Hydraulics Intro and fluid properties

Hydraulics mainly deals with fluids, so one of our first objectives should be to know
what are fluids, their types and basic properties. In order to know and differentiate
between the types of fluid first we need to know their properties, for this we first
define certain categories of property.
a) Density: This is the mass per unit volume.

Density=

Mass of fluid
Total volume of fluid for the givenmass

In general the mass is denoted by

(rho) . Its units are gm/cc (CGS); kg/m3

(SI); Its units are ML-3

b) Specific weight. This is the weight per unit volume

Specific weight=

Mass of fluid g
Total volume of fluid for the given mass

g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Specific weight is denoted by kN/m3 (SI unit); Dyne/cm3. Its units are ML-2T-2
c) Specific volume: This the volume per unit mass and is the inverse of density.

Specific volume=

1
Density

Its units are cc/gm (CGS); m3/kg (SI); Its units are M-1L3
d) Specific gravity: This the ratio of <mass?> of fluid to the mass of equal
volume of water at 4oC.

Specific gravity=

Mass of fluid
o
mass of equal volume of water at 4 C .

e) Viscosity: The friction of fluid layers in a moving fluid is known as viscosity.

Viscosity generally means dynamic viscosity and is denoted by

. Its units

are N-S/m2 or Pa-s in SI units. In CGS system it has the units Dyne-sec/cm 2 or
Poise. In MKS unit the units of viscosity are kg-f-s/m 2 In case of viscosity
Newtons law is found to be valid. The Newtons law states that:

That is the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate of change of

velocity in the

du
dy

direction.

du
dy .

Here

is the constant of proportionality and is known as the coefficient of

dynamic viscosity.
From the above we get that

du
dy

The units of dynamic viscosity are ML-1T-1.

Kinematic Viscosity:
When dynamic viscosity is divided by density
denoted by

we get Kinematic viscosity

(Nu). Kinematic Viscostity has the dimensions of LT -2. The units of

dynamic viscosity are m2/s or cm2/s.

We now look at the relations between the different types of units, so that we can
easily convert between each other.
SI System and CGS system:

1 Ns 105 dynes
dynes
=
=10
=10 poise
2
4
2
m
10 cm
cm2

SI System and MKS system and CGS :

1 kgf s 9.81 N s
=
=98.1 Poise
m2
m2

Types of fluids:
Newtonian and Non Newtonian fluids: Fluids which follow Newtons law of viscosity
are known as Newtonian, else they are known as Non Newtonian fluids
Ideal fluid: A fluid which does not pocess any viscosity, and is incompressible is
known as an Ideal fluid.
Real fluids: Ideal fluids do not exist in nature and all real fluids are compressible to
some extent and have some viscosity

Fluids which obey Newtons law of motion are known as Newtonian fluids and those
which do not are known as Non-Newtonian fluid.

Forces on surfaces submerged under water

Let us consider an aribatary arae as shown below in Fig. Let the area AB have an
area dA and let this be at a height h below the surface of water. The pressure

gh . The force on the small area dA =

developed at this depth is

ghdA .

For the whole area we integrate wit respect to A. Thus total force F is =

ghdA =gA h

Copy to pendrive
Centre of pressure
The centre of pressure is the point at which the water forces act on the body. Let the
centre of pressure be at

h from the top.

2

F h = ghdA h= gh dA= gI

gA h h = gI

h=

I
A h

The moment of inertia

is the moment of inertia with respect to the surface of

the water. In general the moment of inertia with respect to the c.g of the body is
known. Using the moment of inertia about the c.g and the following formula

I =I G + A h2 , we have
I G + A h2 I G
h=
=
+h
A h
A h

For an inclined body submerged in a liquid we have:

Viscous Incompressible flow

This chapter deals with flow in which the fluid is incompressible and flow in which
viscous forces are predominant. The equations governing this kind of flow are the
continuity equation and the Navier Stokes equation. The continuity equation is
given by:

( u ) ( v ) ( w )
+
+
+
=0
t
x
y
z
In cylind

( V r ) V r 1 V V z
+
+
+
+
=0
t
r
r
r z

In short the continuity equation can be written as

)=0
+ ( V
t
For

. u

in cylindrical coordinates look in appendix

The Navier stokes equation is as follows:

D
V

= f b ( p )+ 2 V
DT

The derivation of these equations has been dealt in appendix. These derivations
though are not required for exam purposes. The Navier Stokes equations are
generally found to be valid for compressible or incompressible laminar flows
so the flows that are to be modeled should be in the laminar range. In this chapter
we will be dealing with three simple types of flow, which can be modeled via the
above two equations.
One such flow is the flow between two infinitely broad parallel plates:
In the case of flow between two infinitely broad parallel plates the velocity is
assumed to be confined only in the one direction. The velocity is generally assumed
to be

in this direction <figure>

v =w=0

In this case

Now we put them in the Navier Stokes Equation (Appendix-1; Page no) and we get

p
2 u
= 2
x
y
Now we integrate the above equation in order to get to the equation of motion for
flow between to infinitely broad straight parallel plates. First we integrate with
respect to

(this is because we want to get the equation of

After integrating once with respect to

we have:

u p
=
y +C 1
y x

( )

Integrating again with respect to

u=

1 p y2
+C 1 y +C 2
x 2

( )

Eqn (a)

we have:

u .

Next we try to evaluate the two constants

at

y=b

and

u=0 at

C1

and

C2 . For this we know

u=0

y=b . This is bcause we assume the origin of

coordinates to be in the middle of the two plates. The upward direction is assumed
to be positive and the downward direction is assumed to be negative.

u=0 at

First puting

0=

1 p b
C 1 b +C2
x 2

( )

puting

0=

y=b

u=0

at

Eqn (i)

y=b

1 p b2
+C1 b+C 2
x 2

( )

Eqn (ii)

Now (i)+(ii)

0=2

C2 =

1 p b2
+2 C2
x 2

( )

1 p b
x 2

( )

Eqn (iii)

Eqn (iv)

Similarly (i)-(ii) gives

C1 =0

Eqn (v)

Putting values of

u=

C1

and

1 p y2 1 p b2

x 2 x 2

( )

( )(

1 p
, u=
x

( )

y 2 b2

2 2

C2 in equation (a)

 , u=

1 p 2
( b y 2)
2 x

( )

..Eqn (b)

The negative sign in equation (b) indicates that velocity increases as pressure
decreases. The vice versa is also true.
Another important flow type that we will be considering here is the flow between
two parallel plates, one plate moving, with a velocity U

and the other

plate static.This is a special type of flow and is known asCouette flow.The

equation governing the flow is the same as before:

p
2 u
= 2
x
y
Why this equation governs the Couette flow has been dealt with in the appendix.
As before we integrate twice with respect to

u=

1 p y2
+C 1 y +C 2
x 2

( )

Here we have

U=

u=0 at

and arrive at:

Eqn (a)

y=0 ; thus

C2 =0 ; also

1 p h
+ C1 h
x 2

( )

, C 1=

Putting

U 1 p h

.. Eqn2.2
h x 2

( )

Eqn2.2 , the value of

2

u=

( ) (

C1

( ))

1 p y
U 1 p h
+
y
x 2
h x 2

, u=

h2 p y 2 U 1 p h
+
y
x 2 h2 h x 2

( )

( ))

in Eqn (a) we get

u=U

at

y=h

, u=

h y p
2 h x

( )( hy 1)+ Uh y

, u=

h2 y p
y U
1 + y
2 h x
h h

( )( )

the above stepis done

(avoid negative signthe final solutionas y h)

u h 2 y p
y y
1
=
1 + ( Multiplying throught ) .Eqn (c)
U 2 hU x
h h
U

( )(

P=

Putting

h2 y p
2 hU x

( )

in Eqn (c)

We have

u
y y
=P 1 +
U
h h

( )

<find out what P represents give pictures>

Next we consider laminar flow through a circular pipe which is known as Hagen
Poiselee flow

Putting

V r =V =0

in continuity equation, for incompreesible flow

V z
=0
z
The Navier-Sokes Equation in cylindrical coordinates can be written as, taking into
account :

V r =V =0 ;

V z
=0
z

V z 1 p
2 V z 1 V z
=
+
+
t
z
r2 r r

Eqn (a)

For steady flow this ean (a) becomes:

0=

For

2 V z 1 V z
1 p
+
+
z
r2 r r

2 . u

in cylindrical coordinates look in appendix

We now try to integrate it, and therefore try out the following steps:

2 V z 1 V z
1 p
=
+
z
r 2 r r

( ( ))

1 p
1 V z
=
r
z
r r r

( ( ))

p
1 V z
=
r
z
r r
r

p
1 V z
=
r
z
r r r

))

( ( ))

d Vz
r dp
d
=
r
dz d r
dr

Integrating once with respect to

we have

dV z
r dp
+C 1=r
2 dz
dr
2

r dp C 1 d V z
+ =
2 dz r
dr

Integrating again with respect to

2

r dp
+C 1 lnr +C 2=V z
4 dz
At

r=0V z

At

r=R ; V z=0

Thus

C2 =

is finite so

C1 =0

R2 dp
4 dz

Thus

r 2 dp R2 dp

=V z
4 dz 4 dz

R2 dp
r2
1 2 =V z
4 dz
R

( )(

Thus

V zmax =

R 2 dp
4 dz

( )

V z 2 rdr

V zavg = 0

r2

When r=0

we have

V zavg =

4R ( dp
dz )
0

r
2 rdr
2
R

R2
2

V zavg =

( )

R dp
r
2 r 2 dr
4 dz
R
0

( )

( ) [

R2 dp
R2 R 2
2

4 dz
2
4
V zavg =
2
R

V zavg =

R2 dp
8 dz

( )

Total discharge

Q=V zavg R2

Q=

R 2 dp
R2
8 dz

Q=

R 4 dp
8 dz

( )

( )

While doing sums few things to be kept in mind:

a) Velocity including average velocity may change with position, i.e velocity
may vary both with y and x coordinates; but discharge remains constant.

b) Hydraulic gradient line: g

dp
dz

+ z . This is the pressure head p. Thus

gives the gradient of hydraulic gradient line.

dp
dx

or

p
V
c) Energy gradient line: g + z + 2 g
d) Hydraulic gradient line and energy gradient line are parallel to each other.

Appendix

. u =

ur ) 1 (
u) uz
1 (r
+
+
r r
r
z

2 . u=

(
ur ) 1 ( u)
u
1
r
+
+ 2z
2
r r
r
r
z

Next we try to find the shear stress produced

Now

V z
r

But ,

R dp
r
1 2 =V z
4 dz
R

( )(

R2 dp
4 dz

V z
2r
=
2
r
R

( )( )

Vz
1 dp
r=
2 dz
r

( )

Laminar Boundary Layer

Boundary layer is that thin layer within which the velocity develops from zero at the
base to the free stream velocity

U . <figure> Ludwig Prandtl was the first to

develop certain theories of boundary layer and study it in-depth.

<expand>
Blassius studied the flow of a fluid <viscous?> over a flat plate of infinite width and
developed what are today known as the Blassius Equations. The equations and their
derivations have been given in the appendix. The analysis of the equations has
given us the following formulae:
We know

w =

u
y

After solving the Blassius equation we get

2

0.332 U
w =
x
Again we know <these have not been dealt with>

C Fx =

w
1
U 2
2

After solving the Blassius equation we get

C Fx =

0.664
x

If we consider the whole length of the boundary layer

C FL=

F
1
2
U L
2

1.328
L

The thickness of the boundary layer

5.0 x
x

The displacement thickness of the boundary layer

1.7208 x
x

The momentum thickness of the boundary layer

0.664 x
x

Kinematics of flow
Vorticity
We consider here a fluid particle. The fluid particle is assumed to have two velocity
components
that

uv

in the

is function of

and

only and

y
v

directions respectively. Also it is assumed

is a function of

only.

u=f ( x )
v =f ( y )
Let

'A'

be a particle at time 0. After say time t

<figure is wrong>

let the particle A

A
yA

BC
AB

RS

PQ

In the above figure

BC= u+

AB=ut

u
x t
x

Similarly in the vertical direction

PQ=vt

RS= v+

v
y t
y

So in this case we find that the movement of the fluid particle is purely
translational. But if the two velocity components
directions respectively,are function of

and

u=f ( x , y )
v =f ( x , y )

uv

in the

y . We have

and

The strain rate in case of such a fluid particle is

xy =

d d
+
dt dt

In the above figure

AB=ut

BC= u+

u
x t
x

( vx x )t

CD=vt +

Thus

d=lim tan1
t 0

( vx x) t
u
x (1+
t
x )

d v
=
dt x
Similary

d u
=
dt y
Thus rate of angular strain is as follows:

xy =

d d
+
dt dt

Also the average rotation is given by the mean of the two rotations, negative sign is
usedx because the rotations are in the opp directions. We consider anticlock wise
positive

z=

1 d d

2 dt dt

z=

1 v u

2 x y

Similary

x=

1 w v

2 y z

y=

1 u w

2 z x

Thus the general equation of rotation is:

1
)
= ( V
2
If

=0
=0
, V
then we call the flow to be irrotational

The quantity

2 is known as vorticity.

Applications of equations of motion and mechanical

energy
We now consider the flow through a siphon.

ZA

D
ZD

Let the pressure at A be pA, and at D be pD. But the pressure is atmospheric at both
A and D and therefore

p A =p D

Velocity at A is negligible and is assumed to be zero

Applying Bernoullis equation at A and D we have

p A V 2A
p D V 2D
+
+Z = +
+ ZD
g 2 g A g 2 g
V 2D
=Z AZ D
2g
, V D = 2 g ( Z AZ D )
If we take head losses into account

V
D = 2 g ( Z A Z D )hL
Here

h L is the headloss due to friction

Venturimeter

B
A

We apply Bernoullis Equation at sections A and B. We get:

p A V 2A
pB V 2B
+
+ ZA= + + ZB
g 2 g
g 2 g
By continuity equation we also have

V 2A V 2B pB p A
= + Z Z A
2 g 2 g g g B
V 2A V 2B pB
pA
= + Z B Z A
2 g 2 g g
g
V 2A
V2
p
p
1 2B = B + Z B A Z A
2g
g
V A g

( )

V A A A =V B A B

If

h =

pB
p
+ Z B A Z A
g
g

We have

V 2A
V2
1 2B = h
2g
VA

( )
2

( )

V
V
, A 1 2B = h
2g
VA
2

( )

V
A
, A 1 2A = h
2g
AB
2

V
, A =
2g

V 2A =

A 2A
1 2
AB

( )

2 g h

( )
1

V 2A =

2
A

V =

A 2A
A2B

2 g h

A 2B A 2A
A2B

AB (2 g h )

( A2B A 2A )

, V A = AB

( 2 g h )

( A 2B A 2A )

Thus the flow or discharge through the venturimeter is:

Q A= AA AB

The

( 2 g h )

( A 2B A2A )

.. Eqnd

can be measured using a manometer

In the case of the manometer shown Iin the figure:

h =

( 1) h
m

Also the above Eqn d gives the theoretical discharge through the venturimeter, in
reality the discharge will be less <reasons?> The actual discharge is given by

Qactual =C D A A A B

Here

CD

( 2 g h )

( A 2B A 2A )

is the coefficient of discharge.

Orificemeter
The orificemeter is another device for flow measurement and it is much cheaper as
compared to the venturimeter. The orificemeter is

Minor losses
The loses due to change in geometric shapes are known as minor losses. These
losses include Contraction losses, exit losses, entry losses. These are known as
minor losses because their magnitude is small in comparison to friction losses in
long pipes. The friction losses are known as the major losses.

Loss Due to Sudden enlargement

Let the pressure and velocity at section A be

section B be

pB

and

pA

and

VA

respectively, at

V B respectively. In the turbulent section let it be

Thus we have

p A A A + p' ( A B A A ) p B A B =Q ( V A V B )

p' .

p' ( A B A A )

Note:

is positive
'

p = p A . Therefore the above equation becomes

By experiments we know

( p A p B ) A B=Q ( V A V B )
( p A p B ) = V B ( V A V B )
Also by Bernoullis equation we have
2

pA V A
p V
+
+ ZA= B + B + ZB
g 2 g
g 2 g
Here

Z A =Z B

p A p B V 2B V 2A
=
g g 2 g 2 g
V B ( V AV B ) V 2B V 2A
=
g
2g 2 g

h L=

( V A V B )
2g

V A 1

2g

Now in case of exit loss

h L, exit=

AA
AB

A B = . Thus

V 2A
2g

Loss Due to Sudden contraction

Open channel flow

Momentum correction factor. The velocity at any section, be it a river or a pipe is
not the same throughout. If we take the velocity for a small area to be
assume the velocity at this small section be

dA

and we

v . So the momentum for this small

M =mv=vdAv= v 2 dA . The momentum for the whole section

area will be say

A

will then be

v 2 dA .
0

The average momentum for this whole cross-section is say

M=M V avg= V avg A V avg= V 2avg A . Thus the momentum correction factor is
A

v
=

v 2 dA .

dA

V avg A

V av g A

This

Similarly the Kinetic Energy correction factor

A

v 3 dA .
=

V avg A

1 <check?>