and times, on the other it makes it possible to
perform a detailed analysis and to characterize the phenomena taking place inside the
engine.
3.1
Now days, a variety of 1D engine simulation softwares is playing a vital role in making
the engine optimization good and more advanced. With several modeling and simulation
features, these softwares help us to develop different engineering methods and techniques
to improve the engine performance, fuel consumption, polluted exhaust reduction and
many other different required parameters.
18
Following are some details of widely used engine simulation softwares industrially and
academically:
GT POWER:
GT-Power is software developed by Gamma Technologies that can simulate an entire
internal combustion engine. The software is used by almost all major car and truck
companies including Volvo Car Corporation, General Motors, etc. The software can
simulate all the parts of the engine and also be coupled with external software programs
to study specific parts as well whole power train modeling
WAVE:
WAVE is the market-leading ISO approved 1D engine and gas dynamics simulation
software package from Ricardo Software. It is used worldwide in industry sectors
including passenger car, motorcycle, truck, locomotive, motor sport, marine and power
generation. WAVE enables performance simulations to be carried out based on virtually
any intake, combustion and exhaust system configuration, and includes a drive train
model to allow complete vehicle simulation.
DYNOMATION-5:
Dynomation-5 can calculate pressure waves and mass flow in cylinders and engine
passages. Dynomation-5 will accurately display how much power an engine will produce,
but it will also show you why it makes that power and where you should put your efforts
to optimize performance.
LOTUS ENGINE SIMULATION:
Lotus Engine Simulation is a modeling environment for predicting the steady-state
or transient performance of both 2- or 4-stroke engines. It combines models for
unsteady gas flow in manifold components with those characterizing the combustion
process and features an intuitive user interface that allows engine models to be built
and checked rapidly. The built-in post processing tools allow engineers to gain valuable
insights into the performance of their engines.
AVL BOOST:
AVL BOOST is an advanced and fully integrated Virtual Engine Simulation Tool with
advanced models for accurately predicting engine performance, acoustics and the
effectiveness of exhaust gas after treatment devices. It supports engine development such
that for a given vehicle concept, the required torque and power can be delivered in
combination with optimized emissions, fuel consumption and passenger comfort
(acoustics and transient behavior).
19
3.2
The 1D equations used in solving the problem are: the first equation ensures the
conservation of mass Related to the mass equation is the conservation of momentum
relationship. From these two equations the trapped air and residuals masses can be found.
The equations are also used to determine the fuel dynamics and mass flow rates. GTPower also uses Equation which ensures that energy is conserved. Using these equations,
the heat transfer from a volume to the walls or another volume can be determined.
20
Continuity:
Energy:
=
=
Enthalpy:
Momentum:
| |
)
-
| |)
21
3.3
INTRODUCTION TO GT SUITE
GT-SUITE, which contains GT-POWER, is a single software package CAE tool for
modeling and simulation of systems in automotive and transportation engineering and
beyond. It is based on a multi-physics platform, but offers higher-level, added-value
toolboxes for various types of vehicle applications.
3.3.1 GT-Suite Modeling:
GT-SUITE features an object-based code design that provides a powerful model building
facility and reduces user effort. Models are built by a highly versatile graphical user
interface, GT-ISE (Integrated Simulation Environment), common to all applications
which simplifies the task of managing object libraries and building, editing, executing and
post-processing models. GT-ISE minimizes the amount of input data entry, as only
unique geometrical elements must be defined. Models are built by this point-and click
GUI from a library of GTI-supplied or user-defined reusable objects.
3.3.2 GT-SUITE Applications:
GT suite is specifically tailored to a continually broadening set of applications:
22
23
3.4
INTRODUCTION TO GT-POWER
24
The All aspects of the engine in the schematic and modeled figure shown above and more
can be modeled. By being comprehensive, the code is well suited for integration of all
aspects arising in engine and vehicle development. The programs main parts are the
different pipes and flow splits that are used to build up the geometry. For the more
specialized parts (e.g. cylinders, turbochargers, after-treatment devices, etc.) the program
uses models and tables to calculate the values needed (e.g. pressure, heat release, mass
flow, efficiency, etc.).
3.4.1 GT-POWER Performance output:
For engine performance analysis, providing the breadth of features required to allow the
engineer to analyze a number of engine configurations and performance characteristics,
including:
Torque and power curves, airflow, vol. efficiency, fuel consumption, emissions.
Steady state or full transient analysis, under any driving scenario.
Turbocharged, supercharged, turbocompound, e-boost, pneumatic assist.
SI, DI, HCCI and multi-mode combustion, multi-fuel, and multi-pulse injection.
Infinitely variable valve timing and lift (VVT and VVL).
Acoustic analysis of intake and exhaust systems.
Manifold and cylinder component thermal analysis, with included FE solver.
Controls system modeling, via built-in controls library or Simulink coupling.
25
26
3.5
GT VALVE TRAIN
GT ValveTrain also was use for modeling purpose of valve components. GT Valve can
be used to design valve train system of engine and used to analyze:
GEM 3D
GEM3D is a tool that can be used to build 3D models of flow systems that can be
discretized and made into model files for use with GT-SUITE. It provides the ability to
build the model in a 3D environment so that the full details of the model can be included.
GEM3D can be used to build any flow system that contains only flow components like
pipes, mufflers, manifolds, air boxes, etc.
27
3.7
In broad terms, a model is created using two types of discretization. Firstly, the complete
powertrain system is grouped into general components. These components consist of air
cleaners, valves, piping, valves, fuel injectors, mufflers, intake/exhaust components,
catalytic converters, combustion chambers, and if applicable Turbo charger/Supercharger.
The second aspect is separating each component into multiple control volumes. Each
control volume is bounded by another control volume or wall. By discretizing the system
into sufficiently small volumes, the properties of the fluid in that volume can be assumed
to be constant.
GT-Power is an object oriented program with a logical user interface. To create a model,
components are placed on a worksheet. Components are connected using lines to show
the fluid paths. Several parameters must be entered into each component to specifically
reflect the physical engine. To define these values, a user must double click on the object
and enter the required values in a graphic user interface window.
3.7.1 Engine layout:
A typical engine in GT Power is modeled using 'EngCylinder' and 'EngineCrankTrain'
component objects and 'ValveConn' and 'EngCylConn' connection objects. 'EngCylinder'
and 'EngineCrankTrain' are used to define the basic geometry and characteristics of the
engine. Both objects refer to several reference objects for more detailed modeling
information on aspects such as combustion and heat transfer. Cylinders must be
connected to the engine with 'EngCylConn' parts made from the predefined object "ign",
which is available in the template library. While 'EngCylConn' parts have no user-defined
attributes, the global cylinder number (used for firing order, etc.) for each cylinder is
assigned by the port number where the 'EngCylConn' connection is attached to the
engine. Cylinders are connected to intake and exhaust ports with 'ValveConn'
connections. Many 'ValveConn' connection templates are available to define different
types of valves and their characteristics.
28
29
30
3.8
A tutorial data of given multi cylinder engine was modeled by team members for
learning, and getting to know different intake/exhaust system conditions and their parts
like plenum, orifices, etc.
The Engine
The engine is a 4-stroke, 4 cylinder, 2.0L engine. There are four valves per cylinder and
fuel is injected into the intake port. The engine runs in "speed" mode, where the engine
speed is entered by the user and the engine torque is calculated. Combustion is modeled
by the SI Wiebe method, in-cylinder heat transfer is modeled using the Woschni method.
This simulation will run until it reaches steady-state conditions for four different engine
speeds.
