SPE

SPE 23100

Calculation of Total Skin Factors

J.K. Pucknell and P.J. Clifford, BP Research
SPE Members

Copyright 1991, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Inc.

This paper was prepared for presentation at the Onshore Europe Conference held in Aberdeen, 3-6 September 1991.
This peper was selected for presentation by'an SPE progrem Committee following review of Information contained in an abstract SUbmitted by tha author(s). Contents of the paper,
as presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to correction by the author(sl. The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflacl
any posRlon of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Its officers, or members. Papers presented at SPE meetings are subject to publication review by EdRorlal Committees of the Society
of Petroleum Engineers. Permission to copy Is restrlcted to an abstrect of not more than 300 words. illustrations may not be copied. The abstrect should contain conspicuous acknowledgment
of where and by whom the paper is presented. Write Ubrarlan, SPE, P.O. Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836 U.S.A. Telex, 730989 SPEOAL.

ABSTRACT

Although this equation is convenient to use it has little

validity (unless the individual terms are defined in very
special ways). This work attempts to provide equations
and methods which, while approximations, can be
defended on theoretical grounds.

This paper shows hoiN total skin factors can be

calculated in wells which are perforated, damaged,
partially completed and deviated. Horizontal wells and
the effect of material within the wellbore radius (eg open
hole gravel packs) can also be evaluated. Results are
provided for both isotropic formations and those with a
different horizontal and vertical permeability.

Parts of the problem have already been solved by

various authors. For example, the nomograms of
Locke1 and Hong 2 or the more sophisticated approach
of Karakas and Tariq3 can be used to combine the
effects of perforations and drilling damage. Several
authors 4 ,5,6,7,8 have recognised that mechanical skin
due to perforations and damage can be combined with
the partial completion skin if a suitable "geometric" term
is included. This paper extends the work to deviated
and horizontal wells.

The theory presented extends work published by others

for particular cases. These calculations are needed to
design cost-effective completions.
INTRODUCTION
Skin factors measured during well tests can be caused
by many parameters. In this paper the effects of
perforations, drilling damage, deviation and partial
completion are considered. (Partial completion occurs
when only part of the reservoir is perforated; it is also
called "limited entry" or "partial penetration"). Some
results are also presented where material inside the well
radius (eg open hole gravel packs) also contribute to
skin. Although in isolation, the effect of each of these
factors can be accounted for, when occurring together
their impact on the measured skin cannot be calculated
using published methods. As a result, various workers
have suggested that the total skin should be calculated
by summing the skins calculated for each factor, as if
they acted in isolation, ie:

The subject is of importance as most offshore wells are

deviated, and many are also partially completed to avoid
water or gas production. In addition, horizontal wells (ie
wells with deviations of 90 degrees) are becoming
increasingly popular as a means of increasing
productivity. To analyse and indeed, predict, the
performance of these wells, some reliable means is
needed for combining deviation, partial completion and
the mechanical skin.
BASIS OF SOLUTION
The problem of combining the different skins can be
solved by assuming that close to the well the pressure
distribution is unaffected by the well's large scale
geometry (ie the amount of deviation or partial
completion). This means that for an isotropic formation

25

Sf'E

23100

angle should first be corrected using the following

equations:

(ie where ve'rtical a'nd horizontal permeabilities are

equal) flow close to the well will always be radial.
Such an assumption is consistent with well testing
theory which advocates an early period of radial flow
close to the well for deviated 9 , partially completed 10
and horizontal 11 wells. It is a reasonable assumption
because close to any constant pressure boundary (in
this case the well) the pressure distribution is dominated
by that particular boundary and not by other boundaries
(eg the top and bottom of the formation) which are much
farther away. This is illustrated by Figure 1.

Bcor = B - O!app
where tan O!app = tan O! cos fJ
In a dipping formation the "horizontal" permeability used
in this paper would be the permeability parallel to the
formation's upper and lower boundaries, the vertical
permeability would be perpendicular to them.
COMPLETION GEOMETRY SKIN

Using this approach it may be assumed that the

mechanical skin, which is due to effects close to the
well, is independent of the amount of deviation and
partial completion. This implies that the additional
pressure drop due to the mechanical skin can be
separated from that due to the well's geometry. The two
pressure drops are assumed to act in "series", one after
the other. This is reasonable as the pressure
disturbances due to the well's large scale geometry will
occur over much greater distances than those due to the
mechanical skin. Pressure drops acting in series can be
simply added together, this is the only case when this is
possible. It also assumes that there is a "uniform flux"
into the wellbore, ie the flowrate is independent of
position in the completed interval.

