Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
IN
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
(ED 720)
ELIZABETH S. SUBA
and the
OPEN UNIVERSITY
Central Luzon State University
Science City of Munoz, Nueva Ecija
PREFACE
This Self-Learning Module (SLM) in
Psychology of Learning is
learning
are designed
to provide you with a solid knowledge base and actualize your learning
experiences. They aim to enhance your long-term learning by allowing you
to:
-
- come up with your own examples of the concept and their application
to teaching-learning process and everyday life.
- analyze and decide on the importance of the information to your own
fields of endeavor.
- write your own philosophy of learning and teaching.
You are advised to go through each topic, do the suggested activities
and participate in the discussion through the learning guides. My role in this
course as a facilitator of learning is to provide basic information about each
topic and to structure the course so that you will most likely learn from the
materials and the tasks. But the final output will depend on your own
efforts. It is quite impossible to cover everything about the realm of human
learning. Thus, you are advised to supplement this material with additional
readings, exploring the world wide web, personal experience and actual
observation and interview of learners and facilitators of learning.
As part of your class portfolio, you will be required to write a personal
learning journal, the purpose of which is to stretch your learning from the
classroom/theoretical inputs to the real world so that your learning is
actualized and personalized. This will also help you write out your own
philosophy of learning and teaching.
There is a lot to learn about the psychological issues in learning. The
next page outlines our procedure in getting the most out of this learning
package. Join me in this journey on learning about human learning.
2.3.
INTRODUCTION
This module is anchored on the following key themes in educating
children which are quoted by Santrock (2001) and also appeared in the
American Psychological Associations learner-centered psychological
principles.
Every facilitator of learning should consider that:
Successful learners are active, reflective thinkers who construct their
understanding.
Successful learners develop positive learning strategies and effectively
monitor their learning.
Successful learners are motivated to learn.
Successful learners are goal-directed.
Successful learners have teachers who adapt their instruction to the
developmental levels of the learners.
Successful learners have teachers who pay attention to individual
differences in learning.
Successful learners have teachers who understand that contexts play
important roles in learning.
Successful learners have teachers who set appropriately challenging
standards and recognize that effectively assessing learning is an
integral dimension of the learning process.
Take time to reflect on these themes which epitomizes our goals in this
learning module.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
COURSE STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE ONE:
BASIC CONCEPTS ON LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 1 The Nature of Learning
Lesson 2 Types of Learning
Lesson 3 Factors Affecting Learning
Lesson 4 Learning Theories
Enrichment Activities
Self-Quiz on Your Emerging Theory/Philosophy of Learning
Assessment
References
MODULE TWO BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 5 Classical Conditioning (I. Pavlov)
Lesson 6 Instrumental or Operant Conditioning (E. Thorndike and
B. F. Skinner)
Enrichment Activities
Assessment
References
MODULE THREE: COGNITIVE APPROACHES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives
Introduction
Lesson 7
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
Lesson 8
Information Processing Model and Memory
Lesson 9
Cognitive Constructivism (J. Bruner and D. Ausubel)
Lesson 10 Social Constructivism (L. Vygotsky)
MODULE ONE
BASIC CONCEPTS IN LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After going through this module, the students are expected to be able
to:
1. Explain the nature of learning.
2. Differentiate learning from other types of behavioral changes.
3. Explain how learning concepts/theories evolved from its historical roots.
4. Cite examples of the different ways in which learning occurs
5. Describe the factors that hinder or facilitate learning
6. Explore his/her own thinking or philosophy about teaching and
learning.
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LESSON 1
THE NATURE OF LEARNING
Learning Defined
Learning occupies much of a persons conscious and even unconscious state. It is
one of the most important facet of our being and that makes it a well-discussed topic in
present day psychology. The Websters New World Dictionary (1994) defines learning as
the acquiring of knowledge of (a subject) or skill in (an art, trade etc.) by study,
experience, or instruction.
In determining whether learning has taken place, psychologists look at behavioral
changes as indicators. Most psychologists agree that learning is a process, that it
involves behavior changes and that it results from practice or experience. (Craig, 1975;
Hilgard 1975-1987; Lupdag,1984)
Kimble (1961), described learning as a relatively permanent change in behavioral
potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice. Potentiality means that the
change in behavior need not occur immediately following the learning experience. For
example, basketball players may learn a new game strategy through lectures and film
clips, but may not translate that learning into behavior until the Sundays game. Kimble
also emphasized that only those responses that lead to reinforcement will be learned.
As emphasized by Gagne and Driscol (1988), learning involves interaction with
the external environment (or with a representation of this interaction stored in the
learners memory). Learning is inferred when a change or modification in behavior
occurs that persists over relatively long periods during the life of the individual.
Learning can be both a process and a product but most definitions stress learning
as a process because the products of learning include both what
one is capable of and
what he is predisposed to.
Learning As A Process
Most learning theorists view learning as a process that mediates behavior. For
them, learning is something that occurs as the result of certain experiences and precedes
changes in behavior. In such a definition, learning is given the status of an intervening
variable. An intervening variable is a theoretical process that is assumed to take place
between the observed stimuli and responses.
The independent variables cause a change in the intervening variable (learning),
which, in turn, causes a change in the dependent variable (behavior). The situation can be
diagrammed as follows:
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Independent
Variable
Intervening
Variable
Dependent
Variable
Experience
Learning
Behavioral
Changes
Law of Similarity the expression or recall of one object will elicit the
recall of things similar to that object.
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Law of Contrast - the expression or recall of one object will elicit recall
of opposite things
Aristotle emphasized that sensory experience gives rise to ideas which will
stimulate other ideas in accordance with the laws of similarity, contrast, contiguity, and
frequency.
Other Historical Influences on Learning
Other thinkers and scientists and their significant contributions in the study of
knowledge and learning are as follows:
Rene Descartes (1595-1650) - postulated a separation between the mind and the body.
He believed that the mind was free and could decide the actions of the body.
John Locke (1632-1704)- posited that the human mind at birth, is a tabula rasa, a blank
slate and experience writes on it. He stressed that There is nothing in the mind that is not
first in the senses. He added that the mind is made up of ideas, and ideas come from
experience. Simple ideas come directly from sensory experience, whereas complex ideas
result from combining simple ideas.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1776)- attempted to correct the impractical features of both
rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism can only involve the manipulation of concepts,
and empiricism confines knowledge to sensory experience and its derivative. He
introduced categories of thought called innate faculties which though not empirically
experienced can give meaning to our experience of the physical world. These include
reality, unity, totality, existence, necessity, causality and reciprocity. His ideas were
picked up by the Gestaltists and Jean Piaget
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)- believed that simple ideas combine into a new totality
that may bear little resemblance to its parts. For example, if we combine 2 primary
colors, we produce a secondary color. His view that the whole is more than the sum of its
parts was later adopted by the Gestaltists.
Francis Galton (1822-1911)- devised a number of methods, such as the questionnaire,
psychological scales, and correlation, specifically designed to measure individual
differences. He changed philosophic questions such as How do humans know? to
How do humans adjust to their environment? and Given certain circumstances what
do humans do?. It led to scientific inquiry on human behavior. He also made pioneering
efforts in behavioral assessment.
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Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)- made a significant contribution in liberating
psychology from philosophy by demonstrating that the higher mental processes of
learning and memory could be studied experimentally. Focusing on the law of frequency,
he invented his now famous nonsense syllable material which is used to study the rate of
learning, He created psychologys first learning curve and first retention curve. He also
found that over learning reduces the rate or forgetting considerably.
LESSON 2
TYPES OF LEARNING
Learning is classified in several ways, based on the psychological make-up of a
person, the context or learning situation, the extent of learning and others.
Categories Based on Functioning
Learning is categorized depending on the three major facets of ones functioning
i.e. cognitive (mental/perceptual), affective (social/emotional) and psychomotor
(physical/developmental).
1. Psychomotor
- this type of learning starts at birth and continues throughout the
developmental stages. Maturation plays an important role because the learning of
psychomotor skills involves the use of muscles and glands.
2. Cognitive
- this learning category gives emphasis on mental development.
The acquisition of knowledge and skills occur through mental processes.
3. Affective this type of learning involves the heart and emotions as values and
attitudes are inculcated in the person. It leads to creativity learning, discovery and
appropriate expression of feelings. The internalization process comes in, putting into
practice what one has learned.
Some schools focus only on the psychomotor and cognitive aspects of learning, to
the neglect of this one important factor in the psychological make-up of a person, the
affective domain.
cognitive, to the neglect of the affective domain.
Types According to Processes
Aside from the learning categories described above, learning can be classified as
formal and informal; verbal and non-verbal; or perfection-oriented and performance
14
oriented. Interestingly, learning occurs in four major waystransmission, acquisition,
accretion and emergence
Transmission is the process by which information, knowledge, ideas and skills are taught
to others through purposeful, conscious telling, demonstration, and guidance. Over the
course of a lifetime, this method accounts for only about 10% of learning. Unfortunately,
this is the most traditional and, currently, the most predominate method of instruction.
However, we are finding out it is not very effective and so must move toward acquisition
and emergence, and examine the lessons of accretion.
Acquisition is the conscious choice to learn. Material in this category is relevant to the
learner. This method includes exploring, experimenting, self-instruction, inquiry, and
general curiosity. Currently, acquisition accounts for about 20% of what we learn.
Accretion is the gradual, often subconscious or subliminal, process by which we learn
things like language, culture, habits, prejudices, and social rules and behaviors. We are
usually unaware that the processes involved in accretion are taking place, but this method
accounts for about 70% of what we know.
Emergence is the result of patterning, structuring and the construction of new ideas and
meanings that did not exist before, but which emerge from the brain through thoughtful
reflection, insight and creative expression or group interactions. This form of learning
accounts for the internal capacities of synthesis, creativity, intuition, wisdom, and
problem-solving. This method is greatly dependent on the allocation of time, and
opportunities to reflect and construct new knowledge. It plays an important role in
inspiration and originality. In the context of current educational practices, we learn only
1-2% by this method.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Read more about the early notions about learning and answer the following questions:
1.1. Plato and Aristotle differ in their views about knowledge. Plato stresses on
Nativism while Aristotle emphasizes on Empiricism in explaining the nature of
knowledge. To which point of view do you subscribe or agree with? Why?