The Intake System
The intake system starts with an ambient 'EndEnvironment' part which is connected to a
smooth "bellmouth" orifice. The orifice has been made effectively smooth by setting the
forward and reverse discharge coefficients to "1". Downstream in intake is a pipe and a
flowsplit representing an air box. The pressure loss from the filter is usually small
compared to the loss from the large expansion and contraction at the inlet and outlet of
the air box and can be ignored. However, three dimensional effects can contribute
pressure loss and an orifice placed between the pipe and flow-split can be used to
calibrate pressure losses in the intake system. The discharge coefficient or diameter can
be reduced from the default values to make this calibrate if required according to manual
of GT Power.
A throttle exists downstream from the air cleaner. This throttle has been made to match
the characteristics of many common throttles, where the change in discharge coefficient is
large at low throttle angles, but then levels off at higher throttle angles.
The log plenum of the intake manifold (located after the throttle) has been modeled using
seven parts. Four parts are made from 'FsplitTRight' templates to model the branches to
the runners and three parts are made from pipe templates to accurately model the volumes
between the flowsplits. The orifices connecting the plenum to the runners have the
forward discharge coefficients set to 0.95 to model the rounded transition between the
plenum and the runners.
The runners are modeled in a straight-forward manner. However, the intake ports are
modeled differently. The wall temperature, heat transfer multiplier and friction multiplier
have been set default.
31
The material for default surface roughness of all pipes except the ports in the intake
system is smooth plastic. In addition, the wall temperatures are set to a constant 300K and
heat conduction objects are not used. This is a reasonable assumption since the
temperature of the air at the inlet is the same as the ambient air outside the system and no
heat has been added.
The Exhaust System
The exhaust ports are modeled using the recommendations for wall temperature. The
orifices that connect the exhaust ports to the runners do not allow heat to be conducted
between the pipe walls of the adjacent parts. This is necessary because the wall
temperature is solved for in the exhaust pipes.
The exhaust manifold is modeled as cast iron as it is important to account for pressure due
to surface roughness. The ambient temperature used for the heat conduction object. Note
that the surface roughness is important because of its influence on the predicted heat
transfer coefficient in the pipes. The initial state is also different from ambient conditions.
Another pipe connects to the muffler subassembly. The muffler is modeled with multiple
pipes and flow-splits created using the Muffler template that comes with GT-ISE. The
subassembly can be viewed by switching to the "Muffler" folder. The initial state in the
muffler is different than the initial state in the exhaust manifold since most of the pressure
drop is in the muffler.. The "outlet reversing" option in the EndEnvironment is used since
this is a hot outlet.
The figure of tutorial modeled four cylinder engine is given in the appendix Error!
Reference source not found.
3.9
A list of information that is needed to build a typical standard engine model is included
below. Not every item will be needed for all models, and sometimes additional
information will be needed, but the list is generally a good starting point. If the model is
being built at an early design stage, determining optimal values for some of the items
listed may be the purpose of the simulation. If this is the case, those particular attributes
should be defined as parameters and run for a series of cases to determine an optimal
value.
Engine Characteristics: compression ratio, firing order, inline or V configuration, Vangle (optional), 2 or 4 stroke
Cylinder Geometry: bore, stroke, connecting rod length, pin offset, piston TDC
clearance height, head bowl geometry (DI only), piston area, and head area (for heat
transfer mode)
32
Intake and Exhaust System: geometry of all components such as manifolds, runners,
ports, catalyst, tailpipe, and mufflers. Needed information includes lengths, internal
diameters, volumes, and configurations. Optional information on head loss coefficients
and/or discharge coefficients may also be used if available.
Throttles: throttle location and discharge coefficients versus throttle angle in both flow
directions. (If studies are being performed at only wide-open throttle, this information is
not needed.)
Fuel Injectors: location and number of injectors; number of nozzle holes and nozzle
diameter (DI only); injection rate (DI only); fuel to air ratio (SI only); fuel type and LHV
Intake and Exhaust Valves: valve diameter, lift profile, discharge coefficients (both
directions), valve lash, swirl coefficient (optional), tumble coefficient (optional)
Turbochargers (optional): turbine and compressor maps; turbocharger inertia (transient
simulations only); turbo performance at several engine operating points (PR, rpm, turbine
inlet temperature)
Ambient State: pressure, temperature, and humidity
33
This is an empirically derived model that states the total engine friction is a function of
peak cylinder pressure, mean piston speed, and mean piston speed squared. There are
recommended values in the Reference Manual that are suitable for approximating the
friction of a typical engine. However, if laboratory measurements of the engine friction
have been made, they can be used to improve the values specified for the Chen-Flynn
model.
There are two common methods of measuring the friction:
34
WoschniGT indicates that the in-cylinder heat transfer will be calculated by a formula
which closely emulates the classical Woschni correlation without swirl (as described in
Section 12.4.3 of "Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals" by John B. Heywood).
The most important difference lies in the treatment of heat transfer coefficients during the
period when the valves are open, where the heat transfer is increased by inflow velocities
through the intake valves and also by backflow through the exhaust valves. This option is
recommended when measured swirl data is not available.
3.10.3 Combustion Models:
The proper treatment of combustion within an engine model is critical to achieve a well
calibrated model that is appropriate for the simulation task at hand. To properly discuss
the handling of combustion in GTPOWER it is necessary to define some of the
terminology used:
Combustion: In GT-POWER, combustion refers to the transfer of a defined amount
of unburned fuel mass and air along with the associated enthalpy from an unburned
zone to a burned zone in the cylinder, the release of the chemical energy in the fuelair mixture and the calculation of species and concentrations that result.
Burn Rate: The instantaneous rate of fuel consumption within the cylinder
combustion process. In a GT-POWER simulation, this is the rate at which fuel and air
molecules are transferred to the burned zone from the unburned zone and begin to
participate in the chemical reactions (although they do not necessarily burn
completely to the final products of combustion). In GT-POWER, the combustion rate
is controlled by the burn rate. This burn rate input may either be imposed or predicted,
depending on the combustion model selected.
Predictive Combustion: A combustion model where the burn rate is predicted from
the appropriate inputs (pressure, temperature, equivalence ratio, residual fraction, etc.)
and then applied in the simulation.
Non-Predictive Combustion: A combustion model where the burn rate is directly
imposed as a simulation input. With a non-predictive combustion model, the burn rate
does not depend on variables such as residual fraction or cylinder pressure. The fuel
and air will simply burn at the prescribed rate.
Two-Zone Combustion: A combustion model with two distinct zones unburned
and burned. All combustion models in GT-POWER are two-zone except for the
predictive diesel combustion model ('EngCylCombDIJet'). The two zones are
normally modeled with a separate temperature for each zone, but can optionally be
specified to have the same temperature.
35
36
37
4
4.1
When there is a need to make anything or to perform a task, specially an engineering task,
which has never been done before than there is a risk that the strategy and time consumed
may or may not produce the desired result or output. Therefore it is preferable to first
perform it on a lower scale which can satisfy the work which needs to be done and also
set a standard, a reference line, it is called Benchmark.
In this chapter of Benchmark Engine modeling following will be discussed, as part of
benchmarking work:
What is Benchmark
Foreign university project engine report
Modeling the report mentioned engine
Studying the required data
Simulating, comparing and calibrating results with Dynamo results
Testing performance
Accuracy of process
Deficiencies in the designed process
Capability of the process
Identify problem areas
Improvement margin
Time estimation
4.2
OBJECTIVES OF BENCHMARKING:
The objective of this project is to perform an engine simulation of Hydra Research Engine
(a single cylinder 4-stroke SI engine). The simulation software which is being utilized is
GT POWER. We have never learnt any engine modeling and simulation software before
and now for our project it is the basic requirement to learn the engine simulation software
and its methods, capabilities and techniques are required to fulfill our project requirement.