Isotropic formations
The term "Completion geometry skin", Sc is used to
include the effects of partial completion and deviation
since the two cannot easily be separated. Cinco et al 13
is one of the few published methods available for
calculating the skin due to the combined effects of
deviation and partial completion. It is of interest to
compare Cinco et aI's results, calculated in a rigorous
manner, with these determined using the equation:

S = Spc + Sdev
where the partial completion and deviation skin terms
are calculated as if the partial completion term was
independent of the deviation, and the deviation term was
independent of partial completion. As Figure 2 shows,
this approach gives inaccurate results, under-estimating
the benefits of deviation. A method such as Cinco et
ai's which combines the effect of deviation and partial
completion must be used.

Limitations
Results given by Odeh 12 suggest that, at least in
vertical, partially completed wells, the above
assumptions are valid, provided that the pressure drop
caused by the mechanical skin occurs within 10 wellbore
radii. The work of Saidikowski 5 suggests the damage
must occur within 10ft of the well.

For horizontal wells, methods such as that of Joshi 14

should be used to calculate the completion geometry
skin. Such equations implicitly account for the effects of
deviation and "partial completion".

It is believed that, except when large mud losses are

encountered, the depth of damage is usually within
these bounds. Simulation of perforated completions by
one of the authors, also suggests that most of the
pressure disturbance caused by perforations should
have dissipated within a few feet of the well.

Anisotropic formations
Typically the vertical permeability of a formation is lower
than the horizontal permeability, an effect called
anisotropy (the effect of different horizontal
permeabilities is not considered in this paper). Following
the work of Cinco et al 9 and others the effect of a
reduced vertical permeability is accounted for by
"stretching" all the vertical distances (which also reduces
the effective deviation angle). In the "transformed"
coordinates the formation is isotropic with a permeability
equal to the horizontal permeability in all directions. The
vertical dimension, "z" is adjusted as follows:

The equations should also apply if the skins are

negative, eg due to acidization. However, it will only be
valid if the mechanical skin is greater than -2.3, more
negative skins would mean that the high permeability
region would extend for more than 10 wellbore radii from
the well
Dipping formations
In the whole of this paper it is assumed that the
formation is horizontal. This is not a necessary
assumption. If the formation is dipping, the deviation

(1 )

26

SPE 23100
The form of tl'le transformation is a result of the terms in
the diffusivity equation and originates from the work of
Muskat 15

MECHANICAL SKIN
The skin caused by perforations and formation damage
can be referred to as the "mechanical skin". Such
effects only influence the region close to the well. In
open hole completions, the effect of damage is
classically given by the following equation:

In Cinco et al's9 paper on deviated, fully completed

wells, this approach is used to apply their equations to
anisotropic formations. Although Cinco et ai's13 paper
on deviated and partially completed wells only applies to
isotropic formations, it can be extended to anisotropic
formations by redefining the dimensionless variables as
indicated in Table 1.

sm = [~k
d

1n

[_2_]
1 + F

The pressure drop associated with skin is, by

definition17, given by the following equation:
!:1P

(2 )

(3 )

The total skin is as follows:

h

skin

=~S

( 6)

2'1l'kh

All of the equations for calculating mechanical skin

assume that the well is vertical and fully completed.
However, as noted earlier, we have assumed that, close
to the well, the pressure distribution is unaffected by the
wellbore geometry. As the mechanical skin is a near
wellbore effect, we can therefore assume that methods
of calculating the mechanical skin developed for vertical,
fully completed wells can actually be used for wells of
any geometry. A change in equation 6 is however
requ ired, since the perforated he ig ht and the
permeability across the completed interval are now
being referred to. Equation 6 becomes:

where

S = - FS +S
hac

(5)

When a well is both perforated and damaged a method

which combines both effects is required (since the two
phenomena occur on the same scale). Karakas and
Tariq3 is one of the most advanced and can also be
readily programmed for a computer.

