The University of Jordan

Faculty Of Engineering and Technology

Student Name: Saif Eddin Zaki Sayed Ahmed

Student ID: 2130044
Department: Civil Engineering
Subject: Surveying
Section: 1
Date: 15.03.2015

Contents:
1. Introduction
List of Figures
2. Project Objectives
3. Leveling and its Applications
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4

Methods of leveling
Main Equipment
Types of Errors
A list of Definitions

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

Types of Contour Lines

Methods of Contouring
Characteristics of Contour lines
Uses of Contour maps

5.1
5.2

Longitudinal Section (Profile)

Cross-Section

6.1
6.2
6.3

Areas
Volumes
Mass-Haul Diagram (MHD)

4. Contouring

5. Longitudinal Section (profile) and cross-section

6. Earthwork Calculations

7. A case study
Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Route Location
7.3 Profile and Cross-Sections
7.4 Calculation of Earthwork
7.4.1 Areas of Cross-Sections
7.4.2 Volumes of Earthwork
7.5 Mass-Haul Diagram

8. Conclusion
References
Appendices
9.

1.

Introduction:

A man's feet should be planted in his country, but his eyes

should survey the world. -George Santayana
Surveying has been an essential element in the
development of the human environment for so many centuries,
as it is an imperative requirement in the planning and
execution of nearly every form of construction. It can be
regarded as that discipline which encompasses all methods for
measuring and collecting information about the physical earth
and our environment, processing that information, and
disseminating a variety of resulting products to a wide range of
clients.

2.

Project Objectives:

This project aims to expand our knowledge behind leveling

and its applications, understand contour maps and how to
use them, introduce different ways of area and volume
calculation, and open a new door for creativity to delve
into the practical life of an engineer.
The following topics should be understood at the end of
this project:
(i)

Definitions of: leveling, contouring, longitudinal

section, cross section, areas, volumes and mass
haul diagram.
(ii) Characteristics of contour maps and their uses
(iii) Leveling procedures.
(iv) Applications of leveling.
(v) Types of Sections (Profile and Cross-section.)
(vi) Earthwork calculations.
The following objectives should be accomplished at the
end of this project:
(i)
(ii)

Design a route between two known points.

Design Profile and cross-section of the ground level
and formation level for a proposed road.
(iii) Calculate the areas of each x-section.
(iv) Calculate the cumulative volume.
(v) Make mass-haul diagram.

3.

Leveling and its Applications:

Leveling is one of the types of geodetic measurements

used to create a geodetic elevation reference grid and
conduct topographic surveying, as well as to plan,
construct, and maintain engineering structures such as
railroads and highways. The science of leveling goes back
to the ancient Greeks, Egyptians, and Romans and their
massive construction projects; the first data on a leveling
instrument are associated with the Roman architect
Vitruvius (first century B.C.) and the ancient Green
scientist Hero of Alexandria (first century A.D.).
It can be defined as the art of determining and
establishing the relative height, as well as the difference in
elevation, between different points on earth surface. The
elevation or relative height (R.L) of a point is the vertical
distance above and below a given reference level surface
(zero elevation) usually a mean sea level, which can be
calculated
using Height of
Collimation
method or by
Rise and Fall
method.

3.1 Methods of leveling:

(i)

Height of collimation method:

The instrument is set up where the benchmark can
be viewed within correct parameters, and a
reasonable number of sights can be viewed. The
back sight is read to the benchmark and booked.
This is recorded as a backsight and establishes the
height of the instrument above the benchmark.
The actual Reduced Level of the Bench Mark is also
recorded.
Staff readings are added (BS) to
benchmark to get the elevation of the line of sight
(HC).
Subtract staff readings of the rest of the points
from the line of sight to establish elevations of
these unknown points.
H.C = R.L of a point + reading at A
R.L of B = H.C reading at B
(Refer to appendix A)

(ii) Rise and Fall method:

Backsight, intermediate sight and foresight
readings are entered in the appropriate columns
on different lines. However, backsights and
foresights are place on the same line if the level
instrument is changed. The first reduced level is
the height of the datum, benchmark or R.L. If an
intermediate sight or foresight is smaller than the
immediately preceding staff reading then the
difference between the two readings is place in the
rise column. If an intermediate sight or foresight is
larger than the immediately preceding staff
6

reading then the difference between the two

readings is place in the fall column. A rise is added
to the preceding reduced level (RL) and a fall is
subtracted from the preceding RL.
R.L of a point=R.L of previous point (+ rise
OR fall)
(Refer to appendix B)

3.2 Main equipment

The main equipment needed to carry out leveling
works is:
(i) Level with tripod (device which gives a truly
horizontal line).
(ii) Leveling staf (a suitably graduated staff for
reading vertical heights).
(iii) Chain/Tape (to enable the points leveled to be
located relative to each other on a map).
(iv) Change plate (staff base plate).
(v) Staf bubble (to ensure the staff is erected
vertically).
The level, its tripod, the staff and the staff bubble are
all precision items of equipment upon which the
accuracy of the work is highly dependent. They shall
be kept correctly calibrated, and be used and stored
with care.
There are three types of levels:
(i)

Dumpy levels: these are more basic levels

often used in construction work. The telescope
is rigidly attached to a single bubble and the
assembly is adjusted either by means of a
screwed ball-joint or by foot screws which are
adjusted first in one direction, then at 90.
7

(ii)

Tilting levels: This type of level is fitted with a

circular bubble for preliminary approximate
leveling and a main bubble which is attached to
the telescope. For each observation (not setup)
the main bubble is viewed through an eyepiece

and the telescope tilted by a fine screw to bring

the two ends of the bubble into coincidence
(iii) Automatic levels: This more modern type of
level is now in general use. It has a
compensator which consists of an arrangement
of three prisms. The two outer ones are
attached to the barrel of the telescope. The
middle prism is suspended by fine wiring and
reacts to gravity. The instrument is first leveled
approximately with a circular bubble; the
compensator will then deviate the line of sight
by the amount that the telescope is out of level.

3.3 Types of errors

There are three types of errors in leveling:
(i) Blunder: Large mistakes which occur due to
inexperience, fatigue or carelessness of surveyor.
For example, miscounting tape length.
(ii) Systematic: Instrumental defects. For example,
collimation error in the instrument.
(iii) Random: Such errors happen due to physical
and climatic conditions. For example, effect of
wind and temperature on the height of collimation
causing a slight change.
9

In order to reduce the errors and gain accurate and

precise leveling results, measurements must be
performed carefully using high quality instruments
kept in good adjustment, since a surveyor depends
mainly
on
their
equipment.
Additionally,
measurements must be repeated. Last but not least,
a closure check must be done.

3.4 A list of definitions:

Level surface: is a surface which is everywhere
perpendicular to the direction of the force of gravity.
An example is the surface of a completely still lake.
For ordinary leveling, level surfaces at different
elevations can be considered to be parallel.
Datum: is an arbitrary level surface to which
elevations are referred. The most common surveying
datum is mean sea-level (MSL)
Elevation: also called reduced level, is the vertical
distance between a survey point and the adopted
level datum.
Bench Mark: is the term given to a definite,
permanent accessible point of known height above a
datum to which the height of other points can be
referred
Back Sight: The first reading taken on the staff after
setting up the l evel. It is taken at a point of known height.
Fore Sight: The last reading taken before changing
the position of the level.
Intermediate sight: All staff
between back sight and fore sight.

readings

made

Change point: are points of measurement which are

used to carry the measurements forward in a run.
10

Each one will be read first as a foresight, the

instrument position is changed, and then it will be
read as a backsight.
Height of collimation: is the elevation of the
optical axis of the telescope at the time of the setup.
The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the
elevation.

Leveling Staf

Level and Tripod

4.
Contouring:
A Contour line is an imaginary
outline of the terrain obtained by joining its points of equal
elevation above a given level, such as mean sea level. It
is sometimes visible, such as the shorelines of a lake,
since water assumes a level surface. A map illustrating
11

contour lines is called a contour map. An example would

be a topographic map, which thus depicts change in
elevation and the shape of landforms showing valleys and
hills, and the steepness of slopes. Often contour lines will
form concentric shapes around each other.

4.1 Types of contour lines.

Following are the essentials of the three types of
contour lines:
(i)

Index: Evenly spaced lines accented with a

heavier mark in order to attract attention; these
lines will be the first thing the eye catches. They
are marked with the elevation above sea level
and they are usually figured in intervals, which
differ from one contour map to another
depending on many factors (see table 4.1.)

(ii)

Intermediate: A set of intermediate contour

lines exist between each pair of index contour
lines, where the elevation change between one
index contour line and an adjacent intermediate
contour has the same value as the change
between two intermediate contour lines that are
located next to each other.

(iii) Supplementary: This type of contour lines is

expressed as a dashed line, representing half
the elevation change that is found between
intermediate and index contour lines. These
lines are only used on contour maps where the
overall change in elevation is very gradual or
slight.

12

No.

Factor

Big intervals e.g.

Small intervals
1m, 2m, 5m or more e.g. 0.5m, 0.25m,
0.1m or less

Nature of If the ground has large If the terrain is fairly

ground
variation in levels, for
level
instance, hills and ponds
Scale of For small scale maps
For large scale maps
the map covering a wide area of showing details of a
varying terrain
small area

Extent of For rough topographical For preparation of

survey
map
detailed map for
meant
for
initialexecution of work
assessment only

Time and If less time and

resources resources are
available available

If more time and

resources are available

(Table 4.1)

4.2 Methods of contouring

Broadly speaking
contour surveying:

there

are

two methods

(i)

Direct method: It
method out of all, in
contour is traced and
These lines are then
they can be mapped.

(ii)

Indirect methods: In this method, the spot

levels of selected guide points are taken with
a level and their levels are computed. The
horizontal positions of these points are
measured or computed and the points are
plotted on the plan. The contours are then
drawn by a process called interpolation of
contours from the levels of the guide points.
The following are the indirect methods are
commonly used for locating contours.
13

is the most
which the line
marked on the
plan surveyed

of

precise
of each
ground.
so that

(a)

Grid method: It is the most commonly

used method, where the area to be surveyed
is divided into a grid or series of squares using
a ranging rod. The elevation of points located
at the intersections is then determined by
leveling. Contour lines are then drawn by
interpolation. The size of the squares you lay
out depends on the accuracy needed. (Fig 4.1)

(b)
Radiating method: In this method
several radial lines at selected angle interval
are taken from a point in the area. On these
lines at selected distances points are marked
and levels determined. This method is
particularly used for large and hilly areas.
Theodolite
with
tachometry
facility
is
commonly used in this method. (Fig 4.2)

14

Table 4.2 below summarizes the pros and cons, as well as the
features that differentiate each of the two methods in indirect
Direct Method

Indirect Method

Not very accurate but

Very accurate but slow and tedious
quicker and less
tedious.

Expensive

Reasonable cost

Suitable for large

projects requiring
Appropriate for small projects
moderate to low
requiring high accuracy, e.g., layout accuracy, e.g., layout
3
of building, factory, structural
of highway, railway,
foundations, etc.
canal, etc.

More suitable for low undulating

terrain.

Suitable for hilly

terrain.

Calculations need to be carried out Calculation in the field

in the field
is not mandatory.

Calculations can be
After contouring, calculation cannot
checked as and when
be checked.
needed

contouring.

15

(Table 4.2)

4.3 Characteristics of contour lines

Contours show distinct characteristic features of the
terrain as follows:
(i)

All points on a contour line are of the same

elevation.

(ii)

Two contour lines can meet or cross each other

except in the rare case of an overhanging
vertical cliff or wall

(iii) Closely spaced contour lines indicate steep

slope
(iv) Widely spaced contour lines indicate gentle
slope
(v)

Equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope

(vi) Irregular contours indicate uneven surface.

(vii) Closed contour lines with increasing values
towards center indicate hills

16

(viii)

(viii) Closed contour lines with decreasing values

towards center (Fig. 4.3) indicate a pond or

other depression.
(ix) Contour lines of ridge show higher elevation
within the loop of the contours. Contour lines
cross ridge at right angles (Fig. 4.4).
(x)

Contour lines of valley show reducing elevation

Fig 4.2

Fig 4.1

within the loop of the contours. Contour lines

cross valley at right angles (Fig. 4.5).
(xi) Contour lines must close, not necessarily in the
limits of the plan.
(xii) If contour lines are meeting in some portion, it
shows existence of a vertical cliff (Fig. 4.6).

17

4.3
Fig 4.4

4.4 Uses of contour maps

Contour maps are extremely useful for various
engineering works:
(i) Finding out the nature of the ground to identify.
(ii) It is possible to identify suitable site for any
project from the contour map of the region.
(iii) By drawing the section in the plan, it is possible
to find out profile of the
Fig 4.5
Fig 4.6
ground along that line. It
helps in finding out depth of cutting and filling, if
formation level of road/railway is decided.
(iv)

(iv) Inter-visibility of any two points can be found by

drawing profile of the ground along that line. This
is most useful for locating communication towers.
(v) The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer
lines can be decided so as to minimize and
balance earthworks.
18

The process of determining the elevations of a

series of points at measured intervals lengthwise
along the centerline of a proposed road. This
process provides data from which the depth of fill
or cut required to bring the existing surface up to,
or down to, the grade elevation required for the
highway can be determined.

5.
Longitudinal
Cross Section:
5.1

Section

(Profile)

and

Longitudinal Section (Profile):

The process of determining the elevations of a series
of points at measured intervals lengthwise along the
centerline of a proposed road. This process provides
data from which the depth of fill or cut required to
bring the existing surface up to, or down to, the
grade elevation required for the highway can be
determined.

5.2

Cross Sections:

19

Cross sections are short profiles made at right angle

to the center line of the project. Cross sections are
usually taken at regular
intervals
along
the
length wise line of the
highway and at sudden
changes in the profile
(intermediate breaks in
the ground). The cross
sections must extend a
sufficient distance on
each side of the center line to provide
a view of the surrounding terrain.

These two types of sections are used in linear facilities

such as highways, railways, transmission lines, canals and
water mains.

20

6.

Earthwork Calculations:

On any highway or road construction project, the single

largest cost item is almost always the earthwork; therefore
it is something that transportation projects seldom avoid.
When designers engineer a road, it is important to make
the best possible determination of the quantity of soil and
rock materials that must be moved on the project, which
includes the excavation of existing earth material and any
placement of fill material required for constructing the
embankment. The methods used to determine earth
excavation and embankment amounts are discussed
below.

21

6.1 Areas:
To

be able to
calculate
the
volume of
earthwork,
the
area of the
crosssections
along the center line at each station must be
calculated. These areas tell us the amount of cut and
fill.
The ground levels may be horizontal, sloped and
even variable across the section; accordingly several
methods are used to determine the area of crosssection.
(i)

Level Across:

22

(ii)

Section with Cross Fall

(iii) Part Cut Part Fill

(iv)

Sec
tio
of Variable
Level

23

6.2 Volumes:
Earthwork is expressed in
units of volumes (cubic

meters in metric.)
To determine the amount of
earthwork to occur on a given
site,
the
volumes
are
calculated, depending on the
shape of the site, in three
ways:
i

By cross-sections, generally used for long,

narrow works such as roads, railways, pipelines,
etc.

24

ii

By contours, generally used for larger areas

such as reservoirs, landscapes, redevelopment
sites, etc.
By spot height, generally used for small areas
such as underground tanks, basements, building
sites, etc.

iii

Since this report is concerned with roads, then

volume calculations are done by relating crosssections along the center line to the distances
between them.
There are three methods of Calculating volumes
using cross-sections:
(a)

Mean Area Method:

The mean area of cross sections A1 to An is found,

and multiplied by the distance between A1 and An.
This method is the least accurate out of all, as it is
an approximation.

(b)

End Area Method:

In this method, the area between two consecutive

cross-sections is averaged, and then multiplied by

the distance between them. When dealing with

road construction, this method uses the
Trapezoidal rule for volumes. It assumes that there
25

is no variation between two successive sections,

and that the area of the midway section is the
mean.

(c)

Volume by Prismoidal Method:

The geometrical shape and size of a substance

must be
known in order to
calculate
volume, and since
in most
approaches a
mass of earth has no regular geometrical figure,
this method is used. It is accurate, however
necessitates a long time to obtain any desired
result.

Where Am is the area of the plane in between the

two
cross-sections,
and L is
the distance
between
A1 and A2.

Most excavated materials are found to increase in

volume after excavation (bulking), but after being recompacted by roller or other means, soils in
particular might be found to occupy less volume than
originally, i.e. a 'shrinkage' has taken place when
compacted in the in situ volume.

6.3 Mass-Haul Diagram (MHD):

26

Mass diagrams (or mass-haul diagrams) are a

graphical representation of the cumulative volumes
of cut and fill (earthwork moved) along an alignment.
At any station, the value is the accumulated cut
volume minus the accumulated fill volume up to that
point. The difference in Mass Haul between two
points indicates the volume of surplus (positive
difference) or deficit (negative difference). By using
this diagram, engineers can minimize material waste
or borrow. It also provides quick, qualitative
information about the cut and fill movements.
To construct the Mass Haul Diagram manually:
Compute the net earthwork values for each station, applying the
appropriate shrink factor
Net cuts have a positive value, net fills have a negative value
The value at the first station (origin) = 0
Plot the value of each succeeding station which equals the
cumulative value to that point, i.e., the value at i = net
cut/filla+b+c+i
Diagrammatic representation of earthwork volumes along a linear
profile
horizontal stationing is plotted along the X-axis
net earthwork values are plotted along the Y-axis Mass Haul
Diagrams
An Earthwork Profile is a plot of the net earthwork along a
roadway or airstrip
Net cut values are plotted above the X-axis (positive Y value)
Net fill values are plotted below the X-axis (negative Y value)
Presents a picture of the earthwork requirements Mass Haul
Diagrams
A Mass Haul Diagram is a continuous curve representing the
cumulative volume of earthwork along the linear profile of a
roadway or airfield
the vertical coordinate is a plot of the cumulative earthwork from
the origin to that point Mass Haul Diagrams
upward sloping curves indicate (rising left to right) indicate a cut
downward sloping (falling left to right) curves occur in a fill section
peaks indicate a change from cut to fill and valleys occur when
the earthwork changes from fill to cut Mass Haul Diagrams
The accumulated volume of earthwork at the horizontal axis (Y=0)
is 0
When a horizontal line intersects two or more points along the
curve, the accumulated volumes at those points are equal

27

 A negative value at the end of the curve indicates that borrow is

required to complete the fill
A positive value at the end of the curve indicates that a waste
operation will be the net result

(6) A Case Study

Abstract

This project revolves around locating and designing the

most suitable and economical road alignment between
two specific points, while referring to a contour map of
specific area, and calculating the earthwork quantities
involved in the alignment. As a result, three types of
diagrams are constructed. The methodology behind these
diagrams has been explained in section 6 and section 7.3,
and is applied in section 8.3 and 8.5. These are:
1) Longitudinal Section (Profile)
2) Cross-Section
3) Mass-Haul Diagram

8.1 Introduction
The project is to locate and draw the best route between two selected
points on a contour map, and to calculate the amount of earthwork
needed to construct it.

8.2 Contouring and Route Location .

Planning with respect to road construction takes into account present and future uses of the
transportation system; satisfying maximum service with a minimum of financial and
environmental cost. Therefore, the road designed has to be efficient and economical.

28

The two selected points A and B on the contour map are located in a mountainous region, at
an elevation of 400m and 360m (relative to Mean Sea level.) When the route was designed,
certain standards had to be met; the slope between any two stations had to be less than 4%,

balance between cut and fill, and

only one curve was allowed. Other

aspects were taken into account as well, such as physical environmental factors (topography)
and safety.

Once route design was complete, reduced levels of

stations along the center line where interpolated using
trigonometry. The technique is described below.

Where LA = R.L of A R.L of B = Contour interval

A
C
LA

LC

LB

Detailed interpolation of the Reduced Level for each station is found in

appendix.

The reduced levels along with the chianages of the

stations are found in table.
General Information about the route designed:
-It runs a total distance of 2450m
-It has 13 stations along the center line starting at A and ending at B.
-The distance between each station is 210m, except for the distance
between station 9 and 10 which is 140m.
-Maximum slope of 3.91%
-Minimum slope of 0.49%
-Road width of 10m.
-Side slopes width 2x the depth of cut/depth of fill.

8.3 Profile and Cross-Sections

29

The reduced levels of the stations along the formation

level are calculated using algebraic equations; each slope
has its own equation. Therefore, substituting the chainage
(distance) into the equation gives the reduced level
(elevation).
The longitudinal section (profile) includes the reduced
levels of both the formation levels as well as the ground
level (y-axis), plotted against the chainage (x-axis).
(Diagram)
The cross-section of every station is a trapezium. Further
details are found in section 8.4.1. (Diagram)

8.4 Calculations of Earthwork

8.4.1 Areas of cross-sections
For each station, the cross-sectional area has been found using the
trapezium rule.

With a road width set to 10m, a depth of cut/Fill (x), and each side
slope of width 2(x), the equation above was derived. Values of the
cross-sectional areas for each station are found in table.

2x

10 m
x
10

8.4.2 Volumes of Earthwork

30

2x

Excavation and embankment are calculated with cross sections

using the average end area method. Firstly, the area between the
existing ground and proposed ground is calculated at each crosssection. Secondly, the area between two consecutive cross-sections
(A1 and A2) is averaged. Lastly, this area is multiplied by the

Cut
volumes are taken to be positive and fill volumes to
be negative. The corrected volume is calculated by
taking in consideration a shrinkage factor of 0.8
applicable to fill. The list of Data about volumes,
corrected volumes and cumulative volumes are found
in table.
distance (L) between two cross-sections (See Diagram.)

A volume of cut and fill exits in between station 8 and 9 (wedge);

therefore the resultant of those two had to be calculated. (See
Diagram) This was done by finding the intersection point of the
formation level with the ground level, then calculating the volumes
before and after that point. The method is explained in appendix.

31

8.5 Mass-Haul Diagram

The concept behind the Mass-Haul Diagram has been discussed in section

This is essentially a plot of cumulative volume of soil

against distance along the road (chainage.) Cut volumes
are taken to be positive and fill volumes to be negative.
7.3.

(See Diagram)

Mass-Haul Diagram
40000
20000
0
-20000 0

210

420

630

840

1050

1260

1470

1680

1820

-40000
-60000
-80000

Cumulative Volume

-100000
-120000
-140000
-160000
-180000
-200000
-220000

Chainage

9. Conclusion
The route designed runs a total horizontal distance of 2450m, with 13
stations starting at A and ending at B. The distance between each station
is 210m, except for the distance between station 9 and 10 which is 140m.
The Road width is 10m, while side slopes width are two times the depth of
cut or fill. Throughout the project there are no horizontal formation lines
connecting two stations to maintain water flow. There are 4 gradients:
1) 0+000 to 0+420: 0.493%
32

2030

2240

2) 0+420 to 0+630: 3.78%

3) 0+630 to 1+300: -0.746%
4) 1+300 to 2+450: -3.91%
And last but not least, the cumulative volume result is +11404.62 m 3
excessive cut.

33

Appendix:
Appendix A:

Appendix B:

34

35