1.2. John Locke believes that the mind at birth is a tabula rasa ( a blank slate) and
experience writes on it. Do you agree or disagree? Cite your own experiences in learning
and teaching to expound your answers.
2. Based on your own experience, list 5 examples of what you have learned under each of
the four ways of learningtransmission, acquisition, accretion and emergence.
Categorize these learning into psychomotor, cognitive, affective. Explain how learning
has taken place in each example.
15
LEARNING EXPERIENCE
CATEGORY
Transmission :
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Acquisition:
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Accretion:
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
Emergence:
1. __________________________
___________________________
2. __________________________
3. __________________________
4. __________________________
5. __________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
___________________________
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LESSON 3
FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Learning is either facilitated or hindered by several factors which may be intrinsic
or extrinsic to the individual learner. These factors that affect learning may be grouped
into three categories namely the learner, the teacher and the environment/culture.
The Learner
As the recipient or end-user in learning, the learner is an important factor in the
teaching-learning process. He is the only one who can say whether learning has taken
place and to what extent. In addition, the learner brings to the teaching-learning situation
several variables that may facilitate or hinder learning.
The sex and age of the learner are important factors because learning rates may
vary across sex and ages. A related factor is intelligence which may vary among
learners and may even decline with age.
The learners values, interests, aspirations, and motivation to learn will greatly
affect the rate of learning as well as its retention. Two other important learner factors
which teachers should take into account are their learning styles and personality.
Current thinking consider emotional intelligence on equal footing with cognitive
intelligence as important factors in the success of people. Some of these important learner
factors will be discussed lengthily in Module 5 of this learning package.
The Teacher/Facilitator
The teacher or the person facilitating learning is equally important for effective
learning to occur. Some people construe that learning depends heavily on the teacher
because he/she is the provider of knowledge and skills to be learned. Thus, educators
advocate that if teaching and learning is to be improved, the improvement must first start
with the teacher. Some of the teacher variables that were identified by Lupdag (1984) as
crucial to the teaching-learning process are discussed below:
1. Sex Studies show that the teachers gender have an effect on the socialization
of learners. Female teachers tend to give more opportunities to female students
who in turn are more responsive to them. However, there are differences in social
interaction in the elementary, secondary and tertiary levels. More so, sex
differences in classroom interaction depends on the teachers and students
themselves.
17
2. Age The age of the teacher affects his/her social, emotional and perceptual
functioning as well as the thinking, interests, and values, These may influence his
relationship and credibility with his students.
3. Academic Qualifications a teacher who has better academic preparation is
more likely to deliver good teaching than one who is underqualified. However, it
is not only mastery of the subject matter that counts in effective teaching but it is
more of effective methods and teaching strategies that the teacher employs.
4. Intelligence and Aptitude As facilitators of learning, teachers are expected to
possess at least an average IQ and aptitude for teaching. It is assumed that the
higher the abilities of the teacher, the better equipped they are in teaching. It is for
these reasons that there are now more stringent requirements for teaching such as
passing the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
5.
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teaching style with the students learning styles, it will more likely result to better
teaching and learning.
With advanced technology, the role of the teacher or facilitator of learning may be
delegated to a machine or a computer. E-learning and interactive education, with their
benefits in terms of fast communication, global competitiveness and innovative learning
would continue to dominate the field of education. Nonetheless, this type of learning still
needs to be done under the supervision of a human being, a well-experienced teacher.
Environment/Culture
Environment refers to the social and physical environment or forces that are
external to the individual. The family, neighborhood, school, church, friends/barkadas,
society and mass media all constitute the social environment that can influence learning,
either positively or negatively. On the other hand, the physical environment consists of
the school structure and facilities, learning materials and equipment which should provide
a conducive setting for effective learning to take place. The environment should also be
seen in the context of cultural changes and acculturation that impacts on society.
LESSON 4
LEARNING THEORY
Knowledge about learning can be accumulated by scientific methods. When such
knowledge is adequately verified through empirical data, it can be expressed as learning
principles. When these principles appear to be congruent with each other and makes
rational sense, a model of the learning process can be constructed. Elaborations of this
model (or other alternative models) become learning theories
.
An example of a Principle of Learning is this:
Facts are learned more readily when they can be meaningfully related by the
learner to a kind of memory structure already possessed by the learner.
Tria et. al. (1998) defines a theory as a set of interrelated constructs, concepts
principles and hypotheses which attempt to explain, predict, or control a set of
phenomenon. Within this view, a learning theory can be defined as a formulation of the
conditions and principles that lead to learning that would explain the nature of the
learning process. It involves systemized interpretations of observations about learning,
attempting to explain the hows and whys of learning. It presents, describes, explains,
or predicts conditions under which learning would or would not occur.
19
To this day, the Philippines is still wanting on the formulation of theories of
learning that are Filipino-based. There are some views and principles though that were
forwarded by some noted Filipino psychologists. Two of these were quoted by Lupdag
(1984):
1. On the Filipino learning style Dr. Virgilio Enriquez (1997) wrote:
The Filipino seems to be most effective when he is exposed to a material as a
meaningful whole. While he appreciate parts, he tackles them simultaneously
or sequentially. He does this not according to an inflexible and pre-conceived
plan but according to the most efficient combination of interaction between
the exigencies of the situation and the changing demands of the active self.
The Filipino would rather control his schedule than allow himself to become a
compulsive victim of an imposed structure.
2. On the practice of learning in Philippine context Jose W. Diokno (1978) stressed that.
For the Filipino, learning for the sake of knowledge but which is not used is
not learning at all. This is shown by the fact that Filipino who knows a lot
(labis sa dunong) but who lacks action (kulang sa gawa) is not appreciated.
Though not systematically organized into a learning theory, these are indigenous
concepts relevant to learning among Filipinos. In our efforts to systematically study the
Filipino psyche, we must continuously search for these locally-based concepts and
principles as they apply to our everyday lives.
Most theories of learning that we will discuss have Western orientation. Thus,
their relevance in explaining how Filipinos learn should be used with flexibility and
should be seen within the context of Asian and Philippine culture.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Based on your own experiences, list examples of factors inherent to you as the learner,
to your teacher and your environment that have either facilitated or hindered your
learning. Explain how these influenced your learning.
Learner Factors
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Facilitating
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
__________________
Hindering
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
Teacher Factors
Facilitating
Hindering
_______________________ __________________ _________________
_______________________ __________________ _________________
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_______________________ __________________ _________________
_______________________ __________________ _________________
_______________________ __________________ _________________
Environment/Cultural Factors
Facilitating
_______________________ __________________
_______________________ __________________
_______________________ __________________
_______________________ __________________
_______________________ __________________
Hindering
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
_________________
21
____ 7. Learning occurs best when the overall task is broken down into a sequence of
short steps.
____ 8. It is important to help students organize their thinking by teaching them general
concepts and principles first.
____ 9. Students can be trusted to find their own goals and should be given choices as to
what and how to learn.
____ 10. Helping students feel good about themselves is just as important as the
academic skills they are taught.
____ 11. Students learn best when they observe a demonstration or model of the skill and
then practice it.
____ 12. Learning is most effective when students are taught problem solving and other
thinking/learning skills.
____ 13. Significant learning only takes place when the subject matter is perceived by the
student as having relevance in his/her life and when personal meaning can be
attributed.
____ 14. The teacher should be a facilitator of learning rather than a presenter of
knowledge.
____ 15. Objectives or outcomes should be identified and stated before the teaching
process begins.
____ 16. If information is organized properly, students can learn very effectively through
teacher presentation.
____ 17. For the most effective learning, students errors should be minimized and
successes maximized.
____ 18. It is crucial that instruction be organized so as to help students grasp the major
concepts of the subject.
____ 19. Self-paced, independent learning materials (such as computer-based programs)
that provide for immediate reinforcement of correct responses are effective
means of instruction.
____ 20. Students learn most effectively when they are allowed to rely on their own
experiences and background knowledge to mentally construct their own,
personal understandings of course concepts.
22
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
23
Learners
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
Parents
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
The Community___________________________________________
___________________________________________
___________________________________________
Others Involved In The Teaching-Learning Process.
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
are
3. The knowledge/insights I gained from this module and the activities are
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
24
4. With this learning experience I intend to __________________________
______________________________________________________.
REFERENCES
Books.
1. Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 3rd ed.,
California: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
2. Gines, Adelaida C., et. al. (2002) Educational Psychology. Manila: Rex Book
Store.
3. Lupdag, Anselmo D. (1984) Educational Psychology. Quezon City: National
Book Store.
4. Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao, L. (1998) Psychology of Learning. Quezon
City: KEN Inc.
5. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill,
New York.
6. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
Websites:
1.
W. Huitt and J. Hummel Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning.
25
MODULE 2
BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES IN LEARNING
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After going through this module, the students are expected to be able to:
1. Explain the mechanics and principles involved in
association learning and conditioning.
2. Compare classical and operant conditioning, and give examples of each.
3. Give examples of four different kinds of consequences that can follow any
behavior and the effect each is likely to have on future behavior.
4.
26
Mental processes include the thoughts, feelings and motives that each of us
experiences but that cannot be observed by others. Although they cannot be seen by the
naked eye, these mental processes are no less real. Examples are: a child thinking about
ways to tie her shoe lace, or a teacher feeling good about a child who is very helpful.
LESSON 5
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning occurs when a person forms a mental association between
two stimuli so that encountering one stimulus makes the person think of the other
stimulus. People tend to form these mental connections between stimuli that occur
simultaneously or become closely together in time and space.
In his experiments on digestion, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov noticed that the
dogs in his laboratory began to salivate just at the mere sight of the keeper, even before
they could see or smell the food to be given.
His series of experiments led to the formulation of Classical Conditioning, which
won for Pavlov the Nobel Prize in 1904 (Tria, Limpingco and Jao (1998). Classical
conditioning is a type of learning wherein an organism learns to connect or associate
stimuli. A neutral stimulus (such as the sight of a person) becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus (such as food) and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response
(Santrock 2001).
Classical conditioning involves two types of stimuli and two types of responses.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) is one that by itself naturally produces an
unconditioned response (UR) without any prior training or learning. In Pavlovs
experiments, food or meat powder is the US. Salivation is an unconditioned response
(UR) because it is a natural or automatic reaction to food, especially for one who is
hungry. Thus, everytime the food is presented, the dog salivates.