An error occurs when the coordinates are transformed

whic.h was not accounted for by Cinco et al 9 (and is not
accounted for by simply redefining the dimensionless
terms as indicated in Table 1). As a result of the vertical
coordinates being "stretched" the cross section of a
deviated or horizontal well becomes elliptical. Appendix
A shows that this can be accounted for by introducing an
"anisotropy" skin, which has the following form:

s =

1] 1n (r d /r w)

(4 )

Note that for a vertical well (ie zero deviation) the

anisotropic skin equals zero (at least for the case of
constant horizontal permeability in all directions being
considered here).

!:1P

QIl

2'1l'k h
mm

(7 )

Note that the definition of the mechanical skin used in

this paper is chosen so that (at least in an isotropic
formation) it is independent of the well geometry. Other
definitions are possible but this one is consistent with
traditional equations (eg equation 5)

Figure 3 compares Cinco et al's9 skin factors with those

calculated by Ablewhite16, using a finite element model.
Note that good agreement is obtained when the
anisotropy skin is included. Skin due to anisotropy is not
always very large, for example, when the vertical to
horizontal permeability ratio is greater than 0.05, the
anisotropy skin will be less than -1. The importance of
such a value will be determined by the nature of the
problem being studied.

INTEGRATION OF THE COMPLETION GEOMETRY

AND MECHANICAL SKIN
Isotropic formations

Layered reservoirs
If the total pressure drop associated with flow into a
partially completed, deviated well is considered, the
following equation is obtained based on the assumptions
described earlier:

No methods are available for accounting for the effects

of deviation (With or without partial completion) in
layered reservoirs with crossflow between the layers.
However, the application of Yeh and Reynold's4 method
for vertical, partially completed wells suggests that
layering can have a major impact on the completion
geometry skin.

27

Q~

'2"ikh

SEE

The total skin is given by:

From equations 6.7 and 8. together with Darcy's law for

radial flow:

(14)

(In(r /r )+8) = 2Qk~h In(r /r ) +

e W
'/l'
e w

-=--=Q::.:;~~ 8
2'/l'k h
mm

23100

For a horizontal well, this can be simplified to:

+ ~ 8
m
2'/l'kh c

(15)

This equation simplifies to:

kh
8 = - - 8 +8
k h
m
c
mm

This contribution of the mechanical skin to the total skin

is consistent with that reported in the literature for
horizontal wells 18.

( 9)

The calculation of the mechanical skin for deviated and

horizontal wells which have been cased and perforated
requires further study. It is believed that the approach of
Karakas and Tariq3 can be amended by "stretching" the
vertical dimension as indicated by equation 1.

or in a homogeneous formation:
h

8 = - 8 +8
h
m
c
m

(10)

Note that when applied to vertical. partially completed

wells, these equations are the same as those reported
by several other workers 4 ,5,6,7,8. For such wells the
validity of the above equations has been demonstrated
by numerical simulation provided the damage is not too
deep.

MECHANICAL SKIN DUE TO PHENOMENA INSIDE

THE WELL RADIUS
Factors which contribute to the skin fall into two types:
1)

those which occur within the formation, such as

perforations and drilling damage;

2)

equipment or material within the well radius, for

example; filter cake, open hole gravel packs and
prepacked screens.

AnIsotropIc formatIons
The calculation of the total skin factor for deviated or
horizontal wells in anisotropic formations is difficult as no
methods for calculating the mechanical skin are
available. All methods assume that the minimum
permeability axis (ie the vertical permeability) is parallel
to the well.

The former is influenced by anisotropy, but the latter is

not. To evaluate the effect of material within the well
radius, the effect of an open hole gravel pack is
considered (as illustrated in Figure 4). The total
pressure drop for flow into the well is given by:

In Appendix B, an approximate equation (given below)

for calculating the mechanical skin in an open hole
completion is derived. This gives the skin due to
damage caused by drilling or completion fluid invasion,
or indeed the negative skin caused by acidization.

where 1'I w

[~
k
d

-1]

tanh- 1

As fluid flows through the gravel pack after flowing

through the formation, the pressures can be added in
this way (they can be said to act in "series").

(11)
(1/F)

(12)

By applying Darcy's law for radial flow the pressure drop

through the gravel pack can be calculated as follows:

(13)

Additional work is needed to establish how accurate

equation 11 is, in particular the influence of the mud
cake on the distribution of damage caused by the mud
filtrate.

l!P

gr

2'J1'k

h
gr m

In(r /r )
w s

(17)

For an isotropic formation the following equation can be

derived in a similar manner to equation 9 from equations
6.7,16 and 17;

28

SPE 23100
It is convenient to define the skin due to the gravel pack
as:

Equation 10 can be used to find what contribution this

mechnical skin has to the total skin.
For the partially completed well illustrated in Figure 5, in
which 20% of the reservoir is perforated, the mechanical
skin of 2 adds a skin of 10 to the total skin, as shown
below. This is in addition to the partial completion skin
of 16.