We have learned the GT POWER under supervision of Project Advisor and using
tutorials, documentation and different examples. Now there is a need to verify that the
engine modeling and simulation techniques which we have learned by ourselves are either
correct or wrong? And what steps we should adopt to minimize the errors.
4.3
REPORT SEARCHING
In order to perform a benchmark, past project report of any engine testing report was
required. The main source of search was internet. The report must contain the
dynamometer results as well as the entire engine data required to perform the simulation
for that particular engine.
Then after coordination with Dr. Mario (Professor at University of Malta, Europe),
contacted by email referenced from academic site with their field of interest as Engines,
the professor provided his past project data of Honda F4i 600cc, 4cylinder engine and all
dynamometer readings and engine specifications but unfortunately the manifolds data
was missing. This provided project report was of 4 cylinder engine and the engine which
requires more data than a single cylinder engine, of which we intended to perform
benchmarking modeling and simulation, another reason of performing benchmark of
known single cylinder engine project report is to get the advanced input data required to
do the modeling of single cylinder, so it would be better to search a report of single
cylinder engine to make a reference for benchmark.
After intense searching and contacting different foreign students we found a simulation
report of single cylinder KTM SF-X 450cc engine on website of Lule Universitys,
Sweden. This report contained all engine specifications and some simulated and
dynamometer results that were required to perform a benchmark.
4.4
Motorsport owns two KTM SX-F engines, which were to be used for testing on the
dynamometer and one which were optimized with respect to the test results and were
installed in the race car as per the report. The simulation software that was utilized is 1-D
engine and gas dynamics simulation software Ricardo WAVE. The software can be used
throughout the entire engine design process, from early concept design to optimizing a
complete engine.
4.4.1 Data Required for GT Power Simulation:
In GT-POWER there is a list of data which is required for the engine simulation.
Fortunately almost all the data was available in the KTM engines report. Following are
the engine specification data:
INTAKE AND EXHAUST VALVE DATA:
PARAMETERS
Valve Lash (inch)
Valve Lift (mm)
Lobe Center
VO (valve open)
VC (valve close)
INTAKE
0.006
11.84
104.5
17.5BTDC
46.5ABDC
EXHAUST
0.008
10.67
105.25
42BBDC
10ATDC
Information obtained from above data will be used in the modeling of the engine. The
engine modeling in GT POWER is a continuous systematic process, in which we start the
model with an inlet environment. This environment would be considered as a separate
component, similarly step by step we continue to add the components and connect them
with each other according to the engine design till the end environment or exhaust
environment.
41
Modeling of an engine or virtually creating a real life problem requires many of the
attributes, parameters, conditions, characteristics, properties, geometries. Same goes for
this model. So most of data which are fed into the model is explained in Chapter Three
and other components which have been used and there reason to use will be combined
explained with modeling of Ricardo Engine in Chapter Six.
Most of the geometrical data for this engine may not be included into report as extra
details, instead reference is made to the original report. As it may of no use for the project
concerned but some operating data or parameters used are included.
Each component is defined using the available data and their brief label and detailing.
Following are some views of engine model which we have established using GT
POWER.
43
Intake Runner leading to Flow Split is also a flow pipe component with
defined material properties and attributes provided for simulation
Injector:
44
In this model a Fsplit Sphere component is used to separate A/F ratio mixture into
two intake ports into the engine as physically casted into the real engine in sphere type.
Intake Ports:
Same cylindrical pipes used to model iron casted material to transport A/F
mixture into Engine.
Intake Valves:
4.6
After the completion of engine model, the next step is to define the case setup. So to
generate desired results on specific conditions.
In Lule Universitys report they performed the Dynamometer run where they have
measured the parameters like power, torque and BSFC for following conditions:
SIMULATION RESULTS:
After running simulation, the results were generated using GT POST. In the results
detail, 3 basic engine performance parameters have been plotted against RPM. The
results graphs show the comparison between the dynamometer results which were
obtained from Lule Universitys simulation report and the simulation outcome of our GT
POWER engine model.
In first run of simulations, in Brake Power versus Engine Speed graph, in this graph it can
clearly be seen as simulated result line (Blue line) is highly deviated at high engine
speeds as compared to Dynamometer graph (Red line graph). Due to which model had to
be calibrated to come near the dynamometer observed values, which may will lead to
better future simulations without needing to run dynamometer for the specific engine for
any type like optimizing etc.
So the model was again calibrated and troubleshot, where it was found out that:
o There were wrong values of Chyn- Flynn Friction Model were entered. Then
model was again simulated and following Brake Power and Brake Torque graphs
were generated.
o Intake and Exhaust Port discharge Co-efficient was set to calculate automatically,
where it was needed to set it to 0 as these losses like Pressure losses are already
combine included into L/D Discharge flow co-efficient of valve components.
47
48
49
The Autotest IV controlled Hydra research test bed is engine performance test bench
fulfilling the requirement for a robust and effective means of testing single cylinder
research engines representative of modern automobile and light commercial vehicle
engines. The Autotest IV control system enables application programs to be constructed
that can run the engine automatically at specific operating conditions to suit the test
requirements, log data as required and safely maintain the engine within pre-set parameter
limits. The test bed can cater for all different types of engine either gasoline or diesel.
50
5.1
INTRODUCTION
Hydra Engine Test Bench is part of our Automotive departments Engine, Combustion
and Emission lab equipment for various practical and research purposes. This test bench
will be used for our project for experimental analysis in part of verifying the Simulation
results. Simulation engine model will be of Ricardo 450cc engine installed in this test
bench.
In this chapter of Hydra Engine Test Bench, following will be discussed, as part of
experimental work:
5.2
by
the
big
engine
The Ricardo engine can be built in either diesel or gasoline form by changing the upper
engine components, in either case the same crankcase/crankshaft/flywheel assembly is
retained. The crankshaft, identical in the gasoline and diesel engines, is machined from
nitriding steel bar, hardened and ground. Two integral balance weights give full rotational
balance. The crankshaft bearings are of the lead bronze plated type, the main bearings are
bushes and the big-end has two half shells. The crankcase is of heavy cast iron
construction with removable side panels and incorporates 2 x 1 kW oil heaters. The
flywheel is of the forged steel disc type incorporating a drive spigot and is machined on
its perimeter to form three tracks of slots for pulse signals as follows:
a)
b)
Ignition timing - I pulse - for use with the gasoline engine, 70 BEFORE TDC.
c)
solid skirt, two compression rings and one oil control ring. The piston pin is of fully
floating design. The cylinder is a cast iron barrel with centrifugal cast iron wet liner.
The Air Inlet System:
The standard gasoline inlet system consists of throttle body assembly with servo motor
controlled throttle, plenum chamber, and inlet manifold with fuel injector. The position of
the throttle butterfly is remotely controlled by Autotest IV via the servo module in the
instrumentation rack. The thermocouple signal for Air temperature is passed to Autotest
IV via the isothermal plane. A pressure tapping in the plenum chamber is connected to a
pressure transducer in the instrument boom
The Ignition System:
The gasoline engine ignition system is a conventional coil and spark plug arrangement
with the primary coil circuit operated by a "Lumenition" electronic ignition unit. Signals
from the flywheel pick-ups are processed by the electronic system which enables Autotest
IV control of the ignition timing or from the control console under manual status and
provides the ignition trigger signal at the appropriate time.
The Fuel Injection System:
The fuel conditioning module supplies fuel to the engine via pipework incorporating
temperature and pressure measurement tapings. In this system the fuel conditioning
module feeds fuel in a loop circuit to the solenoid operated injector. Excess fuel returns to
the fuel conditioning module which controls the fuel pressure at the injector to 2 bars. The
injector opening point is sensed from the camshaft. The fuel quantity delivered per engine
cycle is determined by the opening period of the injector.
5.2.2 Standard Diesel Engine
The Ricardo Standard Hydra diesel engines have an overhead camshaft in an aluminum
alloy cambox, operating vertical valves housed in a cast iron cylinder head. The engines
utilize a Comet Mk V pre-chamber for the IDI engine, and a toroidal bowl in the piston
for the DI engine. The valves are operated through inverted bucket type tappets with
pallets between the valve and tappet to set the tappet clearance. The camshaft is driven
from the crankshaft by a two-point belt drive with an adjustable jockey tensioner, (i.e. in
the same way as on the gasoline engine). The Bosch VE rotary fuel injection pump is
flange mounted with the facility to vary the timing of the injection whilst the engine is
running. The piston has a solid skirt, two compression rings, and one oil control ring, and
is cooled from below by an oil jet supplied from the lubrication system. The piston pin is
of fully floating design. The cylinder is a cast iron barrel with centrifugal cast iron wet
liner.
52
53
54
0 - 100 Nm
SPEED
0 - 10000 rpm
DYNAMOMETER
is that they are expensive (compared to inertial type) and they are more complex. These
dynos also need regular calibration of a load cell if they actually use one.
5.4.3 Types of Dynamometers based on Working
Eddy current or electromagnetic brake
Magnetic powder brake
Electric motor/generator
Fan brake
Hydraulic brake
Mechanical friction brake
Water brake
Features of the listed dynamometers are mentioned here:
Features
Water Brake
Eddy
Current
Motoring Ability
No
No
Yes
Yes
Excellent
DC
AC
Control Stability
Low
Good
Very
Good
Speed Capability
High
High
Moderate
High
No
No
Yes
Yes
Control Response
Slow
Moderate Fast
Fastest
Cooling Requirements
High
High
Low
Low
Electrical Requirements
None
Low
High
High
Technology
Old
Old
Old
New
Power Range
High
High
Moderate
Moderate
57
5.5
A computer controlled system is provided with the test bench to control several inlets,
exhaust, engine, cooling system, and other auxiliary systems attributes, conditions on
demand. Computer system is interfaced with Hydra systems hardware using aid of
software provided by name of AutoTest.
5.6
To model an engine of engine simulation software it requires huge amount of data which
needs to be fed into it for accurate results and make a fine model. The majority of data
have been manually measured or few of it provided by technical manual by source of
long correspondence from Ricardo the manufacturer of engine, which is installed in
Hydra Test bench setup.
For modeling purpose their needs three types of data:
Geometric Data
Operating Data
And Environment data
For Geometric data of engine, inlet and exhaust system, which were not provided and had
to be found and how it was measured is described here.
5.6.1 Inlet/Exhaust System Measurement
Geometric data such as Inner Dia, outer dia, length, shape, material of following:
Air Filter, Air box, Air heater runners, plenum runner, Exhaust pipes
Using Vernier caliper, measuring tape and scale. Figures of dis-assembled components
are mentioned below:
60
Whole shape, inside diameter, length, material of Air Heater box, Plenum, throttle
diameter, thickness is also measured for the purpose of developing an accurate model
which accounts for fluid motion in these flow components.
61
Another important geometry is of the Flow splits, intake and exhaust ports their length,
inner diameters, angle of separation and shape.
62
Operating condition values and there reason will be defined while in modeling chapter.
Some of the values in table below were provided and some were verified or measured
which were required to make the engine model.
Some important Engine specification and attributes compiled by us into Table is given
below:
Engine Manufacturer
Build
Cams shaft
Compression Ratio
Combustion Chamber
Swept volume
Max Speed
Bore
Stroke
Clearance Volume
Bore Area
Connecting Rod length
TDC clearance height
Wrist Pin to crank offset
Inlet Valve Opening (IVO)
Inlet Valve Closing (IVC)
Inlet Peak
Peak valve lift (mm) In
Valve lash or Tappet Clearance
Valves Head Diameter (mm)
Exhaust Valve Opening (EVO)
Exhaust Valve Closing (EVC)
Exhaust Peak
Peak valve lift (mm) Ex
Valve lash or Tappet Clearance
Valves Head Diameter (mm)
Throttle Diameter
Throttle Pin Thickness
Ricardo
4 valve Gasoline Engine
DOHC
9:1
Cross Flow, Bath Tub
0.44976 L
6000 RPM
80.26mm
88.90mm
56.22 cc
5059.27mm2
158mm
1.2mm
0mm
10 BTDC
48 ABDC
109.25 ATDC
9.56mm (Including lash)
0.45mm
31.45mm + 0.2mm
48 BBDC
10 ATDC
109 BTDC
9.56mm (Including lash)
0.45mm
26.45m + 0.2mm
40mm
7mm
The Ricardo engine manual chart, geometric dimensions of its system and geometries,
profile tabular data are given in appendices.
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6
6.1
Fuel is the basic energy source of the engine and the combination of fuel with air in the
engines combustion chamber plays a vital role in driving the engines. The air fuel
combination or air fuel ratio affects the engine performance as well as the
emissions/exhaust gases. In case of internal combustion engines, gasoline and diesel are
used, which are blends of different hydrocarbon compounds. Measuring fuel flow into the
engine cylinder is an important factor for performance testing.
For the practical testing of Hydra engine test bench, fuel flow measurement is required
for performance curves calculations as its own meter is malfunctioning. This task is
considered as the preparation and setting up the test bench for engine testing.
In this chapter of Fuel flow meter development following will be discussed for the fuel
flow development, calculations for testing purposes.
A/F mixture combustion
Fuel flow theoretical calculations for specified test cases
Fuel flow meter consideration and selection
Fluid flow level measurement technique
Hardware calculations and development
Working
6.2
STOICHIOMETRIC COMBUSTION
All internal combustion engines depend on combustion of a chemical fuel, typically with
oxygen from the air. The combustion process typically results in the production of a great
quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other
chemicals at very high temperature. Most common modern fuels are made up of
hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Internal combustion
engines require ignition of the mixture, either by spark ignition (SI) or compression
ignition (CI).
Stoichiometric or Theoretical Combustion is the ideal combustion process where fuel is
burned completely. The stoichiometric ratio is the perfect ideal air fuel ratio where the
chemical mixing proportion is correct. When all fuel and air burned is consumed without
any excess left over. If an insufficient amount of air is supplied to the engine, unburned
fuel, smoke, and carbon monoxide exhausts from the engine, resulting in heat transfer
surface fouling, pollution, lower combustion efficiency, flame instability and a low
engine power. Hence it is necessary to run an engine at stoichiometric air fuel ratio for the
better performance.
64
6.3
For comparing practical testing results with simulations following test cases were made:
WOT, Steady State, Rpm ranges: 1200 to 6000 for 9.0 Compression ratio Engine.
Since maximum power and maximum torque can be obtained at stoichiometric A/F
mixture therefore A/F ratio of 14.7(stoichiometric) was taken.
According to the case setup, the theoretical calculations were made for selecting the
suitable fuel flow meter and determining the minimum fuel mass flow at lowest rpm i.e.
1200rpm and highest 6000rpm. Following are the calculations for the minimum and
maximum fuel flow
Minimum Fuel Flow
Data:
Engine Volume = 0.44976 L = 0.00044976m3
Air Fuel Ratio = 16:1 (Taking Lean for less fuel flow per
second)
Lowest RPM of Hydra Runs = 1200 RPM
The density of petrol ranges from = 0.710.77 kg/l
(719.7 kg/m3)
Temperature
(T) in C
Density of
air() in
kgm3
+35
1.1455
+30
1.1644
+25
1.1839
Calculation:
= 20 RPS
For Four Stroke Cycle =
= 10 Cycles/s
= 0.7(approx.)
= 0.2254 g/s
= 0.0002926 L/s
= 50 Cycles/s
= 0.85 (approx)
= 2.42 g/s
= 0.003408 L/s
6.4
The fuel flow meter of hydra test bed engine was not functioning and it was a difficult
task to take fuel flow readings while taking the dynamometer readings. Therefore it was
also difficult to maintain the stoichiometric air fuel ratio while running the hydra engine.
Only air mass flow rate was available, but fuel mass flow rate was also needed in order to
set the stoichiometric air fuel ratio.
6.4.1 Alternate Methods of Fuel flow Measurements
After coordination with Cussons Technology via email, a quotation of 9000 Euro had
been provided for the installation of new fuel flow meter. The amount is quite large which
is not feasible for the department to spend on at the moment. Therefore the search for the
alternate way had to be done.
66
After a thorough search the following three options have come under consideration:
1) Using another low cost fuel flow meter.
2) Using electronic balance for fuel mass flow rate.
3) Develop another low cost measuring method for fuel flow measurement.
Search for another fuel flow meter came in to an end without any success. The reasons
were:
The fuel flow meters which had come under the financial range, were not fulfilled
the requirement of minimum fuel flow measurement of the specified range as in
calculations. Like rotor meters, turbine flow, etc.
The fuel flow meters which were sensitive enough to measure the minimum fuel
flow were too expensive like ultrasonic, thermal based as on net.
Previously some students had used the electronic balance to measure the fuel mass flow
rate. The idea was quite good but the problem was that the least count of the electronic
balance was 1gram and according to the calculations made, the fuel mass flow rate was
0.2254 g/s although for steady state testing the average calculation could done over the
time period but there results of fuel flow (experimental tests done by those) were not
satisfying. These will be pointed out in Practical testing chapter.
As there are lot available pressure sensors in market, using one to directly measure
gasoline pressure in burette was inceptive through a level sensing sensor but thoroughly
reading the data sheet it was found that these sensors work on Air. So another method
uncommonly used is using a dip tube method working on hydrostatic pressure with
keeping in view the low cost.
Using the formula: P =
The dip tube system uses a small tube inserted from the top of the tank that reaches
almost to the bottom of the tank. The dip tube is connected to the pressure sensor or
indicating gauge. The pressures involved are very low, being in the order of a few Pascal.
Dip tubes are used in all sorts of industrial and commercial applications where the liquid
level in some sort of a tank has to be read out in a remote location.
It uses a small amount of compressed air to pressurize the "dip tube", which has been
previously inserted into the tank to near the bottom of the tank. The air pressure is used to
expel the tank liquid in the dip tube. The amount of air pressure developed within the dip
tube is proportional to the level of the liquid in the tank at the bottom end of the dip tube.
By measuring the air pressure in the dip tube with pressure sensor or pressure gauge, the
level of the liquid in the tank can be measured and indicated at a nearby, or a remote
location. It takes more air pressure to blow bubbles out of the end of the dip tube when
the tank is full as compared to when the tank is nearly empty. It is just like blowing
through a soda straw. The more soda in the cup, the harder you have to blow to make the
bubbles come out the end of the straw.
For a fuel tank, be it diesel, or gasoline, air is satisfactory.
68
At industrial level, the fuel tanks are very large and have great heights, hence the pressure
in the tanks is also huge therefore a pressure gauge (dial pressure gauge) can be directly
used. But in case of small fuel tanks and containers, pressure is very low and pressure
gauge cant sense those pressures. Therefore pressure sensors with microcontrollers and
digital displays are used to measure these small pressures instead of pressure gauges.
Regardless of the type of air pressure sensor used, it is important that the sensor
calibration be compatible with the pressure range for the level in the tank/burette. As
previously from fuel consumption calculations 50ml burette would be sufficient for
steady state time duration and being the only available in suitable height. Burette had to
be customized and fabricated accordingly as shown in figure with inclined discharge
nozzle customized above the zero height to avoid any velocity pressure effects on
trapped air in dip tube.
Now for the appropriate range of pressure sensor was to be sort out for the given
conditions.
6.4.3 Pressure Sensor Selection Calculations
According to the minimum and maximum fuel flow rate, there was a need to calculate the
minimum and maximum pressure so that a pressure sensor would be used which fulfill
the required minimum and maximum pressure range for the 50ml burette.
Following calculations had been made for the minimum and maximum pressure against
minimum and maximum fuel flow rate.
Calculations
If taken Burette of 50ml
It has height of approx. 52.5cm from 0 to 50ml
Taking full height from bottom Nozzle to top its 65cm = 0.65m
So max pressure at the bottom will be:
Fuel density = 750kg/m3
g = 9.82 m/s2
P=
* g *h
(Due to temperature difference in Lab, Density difference, height of burette it may exceed
5Kpa)
69
750
750
750
750
750
750
750
750
750
750
Pressure(Pa)
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
4787.25
4419
4050.75
3682.5
3314.25
2946
2577.75
2209.5
1841.25
1473
368.25
368.25
368.25
368.25
368.25
368.25
368.25
368.25
368.25
From the chart it can be seen pressure varies linearly with change in height Column.
So for minimum pressure sensors sensitivity calculations, considering the available
market sensor and its specifications as known characteristics, calculations are down as
following:
70
Sensor Selection:
Calculation
Taking Pressure sensor = 0 10Kpa (max pressure in burette may exceed 5kpa)
Analog sensors are capable of producing least output voltage. The micro-controller has
10-bit Analog-to-Digital converter, meaning that it can represent 0-5v on its input on
scale. So 210 = 1024 > 0 1023 steps.
Voltage output from ADC represents pressure. 5v/1024 = 4.88mV/step. It is least
voltage count. Against voltage least pressure will be fed into microcontroller.
10,000/1024 = 9.765 ~ 9.8 Pa/step or 9.8Pa/4.88mV
microcontroller can count)
P= * g * h => 750 kg/m3 * 9.82 * h = 9.8Pa
h= 0.1331cm
(Minimum reading
The height of the burette which is being used is approximately 52.5cm from 0ml mark to
50ml mark.
Then according to the above calculations, pressure sensor can be calibrated to the least
count of 9.8 Pascal per 0.12676ml of liquid in burette. Means if there will be a change
in volume of 0.1267ml occurs in the burette then the pressure sensor will sense 9.8 Pascal
against it.
71
The change in pressure against fuel column height divided into flow of volume least
count computed is programmed into microcontroller to measure, acquisition the pressure
readings and send output signals to LED display.
For the required pressure range pressure sensor, there various used sensors are available
like gauge, differential sensors. Filtering and narrowing down the search with the known
required specification like Differential, high voltage output and 0-10kPa range. Going
through various data sheet and market survey available pressure sensor with these
configurations were of model:
1) MPX 5010
2) MPX 2010
In second electronic market survey MPX5010 was not available anymore. Which was a
better sensitive model with high output voltage range i.e 0-5V. As in the case of
MPX2010 it has low full scale output range of 0-25mV. So use of voltage amplifier was
required for increasing least count range.
Characteristic
Pressure Range
Supply Voltage
Supply Current
Full Scale Span
Symbol
P
VS
IO
VFSS
Typical
0-10
10
6
25
Units
kPa
Vdc
mAdc
mV
Power Supply
Regulator
Pressure
Sensor
Microcontroller
Voltage
Amplifier
ADC
CPU
Ports
Seven
Segment
Display
LED Display is seven segments Four block LED Display for up to four digits
values.
Circuit is made with external person guidance, thats why not included in chapter but
included in reference, appendices and description is in this chapter.
6.5
74
7
7.1
One of the goals of this project is not only to create a working engine model for
validation but also to document the process of constructing an engine model for future
use. Only a single cylinder model will be discussed throughout, however much of this
information is still applicable to a multi-cylinder engine model.
Although, the modeling and validation have been already perform in Benchmarking but
most of the data was provided. For self-study of methods to perform, modeling hurdles,
theoretical knowledge and its process which needs to be done for advanced learning
regarding computational simulation, and its working and also to provide the working
computational model of it of the departments lab engine test bench for further use for
research and learning purposes.
For developing the Hydra Engine single cylinder model (Actually will be referred to as
Ricardo Engine).
In this chapter of Hydra Engine modeling following will be discussed, as the important
part of the project:
Intro to Ricardo Engine, specification and measured data
Data arrangement and sorting
GT Power model creation
Mapping of components, graphic modeling
Studying the required advanced input data
Setting attributes, setting conditions and scientific reasoning
A model in GT Power is basically made up of:
Components, Connection, and References
Components could be types of pipes, Cylinders, etc. Connections are as by word objects
which are used between the actual components like between pipes for connecting like
Orifices, throttle. etc. References mostly define the Advance input of the material, fluid,
being analyzed and its properties and characteristics. As in engine model the working
fluid is compressible gas or Air/Fuel mixture being analyzed. These three components are
separately available for Flow library tree, Mechanical tree, Control tree, etc. and other
system trees.
As in modeling of the Ricardo engine there are many flow components being used, so
in general the specific components will be defined separately all together and their
attributes which applies to all similar ones. Then later will be briefly defined the reason
to use and any other changes and will be sequentially described leading to the full
model creation.
75
7.2
Although the available Ricardo 450cc engine in Hydra engine test bench is already
documented in chapter five. Here the currently installed engine will be discuss for easy
referencing while explaining the model.
The current installed engine major specs are listed in table below:
Engine Manufacturer
Ricardo
Build
4 valve Gasoline Engine
Cams shaft
DOHC
Compression Ratio
9:1
Combustion Chamber
Cross Flow, Bath Tub
Swept volume
0.44976 L
Bore
80.26mm
Stroke
88.90mm
Table 8 Ricardo Engine specifications installed in hydra
Valve timing diagram made using available Intake/Exhaust valve data
It is an electronic fuel injected with manual variable fuel injection duration; engine is
directly coupled with dynamometer. And its lubrication is done using oil and cooling
using water which is supplied by external power. Valve timing diagram made and shown
above shows the intake and exhaust valve opening and closing time with respect to piston
TDC and BDC position.
Some or little data regarding engine was obtained through extensive correspondence with
the manufacturer while other was measured and compiled.
76
7.3
MODEL SETUP
The engine model is setup by defining some relatively basic inputs and then some more
advanced inputs that require some engine testing. The basic inputs are composed of
engine geometry and boundary conditions. Therefore, all dimensions from the intake and
exhaust ducting, flow components, restrictors, flow controllers must be recorded and fed.
Likewise, manufacturer specifications for internal engine geometry such as bore, stroke,
connector rod length, wrist-pin offset and compression ratio must be input. Initial
conditions such as exhaust temperatures, intake temperatures, and wall temperatures need
to be input as reasonable values. These can be modified to higher accuracy once actual
engine measurements become available.
While modeling all the gathered data such as geometrical data measured is documented in
Appendices, as table and engine data compiled into table in chapter five will be used. And
some of other advanced input will be mentioned here which were assumed, calculated,
taken standard values or referenced from other literature.
As the components from intake > engine > exhaust has to be modeled in flow direction
which are technically referred as from Upstream flow and down stream flow. And parts
geometric data which were quite much amount of data, so for easy 1D modeling in GT
the Uni-graphics NX CAD dimensioned model was created as in picture
7.4
Steel =
Drawn
Equivalent
to
Aluminum
Roughness
(as
on
Cast iron =
81
net)
Most flow components are linked with an OrificeConn connection with an icon
An orifice can be used to specify a flow restriction by setting the orifice diameter to be
smaller than the diameter of the two mating components. If there is no diameter
restriction, default may appear when linking two parts and the code will use the smaller
diameter of the two mating components as the orifice diameter.
Discharge co-efficient can be calculated by default in the software. Orifice can be used
for different purposes or representation as for modeling of the engine and details below.
Air Filter: Most engine systems include an air box / filter assembly in the intake system.
The pressure drop across the filter is usually small relative to the expansion/contraction
pressure losses in pipes and boxes. The influence is low on pressure drop so it can be
model as default orifice connection:
82
Throttle: Throttle in automotive applications is to control the air flow rate by varying the
diameter in pipe using electronic or manually wire actuated butterfly (Plate). The angle of
plate could be from zero degree (fully closed) to 90degree (fully open) also known as
Wide Open throttle (WOT).
For varying angle test conditions it requires discharge coefficient which is often not
available. Therefore, one must consider alternative ways to model the throttle since it is
indeed a relevant component of a typical engine.
As the test is to be conducted on WOT, there is one approach is to use orifice connection.
Set the orifice diameter so that its area equals the area of the wide-open throttle, and set
the discharge coefficients to 1. The equivalent orifice diameter can be found by the
following equation:
Dequivalent =
= 35.26mm Orifice Diameter
We have set WOT in model as we will be only testing on this full load
condition for validation of Hydra engine model.
83
84
But flow splits from this exported 1D model were removed as the Y-split shaped template
was already available in GT Power. Use of flow splits are defined further in next section.
7.4.6 FlowSplits
As from the name this object is used to describe a flowsplit volume connected to one or
more flow components. The solution of the flowsplit is similar to the pipe but used to
calculate solution on the splitting fluid to different connecting components.
These can be used to model expansion and contraction in flow components to accurately
represent fluid motion in boxes, cylinders, manifolds, etc. with two or more channels of
entry and exit.
There are several types of Flow splits which can be learned from the softwares manual.
Here flow splits have been used are:
FSplit General
FSplit Y
FSplit Sphere (Used in Benchmarking model)
Fsplit General is the most adaptable flowsplit, but it also requires more user input to
define. It is suited for the description of irregular domains for which the predefined
flowsplit geometries are not sufficient. The geometry of the flowsplit general is defined
by the following attributes using the example of Plenum component used in Engine
model. Referencing from the CAD picture the labeled E component Plenum is modeled
with following attributes:
Only added attribute while comparing to pipe component is Volume. This is the volume
of the flowsplit, which could be a cylinder, sphere, or any irregular volume which in case
of plenum of cylindrical shape is 0.0015773018m3. And the other added option is
Boundary data. This is used to model inlet and outlet number of ports with defined angle.
Characteristic Length This is the length that the fluid entering a flowsplit may travel
before its path is impeded either by a wall or by the flow boundary at another port. This
length represents the distance traveled by flow and pressure waves across the flow
domain. The characteristic length is typically defined as the user-chosen length of the
flowsplit, ideally the discretization length.
FSplit Y represents a typical Y-shaped junction of three pipes in the same plane. A
common application for this object is to model multi-valve engine intake and exhaust
ports.
87
7.5
FUEL INJECTION
Ricardo engine has an electronically actuated port injection fuel system, with fuel injector
inserted in intake runner. Fuel (or any other fluid) may be injected into flow components
by linking one of the fuel injector components. We will be using the sequential pulse fuel
injector named InjAFSeqConn.
This injector can be used for all engine simulations for which the fuel is pulse injected
with an imposed air-to-fuel ratio. The user imposes the fuel-to-air ratio, and the resultant
injection pulse depends on opening duration of injector for the injection event.
where:
mDelivery = Injector Delivery Rate (g/s) , V = volumetric efficiency (fractional)
ref = reference density used to calculate volumetric efficiency (kg/m3)
NRPM = engine speed (RPM), VD = engine displacement (liters)
F/A = engine fuel-to-air ratio, #CYL = number of cylinders
PulseWidth = injection duration (crank degrees)
Hydra engine test bench was run to get required parameters
88
Inputs
volumetric efficiency
reference density for volef
engine speed
engine displacement
engine fuel-to-air ratio
number of cylinders
injection duration
Units
Values
fraction
kg/m^3
RPM
liters
ratio
n
crank degrees
0.9
1.2
3500
0.449
0.0689
1
238
89
7.6
The Ricardo engine has Double Over Head Camshaft (DOHC) valve train layout (also
known as 'dual overhead camshaft') is characterized by two camshafts located within
the cylinder head, one operating the intake valves and one operating the exhaust valves
with direct-acting mechanical bucket valve train mechanism. The single cylinder engine
consists of two intake valves operated by one camshaft and two exhaust valves operated
by the other.
Taking reference from the measured geometries of port and cam lobe profile from chapter
five and also from the valve timing diagram with the following valves specification we
can compute the required valves lift or displacement against crank/Cam angle.
Valve opening
Valve closing
Peak lift Angle
Peak lift (mm)
Valve lash (mm)
Valve head diameter (mm)
Intake Valves
10 BTDC
48 ABDC
109 ATDC
9.55
0.45
31.45
Exhaust Valves
48 BBDC
10 ATDC
109 BTDC
9.55
0.45
26.45
90
The last three attributes relates to the Cam angle Timing and Lift Array. This value is
used to phase the lift array properly within the engine cycle with valve timings.
Advanced and Scalars: Are used to imposed user conditions and any multipliers.
Lift Array: Its attribute consist of valve lift array and cam timing angle array, which
were computed by following method:
As the GT-Power model requires valve lift/displacement against cam angle to be input in
valve connection component, we used GT suite module of VT Design for getting the
valves follower lift using cam lobe profile and other measurements.
91
92
Flow Arrays: Is also important attribute in valves, which defines the discharge
coefficient for the A/F mixture at certain valves lift. As for this values there needs to be
require Flow Bench test equipment, from it pressure and mass flow rate is measured at
different lifts then these values are used to calculate discharge coefficient using complex
fluid equation. So a report was found with similar valves configuration and their
experimental data was inputted in the flow array. Data was interpolated from the
following graph extracted from the report.
CYLINDER
Cylinder component represents the flow modeling in the cylinder of engine. This object is
used to specify the attributes of engine cylinder which is also an important component of
the model and defines the most of the advanced inputs required like the way of
Combustion, Heat transfer model and fluid composition.
CRANK TRAIN
A mechanical system and last part to place in model which defines the Engine cylinder
Geometry, engine cycle type, engine speed to run, Frictions in the system and the
ignition(firing order) in the cylinder.
94
Finally parts are placed on map as in order of components, rechecked the values, data,
attributes. Parts are linked accordingly keeping in check of connection numbers. Flow
components are arranged to avoid any misplacement. Model as made and linked as the
real engine systems are connected to each other.
It can be seen in model pictures the parts linked, arranged in order and the flow
components path in another picture.
Intake System > Engine > Exhaust System
In the next chapter model case setup will be made as in the practical testing and also for
simulations. What outputs are required, defining the steady state testing, etc. will also be
described in the next chapter.
95
8
8.1
Hydra engine model has been done, as well as validation of software in benchmark
testing and the setting up and preparation of Hydra engine test bench. In this chapter, the
model will be simulated which was created with the compiled data for observational
purpose of performance output and comparing it with real time practical testing on engine
test bench. The test case setup is also prepared and manual calculations are done to check
the simulated output. Previous experiments and fuel performance articles by different
foreign universities are also taken in consideration in this chapter.
In this chapter of Model Simulation and Practical testing following will be discussed as
important part and outcome of the project which includes
Test cases
Model simulation
Practical experiments
Comparison
Model, experimental and past experiments review
Performance result troubleshoot
Manual calculations
8.2
Test cases to run on model in software as well as for practical testing has to be made for
performance result observation mostly for some part validation, some manual calculations
and results study. Several types of operating conditions can be run on the software but
matching it with the practical results is difficult due to certain constraints regarding
experimental runs of the test bench.
So limited case setup has been made for fulfilling the purpose of the project and also
leading to future improvements or further study/research purpose use it as a reference for
the real engine therefore corresponds to how the real engine was being tested on the
dynamometer and in-component analysis
There are numerous parameters that can be used to validate an engine model. Parameters
such as torque output, volumetric efficiency, and air mass flow can all be used to evaluate
overall engine operation. As mentioned, torque and power output was chosen as the
parameter to use for validation due to test equipment limitations.
The following test cases have been made in for software simulation:
98
Simulation run setup defines for how much time the simulation is run and automatic stops
when reach steady state to in minimum time. This setup is Semi-Predictive combustion
model based simulation.
8.3
MODEL SIMULATIONS:
After running simulation and encountering few errors, which had to be fixed by again
simulating several results in the form of graph or tabular data are generated this can be
viewed by GT Post.
In the graph it can be seen the power band of the engine is from 1500rpm to 5500rpm in
the simulation output. Further BSFC graph is shown in next figure graph with economic
operating range of the engine in speed range of 1000rpm to 4000rpm.
100
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENT
To obtain the required experimental results on hydra engine test bench, an experimental
test set up is required to be defined as done in software. It includes all the arrangements
and alterations which have been made in the standard bench. It also includes the operating
conditions and the properties of working elements.
8.4.1 Faults to be considered and Removed
There were several damages and faults present in Hydra Engine test bed, which were
affecting the performance of the Engine in one way or other. Some damages or faults
include:
101
Alterations:
The side cam cover problem was resolved easily by temporary removing it and to stop the
leakage of exhaust gases from exhaust pipes; the leakage portion was sealed by covering
it with RTV silicon solution (but really less effective).
Load cell was not regulated due to lack of calibration, so had to be taken it as backlash
error.
C8H18
14.7 (Actual engine A/F ratio)
0.72Kg/l ~ 0.77Kg/l
87-97 (commonly used)
44,400 KJ/Kg
-43C
280C
102
Normally the density of gasoline is ranged from 0.71-0.77 kg/l. The environmental
conditions such as temperature and atmospheric pressure have great influence on the
density of fluids. The density measurement was carried out by using electronic balance
and measuring burette. The measured density was found to be 0.728 kg/l for the petrol
being used.
103
8.5
All data needed to properly define the engine model should be acquired. Once the model
is validated, the resulting accuracy of the model and the source of error should be
documented which is done here.
Two experimental runs were conducted of Engine test bench, but un-fortunately due to
several problems and lack of time one didnt go well but its documented here.
104
8.6
MANUAL CALCULATIONS/FORMULATION
These calculations are done for self-manual verification purpose as well as use of what
formulations are used in software for deducing the output of simulation results in flow
components, power, etc. It is also shown actual engine energy and efficiency
calculations for estimating if useable data or garbage data acquired over the
dynamometer test run.
