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Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology, Vol. 9 No. I, January 1978
I. The following corresponds contextually wi.th the trial lecture given by the author on July 27, 1915, to the
Philosophy Faculty of the University of Freiburg in fulfillment of the venia legendi. That form has been
adopted for the essay.
happens only as long as he expects from the investigations Olbjectively new things .for his own
particular scientific field. This, of course, cannot
happen because of the completely new dimension
of the investigations. Consequently the investigations are significant for the researcher in his field,
if and only if, he forgets himself as an individual
and philosophizes.
The establishment of a logical basis for research
methods in each science falls within the realm of
logic as the theory of knowledge. This cannot be
developed in its entirety. Moreover, only a particular category (a logical, fundamental element)the concept of time-is selected and its structure
disclosed. Ultimately a central concept becomes
problematic, its solution must shed light on the
logical totality of the appropriate particular
science. Now the question is how we arrive at the
knowledge of the logical structure of the concept
o.f time in the science of history. When we speak
of a particular logical structure of the concept of
time, we mean that its context is determined in
a unique way by definite ultimate categorical
elements. This relation of the concept "time in
general" and the concept of "historical time" must
be disclosed. The science of history applies the
concept of time accordingly. The structure of the
concept of time in history can be described accordingly from its function in the science of history;
but its unique function can be in turn understood
in terms of the goal of the science of history. The
path we follow in determining the logical characteristics of the concept of time in the science of
history proceeds from the goal of the science of
history via the function of the concept of time to
its structure. In summary the problem can be
formulated in the following way: which structure
must the concept of time in the science of history
possess, to be able to function as the time concept
in the goal of this science? Thus no particular
philosophical theory of the science of history is
preserved nor is there any investigation to determine which structure of the concept of time fits
in the framewort. Instead we accept the science
of history as fact, study the actual function of the
2.
concept of time within and consequently determine its logical structure. I.f we arrive at a solution to the pr01blem, and have recognized the concept of time of the science of history as one of its
central concepts, it should then be possible to
generalize about the logical structure of history
as science.
The peculiarity of the structure of the time
concept in the science of history will now appear
unquestionably clearer when compared to another
structure of time. We shall first, however, characterize the concept of time in the natural sciences
- specifically in physics. Our problem -with
reference to the concept of time- in physics is
relatively the same as the concept of time in the
science of history: what structure must the concept of time in the physical sciences possess to
correspondingly function as the concept of time in
the goal of physics?
I
Now we will clarify the goal of physics as
science. The best way to do this is by identifying
the basic trend of physics. which has appeared
even more clearly in its history from Galileo to
the present.
Medieval thinking was really never quite as removed from empirical concerns as it is oftentimes believed;
they certainly knew how to appreciate experientially derived data or at least the perception of that data;
they were conscious of the value of mathematics for the natural sciences - although not on a clearly
expressed theoretical level - and the nature of experimentation was known; however in all this the missing element was still the real nature of problem formulation in the natiD'al sciences.
parts of acoustics and heat in the field of mechanics, and optics, magnetism and the theory of
radiant heat in the theory of electricity. Today
the number of the numerous fields in physics has
been reduced to two: mechanics and electrodynamics - or as it is sometimes expressed physics of matter and physics of the ether. As
hotly as the battle between the mechanical and
electro-dynamic "Weltanschauung" has raged
the boundary between the two "cannot be permanently sharply differentiated from each other"
- as Planck says.s "Mechanics requires for its
foundation essentially nothing more than the ideas
of space, of time, and that which is moving,
whether one considers this as a sUibstance or a
state. The same ideas are also involved in electrodynamics. A sufficiently generalized conception
of mechanics can therefore also well include
electrodynamics, and, in .fact, there are many
indications pointing toward the ultimate amalgamation of these two subjects, the domains of
which already overlap in some measure.".
Thus the goal of physics as a science is to
express the unity of the physical world, to trace
all phenomena back to the mathematically fixed
laws of a general dynamics, back to the laws of
motion of a still undetermined mass. Now that
we have determined the goal of physics, we posit
a second question: what is the function of the concept of time in this science?
Briefly, the object of physics is motion in accordance with laws. Motion occurs in time. What
does this say then? The "in" time has a spatial
meaning; time, however, has no spatial quality,
in fact, space and time are opposites of one
another. But it is also clear that motion and
time somehow are closely related. At one point
in his Two New Sciences, Galileo speaks of the
"On Naturally Accelerated Motion". "We easily
understand that the closest affinity holds between
time and motion ... , we call movement equable
when in equal times equal spaces are traversed."5
3. Acht Vorlesungen iiber theoretische Physik (Leipzig: Hirzel, 1910), p. 8. [Planck, M., Eight Lectures on
Theoretical Physics, trans. A. P. Willis (New York.: Columbia University Press, 1915) p. 8.]
4. Ibid., p. 9. [Ibid., p. 9.]
'
5. For a discussion and mathematical demonstration of two new branches of knowledge, mechanics and the
laws of gravity ooncerni.ng the 3rd and 4th Day (1638). Translated and edited by A. OettJingen, "Ostwalds
Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften" (Leipzig: Engelmann, 1891), No. 24, p. 7. [Galileo, Two New
Sciences, trans. S. Drake (Madison: Univers~ty of Wisconsin Press, 1974) p. 154.]
So the motion of an object in physics is measured by time. It is the function of time to make
measurement possible. Because motion is always
viewed in physics with respect to measurability,
motion is frequently considered in time .to discover
certain physical knowledge, where time as such
is virtually absent. But as the equations of motion
above indicate, time is a necessary part of the
definition of motion. The necessary interrelationship of motion and time is above all mathematically and physically comprehensible. Since time is
a requirement in any attempt to determine mathematically an object in physics, such as motion, we
are wble to directly answer the ultimate question
concerning the structure of the concept of time.
In the time equations x=x(t), y=y(t), z=z(t),
time is assured to be independently variable in
tha.t it is constantly changing, flowing uniformly
from one point to the next with no jumps. Time
represents a simply constructed series, in which
every point is differentiated by its position as
measured from its initial position. Since any point
in time differs from the preceding one only in that
it is the subsequent point relative to it, it is thus
possible to measure .time, and thus motion. As
soon as time is measured - time only has a
meaningful function in physics when measured or
measurable - we can determine a quantitative
value. This quantitative value considers the elapsed time altogether. We segment .the time scale,
thus destroy the intrinsic flow of time and arrest
i.t. The flow is frozen and becomes a surface, only
as a surface can it be measured. Time then becomes a homogeneous ordered series of points, a
scale, a parameter.
A. Ein&tein, "Zur Elekrodynamik bewegter Korper," Annalen der Physik 17 (1905); rep. in "Fortschritte der
mathematischen Wissenschaften in Monographien," ed. by 0. Blumenthal, Book 2, Das Relativitiitsprinzip
(Berlin, Leipzig: Teubner, 1913), p. 28. [H. A. Lor<mtz, A. Einstein, H. Minkowski, The Principle of Relativity, trans. W. Perrett and G. B. Jeffery (London: Methuen, 1923; rpt. New York: Dover, 1952), pp. 38
39.]
Before we conclude the discussion of the concept of time in the natural sciences, one more
objection must be considered. One could point
out that. in the discussion so far, no mention has
been made of the newest theory in physics - the
Theory of Relativity. It's resulting perception of
time ''surpasses in boldness everything previously
suggested in speculative natural phenomena and
even in the philosophical theories of knowledge".7
But we usually overlook the following: the
theory of relativity as a physical theory is concerned with the problem of measuring time, not
with time itself. The theory of relativity remains
untouched and in .fact confirms to an even greater
degree the above mentioned characteristics of the
natural science concept of time; namely the homogeneous, quantitatively determinwble character.
Nothing expresses the mathematical character of
the physical concept of time more clearly than the
fact that it can be considered as a fourth dimension
alongside three dimensional space, and can be
calculated using non-Euclidean geometry, that is,
geometry of more than three dimensions.
If we then proceed to represent the structure
of the concept of time in the science of history,
then it becomes really questionable whether in
fact a new problem can be posed. Time is also an
ordering of positions in the science of history
in so far as events are assigned a particular point
in time and thus become historically determined.
Frischeisen-Kobler recently noted that "in certain
circumstances it is sufficient to fix an event in
time to change it from a concept based on scientific principles to an historical one".B Thus the
concept of "the hunger crisis in Fulda in the year
750" denotes a very specific, individual event
and accordingly an historical concept.
We face these alternatives: either the abovementioned concept is not an historical concept. It
is hardly comprehensible why a simple time determination should change a universal concept to an
historical one, since even in physics, occurrences
of motion are fixed in time, - or, on the other
band: we have before us a historical concept,
which is in fact the case. Then the discoverable
II
In the science of history the path from the goal
of science to the function of .the concept of time,
and from there to the structure of the concept of
time may seem to 1be a detour. One can succeed
much easier and 'qllit.iC-er in tlie science of history
if we remember that. there exists a methodology
of the science of history containing a special aid
which deals solely with detel1Jliriing time in the
science of history: historical chronology. Here
the uniqueness of the historical concept of time
will immediately come tO light at this point. It
wil11be clear later why this method cannot be used.
We must also understand what part of the chronology is of sole significance for the historical concept of time. We therefore follow a prescribed path
and a.ttempt to delineate the goal of the science
of history.
We are immediately confronted with a difficulty
in so far as there exists no unanimity about the
goal and object of the science of history. Therefore, whatever we decide about the issue cannot
claim to be conclusive and complete. However.
this fact cannot oompromise our particular problem, since we can only identify the various aspects
inherent in the concept of the science of history,
which will enable us to understand the function
of the concept of time in the science of history.
The object of the science of history is man, not
as a biological entity, rather to the extent that his
spiritual-physical accomplishments embody the
idea of culture. The creation of culture in its fullness and variety proceeds in time, it experiences
development, undergoes the most varied re-formation and transformations, absorbs events of the
past in order to assimilate or resist already completed developments. The cultural development of
man within and in relation to societies and organizations (the state) created by him is ultimately
the objectification of the human spirit. The historian is interested in this process of objectification
of the spirit in the course of time, not at each
point of its culmination as though attempting to
record all events in time. It has been said he is
interest.ed only in the historical efficacy. Eduard
Meyer, who made this assertion elaborates and
explicates its meaning correctly saying: "The
selection depends on the historical interest which
the present holds on any effect, that is, with regard
to the development".9
An interest must however always be determined
by a perspective and be guided by a norm. The
selection of the historical from the wealth of
material is thus based upon a value reference.
Accordingly the goal of the science of history is
to represent ,the context of effect and development
of objectifications of human life in its understandruble peculiarity and uniqueness in so far as its
relation to cultural values is concerned. Still one
essential moment of every historical object has not
been touched upon. The historical object, being
historical, is always past; strictly speaking it no
longer exists. There exists a temporal distance
between it and the historian. The past has significance only when seen from the present. Not only
does the past no longer exist, as viewed by us it
was also something different, as contrasted to our
present life-situation. So much is already clear;
time has an entirely original meaning in history.
Only where this qualitative otherness of times past
presses into the consciousness of the present, is
the historical meaning awakened. By virtue of the
fact that the historical past is always something
other as contrasted to the objectifications of
human life, and in which we always live and
create, the possibility has always existed for us
to understand the past, since it cannot be some-
17.
18.
10
troops and the clear direction of the whole operation, not to mention the strong resistance of the
Russian army. The year dates are convenient
markers, by themselves however unimportant,
since for each number any other could be substituted by simply changing the starting point of the
counting. But even the beginning of time computation indicates !!hat it commences with an historically significant event (Founding of Rome, the
Birth of Christ, Hedschra).
The aid of the science of history, historical
chronology, is significant for the theory of the
historical concept of time from the beginning of
time computation. For example, it is said that
setting the beginning of the year on January 1st
was at first displeasing to the Christians, "because
it had no relationship to the Christian religion
whatsover".l~ The Church, therefore, moved the
Feast of Circumcision to this day to give it ecclesiastical significance. Important feasts - Easter,
Christmas - always began the new year. That
shows that anything to do with numbers and
counting with reference to time in the science of
history, is determined qualitatively by the manner
in which the counting is first begun. One could
say that even at the start of time computation the
principle of historical concept-formation IS revealed: value relatedness.J8
The recognition of the fundamental significance
of the historical concept of time and its total
otherness as it exists in physics, will make it
possible to penetrate scientifically and theoretically
into the peculiar nature of the science of history
and to establish it theoretically as an original attitude of the mind, irreducible to any other sciences.
RuhL Chronologie des Mitte/alters und der Neuzei1 (Berlin, Reuther & Re-ichard, 1897), p. 24.
C{., a discussion of the fundamental noUoo. of historical concept-formation: H. Rickert, Die Grenzen der
naturwissenschaftlichen Begriffsbildung, 2nd ed. (TUbingen: Mohr, 1913), p. 333 If.