(19)

Then:
(20 )

5=--5 +5
h
m
c
m

For an anisotropic, homogeneous formation this

becomes:
5

h
= -h

gr

+ --h F (5 + 5 ) + 5
mac
m

However in the well deviated at 60 degrees illustrated in

Figure 6, the same mechanical skin adds only 1 to the
total skin. The deviation skin amounts to -2.7.

(21)

5 =

pp

= -

From such considerations it is clear that deviated wells

are much more "forgiving" than partially completed wells.
Additional expense may be justified for ensuring a low
mechanical skin in partially completed wells (eg for
minimally damaging drilling muds or tubing conveyed
perforating). Drilling any wells which must be partially
completed at a high angle will also be desirable. For
example if the well in Figure 5 had been drilled at 60
degrees the mechanical skin would have contributed 5
to the total skin while the completion geometry skin
would have equalled 7.

(22 )

In (r / r . )

pp

This skin is usually negligible due to the high

permeability of prepacked screens unless this
permeability is damaged, eg by scale, wax or drilling
mud contamination.
Secondly, the skin due to a thin, filter cake on the
wellbore walls of an open hole completion is given by:
5

fc

100
5m + 5 c = 200 x 2 - 2.7
1 - 2.7 = -1.7

Firstly, the skin due to a prepacked screen is:

5

x 2 + 16

10 + 16 = 26

The skin due to the open hole gravel pack in the above
equation could be replaced by a number of other skins
which occur due to the presence of restrictions within
the wellbore radius. Two examples are given here.

100

2'0

The effect of mechanical skin will be minimized by

drilling horizontal wells as their length is usually much
greater than the formation height. However as shown
by equation 15, this advantage will be lost if the
formation has a low vertical to horizontal permeability
ratio. In addition, as horizontal wells are generally
drilled to maximize prOductivity, any mechanical skin
may be undesirable.

(23)

fc

The value of kfc /6, the filter cake conductivity can be

obtained from experimental work; the value of kfc is
more difficult to obtain due to the difficulty of measuring
filter cake thickness. This is why equation 22 is written
in terms of the filter cake conductivity. Due to the low
permeability of filtercake, high skins will be obtained
unless the filter cake is removed prior to production or
injection from an open hole type completion.

Conclusions
1)

Implications for well completions

The equations presented here have important
implications for well completions. Consider two wells in
a homogeneous, isotropic formation, one a partially
completed, vertical well, and the other a deviated fully
completed well. These are illustrated in Figures 5 and 6.
The reservoir is assumed to be 100ft thick. Both were
drilled and perforated in the same way so the
mechanical skin of 2, is the same for both wells.

The total skin in deviated and/or partially

completed wells can be calculated from the
following equation:

Where

29

SPE 23100
2)

3)

The completion geometry skin, Sc accounts for

well deviation and partial completion. It must be
calculated using a method which accounts for both
effects, which are not independent of one another.
Special methods are available for horizontal wells.

f
F

For deviated and horizontal wells, an "anisotropy"

skin, Sa is needed if the vertical permeability is
less than the horizontal permeability.
k

S
4)

kd

= In (_2]

kgr

l+F

khd

The mechanical skin, Sm due to perforations and

formation damage must be calculated using a
method which accounts for these effects (eg that of
Karakas and Tariq 3). It is difficult to calculate in
deviated wells in anisotropic formations. In open
hole completions the suggested relationship is:
Sm =

[~k

1]

kh

km

kpp

kv
L

(11 d -11 w)

where l1w = tanh- 1 (1/F)

l1

.
-1
= slnh

[r
r

dh

.
slnh
l1
w

5)

Finally, material within the wellbore radius, such as

open hole gravel packs, prepacked screens and
filter cakes, create an additional mechanical skin,
Smi' This is independent of the formation
anisotropy.

6)

The equations presented here have important

implications for well completions. For example,
they indicate that particular care is needed when
drilling and perforating partially completed wells.
The contribution of a given mechanical skin to the
total skin will be much greater than in a fully
completed or deviated well. