300 Prevention Through

Inspection and Maintenance

Abstract
Inspection and maintenance activities must be integrated into the loss prevention
program. This section discusses elements of inspection and maintenance from the
fire protection view.
Contents

Page

310

General Information

300-3

311

Importance of Fire Protection Inspections

312

Scope

313

Good Housekeeping

320

Inspection

321

Fire Protection Equipment

322

Safety Devices

323

Process Equipment

324

Tanks

325

Piping

326

Pumps and Drivers

327

Structures

328

Docks and Wharves

330

Maintenance

331

Job Planning

332

Blinding

333

Vapor-Freeing

334

In-Service Work on Tanks

335

Combustible Gas Detectors

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336

Repairs to Emergency Facilities

337

Abrasive Blasting

340

Dismantling Equipment

300-11

350

Cleaning Tanks and Process Vessels

300-11

351

Introduction

352

Remove Sources of Ignition

353

Empty the Vessel

354

Removing Vapor

360

Welding on Nonvapor-Free Lines, Tanks and Vessels

361

Introduction

362

General

363

Hot Tapping Precautions and Procedures

364

Special Considerations and Alternate Methods

370

Hot Work Inside Columns with Structured Packing

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References

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310 General Information

311 Importance of Fire Protection Inspections
Regular inspections by persons experienced in fire protection are an essential part of
any fire prevention program. Appendix B, Fire Protection Checklist, can be used
as a guideline during inspections.

Initial Inspection
An initial inspection should be made of new and converted facilities to determine
that the fire prevention principles have been properly applied. The initial inspection
should also acquaint operating personnel with all fire prevention features that have
been built into the facility.

Periodic Inspections
Reinspections should be made periodically to note any changes in hazards,
construction, equipment, conditions, etc. These inspections will probably be made
by qualified specialists familiar with applicable fire protection design considerations (engineer, fire marshal, equipment inspector, etc.) and will include testing of
equipment, fire drills, inspection of new construction, etc., as described in Sections
500, Fire Training, and 600, Fighting the Fire. In addition to such general
inspections, which will perhaps be held every few months, a self-inspection should
be made every few days by operators, supervisors, superintendents, etc., to check on
local conditions in their own areas.

Outside Inspections
Inspections or Fire Loss Prevention Surveys with an outsider such as a member of
the Fire Protection Staff or an insurance inspector should be made periodically
(every one to three years will ordinarily be often enough). These inspections will
sometimes reveal hazards not apparent to those who have become accustomed to the
existing conditions, and will stimulate interest in fire protection efforts as well as
disseminate ideas that may be developed at other facilities. Surveys will be coordinated with the OPCO facility Fire/Safety Engineer and/or Fire Chief to maximize
the benefits from the survey.

312 Scope
The general objectives of inspection and maintenance work intended to promote fire
protection include:

Detection of operating procedures that introduce risks of starting fires or may

impede prompt control of fire.

Application of safe maintenance practices to minimize potential fire hazards.

Detection of equipment additions or modifications that increase the risk of fire

loss.

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Detection and elimination of weaknesses in operating facilities that result from

normal wear and corrosion.

Care and upkeep of fire detection, control, and extinguishing equipment.

313 Good Housekeeping

Through education and regular supervision, local management should stress the
principles of and necessity for, good housekeeping. Good housekeeping comes
under three general headings:

General neatness. Dirty rags, trash, oil spills, gas or oil leaks, improper storage
of paints or hydrocarbon samples, the careless use of light oils for cleaning,
etc., are all potential fire hazards that can be controlled.

Proper placement. Operators should be constantly alert to make sure that all
fire fighting equipment is in its established location and ready to operate on a
moment's notice (extinguishers and nozzles in place, valves freely operable,
etc.). Access to this equipment should never be obstructed by other equipment,
stacked materials, open trenches or ditches, etc.

Careful maintenance. Examples include the following:

Keeping junction and switch box covers tight on electrical circuits

(including assuring complete replacement of all bolts) in hazardous areas
Promptly eliminating hydrocarbon leaks in lines, valves, and stuffing
boxes
Identifying deteriorated vessels, structures, fireproofing, etc., which, if not
repaired, may result in hazardous failures
Removing and replacing oil-soaked insulation
Ensuring uncovered drain openings and free-flowing drainage systems
remain free of debris

320 Inspection
321 Fire Protection Equipment
Scheduled inspections should be set up and made the responsibility of one individual or position. See Appendix E for inspection checklists.

322 Safety Devices

Safety devices include valves, breather valves, regulators, overspeed trips, and other
devices designed to protect equipment against failure that could lead to fire.
Frequency of inspection, testing and maintenance of safety devices should be established as required by law or service conditions. The inspector should be satisfied
that discharge through such safety devices does not introduce a secondary hazard.
Normally, time between such inspections should not exceed one year; however, in

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no case should the interval be greater than required by any Federal, State, local and
industry laws, statutes, or codes, or local operating practices established by experience.
Routine inspection and testing of flame, heat, smoke and combustible gas detectors
should be included in the normal maintenance program. These systems are
discussed in Section 1600.