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a previously neutral one that eventually elicits a
conditioned response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus (food). The
bell was a first a neutral stimulus and the dog did not salivate with the sound of the bell.
But with repeated pairing of the ringing of the bell with the food, the bell acquired the
characteristics of the food, that is eliciting salivation on the dog.
The bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and the dogs salivation to the sound
of the bell is a conditioned response (CR). According to Santrock, (2001) conditioned
response is a learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after the US-CS
pairing.
This type of learning by conditioning is illustrated as follows:
27
Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (bell) ----------------- Response (no salivation)
U S (food) --------------------- U R (dog salivates)
During Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (bell) + U S (food) ------------ U R (dog salivates)
After Conditioning
C S (bell) --------------------- C R (dog salivates)
2.
Generalization
It involves the tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to
produce a similar response. In the experiment of John Watson on the baby named Albert,
the fear of white rat that was developed in Albert was generalized to other white and furry
animals. In like manner, a student who developed fear in a male teacher after an
embarrassing incident may later fear all male teachers.
3.
Discrimination
In contrast to generalization, in discrimination, an individual learns to produce a
conditioned response to one stimulus but not to another stimulus that is similar. For
example, a child may show a fear response to large black dogs roaming in the yard, but
not to dogs who are in a cage.
4.
Extinction
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A conditioned response (salivation) can be eliminated or weakened by repeatedly
presenting the conditioned stimulus (bell), without the unconditioned stimulus (food).
Thus, the bell looses its capacity to elicit a conditioned response (salivation).
5.
Spontaneous Recovery
A response that had been learned and then extinguished can reappear spontaneously when
the conditioned stimulus is again presented. Spontaneous recovery indicates that learning
is not permanently lost.
Applications and Contributions of Classical Conditioning
1. It helps us understand some concepts of learning better than others. It excels in
explaining how neutral stimuli become associated with unlearned involuntary
responses.
2. It aids in explaining many emotional responses such as happiness, excitement,
anger and anxiety- that people have for certain stimuli.
3. It helps explain the underlying cause of some phobias which are irrational or
excessive fears of specific objects or situations.
4. Classical conditioning procedures are likewise used to treat phobias and other
unwanted behaviors such as alcoholism and addictions.
LESSON 6
INSTRUMENTAL OR OPERANT CONDITONING
Classical conditioning is helpful in understanding students fears and anxieties..
However, it is not as effective in explaining voluntary behaviors, such as why a student
studies hard for a test or likes history better than sociology. For these domains, operant
conditioning is more relevant.
The major theorists in operant conditioning are Edward Thorndike, John Watson
and B.F. Skinner. They proposed that learning is the result of the application of
consequences, that is, learners begin to connect certain responses with certain stimuli.
This connection causes the probability of the response to change, thus, learning occurs.
Thorndikes Connectionism and S-R Theory
Edward Lee Thorndikes experiment with hungry cats in a puzzle box was a
precursor to B.F. Skinners operant conditioning. Thorndike called this type of learning
instrumental because through trial and error method the cat was able to open the latch
(e.g. an instrument) inside the box and was able to escape from the box to get the food
outside.
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From his studies on cats, dogs, and chickens, Thorndike came up with his Laws of
Learning. He recognized two components of learning, the stimulus (S) and the responses
(R ). For him, learning involves the establishment of Stimulus-Response connections thus
paving the ways for the development of the S-R theory of learning. His method is also
called association learning or connectionism because it involves forming bonds between
the stimulus impressions and the responses. The Laws of Learning which is still
influential in modern thinking and practice are:
1. Law of Effect it states that behavior followed by a positive outcome or reward
are strengthened and those followed by a negative consequence or dissatisfiers are
weakened. Thus, the strengthening or weakening of the S-R bond is dependent on
the consequence or what follows the response. For example, when a pupil is
praised for doing well in his project, he continues to strive to have superior work.
On the other hand, if he is not recognized for his efforts and was even criticized,
he may not strive to improve his performance.
2. Law of Readiness it posits that when the S-R connections are ready to conduct,
then the learner is ready to learn. This readiness to learn differs from maturation
which is a prerequiste to learning. As emphasized by Lupdag (1984). readiness to
learn here refers to a temporary neurophysiological state which Sprinthall and
Sprinthall referred to as neurologically teachable moment. Thus a child is
ready to learn to dance when his bones are matured for such an activity and when
he has the mind set and eagerness to learn.
3. Law of Exercise- it simply means that learning occurs with constant practice. The
S-R connections are strengthened when these are used and rehearsed and are
weakened when not utilized. The drill method is a good example of the use of this
law.
B.F. Skinners Operant Conditioning
Burrhus Freferick Skinner used to term operant conditioning because he
described the organism as operating on and influenced by the environment. Whereas
classical conditioning illustrates S-R pattern, operant conditioning is often viewed as R-S
learning. It is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the
response will be repeated.
In the famous Skinners box, there is a lever or bar that operates to dispense
pellets or food. A hungry rat was placed inside the box. As the rat moves around and
explores the box, it accidentally pressed the lever that dispensed the food. Later, the rat
was conditioned to intentionally press the lever to get the food.
Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of
behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur (Santrock 2001).
These consequences of behavior are reinforcement and punishment
30
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
BEHAVIOR
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Student submits
Homework on time
BEHAVIOR
Teacher stops
criticizing student.
Student increasingly
submits homework
on time.
PUNISHMENT
CONSEQUENCE
FUTURE BEHAVIOR
Teacher verbally
reprimands the student.
Student stops
making noise in class
Schedules of Reinforcement
Skinner developed schedules of reinforcement which are important to determine
when a response will be reinforced.
1. Continuous Reinforcement - the behavior is followed by a consequence each time
it occurs. For example, every time the student volunteers to erase the blackboard, the
teacher gives praises.
2. Intermittent Reinforcement this is based either on the passage of time (interval
schedule) or the number of correct responses emitted (ratio schedule). It consist of
four types.
a) fixed ratio a behavior is reinforced after a set number of responses.
This schedule is recommended for learning a new behavior.
31
Examples: a weekly quiz; a candy for every 5 correct words spelled.
b) variable ratio a behavior is reinforced after an average number of times which
changes on an unpredictable basis. This schedule is best for maintaining behavior.
For example a reward is given after the 2 nd correct response, after 8 more correct
responses, then after the next 5 more correct responses.
c) fixed-interval the first appropriate response after a fixed amount of time is
reinforced. For example, a praise is given to a correct response after every 2
minutes have elapsed.
d) variable- interval a response is reinforced after a variable amount of time has
elapsed. For example, the teacher might praise a student after 5 minutes, then
after 8 minutes, then after 15 minutes have gone by.
32
The method of successive approximation is used to shape behavior. A target goal
or desired behavior is set. Then the individual is rewarded for each small step taken
that would lead to the final goal or target response. With the use of this method, it is
possible to train animals in complex behavior. In the case of humans, the procedure
for teaching a complex behavior is to start b reinforcing partial responses, the small
bits of behavior that leads to the whole, and little by little, a complete response is
shaped. And once the desired behavior is learned it may not need reinforcing
anymore.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Observe a group of people (students, teachers, others) undergoing training or
instruction or engaging in an activity. Note and list instances where conditioning
(classical or operant) has taken place. Explain why you consider such as examples of
conditioning.
Date:
Activity:
Participants:
Examples of Conditioning Instances:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
________________________________________________________
2.. Read thoroughly about the experiment of John B. Watson on a baby named Albert
who was conditioned to fear a small white rat by pairing the sight of the rat with a loud
noise. Why was the experiment ethically questionable?
3. How can a learned behavior be eliminated? Give concrete examples and show how
this specific learned behavior can be weakened or eliminated through conditioning
PERSONAL LEARNING JOURNAL
Date:
Activity: (may involve reading, observing, conducting training or any topic
relevant to learning).
33
Responses:
1. The topic/issue I particularly liked and would like to explore more is
_________________________________________. It has caught my attention and
interest because _________________________________
___________________________________.
2. The questions I have in relation to the topics and issues
_____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________.
are
3. The knowledge/insights I gained from this module and the activities are
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________.
4. With this learning experience I intend to __________________________
______________________________________________________.
REFERENCES:
1. Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 3rd ed.,
California: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
2. Gines, Adelaida C., et. al. (2002) Educational Psychology. Manila: Rex Book
Store.
3. Lupdag, Anselmo D. (1984) Educational Psychology. Quezon City: National
Book Store.
4. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis (1998) Human Learning: Theories, Principles and
Educational Applications. McMillan Publishing Company, New York.
5. Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao, L. (1998) Psychology of Learning. Quezon
City: KEN Inc.
6. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill,
New York.
7. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
Websites:
1.
34
W. Huitt and J. Hummel Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning.
MODULE THREE:
COGNITIVE APPROACHES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives:
By the time you have completed this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain how childrens thinking differs at each stage of cognitive
development.
2. Suggest ways in which teachers can use Piagets theory in teaching children at
different ages.
3. Explain how information is processed and how memory works.
4. Differentiate cognitive constructivism from social constructivism
5. Differentiate Bruners from Ausubels views on constructivism (discovery
learning vs. reception learning)
6. Explain the role of social environment in cognitive learning.
7. Cite implications of cognitive theories in the teaching-learning process.
Introduction
How would you explain the concept of airplane to a 4 year old and to a 12 year
old child. Would you use words? Pictures? Drawing or sketch? Specific examples? What
kind? Do young and old children think alike or differ in their thinking? The material in
this module will help you understand how young people think and how their thinking
changes over time and affects their behavior.
Cognition refers to mental processes including thinking, remembering, learning
and using language. When we use a cognitive approach to learning and teaching, we
focus on the understanding of information and concepts. Cognitive theorists maintain that
a persons thinking largely determines his or her feelings and behavior.
Cognitive development involve changes in thinking and understanding. Piagets
ideas can help teachers understand what students can learn and when they are ready to
learn. What happens within a persons mind or the cognitive processing can be
understood well by looking at the information processing model. This will tell us how
information is stored in and retrieved from memory. The cognitive constructivism
theories of Jerome Bruner and David Ausubel explains how people construct ideas and
utilize them in learning about their environment.
35
The work of Lev Vygotsky (social constructivism) highlights the important role
teachers and parents play in the cognitive development of the child.
LESSON 7
STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
In contrast to the behavioral views on learning which focus on observable
behavioral changes, cognitive psychologists believe that mental processes mediate
learning. Among the early concepts explaining cognitive development, Jean Piagets
formulation of the stages of cognitive development had the greatest impact in the study of
thinking and learning.
Piagets Stages of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist devised a model describing how a persons
thinking develop from infancy to adulthood. According to him, our thinking processes
change radically, though slowly, from birth to maturity because we constantly strive to
make sense of the world (Woolfolk, 1998).
Piagets Basic Assumptions on Human Learning and Cognition
Some of Piagets ideas about how people learn and think as discussed by Ormrod,
(1990) and Woolfolk (1998) are presented here. For better understanding, some
implications of these concepts to the teaching-learning process are presented.
1. The rate of cognitive development is controlled to some extent by maturation.
According to Piaget, cognitive development can proceed only after
maturation, which is the unfolding of the biological changes that are genetically
programmed in each human being at conception (Woolfolk, 1998) has taken
place. Brain development is important to allow more sophisticated cognitive
structures to develop. Because of physiological limitations, it would be impossible
for a 2-year old to think logically like a 7 year old.
Educational Implication: Remember that some students, especially those
younger than eleven or twelve may not yet be capable of understanding certain
ideas, particularly the abstract and hypothetical.
2. People are active processors of information and are motivated learners
Piaget described human beings as actively involved in the learning and
interpretation of events around them. (Ormrod, 1990). Being naturally curious,
36
children actively seek out information, manipulate objects in the environment, and
observe their effects of their own actions.
Educational Implication: Capitalize in student natural curiosity. For example, let
them experiment with new objects.
3. Knowledge can be described in terms of structures that change with
development.
People are born with a tendency to organize their thinking processes into
psychological structures called schema (plural is schemata), which are the basic
building blocks of thinking. Schemes or schemata are organized systems of
action or thought that allow us to mentally represent or think about the objects
and events in our world. (Woolfolk, 1998).
For example, an infant might have a schema for grasping and use it for
grabbing everything from bottles to toys. As children develop, new schemata
emerge and integrate with one another to form cognitive structures called
operations that govern logical reasoning.
Educational implication: Childrens schemata may differ depending on their
responses to stimuli. Help students develop appropriate schema of objects or
events.
4. Cognitive development results from the interaction of individuals with their
physical and social environment
By manipulating the environment, individuals develop and shape
schemata. For example, they can learn that some objects can be used as tools to
obtain other objects. Equally important is their interaction with other people.
Piaget described young children as being egocentric or self-centered. Through
social interaction, children begin to realize that they hold a perspective of the
world uniquely their own.
Educational Implication: Give students many hands-on experiences. Provide
opportunities for students to share opinions, perspectives and beliefs with others.
5. Cognitive development involves an increasing integration and organization of
knowledge.
Children use the information they accumulate to construct an overall view
of how the world operates. Piaget maintains that individuals are capable of
organization and adaptation.
37
Organization is the tendency of every living organism to integrate processes into
coherent systems while Adaptation is the innate tendency of a child to interact
with his environment. Adaptation involves two complementary processes:
assimilation and accommodation.
Thus, as children grow, their schemes are modified with experience and
became increasingly better integrated with one another.
Educational Implication: Help students discover relationships among concepts
and ideas.
6. The ways in which people interact with the environment remain constant.
Piaget maintains that people interact with their environment through two
unchanging processes, assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation is the process whereby an individual interacts with an object or
event in a way that is consistent with an existing schema. (Ormrod, 1990)
Accommodation is the process of dealing with new event by either modifying an
existing scheme of forming a new one (Woolfolk,1998).
Assimilation involves modifying ones perception of the environment to
fit a schema; accommodation involves modifying a schema to fit the environment.
According to Piaget, these two processes go hand in hand, with individuals
interpreting new events within the context of their existing knowledge
(assimilation) but also modifying their knowledge as a result of those events
(accommodation).
For Example, consider this sentence. Sigmund Freud believe that people
who are id-dominated tend to be impulsive and irrational in their behavior
Unless you know who Sigmund Freud is and unless you are familiar with
the concept of id and irrational behavior, you can learn very little from the
sentence. Assimilation is almost always a necessary condition for accommodation
to occur; you must be able to relate a new experience to what you already know
before you can learn from it.
Educational Implication: Make sure students have prior knowledge and
experiences to which they can relate new material.
Stages of Cognitive Development
38
Piaget views cognitive development as being a continuous process of unfolding
but with recognizable stages through which all individuals pass. He called these stages
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational. He believes
that the thought processes at each stage are qualitatively different from those at other
stages. Table 2 below summarizes the characteristics of the individual at each stage.
(from Piagets Theory of Cognitive and Affective Development, 1971, 1989)
Table 2
Stage
Approximate
Age
Sensorimotor
0-2 years
Characteristics
Begins to make use of imitation, memory,
and thought.
Begins to recognize that objects do not cease
to exist when they are hidden.
Moves from reflex actions to goal-oriented
activity.
Pre-operational
2-7 years
Concrete operational
7-11 years
Formal operational
11- adult
39
Enrichment Activities
1. Read more about Piagets stages of cognitive development and analyze the
implications of teaching students at each stage of development.
40
2. Talk to a preschooler and a Grade VI pupil and ask their ideas about the relation
of the earth to the moon and the sun or how and why it rains. Compare their ideas.
In what important cognitive ways do the preschooler and the Grade VI pupil
differ?. What adjustments in thinking will you need to make when you
communicate with each of the child.
3.
References:
1. Gines, Adelaida C. et.el (1998) Educational Psychology, Rex Book Store,
Manila.
2. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis (1998) Human Learning: Theories, Principles and
Educational Applications. McMillan Publishing Company, New York.
3. Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao, L. (1998) Psychology of Learning. Quezon
City: KEN Inc.
4. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill,
New York.
5. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
Websites:
1. Cognitive Learning Theory
(http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm)
2. Jean Piaget Intellectual Development
(http://129.7.160.115/inst5931/PIAGET1.html)
3.
41
LESSON 8
INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MEMORY
42
MEMORY
Memory is the retention of information over time (Santrock, 2001). We study how
information is initially placed or encoded into memory, how it is retained or stored after
being encoded, and how it is found or retrieved for a certain purpose later.
Our memory allows us to experience continuity in our experiences and our lives.
Without memory, we will not be able to connect what happened to us yesterday with what
is going on in our life today.
Santrock (2001) explains that our memory involves 3 processes: Encoding which
involves getting information into memory, Storage which means retaining information
over time, and Retrieval which means taking information out of storage. The information
processing model will help us better understand how memory works.
INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
There are several models used to demonstrate the processing of information.
Most of these models consider the processes of encoding, storage and retrieval of
information and recognize the memory structures that are involved. The concepts
found in most models particularly that of the Stage Theory by Atkinson and Shriffin
(1968) are incorporated in the model below.
43
Long-Term Memory
External
Stimulus
Sensory
Memory
Initial
Processing
Elaboration and
Coding
Retrieval
Rehearsal or
repetition
Forgotten
Short-Term
Memory
Response
Forgotten
44
Stimulations coming from the environment are received through the senses. Our
visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory sense receptors are constantly stimulated
by environmental stimuli. These experiences are initially recorded in the sensory memory
or sensory register. The SM holds information in an instant, just long enough (one to
three seconds) to decide if we want to attend to it further.
Recognition and attention are two processes that determine whether or not information in
the SM will receive additional processing. Information that is not selectively attended to
and not recognized is easily forgotten and disappears from the system.
Short Term Memory (STM)
Once information has been attended to and recognized as meaningful, it is
transferred to short-term memory (STM). It is also called working memory because it
holds information that we are aware of at a given moment in time (Gines, et.al,1998). It is
created by our paying attention to an external stimulus, an internal thought or both. It will
initially last somewhere around 15 to 20 seconds at which point it may be forgotten if not
repeated or rehearsed.
Rehearsals can serve two purposes: (a) to memorize information for later use and
(b) to hold information in STM for immediate use. At this point it may be available for up
to 20 minutes. Maintenance rehearsal is also called rote rehearsal or repetition and is
somewhat mechanical. On the other hand Elaborative rehearsal facilitates the transfer to
long-term memory (LTM) as well as its maintenance in STM.
45
On the other hand, Santrock (2001) describes Procedural memory as the
knowledge in the form of skills and cognitive operations which need not be consciously
recalled. When students apply their skills to perform a dance, ride a bicycle, drive a car,
or use a computer, their procedural memory is at work..
Episodic memory is the retention of information about personal experience or the
where and when of lifes happenings. Examples are students memories of their first day
at school, their date in the prom night, and their grade in the final exam in Math.
Semantic memory refers to facts and generalized information about the world. It
is independent of the persons experiences and identity with the past. For example, the
knowledge that the earth is round or that the national hero of the Philippines is Jose Rizal.
Retrieval and Forgetting
In retrieval, we search for information that is stored in our memory bank, the
LTM. The ease of retrieval depends on the type of memory used (semantic or episodic)
and the time that has lapsed when the information was stored in memory.
Retrieval is influenced by the serial position effect (memory is better for items at
the beginning and end of lists than in the middle), how effective retrieval cues are,
encoding specificity, and the memory task (such as recall versus recognition).
Forgetting can be explained in terms of cue-dependent forgetting (failure to use
effective retrieval cues), interference theory (because information gets in the way of what
we are trying to remember) and decay (losing information over time).
Mnemonics as Study Strategies
Recall of material that is stored in memory could be facilitated through the use of
Mnemonics which are memory aids for remembering information. Mnemonic strategies
can be in the form of imagery and words. Some types of mnemonics described by
Santrock (2001) are:
1. Method of loci. In this procedure, children develop images of items to be
remembered and mentally store them in familiar locations, such as rooms of their
house. When they need the information, they can imagine the house, mentally go
to the room and retrieve the information.
2. Rhymes. Common examples are the alphabet song and the month rule Thirty
days hath September, April, June and November,. . . .
3. Acronyms. This strategy involves creating a word from the first letters of items to
be remembered. For example for important characteristics of research problems it
must be SMART specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time-bound.
46
1. Pre-school
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
2. Elementary
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________
3. High School
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
________________________________________________
REFERENCES
1. Gines, Adelaida C. et.el (1998) Educational Psychology, Rex Book Store,
Manila.
2. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis (1998) Human Learning: Theories, Principles and
Educational Applications. McMillan Publishing Company, New York.
3. Tria, G., Limpingco, D. and Jao, L. (1998) Psychology of Learning. Quezon
City: KEN Inc.
4. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill,
New York.
47
5. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
Websites:
1. Cognitive Learning Theory
(http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/cognitive.htm)
LESSON 9
COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is an educational philosophy which holds that learners ultimately
construct their own knowledge that then resides within them, so that each persons
knowledge is as unique as him or her. (ALN Magazine 1997). In other words, learners
construct knowledge for themselveseach learner individually (and socially) constructs
meaningas he or she learns.
Cognitive constructivism is based on the theory of Jean Piaget which proposes
that humans cannot be given information which they immediately understand and use.
Instead, they construct their own knowledge through experience and active interaction
with their environment.
In the Constructivist theory, the emphasis is placed on the learner or the student
rather than the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with objects and events and thereby
gains an understanding of the features held by such objects of events. The learner,
therefore, constructs his/her own conceptualizations and solutions to problems.
Basic Assumptions:
In essence, constructivism postulates the following:
48
Makes extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, create and analyze
Encourages learners to engage in dialogue with other students and the teacher
Aside from Piaget, two other noted contributors to cognitive constructivism are
Jerome Bruner and David Ausubel.
49
Bruner believes that all human cognitive activity involve categories. This is the
process of building and using representations in order to make sense of the world. Either
incoming information is organized in terms of pre-existing categories or we create new
ones.
Bruner identified three modes of representation, corresponding to the
developmental stages, that we use to make meaning out of what we encounter in the
world.. Each of these modes has its unique way of representing objects and events.
Table 3
KINDS OF
REPRESENTATION
PROCESS
EXAMPLE
USE
Enactive
Represented in the
muscles (doing)
Tying a knot
Motor skills
Iconic
Having an image of
what the knots
look like
Sensory skills
(mental picture of
things)
Symbolic
Using symbol
systems (thinking,
reasoning)
The first phase is enactive where a childs world is represented in terms of their
immediate sensation and through which learning is achieved through doing. These motor
acts (know-how) that involve sequential movements are being integrated by a certain
conceptual scheme.
The iconic stage happens during 2-3 years of age and involves the use of mental
images to stand for certain objects or events when they are changed in minor ways. The
symbolic representation is the highest and most complicated manner by which we
acquire learning. This phase starts from age 7 and beyond. It involves the ability to
transform action and image into a symbolic system to encode knowledge Primarily, these
symbols are language and mathematical notation.
Discovery Learning
50
Bruner also advocated the discovery oriented learning approach in schools which
he believes would help students discover the relationship between categories. This
framework promotes learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current and
past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover the facts and relationships for
themselves and continually build on what they already know. The school curriculum is
ideally organized in a spiral manner to facilitate this process, such as the same topics are
redeveloped at succeeding age or grade levels to progressively reinforce learning.
(Bruner, 1966).
Bruners discovery learning focused on the significance of understanding the
structure of the subject being studied, the need for active learning as the basis for true
understanding, and the value of inductive reasoning in learning. Students must be active
in discovering major concepts for themselves, rather than passively accepting the
teachers explanations. The discovery method enhances student learning by allowing the
class to be involved in the lesson, rather than simply being lectured to.
51
A subsumer is a concept similar to a schema or coding system. It leads us to
think of cognitive structure as a type or organization where higher level concepts
incorporate or subsume other ideas. In describing the process of subsumption Ausubel
contended that the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner
already knows.
Derivative subsumption occurs if the new material is so similar to existing structure that
could have been derived directly from it.
Correlative subsumption occurs if the new material requires an extension of structure
because some of it is entirely new.
After learning (subsumption) takes place, the newly subsumed material becomes
increasingly like the structure to which it was incorporated in Ausubels terms, it losses
its dissociability. And when it has finally reached the point of zero dissociability, it can no
longer be recalled.
Reception and Expository Learning
According to Ausubel, people acquire knowledge primarily through reception
rather than through discovery as proposed by Bruner. Concepts, principles, and ideas are
presented and understood, not discovered. The more organized and focused the
presentation, the more thoroughly the individual will learn. He stresses meaningful verbal
learning and not rote memory. According to him rote memory is not considered
meaningful because it does not involve subsumption (new knowledge is not connected
with existing knowledge).
Ausubel specifies that his theory applied only to reception
(expository) learning in school settings.
Ausubel thus proposed his Expository Teaching model to encourage meaningful
rather than rote reception learning. In his approach he emphasized that teachers should
present material in a carefully organized, sequential manner so that students receive the
most usable material in the most efficient way. Ausubel believes that learning should
progress deductively- from the general to the specific and not inductively as Bruner
recommended.
Advance Organizers
A major contribution of Ausubel is the use of advance organizers in learning and
teaching. These organizers must be introduced in advance and presented at a higher level
of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness. They are selected on the basis of their
suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede. Ausubel
emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries, which
simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and
generality as the rest of the material.
52
Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing
related ideas. Optimal learning generally occurs when there is a potential fit between the
students schemas and the material to be learned. To foster this association, Ausubel
suggests that the lesson always begin with an advanced organizer an introductory
statement of a relationship of high level concept, broad enough to encompass all the
information that will follow.
Examples of advanced organizers are those found in some textbooks the chapter
overviews that explains the lessons to be learned in the chapter. They usually serve three
purposes:
1. direct attention to what is important in the coming material
2. highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented and
3. remind the student of relevant information already in memory.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Suppose you are a teacher and you will be presenting to your class a topic of your
choice (could be in Science, Math, your field of specialization or maybe Module 2
of this Self-Learning Module). Prepare an advance organizer for your presentation
of this topic. Describe how you will present the new lesson to class using this
advance organizer.
2. Critical Thinking. Compare and contrast Bruners and Ausubels views about
teaching and learning. Which do you think is more effective discovery learning or
reception learning/expository teaching? Cite your own experiences to elucidate
your answers.
REFERENCES:
1. ALN Magazine Volume 1, Issue 1 . March 1997.
2. Ausubel, David P. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning. New
York: Grune and Stratton.
3. http://evolution.massey.ac.n2/assign2/BP/Bruner.html
4. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm
5. http://www.law.nyu.edu/faculty/bios/brunerj.html.
6. http://vanguard.phys.udiaho.edu/mod/models/ausubel/index.html.
7. http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html.
53
LESSON 10
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher in the 1930s, is most
often associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the influences of
cultural and social contexts in learning and support a discovery model of learning
The major theme of Vygotskys theoretical framework is
that social interactions play fundamental role in the
development of cognition. This type of model places the
teacher in an active role while the students mental
abilities develop naturally through various paths of
discovery.
Vygotsky modeled his theory after the Soviet view
that each person has a role in transforming the society where he belongs.
Key Concepts in Vygotskys Theory
1. Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice:
a) first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level;
b) first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological).
This applies equally to the voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the
formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals.
2. In making meaning about of the world, the community plays a central role. The people
around the student greatly affect the way he or she sees the world.
3. The potential for cognitive development depends upon the Zone of Proximal
Development. Problem solving skills in doing tasks can be placed into three categories:
a. those able to be performed independently by the student;
b. those that cannot be performed even with help; and
c. those that fall between the two extremes, i.e. the tasks that can be performed with
help from others. This is what Vygotsky called the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior.
54
The potential for cognitive development is limited by the ZPD. Furthermore, full
development during the ZPD depends upon full social interactions and the range of skills
that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be
attained alone.
4. Tools for Cognitive Development
The type and quality of these tools determine the pattern and rate of development.
The tools may include important adults and peers of the student, culture, language and
others in the social environment.
5. Thought and Language Connection
Before the age of two years, the development of thought and speech are separate.
However, at two years, they join to initiate a new form. Thought becomes verbal and
speech becomes rational. Speech serves the intellect as thoughts are spoken. Thus, social
environment is important to childrens development because it can accelerate or
decelerate development.
6. Language and Egocentric and Inner Speech
Language is a tool for organizing thinking because it bears the concepts. The
primary function of speech is communication. Communicative and egocentric speech are
both social with different functions. Speech develops first with external
communicative/social speech, then egocentric speech, and finally inner speech.
Vygotsky theorized that egocentric speech has a genetic connection with inner
speech. Egocentric speech is the key to studying inner speech because it is the stage that
precedes it. Both fufill intellectual functions and have similar structures. Inner speech is
for oneself while external, social speech is for others.
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LESSON 11
THE CONDITIONS OF LEARNING (Robert Gagne)
Robert Mills Gagne was a research director of the perceptual and motor skills
laboratory of the US Air Force when he developed his ideas on his comprehensive
learning theory, the conditions of learning, or sometimes called hierarchical learning.
Conditions of Learning
In his best known book The Conditions of Learning (1988) Gagne enumerated 8
conditions where there is a hierarchy or progression of increasing complexity in learning
from the most basic condition to the most complex one.
1. Signal learning stage where involuntary responses are learned; this condition
is similar to classical conditioning.
2. Stimulus-response learning where voluntary responses are learned; similar to
operant conditioning.
3. Chaining a series of stimulus-response connections are linked.
Example: adding 1 and 2 as 3.
4. Verbal association this stage entails labeling certain responses.
5. Discrimination learning the condition where the learner selects a response
which applies to certain stimuli. Example: choosing 2 rather than 3 when
presented with the problem: 1+1 = ________ .
6. Concept learning involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts.
7. Principle learning involves combining and relating concepts already learned to
formulate a new one: Example: 1+2 =3 is the same as 2+1=3 (association)
8. Problem solving- the most complex condition which involves applying rules to
appropriate problem situation.
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Teaching implication: The significance of this hierarchy to teaching is to identify
prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level and to provide
basis for the sequencing of instruction.
Transfer of Learning
8. assessing performance (retrieval)
9. enhancing retention and transfer of learning (generalization)
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as
the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs &
Wager, 1992). While Gagnes theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the
focus of the theory is on intellectual skills.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Give an example to illustrate a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine
instructional events described by Gagne.
Cite a specific learning task with an objective such as Teaching students how to
recognize an equilateral triangle.
2. Critical Discussion:
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Compare cognitive constructivism with social constructivism. Point out the strong
points and weak points of each theory in relation to the teaching-learning process.
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4. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
Websites on the topics:
MODULE FOUR
SOCIAL/HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives:
After reading this module, the students should be able to:
1. Explain how individuals learn through modeling and imitation.
2. Identify and explain the factors that affect observational learning.
3. Differentiate humanistic education learning from behavioral and
cognitive views in learning.
4. Differentiate cooperative learning from individualistic/competitive
learning.
5. Cite specific situations where cooperative learning would be highly
effective.
Introduction
Some psychologists classify social learning under behavioral
approaches because observation and reinforcement forms part of the
elements of observational learning. Other authors categorize social learning
under cognitive approaches because cognitive processes are involved in
modeling and imitation. In this module, Banduras social learning theory is
grouped under the social/humanistic approaches which is considered a third
force in psychology. Theories and approaches under this cluster consider
learning as occurring within a social context or through interaction with
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Modeling, (also called observational learning) involves learning by observing
and imitating others behavior. By observing others, one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and later this coded information serves as a guide for action.
In Banduras classical Bobo doll experiment, children were exposed to models
in films. He had children witness a model aggressively attacking a plastic clown called
the Bobo doll. The children watched a video where a model aggressively hit a doll. In
one film, the model is rewarded, in another, the model is punished, and in the third,
nothing is done with the model. The result showed that children first chose to imitate the
model who was rewarded, the no-consequence model was next and the model who was
punished was the last choice.
With his experiment Bandura showed that
1. the tedious and hazardous process of trial and error learning can be shortcut
through social modeling of knowledge and competencies exhibited by the rich
variety of models.
2. in addition to cultivating new competencies, modeling influences can alter
motivation by instilling behavioral outcome expectations, and creating emotional
tendencies and value systems.
3. modeling influences can promote creativeness by exemplifying diversity for novel
synthesis and fresh perspectives that weaken conventional mind sets.
Process of Observational Learning
There are four important elements or component processes involved in observational
learning.
1. Attention
Individuals cannot learn much by observation unless they perceive and attend to the
significant features of the modeled behavior. As applied in the classroom, the teacher
must ensure student attention to critical features of the lesson.
2. Retention
In order to imitate the modeled behavior, the student must remember it. Retention
involves mentally representing the models actions, most likely as verbal steps, visual
images or both. Retention can be improved by mental rehearsal or by actual practice. The
individual must code the information into long-term memory.
3. Motor Reproduction
The observer must be able to reproduce the models behavior. Practice, feedback and
coaching can help reproduce the behavior of the model. Once a behavior is learned
through attention and retention, the observer must posses the physically capabilities to
produce the act.
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CHARACTERISTICS
Developmental status
Model
prestige
competence
EFFECTS ON MODELING
Improvements with development include longer attention and
increased capacity to process information, use strategies,
compare performances with memorial representations, and
adopt intrinsic motivators.
Vicarious consequences
Outcome expectations
Goal setting
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behaviors that help observers attain goals.
Self-efficacy
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1. Application of Modeling in Teaching Situation.
In Mrs. Domingos 2nd grade class, the pupils were working on a Social Studies
project. Mrs. Domingo noticed that at a table with four children, two students
(Pupil A and Pupil B) were concentrating while the other two (Pupil C and Pupil
D) were fooling around. How will you use modeling to help Pupils C and D to
focus their attention at their project by using the two students (Pupils A and B) as
models? What will you tell the students?
2. List some forms of punishment used in public schools. Does the punishment
decrease or extinguish the behavior for which it is given? Give some examples of
punishment being experienced by the students as reinforcement.
REFERENCES:
1. Gines, Adelaida C. et.el (1998) Educational Psychology, Rex Book Store,
Manila.
2. Ormrod, Jeanne Ellis (1998) Human Learning: Theories, Principles and
Educational Applications. McMillan Publishing Company, New York.
3. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill,
New York.
4. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
LESSON 13
HUMANISTIC LEARNING
Humanism and Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology got its name from its belief in the basic goodness and
respect of humankind, an understanding and acceptance of ones own existence and
responsibility. Humanism has variously been described as a philosophy, a theory of
psychology, and an approach to educational practice
As a philosophy, humanism is a paradigm that emphasizes the freedom, dignity,
and potential of humans. Humanists, therefore, give primacy to the study of human
needs and interests. A central assumption is that human beings behave out of
intentionality and values (Kurtz, 2000). Humanists also believe that it is necessary to
study the person as a whole, especially as an individual grows and develops over the
lifespan. The study of the self, motivation, and goal-setting are also areas of special
interest.
The basic ideas behind Humanistic Psychology and humanism are:
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Among other human needs, the need for achievement which Maslow called nAch
is well studied in education. Studies show that those with high need for achievement
(nAch) demonstrate a consistent concern about meeting obligations and accomplishing
tasks. They are however more focused on internal motivation rather than external
rewards.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Cite 3 specific examples of learning situations where humanistic approaches
would be highly applicable and would result to better learning.
REFERENCES
Gage, N., & Berliner, D. (1991). Educational psychology (5th ed.). Boston:
Houghton, Mifflin.
Kurtz, P. (2000). Humanist manifesto 2000: A call for a new planetary humanism.
Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.
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LESSON 14
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
According to Johnson and Johnson (1987), there are three basic types of learning that
goes on in any classroom:
1. Individualistic learning - the more traditional structure of learning that has each
student working independently on a project. Student accomplishment toward a
specified goal relies little, if any, on other students performance.
2. Competitive learning - a structure where students are vying against each other
in order to accomplish a particular goal. Students find themselves in Win-Lose
situations i.e. in order for me to win, you must lose.
3. Cooperative learning - a structure that utilizes small groups to encourage
students to work together to optimize their own and their peers learning.
While the first two types involve individualistic behaviors, the third type, cooperative
learning will not be possible without social participation. .
What is Cooperative Learning?
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which students with different
levels of ability are grouped into small teams and use a variety of learning activities to
improve their understanding of the subject. Each member of the team is responsible not
only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an
atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group
members successfully understand and complete it.
According to Joan Henley (ISG501 Homepage) Cooperative classrooms are changing the
essence of learning from I classrooms to We classrooms. As a classroom structure,
cooperative learning allows students to work together in small, mixed-ability groups.
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The teachers role shifts from learning disseminator to learning facilitator. The
responsibility for learning shifts from the teacher to the student. Furthermore, students
working in cooperative groups have an additional twist to their learning. They are not
only responsible for learning the material that is presented but also for ensuring everyone
in the group knows the material as well. (Slavin, 1987).
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1. Positive interdependence. (Sink or swim together) Positive interdependence is
successfully structured when group members perceive that they are linked with each
other in a way that one cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds. Group goals and tasks,
are designed in a way that communicates a one for all; all for one policy or the sink or
swim together motto.
2. Face-to-face interaction. (Promote each others success) Students should promote
each other's success by sharing resources and helping, supporting, encouraging, and
applauding each other's efforts to achieve. This can be done by: orally explaining how to
solve problems, teaching one's knowledge to others, checking for understanding,
discussing concepts being learned, and connecting present with past learning. It is
through promoting each other's learning face-to-face that members become personally
committed to each other as well as to their mutual goals.
3. Individual and group accountability. (No hitchhiking /no social loafing). The group
must be accountable for achieving its goals and each member must be accountable for
contributing his or her share of the work. Individual accountability exists when the
performance of each individual is assessed and the results are given back to the group and
the individual to find out who needs more assistance, support, and encouragement in
learning. As students learn together, they gain greater individual competency, making
each member a stronger individual.
4. Interpersonal and small group skills. Cooperative learning is more complex than
competitive or individualistic learning because students have to engage simultaneously in
task work (learning academic subject matter) and teamwork (functioning effectively as a
group). Leadership, decision-making, trust-building, communication, and conflictmanagement skills empower students to manage both teamwork and task work
successfully.
5. Group processing. Group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals
and maintaining effective working relationships. Continuous improvement of learning
results from careful analysis of how members are working together and how group
effectiveness can be enhanced.
Examples of Class Activities that use cooperative learning:
1. Jigsaw
6. Numbered Heads
2. Think-Pair-Share
3. Three-Step Interview
9. Partners
5. Three-minute Review.
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ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
Taking it to the Net
1. Read further on elements of cooperative learning and the examples of class activities
that use cooperative learning. Among the class activities described (i.e. Jigsaw etc.) select
two which could be applicable in the Philippine setting (considering the culture and
values). Illustrate how you will do these cooperative learning activities if you are the
teacher.
Websites references:
a) David and Roger Johnson http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cl.html.
b) http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm.
REFERENCES:
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____________________________________________________________.
4. With this learning experience I intend to _________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
MODULE FIVE
INVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives:
By the time you have completed this module, you should be able to:
1. Explain the construct of intelligence from Sternbergs and Gardners
view.
2. Discuss the relationship of intelligence and aptitude to learning and
academic performance.
3. Differentiate intrinsic from extrinsic motivation and give examples
of each.
4. View motivation from the different theoretical perspectives.
5. Set motivating goals for yourself and your students.
6. List some characteristics of a self-regulated learner and describe how
teachers can promote self-regulated learning in the classroom.
7. Describe different ways of looking at learning styles and explain how
they influence learning.
8. Differentiate the types of exceptionality in terms of cognitive and
non-cognitive functioning.
9. Explain how a teacher may improve learning by considering the
principle of individual differences.
Introduction
The principle of individual differences emphasize that there are
variations among individuals and that no two persons are exactly alike. As
applied in the teaching-learning process, the teacher must recognize that
learners differ not only across sex, age, economic status and the like, but
also in their physical, intellective and non-intellective functioning.
Individual differences exist in terms of intellectual ability, motivation, and
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learning style, For one student, self-regulated learning may work best while
for another, it may result to failure. There are also individuals who may be
gifted and would profit well from teaching while there are those with special
needs and experience learning difficulties.
If education is geared towards the well-rounded development of a
person, then the teacher need to consider individual differences and accord
every student the learning and services suited to their special needs.
Lesson 15
INTELLIGENCE
Students differ in terms of the individual characteristics and traits that they bring
into the learning situation. Such individual differences may be classified into
physiological, intellective or non-intellective domains. Under the intellective domains,
intelligence and aptitude are two important factors where learner differences may be
pronounced and would definitely affect learning.
With the contributions of cognitive psychologists, there is no doubt that learning
is an active mental process. Thus, educational psychologists are interested in how people
think, learn concepts, make decisions, and solve problems. A major factor that mediates
these cognitive processes is ones intelligence which is often referred to as the general
capacity to learn and adjust to the environment.
The Nature of Intelligence
Some psychologists like James McKeen Cattell were influenced by Darwin to
view intelligence as a genetic factor, separate from special abilities. On the other hand,
Charles Spearman maintains that intelligence consists of two factors, the g or general
intelligence factor and the s or specific factors.
David Wechsler (1939, 1974), the author of the Wechsler intelligence scales for
adults, children and preschoolers defines intelligence as the global capacity of a person
to think rationally, act purposefully and deal effectively with his environment
(Drummond, 1996).
To better understand the nature of intelligence, let us look at some of its elements and
characteristics as described by several theorists.
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Intelligence involves the use of prior knowledge to analyze and understand new
situations effectively
Theories Of Intelligence
There are several models used in explaining intelligence. Two of these which are relevant
to teaching are Sternbergs Triarchic Intelligence and Howard Gardners Multiple
Intelligence.
Sternbergs Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence
Robert Sternberg (1986) believes that intellectual skills and thinking skills are
inseparable. In Sternbergs words, intelligence is the purposive selection and shaping of
and adaptation to real-world environments relevant to ones life. This definition
emphasizes the individuals control over the environment by changing and molding them.
.
Successful intelligence, Sternberg explains, requires three types of abilities:
analytical, creative, and practical. Analytical abilities are needed in sorting out and
evaluating options, monitoring failure and success, and setting up strategies. It involves
judging, evaluating, contrasting, comparing, and analyzing.
Creative abilities allow the individual to generate options and ideas and to try
new ways of selecting, shaping and adapting to the environment. They are evident in
activities such as discovering, imagining, inventing and supposing. Practical abilities
allow people to carry out their options, to put into practice the behaviors and skills that
are involved in selecting, shaping, and adapting to environments.
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4. Wechsler, D. (1974) Manual for the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- Revised, New
York: Psychological Corporation.
5. Whiston, S. C. (2000) Principles and Applications of Assessment in Counseling
California: Cole Thomson Learning.
Lesson 16
MOTIVATION
Why are you reading this module? Is it because you are curious and interested
about the topic of motivation? Or maybe as a teacher you are having difficulty in
motivating your students. Do you need to study this module as a class requirement or is
there a test in the near future? Or perhaps you want to do well in the subject because you
expect to earn a good grade. We could think of several other reasons, and for some it may
be a combination of reasons to explain what motivates one to study motivation.
Defining Motivation
Motivation is a very important construct in learning because it is considered as
the intervening variable involved in arousing, directing, and sustaining behavior. Creder
et. al. (1996) refers to motivation as the desires, needs, and interests that arouse and
activate an organism and direct it toward a goal. Similarly, Bernstein et. al (1991) sees
motivation as the influence that govern the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence
of behavior.
According to Ball (1977), motivation is a hypothetical construct, It cannot be
observed directly, but is only inferred from a persons observable behavior. He added that
motivation is not the only factor that determines behavior. For example, poor academic
performance could stem from an interplay of motivation with low mental capacity,
learning disability, and absence of support.
In addition, we should consider that:
a)
b)
c)
d)
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4. Social Learning Approaches
Social learning theories usually combine behavioral and cognitive approaches.
They take into account the individuals expectations of reaching a goal, and the
value of that goal or the outcome. The important questions asked are, If I try
hard, can I succeed?, and If I succeed, will the outcome be valuable or rewarding
to me?
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REFERENCES:
1. Ball, S. (1977) Motivation in Education. New York: Academic Press
2. Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 3rd ed., California:
Brooks/Cole Publishing.
3. Gagne, Robert M and M. P. Driscoll (1988) Essentials of Learning for Instruction
2nd edition. New Jersey. Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs.
4. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York: McGraw Hill,
New York.
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LESSON 17
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
It is often said that learning is a life-long process, that one never ceases to learn as
long as he or she lives. One major goal of teaching is to free students from the need of
teachers so that they can continue to learn independently throughout their lives. This can
be achieved when the teacher has taught his or her students how to become self-regulated
learners.
Defining Self-Regulated Learning
Self-regulation refers to self-generated thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are
oriented to attaining goals (Zimmerman, 2000). Self-regulated learners are proactive in
their efforts to learn because they are aware of their strengths and limitations and because
they are guided by personally set goals and task-related strategies. They monitor their
behavior in terms of their goals and self-reflect on their increasing effectiveness.
Because of their superior motivation and adaptive learning methods, selfregulated students are more likely to succeed academically and are optimistic about their
future.
Cleary and Zimmerman (2000) emphasize that self-regulated learning involves
more than detailed knowledge of a skill; it involves the self-awareness, self-motivation,
and behavioral skill to implement that knowledge appropriately.
Characteristics of Self-Regulated Learners
Self-regulated learners have a combination of academic learning skills and self-control
that makes learning easier. Three factors that influence their skill and will are:
knowledge, motivation, and self-discipline or volition. (Woolfolk, 1998)
Knowledge
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Self-regulated learners need knowledge about themselves, the subject, the task,
strategies for learning and the context in which they will apply their learning. They
know their learning styles, their interests and talents, their strengths and limitations
and how to use their strengths.
Motivation
Self-regulated learners are motivated to learn. They are interested to learn because
they know why they are studying and they value learning. They are self-determined
and not controlled by others.
Volition
Self-regulated learners have the willpower to continue what they are doing despite
the odds and temptations. They know how to protect themselves from distraction,
how to cope when they feel anxious and lazy, and what to do when they are
tempted to stop working.
Structure and Function Of Self-Regulatory Processes
According to Zimmerman (2002), the structure of self-regulatory processes can be
viewed in terms of three cyclical phases. The forethought phase refers to processes and
beliefs that occur before efforts to learn; the performance phase refers to processes that
occur during behavioral implementation, and self-reflection refers to processes that occur
after each learning effort. The processes and functions involved are summarized below
(Zimmerman, 2002).
1. Forethought Phase
Task Analysis (Goal setting, strategic planning)
Self Motivation (Self-efficacy, Outcome expectations, Instrinsic
Interest/value, Learning goal orientation)
2. Performance Phase
Self-Control (Imagery, self-instruction, attention focusing,
Task strategies)
Self-Observation (Self-recording, self-experimentation)
3. Self-reflection phase
Self-Judgment (Self-evaluation, Causal attribution)
Self-reaction (Self-satisfaction/affect, Adaptive/defensive)
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Read more on the topic self-regulated learning. List some characteristics of
a self-regulated learner. Do you consider yourself as one? Explain why you
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think so and cite specific activities that you do that characterizes a selfregulated learner.
2. How can a teacher promote self-regulated learning in the classroom? Cite
specific procedures or techniques and explain how they can be employed.
Critical Thinking
3. Why is it that not all students may be capable of becoming self-regulated
learners?
REFERENCES
1. Garcia, John Addy S. (2005) Lecture-Presentation Self-Regulated Learning.
Psychology Department. Central Luzon State University.
2. Zimmerman, Barry J. (2002) Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview.
Theory Into Practice Vol. 42, 2, Spring 2002, College of Education, The Ohio
State University.
3. Zimmerman, Barry J. (2000) Attainment of self-regulation: A social cognitive
perspective. In M. Boekarts, P.R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds) Handbook of SelfRegulation. San Diego, C.A: Academic Presss.
4. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.
Lesson 18
LEARNING STYLES
Try to ask your students how they study for an examination and which method
would usually bring about the best results. Perhaps one would say that when doing an
assignment or reviewing for an exam, he/she prefers to do it alone and in a quite place.
Another student might say that he /she prefers learning with peers he/she could learn
better study when there is background music. These two students definitely differ in the
ways or manner in which they learn best, that is, their learning styles.
Defining Learning Styles
Learning styles refer to the characteristic cognitive, affective, and psychological
behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with,
and respond to the learning environment (Keefe & Monk, 1986). For Dunn and Dunn
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(1993), learning style is the way in which each learner begins to concentrate, process, and
retain new and difficult information. No learning style is either good or bad. Each merely
provides inside into how a person is most likely to learn new and difficult information.
Thus if you are a teacher and you want to facilitate learning or accelerate the
learning process, you need to have a clear understanding of how your students learn best,
their styles or ways of learning. Learning will be maximized if students are taught using
their perceptual strengths.
Characteristics of Learning Style
1. Learning style is more than learning most easily by hearing, seeing, reading,
writing, illustrating or experiencing actively. Perceptual strength or modality is
only one factor.
2. It is also more than whether a person processes information sequentially,
analytically, or in a left-brain mode rather that in a holistic, simultaneous global
right brain fashion.
3. It is more than how someone responds to the environment or whether information
is absorbed concretely or abstractly.
4. Learning Style is the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process,
and retain new and difficult information. That process occurs differently for
everyone.
Some facts about learning styles which are worth considering are:
Every person has a learning style and every person has learning style strengths.
People tend to learn more when taught with their own strengths than when taught
with the teachers strengths
No learning style is better or worse than another. Each style encompasses similar
intelligence ranges
Most gifted children are global learners. On the other hand, most underachievers
also are globals.
But whether students are analytical or global, they are capable of mastering
identical information or skills if they are taught through instructional methods, or
resources that complement their styles
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Dr. Rita Dunn and K. Dunn (1975) classified students as globals and analyticals
based on their learning preferences. The Dunn, Dunn and Price Learning Style Inventory
is the most widely used and most researched diagnostic instrument for school aged
children in the United States. The instrument encompasses 21 different variables,
including each persons environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and
cognitive- processing preferences.