Positive Pressure drop across Flow component:
Taking AirRunner1horizontal cylinder component:
> V= 2.341m/s
Re = 14108.18
= Surface roughness/Dia = 0.046e-3/0.0917
= 5.016e-4 (Surface roughness for steel)
Using Friction Factor formula (also called expanded Colebrook equation):
.> f = 0.02896
Using in Pressure drop equation (known as DarcyWeisbach equation):
Where ma = Air mass flow rate, rho = density, Vd = Volume displaced, N= Rps
BMEP (Brake Mean Effective Pressure):
The max BMEP of good engine designs is well established and is essentially constant
over a wide range of engine sizes. Thus it can be compared with others in terms of BMEP
with respect to engine size (Vd) and power generating effectiveness. For NA SI engines
typically 850 ~ 1050 KPa near max power.
For Hydra: BMEP =
LHV = Lower heating Value of fuel (Calorific value) [Petrol = 44,400 KJ/Kg]
Our Experiment: it is found to be @1500Rpm, P =2.6KW, mf=0.23g/s
= 25.46% (and Avg ranging from 19% ~ 35% due to bad values)
In seniors experiment = 41.9% (@1500rpm) ~ 40.1% (@2800rpm) it may be due to faulty
experiments or equipment.
108
9.1
As for the industrial or research purpose, the model is still in a form that could introduced
for engine designing and research as well as modifications. With the availability of the
model, more people would have access to the model and research advancements would be
able to be integrated into the model as they occurred.
109
The current engine models are still not entirely accurate, but that does not outweigh the
benefits that they do provide with increased use and understanding the model will
continue to evolve in capabilities and accuracy.
110
APPENDICES
A. FOUR CYLINDER ENGINE MODEL
111
Injector
Intak Flow
Split
Intak Ports
(2)
Engine
Exhaust
Ports(2)
Exh
FlowSplit
Exh
Runner
Ex Muffler
pipe
Muffler
ExOut
Odi
74
74
74
74
Holes
Dia=74
=142
91.7 91.7
72.5
Dia=190
Ido
_
_
Mat
eria
l
_
Al
Angle
_
_
2.25 Circular
174.75 _
Cylinder
_
Al
_
_
145 _
Cylinder
Pressure
340 Cylinder box
Al
Al
_
Circular
Cylinder
Cylinder
box
_
_
Al
_
_
_
Al
Pipe
Al
120 deg
_
Cast
iron
Cast
iron
_
Branch
20
Thick
ness
Shape
91.2
19.5 Cylinder
61.8 _
Cylinder
_
_
72.5 _
Volume=0.
0096m3
40 _
_
Dia=40
_
_
40
40 _
Volume=0.
Dia=137 00158m3
60 _
Pin Thickness=7
25 _
107 _
23
91 _
Length frm split to
outlet=48.5
50
50
50
330 _
YBranch
Cylinder
_
Cylinder
YBranch
Cast
iron
Cast
iron
_
Branch
14
Pipe
iron
90 deg
_
800 _
770 _
500 _
_
Pipe
Cylinder
iron
_
iron
90 deg
_
_
*Dia = Diameter, Ex=Exhaust, Idi = Flow Inlet Dia inner, Odi=Flow Outlet Dia inner
L= Length, Ido = Flow inlet dia outer
**All values are in mm except mentioned *** Chart is in order of flow components
112
Lobe Cam
Ramp Angle
0.015
40
0.035
41
0.058
42
43
0.08
0.1
44
0.12
45
0.14
46
0.17
47
0.185
48
0.209
49
0.23
50
0.248
51
0.265
52
0.28
53
0.3
54
0.315
55
0.33
56
0.35
57
0.375
58
0.395
59
0.41
60
0.435
61
0.455
62
0.48
63
0.5
64
0.52
65
0.545
66
0.572
67
0.61
68
0.65
69
0.69
70
0.75
71
0.81
72
0.86
73
0.93
74
0.99
75
1.08
76
1.14
77
1.23
78
1.32
79
Lobe Cam
Ramp Angle
1.41
80
1.54
81
1.63
82
1.745
83
1.865
84
1.98
85
2.09
86
2.24
87
2.39
88
2.51
89
2.69
90
2.85
91
3.03
92
3.2
93
3.39
94
3.59
95
3.79
96
4.035
97
4.34
98
4.7
99
5.01
100
5.34
101
5.645
102
5.95
103
6.27
104
6.78
105
7.84
106
8.28
107
8.6
108
8.95
109
9.26
110
9.5
111
9.72
112
9.87
113
9.95
114
10
115
10.01
116
9.99
117
9.93
118
9.8
119
Lobe Cam
Ramp Angle
9.65
120
9.46
121
9.14
122
8.9
123
8.54
124
8.24
125
7.86
126
7.48
127
7.19
128
6.8
129
6.46
130
6.15
131
5.85
132
5.5
133
5.25
134
4.93
135
4.67
136
4.38
137
4.12
138
3.9
139
3.66
140
3.43
141
3.2
142
2.92
143
2.75
144
2.55
145
2.37
146
2.23
147
2.08
148
1.94
149
1.79
150
1.65
151
1.56
152
1.44
153
1.34
154
1.25
1.16
1.05
0.975
0.9
Lobe
Ramp
0.83
0.77
0.72
0.67
0.63
0.59
0.55
0.53
0.5
0.49
0.46
0.45
0.43
0.41
0.39
0.37
0.35
0.33
0.31
0.29
0.27
0.25
0.23
0.21
0.18
0.17
0.14
0.12
0.11
0.09
0.07
0.04
0.03
0.01
0
Lobe displacement measured and started from base circle of Cam lobe w.r.t Cam angle
change, of Hydra Ricardo Engine
113
Power Supply
Voltage amplifier
114
Brake
Torque
[N-m]
7000
20.9
6750
21.3
6500
21.9
6250
23.6
6000
26.2
5750
28.4
5500
30.3
5250
32.1
5000
33.7
4750
35.1
4500
36.3
4250
37.5
4000
38.4
3750
37.3
3500
35.7
3250
32.8
3000
31.4
2750
30.8
2500
33.2
2250
33.5
2000
35.1
1750
37.8
1500
33.8
1250
27.5
1000
34.6
Model results and Exp results are shown. Intake and Exhaust pressure on test bench were
also measured and found to be 101.32 KPa and 101 KPa respectively
115
Ref Report: Lule University of Technology, Engine Simulation Model for a Formula
Another graph is comparing it with Reference (Engine Dyno) with lots of simulation
output to get near the reference line when we have better engine tested data
116
BIBILIOGRAPHY
[1]. Internal combustion engine fundamentals, 2ed, John B Heywood, McGraw Hill Book
company, 1988
[2]. Engine Simulation Model for a Formula SAE race car, Masters Thesis 2012, Ramin
Gilani, Lulea University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and
Mathematics.
[3]. Hydra Research Engine Test Bed Hydra Research Engine Test Bed P8802, Operation
Manual.(Department Catalogue)
[4]. P8802, Ricardo Standard Single Cylinder Hydra Gasoline Engine Data Sheet
(acquired by the correspondence with Ricardo)
[5]. Internal combustion engine handbook, edited by Richard van Basshuysen and Fred
Schafer (e-book)
[6]. One-Dimensional Engine Modeling and Validation Using Ricardo Wave, final report
Sep 2007, National Institute for Advanced Transportation Technology University of
Idaho. Dan Cordon, Charles Dean, Judith Steciak and Steven Beyerlein.
[7]. Simulation Investigation Of In-Cylinder Pressure Characteristic Of Port Injection
Compressed Natural Gas Engine Model. S. SEMIN Department of Marine
Engineering, Institute of Technology Sepuluh Nopember, Surabaya, Indonesia (URL:
http://www.its.ac.id)
[8]. Combustion Data Acquisition and Analysis, 00TTD010: Final Year Project M.Eng.
Automotive Engineering,Benjamin Robert Brown, Lough Borough University
[9]. GT Power Engine simulation manuals (GT POWER Documentations)
117