323 Process Equipment

Process equipment covers such a wide range of types and services that only general
principles for its inspection can be given in this manual. Inspection frequencies
should be based on experience with similar equipment, or on anticipated corrosion
with the various stocks, chemicals, and materials of construction. Thorough inspection histories are critical in determining when equipment needs to be shut down,
what work needs to be done, and any materials changes required.
Inspection techniques for specific types of equipment are found in the specific
Company manual on that equipment.

324 Tanks
See the Tank Manual, Section 1000.

325 Piping
A visual external inspection of aboveground lines should be made annually for
adequacy of overpressure protection (thermal relief valves), for external corrosion,
and for adequacy of supports and provisions for expansion or vibration in service.
Particular emphasis should be given to the support of small connections. Nondestructive testing should be scheduled as appropriate, based on experience, service,
pressure and criticality of the lines. Refer to the Piping Manual for more information.
Lines handling corrosive stocks can be tested using either pit gages or ultrasonic
(UT) gaging.
Buried lines should be daylighted and spot-checked occasionally for evidence of
external corrosion where bare pipe has been used and where there is evidence of
water drainage from any adjacent source. Lines partially buried by erosion and other
weather conditions should be completely uncovered periodically and checked for
evidence of soil corrosion. Housekeeping methods should be improved or supports
modified to prevent recurrence. Internal corrosion in buried lines can be inspected
by using smart pigs, or pipeline scrapers.
Lines that are heavily corroded may be hydrostatically tested to locate weak
sections. Hydrostatic testing of lines having isolated or localized pitting is of little
value except to find severe pitting or existing leakage; it will not give assurance of
future leak-free operation. These lines should be ultrasonically inspected, or
subjected to other nondestructive inspection methods to determine the remaining

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useful life. The ratings and materials of flanges, valves and fittings should be
checked to be sure that they are consistent with the service of the line. Preventive
steps to reduce corrosion, e.g., cathodic protection, may be appropriate to decrease
the rate of corrosion and frequency of failures.

326 Pumps and Drivers

Pumps should be inspected frequently for seal, gland or gasket leakage and general
cleanliness of the surrounding area, and inspected annually for general condition,
particularly for support of small connections. Motors should be checked for overheating, sparking, condition of switches, overload protection, and wiring. Combustion engine drivers should be checked for cleanliness of 1) ignition system to
prevent external sparkovers and 2) the exhaust system to minimize fire hazard.

327 Structures
Structures containing pumps, compressors, piping or other equipment that might
possibly leak hydrocarbons should be well ventilated. All the rules of good housekeeping should be particularly emphasized inside structures.

328 Docks and Wharves

Piles, decks, fender systems, pipeway supports, cranes and booms, firebreaks and
other structural components of docks and wharves should be inspected regularly.
The machinery and equipment for mooring vessels, cargo hose, insulating flanges,
slop facilities, thermal pressure relief valves, and the auxiliary equipment used in
emergencies (such as power boats, diesel generators, etc.) should also be inspected
periodically.
Refer to the OCIMF International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals for
additional information.

330 Maintenance
331 Job Planning
In facilities that handle flammable and combustible liquids and gases, control
construction and maintenance activities through careful job planning. Activities that
require special consideration include cutting and welding, use of open flames, air
powered tools, sparking electrical tools, and gasoline or diesel engines. Equipment
for activities such as sandblasting can also produce an ignition. This section
includes a general explanation of job planning. See Appendix A for checklists of
items for consideration. Examples of some different types of plans and permits in
use at various facilities are also included in Appendix A.
Job planning includes the proper use of general and hot work permits and the
creation of appropriate plans, which may include:

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A work plan
A contingency plan
An emergency response plan

Job plans must be communicated to and understood by all the employees and
contractors doing the work. While the person issuing the permits is responsible for
adequately covering all conditions that can cause fires, it's also important for maintenance and contract personnel to check for blinding, bonding, equipment depressure, covering of sewers, general cleanliness, and so on, as an added precaution
before opening or entering equipment or doing hot work. Personnel should be on the
alert for changing conditions in the area that might increase the fire hazard. Scrutinize any deviation from established conditions or procedures before proceeding.

General Work Permits

For simple, non-hazardous jobs in remote areas, such as repairing a fence, the supervisor can review the situation thoroughly and issue appropriate instructions.
In refineries, chemical plants, offshore platforms and other places involving
complex operations, a general work permit shall be required to ensure conformance
with established procedures, and to make certain that all those whose activities
might be influenced by the work are informed. General work permits should be
prepared by a responsible person, after a personal review of the situation, and
should be very specific as to the work to be done, notices to be given, and precautions to be observed.
See Appendix A for an example of a General Work Permit.

Hot Work Permits

In addition to the general work permit, or as a substitute for it, a hot work permit
should be prepared if work involves open flames, arc welding, electrically sparking
equipment or motors, or any other ignition sources within 50 feet of facilities
handling flammable and combustible liquids. If LPG or high pressure light hydrocarbons are used in the facilities, consider extending the distance from the process
area where a hot work permit is required.
The hot work permit procedure is a checklist of safety items. Before starting work,
the operator of the facility and the individual responsible for the work review the
list. The checklist includes inspection of the work site, vapor testing, and other
precautions, as well as fire fighting equipment and fire watch requirements. See
Appendix A for a list of considerations to be used in developing a checklist and for
a sample hot work permit and procedure in use at some Company facilities.
In larger facilities, the operating management should ask for input from the fire
brigade leader, fire chief, or fire protection specialist before deciding on precautions.
Written hot work permits in prescribed form are required by OSHA PSM rule CFR
1910.120.

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Plans
For larger projects involving multiple permits or work performed in critical, high
value facilities, consider using written work plans. Prepare work plans before work
starts and include input from engineering, operations, contractors, and the facility
fire brigade where appropriate. See Appendix A for examples of the work plans
described in this section.
Work Plan. A work plan identifies and avoids potential hazards that can occur as
work progresses. A work plan might describe equipment isolation procedures such
as lockout/tagout, gas testing requirements, and methods to keep operations and
maintenance informed of the status of the work.
Contingency Plan. A contingency plan addresses the major what ifs that could
occur while a job is in progress. For example, what if the wrong pipe is cut? Or
what if a weld slag causes a fire in the tank seal area? What if a plant upset or
product spill occurs during the work?
Emergency Response Plan. An emergency response plan describes the actions to
be taken if a toxic release or fire occurs. Evacuation procedures as well as fire
fighting responsibilities for workers are included.

332 Blinding
Equipment to be repaired or entered should be isolated to prevent entry of toxic or
flammable vapor or liquid from connected equipment. Isolation may be accomplished by blinding or dismantling attached piping. Closing valves should never be
considered equivalent to blinding; when lines are broken they should be moved
aside to prevent any possible flow into the isolated equipment (e.g., dropout spools).
Double block and bleed valves are often used for equipment isolation, but they
should not be considered acceptable as isolation for personnel entry. Any variation
from blinding or breaking lines for hot work or entry must be approved by operating management.

333 Vapor-Freeing
Before repair work is started on installations producing or containing flammable
vapor, the vapor concentration must be reduced to a safe point, generally regarded
as 10% of the lower flammable limit (LFL) or less, and sources likely to cause
further generation of vapor after the initial vapor-freeing operation must be
removed. For details see Section 335.

334 In-Service Work on Tanks

Tank work without vapor-freeing is recommended only when it is impractical to
take a tank out of service. Otherwise, the tank should be cleaned and vapor-freed
before any work is done on it. Refer to the Tank Manual for detailed information on
in-service work on tanks.

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335 Combustible Gas Detectors

Use combustible gas detectors when ventilating equipment, before hot work
commences, and at intervals while hot work is in progress. These detectors can help
determine if the combustible gas level is below the lower flammable limit (LFL)
and if any flammable mixtures of hydrocarbon vapor exist in hard-to-reach sections
of inerted equipment. Combustible gas detectors are typically hand-held and selfpowered. They indicate either the volume percent of flammable gas or the percent
LFL. In addition to flammable hydrocarbon vapors, some detectors also indicate the
percent of oxygen and hydrogen sulfide in the atmosphere.
Combustible gas detectors use a high temperature catalytic filament. Ambient atmosphere is pumped into a small combustion chamber where it burns in contact with
the filament. Filament temperature is related to the flammable vapor concentration.
As the filament temperature changes, its electrical resistance also changes. Chemical stain detectors, such as Drager tubes, are not recommended to detect combustible gases because they only detect one particular substance. Other equally
flammable substances can go undetected because there is no reaction with the indicator in the tube.
Because combustible gas detectors contain an ignition source they might not be suitable for Class 1, Group B (hydrogen atmosphere) use. They are, however, suitable
for Class 1, Group D (hydrocarbon atmosphere) use.
Manufacturers recommend calibrating combustible gas detectors on a daily basis.
Make sure that calibration gases are similar to the type of flammable gases the
meter will be exposed to in service. There will be an error experienced when
detecting a substance other than the calibration gas, for example, detecting gasoline
vapors after calibrating with methane.

336 Repairs to Emergency Facilities

Whenever repairs are required on critical alarm systems, means for ensuring continuity of protection by alternate systems should be provided, for example, visual
surveillance, or portable or temporary alarm systems.
A firewater system is impaired when a piece of the system is out of service for
maintenance or modification. All facilities should have a procedure in place to
document when and where a pump or piece of piping is out of service. One
approach is to mark a centrally located map. In an emergency, responders can
quickly check the map to determine the availability of resources. Issue permits
before any part of the firewater system is taken out of service.

337 Abrasive Blasting

Potential Ignition Sources
Static generation. Abrasive blasting may develop electrostatic charges. These
charges will accumulate on the nozzle and hose and may result in a spark discharge

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between the nozzle, hose, or hose couplings and a grounded, conducting body,
unless a conductive abrasive blasting hose is used. Most contractors now use
conductive hoses. However, if they do not, the electrostatic hazard can be safely
controlled by bonding the nozzle to the work metal and keeping the hose away from
areas where ignitable vapor-air mixtures may exist. Bonding the nozzle to the metal
being blasted will also eliminate static shocks to operators of the equipment.
Heating of metal. Although the abrasive effect of blasting will tend to heat the
metal at the point of impingement, the maximum temperature reached is well below
the ignition temperature of hydrocarbon vapor.
Friction sparks. The mechanical sparks produced in abrasive blasting operations
have not proved to be an ignition source for petroleum vapor-air mixtures.

Shells of Tanks and Vessels in Service

The shells of petroleum storage tanks and process or storage vessels can be safely
abrasive blasted while in service, provided:
1.

The vapor in the tank (or vessel) vapor space is not above 0.6 of the lower
flammable limit (LFL), or is definitely too rich to burn (not less than 1.5 times
the upper flammable limit of the petroleum vapor in air), and

2.

Liquid movement into and out of the tank or vessel is prohibited during
blasting, and

3.

Inlet and outlet valves on the tank or vessel are closed and locked, and

4.

All vents to atmosphere on tank or vessel containing a too-rich-to-burn vaporair mixture extend upward at least 10 feet above the work area, and

5.

The abrasive blast nozzle is bonded to the tank or vessel, and the abrasive blast
hose is kept out of areas where ignitable vapor-air mixtures may exist, or a
conductive hose is used, and

6.

A combustible gas indicator is used frequently to check the concentration of

vapors in the work area. If the concentration exceeds 5% of the lower flammable limit, work should be suspended until the tank stops outbreathing or the
wind increases to decrease vapor concentration to a safe level.

7.

Spark producing equipment associated with the abrasive blasting operation,

e.g., motors, are located in accordance with hot work permit procedures.

Roofs of Cone Roof Tanks in Service

Abrasive blasting the roof of a cone roof tank can be done safely, provided:

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1.

The conditions outlined in the preceding paragraph for shells of tanks are
complied with, and

2.

The roof is structurally safe to men and equipment, and

3.

Toxic gases, such as H2S, are not present in hazardous concentrations.

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Roofs of Floating Roof Tanks in Service

Abrasive blasting the roof of a floating roof tank can be done safely, provided:
1.

The conditions outlined in the above paragraph for shells of tanks are complied
with, and

2.

The top of roof at the shell is within 4 feet of the top angle, and

3.

The space above the floating roof contains no harmful concentrations of toxic
vapors, and

4.

The roof is free of oil deposits above their flash point temperatures.

Because hydrocarbons sometimes leak into the pontoon spaces, these spaces should
be checked for vapor concentration. Work should not be done on roofs with pontoon
spaces containing a vapor-air concentration more than 60% of the lower flammable
limit. Pontoon spaces should be kept tightly sealed.

340 Dismantling Equipment

Take appropriate precautions before dismantling equipment and piping to prevent
ignition of residual hydrocarbon gas and liquid. First ensure that the piping and
equipment to be dismantled is absolutely isolated from other process piping and
equipment. Thoroughly flush all piping and equipment before dismantling. Check
all low points and dead legs for trapped hydrocarbon. Check all bleeders to ensure
that they are not plugged with material. Remember that hidden, high pour point
materials can melt and ignite when heated during welding. Check gage wells,
internal ladders and supports, and tank pontoons for hidden hydrocarbon.
Clearly mark piping along the length to be removed. Expose buried piping to identify the correct line before cutting. Also before cutting, drill a small (1/2") hole in
piping low points to ensure that it is free of liquid and vapor. Since hydrocarbon
vapor is heavier than air, it will settle in low points. Testing elevated areas may not
indicate the presence of hydrocarbons.
Do not perform hot work unless necessary. Instead, unbolt flanges and cold cut the
piping to be dismantled. When hot work is necessary, use the appropriate permit
procedures.

350 Cleaning Tanks and Process Vessels

Cleaning tanks that have contained gasoline or other volatile stocks involves risks of
accident and fire that are not present in normal operation. It is, therefore, extremely
important that tank cleaning routines be carefully developed to avoid any unnecessary hazards. Tank cleaning is discussed in more detail in the Tank Manual, API
2015, Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks, CUSA Products Co., Refining DieselBased Tank Cleaning Process, and CUSA Products Co., Marketing Procedure for
Tank Cleaning and Demolition.

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351 Introduction
Ventilation and cleaning of columns, drums, and other process vessels should follow
the same step-by-step procedure discussed in API 2015, except that some of the
conditions present in the process areas permit methods not ordinarily suited to large
storage tanks. Steam, not generally effective for vapor-freeing large storage tanks
because it is not ordinarily available in sufficient quantities in tank fields, is usually
readily available in quantity in process areas. Also, process vessels are normally
smaller in volume than storage tanks. Another important factor that makes steam
more useful in vapor-freeing process equipment is that such vessels are frequently
hot when emptied, greatly reducing the amount of steam lost through condensation.
Therefore, while ventilation with air is the preferred method of vapor-freeing
storage tanks, air and steam can both be considered for process equipment.

352 Remove Sources of Ignition

Process areas are usually quite congested and cleaning operations are often a part of
other maintenance work in the area. Because of this and before there is a chance of
any vapor release from a vessel to be drained and cleaned, all sources that might be
in the path of this vapor should be removed before the vessel is opened. Wind direction or portable fans may aid in assuring that wind-blown flammable vapors are not
carried to sources of ignition.

Pyrophoric Compounds
Most process vessels are parts of closed systems, and oxygen is not present during
normal operation. In such vessels suspect that the presence of pyrophoric iron
sulfide compounds might become a source of ignition particularly if stock
containing sulfur has been present. See API 2015, Cleaning Petroleum Storage
Tanks for the procedure to follow when pyrophoric compounds are present or
suspected. (See Section 243 for more information on pyrophorics.)

353 Empty the Vessel

Before any vapor-freeing operation can be started, the column or vessel must be
drained of liquid as completely as possible. If the vessel is not hot, or if air is to be
used for vapor-freeing, water can be used to float or flush out remaining flammable
liquid trapped in trays, etc. If, however, the vessel is hot and is to be steamed out,
the water would probably slow the steaming process by its cooling effect more than
it would help it by displacing trapped oil. All emptying and flushing operations
should be completed before large openings, such as manholes, are uncovered.
Drain connections sometimes become blocked with scale or coke. Before assuming
that a vessel has been completely drained, make sure that the drain is not obstructed.
If it must be back-washed to free it, keep track of the quantity of liquid used, and
make sure that at least this quantity of liquid drains out again. When draining volatile liquids, be sure that the flow is always under control and cannot reach a source
of ignition.

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354 Removing Vapor

Ignition and Breathing Hazards
After a liquid, spent catalyst, etc., has been removed, a column or vessel may still
contain vapor within or above the flammable concentration range. Before personnel
enter such spaces for any reason without approved breathing apparatus, the confined
space must be tested and must contain not less than 19.5% oxygen, and the flammable vapor content must be less than 10% of the lower flammable limit to provide
an ample safety factor for performing hot work inside the vessel.
The concentration of vapor must also be reduced below the threshold limit values
(TLV) of toxic materials before people without approved breathing apparatus may
enter the unit for inspection, cleaning or repair. Refer to the Material Safety Data
Sheets for more information.
The progress of any vapor-freeing operation should be closely followed by checking
the atmosphere in the vessel or the stream of vapor being displaced from the vessel
with a combustible gas detector. See Section 335 for additional details.

Ventilating with Steam

To be effective in displacing vapor, steam must be supplied at a rate high enough to
avoid significant condensation, and at a point where it may actually sweep the vapor
ahead of it and out the discharge opening into the surrounding air. Since steam will
condense on all cold metal surfaces, unless the whole vessel is initially hot, it must
be heated to nearly the boiling point of water (at least 170F) before effective
displacement can occur. An actual discharge of steam from the vent opening is
necessary; the mere appearance of a plume of condensed water vapor does not prove
that the steaming rate is adequate.
Preferably, the steam should be introduced as near to the bottom as possible and
vented at or near the top so that expelled vapor can be safely dissipated. All intermediate openings should be kept closed. If the vessel is hot when emptied consider
starting steaming immediately, to reduce the loss of steam in heating the vessel to
170F or higher.
Displacing vapor in a column or vessel with steam has the advantage of keeping the
inside of the unit moist until all vapor has been removed, preventing any pyrophoric iron sulfide that might be present from drying out and becoming a source of
ignition while the concentration of flammable vapor is within the flammable range.

Ventilating with Air

Mechanical air ventilation can be just as effective on process equipment as it is on
tankage (refer to API 2015, Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks). However, on
some vessels, particularly columns, the mechanics of air ventilation may be more
difficult. If a jet eductor (steam or air operated) is used, it should be placed on a
manhole near the top, since it is undesirable to release vapor near the ground. A
blower (operated by electricity, air, or steam) can be attached to a manhole near the
bottom, venting the column or other vessel near the top. The blower should be set

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up and ready to operate before the bottom manhole cover is removed, so that vapor
is not released at that point during installation of the blower.
The blower should be started as soon as feasible. If possible, start it even before the
attachment is completed. All sources of ignition should be carefully controlled
during this period. The air rate should be equivalent to several air changes per hour.
Try to minimize the time during which the tank vapor space is in the flammable
range by maximizing the ventilation flow.
A relatively high air rate is particularly important if pyrophoric iron sulfide is
suspected. Higher air rates ensure a decrease in vapor concentration to well below
the lower flammable limit before the iron sulfide has had time to dry out and oxidize
rapidly enough to burn. If the vessel is dry when ventilation is started, introducing
steam or a spray of water into the vessel to moisten any accumulations of iron
sulfide on surfaces is frequently desirable.
Recent air quality regulations at some locations require vapor recovery or activated
carbon filters to remove the vapors from tanks being opened for inspection,
cleaning, repairs and dismantling. It is important to recognize that this equipment
can provide a source of ignition if not properly designed and controlled. Blowers
should be bonded to the tank vessel and rated for Class I, Div. 2 use. See
Section 226 for additional details.

360 Welding on Nonvapor-Free Lines, Tanks and Vessels

361 Introduction
It is usually safest to empty, clean, and vapor-free any pipe, tank, or vessel before
welding on it with flame or electric arc. Frequently, this can be done without undue
expense or inconvenience.
However, sometimes cleaning and vapor-freeing is extremely expensive and difficult, causing lengthy downtime. In such a situation, certain jobs, such as hot-tapping
connections onto pipes, tanks, or vessels; welding brackets or other attachments
onto operating equipment; and replacing pieces of pipe or fittings can be done on
nonvapor-free equipment with reasonable safety, if specific precautions are taken.
API 2201, Procedures for Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment Containing Flammables, is found in the Standards section of this manual.

362 General
The procedures discussed in this section for welding and hot tapping on pipelines,
vessels, and tanks containing flammable liquid, gas, or vapor should be used only as
a guide and source of information. They cannot be expected to cover all contingencies. If a special need or problem exists, responsible supervision should review
these procedures, keeping in mind that safety is the first consideration.

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The possibility of burning through the walls of equipment during welding operations can be minimized by using capable and experienced welders and by thorough
and adequate inspection of the equipment prior to welding. Ultrasonic thickness
gaging is a valuable tool for such inspection. If a flammable atmosphere may exist,
do not weld or hot tap unless the equipment is inerted or vapor-free.
When arc welding, the welding machine must be located beyond any probable path
of vapor that might be released in the repair operation or from any other source.
Combustibles in the area such as staging boards, grass, or seal material on tanks can
be ignited by welding slag. These precautions, however are no different from those
required for any welding operation.

363 Hot Tapping Precautions and Procedures

Hot tapping is the welding on any pipe, vessel or tank while it is in service. The
principle is that there is enough flow in the pipe or liquid volume in the vessel or
tank to safely carry the heat away from the weld.
Detailed precautions and procedures for hot-tapping piping are included in the
Piping Manual and Welding Manual as well as API 2201. Procedures for hot
tapping tanks are in the Tank Manual.
In addition to the precautions outlined in these publications, standby fire extinguishers and/or water should be provided in the work area. All personnel concerned
with use or operation of the lines or equipment being worked on must be advised of
the proposed job plan. Use of a hot work permit system (see Section 331) is
required.
A Safety Checklist for hot tapping is in the Piping Manual.

364 Special Considerations and Alternate Methods

Oil Pipelines
Several methods have been used to permit cutting out a drained section of line and
venting only the section to be replaced, without vapor-freeing the entire line.
Temporary plugs. Several types of temporary plugs have been used to block off the
pipeline from the area where welding is to be done.
Any temporary plug may unexpectedly dislodge or leak if pressure builds up in the
line behind it, releasing flammable vapor into the welding area. Therefore, some
positive method of venting from the top of the line to a safe location should be used
to prevent pressure buildup in the line. This may require at least one hot tap for a
vent connection, which should be made before the line is taken out of service so that
heat will be dissipated by the flowing fluid while the hot tap is being made. Test for
combustible gas more frequently when temporary plugs are used.
One method of installing a mechanical plug which does not require venting is stoppling. A hot tap is made on the line and an articulated plug is inserted through the
hot tap valve and into the line. After repairs are made the stopple plug is with-

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drawn, and the hot tap valve closed. The advantages of this method include the
ability to isolate sections of pipelines repeatedly using the reinserted stoppling tool.
Disadvantages include a potential reduction in line integrity from an added branch
connection, and need to perform the proper welding procedure on the pipe while it
is in service.
Balloons inserted through small drilled holes in the pipe have been effectively used
for temporary plugs.
Clay packs have also been used, but some products, and some pumping and
metering equipment cannot stand the contamination.
Dry ice packs (solid carbon dioxide) avoid contamination of the line contents. Their
primary use is to make the working area nonflammable by establishing a vapor
barrier of inert gas, rather than to function as a plug.
Dry ice is not a true plug because it constantly diminishes in size as it forms carbon
dioxide gas (CO2). It has been used on motor gasoline and black oil pipelines. Tieins with dry ice, however, should be limited to locations where liquid drain-down is
complete or incoming liquid is so slight that no appreciable amount accumulates
behind the dry ice during fitting and welding. Dry ice packs do not contain pressure.
The open end of the cut line should be covered with plastic or plugged after the dry
ice is in place if any delays are encountered or while the tie-in crew is at the other
end of the job. This keeps the CO2 vapor inside the line, prevents air from mixing,
and helps the carbon dioxide commingle with any hydrocarbon-air mixture back
inside the line.
A vent hole in the pipe behind the dry ice (on the opposite side of the dry ice from
the weld area) is useful to check for fluid accumulation, to test the vapor space in
the line for percent CO2, and to relieve pressure buildup while welding is in
progress. Before trimming or welding is started, the vapor space in the line should
be checked for flammability and, if possible, for percent CO2. Also, as usual, the
open end of the line and the ditch or bell hole should be thoroughly checked with a
combustible gas indicator.
After the pipe has been cut by nonigniting means a screw-expanding plug can be
used to block the line if the plug can be removed through a flanged opening after
welding is completed.
All of the methods discussed here require that the repair area be cleaned up and all
flammable liquid and vapor removed before welding can be done.
Weld-plus-end coupling. This is another commonly used method for making pipeline repairs. In this technique, the pipe is cold-cut with pipe cutters or a saw.
If a power saw is used, it must not be an ignition source. An air-operated or explosion-proof electric motor should be used and the blade kept cool with water or
cutting oil.
The replacement length of pipe or fitting should be fabricated at a safe distance
from the repair site. The replacement length can then be slid into place and the

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weld-plus-end coupling clamped over the ends to be joined. The line can immediately be put back into operation. Then, after any spilled oil has evaporated or been
otherwise disposed of, the coupling can be welded into the pipe with flow in the
pipe to help carry away the heat.

Natural Gas Pipelines

Often natural gas lines are repaired while maintaining one to two ounces of gas
pressure at the top of the pipe in the area of the break, and excess gas is allowed to
burn during welding operations. However, use of this technique should be closely
controlled and those using it must be experienced in this type of work.
Air rapidly enters a large (over 12-inch) gas pipeline that is cut circumferentially. A
gas pressure sufficient to keep air out as the line is cut, results in a flame height
larger than a welder can work near, if the gas is ignited as it escapes the pipeline. A
positive pressure at the top of a pipeline is no guarantee that a negative pressure
does not exist at the bottom of the cut. It can be concluded that if flames are
observed burning outside the bottom of the pipe, no air is entering the pipe.
Conversely, if the flame is not burning at the bottom, air is entering the pipe and
there may or may not be burning on the inside. The ignition of a relatively small
volume of flammable mixture within a nearly closed pipeline may cause a pressure
increase large enough to expose the welder to serious burn. Therefore, use of this
technique should be closely controlled and those using it must be experienced in this
type of work.
The first torch cut should be made furthest from the gas supply to assure pressure at
successive cuts. Successive cuts should then be made progressively closer to the gas
source.
The first weld should be made closest to the gas source to assure pressure at each
weld. Successive welds should then be made progressively farther from the gas
source.
Do not stand in front of openings in the pipe while cutting or welding.
Avoid dead ends of piping systems to be cut or welded. Install a vent at the end to
assure gas flow through the pipe.

Water Pipe
A pipe filled with water can be welded safely if care is taken that there are no vapor
traps in the area being heated.

Tanks and Vessels

Welding on tanks and vessels can be done safely if the applicable precautions in API
2201 and the Tank Manual are followed.
Welding above the liquid level. Welding should not be done on a tank above the
liquid level unless the tank's atmosphere in the vapor space is maintained at less
than 10% LFL and the area to be heated on the inside of the tank has been scraped
clean of any combustible residue or other material for a distance of at least three feet
in all directions. (See Inert Gas Blanketing for an exception.) Care must be taken to

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identify the area inside the tank that will be heated by the welding operation on the
outside. If it is impractical to remove all combustible residue from the area to be
heated, the tank or vessel should be emptied and ventilated. Then, in accordance
with entry permit procedures, personnel should be stationed inside the tank with a
water hose, continuously cooling the heated area while welding is in progress. The
precautions listed in this paragraph apply to asphalt, fuel oil and all other heavy
hydrocarbons in addition to the lighter hydrocarbons. Even though the residue is
deposited at a temperature far below its flash point, it may be heated and vaporized,
and possibly ignited during the welding process.
Inert gas blanketing. An alternative to vapor-freeing and cleaning the affected tank
areas (see Section 350) is to blanket the tank atmosphere with CO2 until the oxygen
concentration is below 10 percent.
If nitrogen is used as the diluent, the oxygen concentration should be reduced to 7
percent or below. Vessels containing more than one percent hydrogen should have
the oxygen concentration reduced to less than 4 percent, with CO2 as the inerting
agent. Accurate analysis of the oxygen concentration in representative samples of
tank vapor space is absolutely essential. Several portable oxygen indicators are
available that will indicate in these ranges.
The precautions listed above should be observed for installation of studs and
brackets by the resistance welding method (for instance, Nelson studs), unless it is
definitely established by test with the actual equipment to be used that control of
welding current, thickness of metal and other factors will prevent the temperature on
the inside of the tank from reaching the auto-ignition temperature point of the material or 450F, whichever is lower.
Welding should not be done on the roof of a floating roof tank unless the tank and
pontoons have been emptied and are vapor-free. Exceptions to this rule require
special precautions, management approval and review by the Fire Protection Staff.

370 Hot Work Inside Columns with Structured Packing

Many columns contain internal beds made of structured packing, especially columns
in which pressure drop is a significant issue. Crude atmospheric and vacuum distillation columns, FCC and coker fractionators, as well as some distillation columns in
chemical plastic manufacturing may contain beds made of structured packing.
Structured packing can consist of very thin gage (almost foil like) layers of metal
corrugated within a support grid. In other cases, structured packing is thicker metal
that is called grid packing. Structured packing and grid packing provides a very high
surface area to volume ratio that is very difficult to clean and provides a good venue
to start a fire, like stacked kindling. Structured packing is typically loaded in
sections and layered like bricks in either single or multi-bed configurations.
Normal cleaning processes do not adequately clean hydrocarbon and fine coke
material off of structured packing. In a test in El Segundo Refinery, structured
packing that was chemically cleaned, steam cleaned, removed from the column and
additionally externally cleaned still contained sufficient hydrocarbon to be ignited.
Our industry has had several instances where a source of ignition (hot work), oxida-

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tion of FeS, or reactive chemicals has started small fires within the packing. New
packing is often coated with a thin layer of oil that also is a fuel source. The heat
from these initial fires is sufficient to ignite the metal packing, resulting in a very
hazardous metal fire that is difficult to extinguish.
Some specific fire protection issues associated with structured packing are:

The job planning process needs to ask the question How can we avoid hot
work over the structured packing? The inherently safer solution is to remove
the packing prior to conducting hot work. A Job Safety Analysis should be
conducted to address the specific risks and mitigation prior to commencing hot
work over structured packing.

The metal in the packing itself is a potential source of fuel. Structured packing
(and on occasion, even random packing) metal can burn and create a metal
fire. (Remember the high school chemistry class where you saw steel wool
burn over the top of a Bunsen Burner?) If a relatively small fire occurs in a
packed bed, its heat can ignite the metal and create a much more serious,
intense fire.

When doing work over packed beds, consider the packing to be a potential fire
hazard. People doing work over packed beds of any type, new or old, need to
treat it as if they are working over a major fuel source. This potential hazard,
combined with the difficulty in removing all the hydrocarbon from the packing,
makes it imperative to isolate the packing from the hot work with substantial
plywood decking and fire blankets sealed off at the column walls. Plywood cut
to the vessel radius should be placed under the fire blankets to prevent wearing
a hole in the fire blankets. The seams in the plywood and the edges of the
decking should be sealed using duct tape. Consideration should be given to
chemically treating the plywood to make it more fire resistant. Fire blankets
(cloths) must be rated for 2000F and overlapped a minimum of 4 inches and the
laps sealed with duct tape, including the lap to the vessel wall. A minimum of
two blanket layers with seams orientated 90 degrees should be used to minimize the potential for welding or grinding sparks to reach the packing.

Hot work inside columns with structured packing must always be wet work.
Keep fire blankets wet while hot work is occurring above packed beds. A fire
hose should be pressurized and used to extinguish any embers that are generated during any hot work (welding and grinding). Fire watches should be
trained to inspect and stop the hot work if holes or tears are found in the fire
blankets

A contingency plan should be prepared and reviewed with all operators and
mechanics before hot work begins. These contingency plans need to address the
precautions needed to prevent/suppress a metal fire. These include:

Removal of the packing prior to doing hot work is the best approach to be
sure absolutely that a fire cannot occur in a column.
In some cases, removing the packing is not attractive, especially for small
hot work jobs. In these cases, redundant sealed barriers between the
packing and the hot work area, such as requiring two or more layers of fire

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blanket with a plywood support underneath. The blankets should be soaked

with water while the hot work is being performed.
Ability to put substantial firewater on the initial fire quickly.
Ability to quickly close up and inert the column to stop the oxygen supply.
This is especially true when multiple manways have been removed and
scaffolding or other equipment has been installed which inhibits reinstalling the manways. Consider how welding cables, electrical lines, air
lines, ventilation lines, etc. can be quickly removed from the manways.
Light weight metal covers should be placed near the manway openings so
that one person can quickly seal the opening. Personnel should be
instructed how to install and seal the openings.
Implement initial and ongoing processes to inspect the site and verify the work
is occurring safely and that the barriers are being maintained. A critical protection is a dedicated fire watch with the responsibility for monitoring the hot
work and who has the authority to stop the work if they observe unusual or
unsafe conditions. The fire watch should review the area after the hot work has
been completed to assure that a smoldering fire has not slowly developed.

Also, packed beds should be monitored during initial vessel entry. Pyrophoric iron
sulfides or reactive chemicals can cause fires as the packing dries out, even when no
hot work is occurring. The precautions listed above for extinguishing a packing fire
should be followed in columns with pyrophoric iron sulfide or reactive chemical
concerns.

380 References
American Petroleum Institute (API)
API 2015

Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks

API 2201

Procedures for Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment

Containing Flammables

ChevronTexaco References
Piping Manual
Tank Manual
Welding Manual

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