The characteristics and attributes of analytical as well as global learners are
summarized in the table below. (Source:Manual on the Second National Conference of
the Center for Learning and Teaching Styles, Philippines)
Table 6. Characteristic of Analytical vs. Global Learners
ELEMENTS
ANALYTICAL
- Prefers quiet place
- Prefers bright lights
- Prefers a formal setting
GLOBAL
Prefers sounds
Prefers low lights
Prefers an informal setting
- Is persistent
- Have strong emotional need
to complete the tasks they are
working on
- Prefers routines and set
patterns in terms of tasks
Is not persistent
Prefers to work on several tasks
simultaneously
Prefers to structure tasks in
their own way; tends to dislike
imposed directions.
ENVIRONMENTAL
EMOTIONAL
SOCIOLOGICAL
PSYCHOLOGICAL
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2. Diverger
3. Assimilator
4. Accommodator
and
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Application of D. Kolbs Model. Assume that you are a teacher and you found out
that half of your class are of the converger type while the other half are of the diverger
type of learner. How would you design your teaching so that the learning of all your
students is facilitated and maximized.
2. Read more about the different models of learning styles. Suppose you are assigned to
do a study on learning styles of third year high school students in one private and one
government school. Which model of learning style will you use? What other variables
will you include in your study?
3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of matching your teaching style with your
students learning styles.
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REFERENCES
1. Center for Learning and Teaching Styles (2001) Manual for the Second National
Conference March 1-2, 2001 Creating an Enhanced Learning Environment
Through Individual Learning Styles. PICC, Pasay City.
2. Gines, A. et. al. (2002) Educational Psychology. Manila: Rex Book Store.
PERSONAL LEARNING JOURNAL FOR MODULE 5
Date:
Activity:
Reflections:
1. The topic/issue I particularly liked and would like to explore more is ___
______________________________________. It has caught my attention/interest
because ______________________________________
_________________________________________________.
2. The questions I have in relation to this topic/incident
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
is/are
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MODULE SIX
ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
Learning Objectives
After going through this module, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the importance of assessment in the school setting.
2. Demonstrate through examples why evaluation is an integral part of
the teaching-learning process.
3. Explain Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives in the cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective domain.
4. Formulate learning outcomes as objectives of instruction
5. Differentiate standardized from teacher-made achievement tests.
6. Distinguish the different types and formats of tests.
7. Cite classroom situations where the principles of evaluation may be
applied.
Introduction
The study about learning will not be complete without the topic on
assessment of learning. For how can one know if learning has taken place, if
not through assessment (whether formal or informal) where one could
determine if a person has learned and to what extent.
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A test is a particular form of measurement; it is a systematic method of gathering
data for the purpose of making intra or inter individual comparisons. Tests may be
categorized as standardized, informal (teacher-made), oral, written, mastery, survey,
speed, power, verbal, nonverbal or performance.
Uses of Measurement and Evaluation
There is no question that measurement and evaluation are important in the
educational system. The assessment of the learning process in all its diverse forms and
contexts has enabled significant advances in educational theory and practice at all levels
and in all fields. Effective assessment can play a vital role in appropriately placing
students, diagnosing learning problems and progress, improving and enriching teaching
performance, and in achieving and maintaining academic standards. Some of the
important purposes of educational measurement and evaluation are the following:
1. Tests determine the optimum level of work and the students capacity to succeed.
For example, standardized aptitude tests, school entrance tests are used as basis
for predicting success in a particular course or year level.
2. Tests are used for selection, classification and placement of students to ensure
economy and equality of learning if classes are homogenous and provide if
necessary, for special classes for the gifted and the mentally challenged.
3. Tests are used in the diagnosis of learning difficulties and their implications for
remedial procedures.
4. Tests are important assessment tools for guidance and counseling purposes.
5. Tests and measurement are relevant in the learning process because they help
a. Select, appraise and clarify instructional objectives.
b. Describe and report learner progress toward, or achievement of,
educational objectives.
c. Plan, direct and improve learning experiences.
6. The evaluation of curricula and its further development represents one major
application of educational assessment.
7. The thoughtful and intelligent application of educational assessment principles
and devices can profoundly improve the quality of education.
Educational Objectives
Teaching, learning and evaluation are three interdependent aspects of the
educative process. (Gronlund 1981). This interdependence is clearly seen when the main
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purpose of instruction is seen in terms of helping students achieve a set of learning
outcomes which include changes in intellectual, emotional or physical domains.
The integration of evaluation into the teaching-learning process is explicitly
shown in setting instructional objectives which is the first step in teaching and
evaluation. The educational objectives are stated in terms of desirable behavior in the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. These objectives provide direction to
teaching. They aid the teacher in making decisions regarding the types of methods,
activities, and materials he has to provide. To be most useful, objectives must be stated in
such a way they are attainable, observable and measurable.
Teachers usually formulate general and specific objectives. The general objectives
specify in general terms what the final desired learning outcome is. But it is the specific
objectives which usually serve as a blue print for the construction of measuring
instruments. Gronlund (1972) suggests that teachers should begin with a statement of
general objective that can be made more specific by listing examples of behaviors that
reflect the general objective.
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Educational objectives are classified into cognitive, psychomotor, and affective
domains. Bloom et. al (1956) and Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964) provided a
comprehensive and useful list of educational objectives in the cognitive and affective
domains. The structure of the taxonomy is educationally, logically and psychologically
consistent. The taxonomy represents an educational system in that the categories
correspond to a teachers concern in developing curricula and selecting learning
objectives. The hierarchical classes in the objectives are arranged from simple to complex
levels.
The Structure of the Cognitive Domain
Starting with simple to complex processes, the hierarchy of educational objective
in the cognitive domain include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
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Reflex movements
Basic Fundamental movements
Perceptual abilities
Physical abilities
Skilled movements
Non-discursive communication
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Lesson 20
STANDARDIZED VS TEACHER-MADE TESTS
Tests used to measure learning are different from common measuring instruments
like rulers, weighing scales, and thermometers which measure directly. Psychological and
educational instruments measure indirectly and evaluations are made by making
inferences from the test data. As described by Lefrancois (1988), the students test
performance consists of a sample of behaviors (selected from a large number of potential
behaviors) that, we assume represents some knowledge, ability or attitude, and on the
basis of which we make inferences.
To be properly guided in preparing tests, exams, and quizzes, teachers need to
blueprint their tests even before they begin to teach the relevant series of lessons.
A test blueprint is a table of specifications describing the topics to be tested, the
nature of the questions, how many questions for each topic, and the cognitive processes
to be sampled. The blueprint can help in clarifying instructional goals, selecting
instructional strategies and monitor students progress. Detailed blueprints can be based
on educational objectives using systems such as Blooms taxonomy.
Characteristics of a Good Measuring Instrument
For tests to serve its purpose well, it has to possess psychometric properties and
other characteristics relevant to effective assessment. A test need to be both reliable and
valid. Reliability refers to consistency in measurement. Validity, which is the most
important characteristic of a test, refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is
supposed to measure. The instrument should also be subjected to item analysis to
determine its difficulty index and discriminating index. Aside from these psychometric
properties, a good measuring instrument should (according to Payne, 1988), as a rule, be:
a. Relevant
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b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Balanced
Efficient
Objective
Specific
Fair
Unspeeded
Standardized Tests
Schools are the largest test users. A large collection of tests that are commonly
used at all levels include standardized scholastic ability tests, aptitude tests, and
achievement tests. Among these, achievement tests are the most widely used.
Standardized tests are those which provide standards (or norms) by which to compare the
performance of individual students. This type of test provides exact, uniform procedures
in controlling the method of administration and scoring and has norms for interpretation
of scores.
Standardized achievement tests are used for:
1. placement in special education programs
2. certifying student achievement
3. determining competency of teachers
4. evaluating curriculum and programs
5. advanced placement and credit by examination
6. instructional diagnosis
Teacher-Made Tests
Majority of the tests used in the classroom are teacher-made tests. It is not only
because they are cost-effective and easy to prepare that these tests are used. Some of
these tests are highly representative of course objectives, are at an appropriate level of
difficulty, and are used in reasonable ways.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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Teacher-made tests are usually of the paper-and-pencil type. It could be in the form of
the objective type or essay, or both. An essay test requires a written response of some
length which the student would develop for each question. An objective type of test
usually require less writing and the scoring is uniform with exact answers for each item.
The four major types of objective items are completion or fill in the blanks, matching,
true-false, and multiple choice.
Whatever type of test is constructed and used, professional ethics should be
exercised in the administration, interpretation and use of tests. These are needed so that
tests and measurement would serve their purpose well, i.e. assessing the outcomes of
learning.
Differences Between Teacher-Made and Standardized Tests
Both teacher-made and standardized achievement tests are widely used in the
school setting, although they differ in many aspects. For one thing, students spend more
time taking teacher-made tests than standardized tests. Teacher made tests are more
specific to a particular classroom, teacher, and unit of instruction and are easier to
update. They are more likely to reflect the current educational objectives of a particular
school or teacher.
On the other hand, standardized tests represent only a fraction of the tests
administered in the school. They are built around a core of educational objectives
common to many different schools. These objectives represents the combined judgments
of subject-matter expert who cooperates with test construction specialists in developing
the test. They are more carefully constructed, have broader content and norms, and is
usually more reliable than teacher-made tests.
Teacher-made and standardized tests are complementary rather than opposing
methods of evaluating achievement. Depending on the objectives of the particular
classroom both types of measures should be employed.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Read more on the taxonomy of educational objectives. Suppose you are teaching
in high school and you are preparing your lesson. You are given the option to
choose a subject (e.g. English, Social Science) and particular lesson that you will
focus on. Formulate learning objectives on the cognitive domain using Blooms
taxonomy.
2. You are assigned to take charge of selection and placement of new students and
promotion of good performing students. What type of evaluation data would you
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use in making decisions? Describe the different measures that you will use in
gathering these data and explain how you will do them.
3. List 5 classroom situations where the principles of evaluation may be applied.
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3. Oriondo, Leonora and E. Dallo-Antonio (1984) Evaluating Educational
Outcomes (Tests, Measurement and Evaluation) Manila: Rex Book Store.
4. Payne, David A. (1973) The Assessment of Learning, Cognitive and Affective.
Massachusetts, D.C. Heath and Company.
5. Stanley, J. and K. Hopkins (1972) Educational and Psychological Measurement
and Evaluation. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. .
6. Thorndike, R. L. and E. Hagen (1977) Measurement and Evaluation in
Psychology and Education 4th edition. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
7. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts: Allyn and
Bacon.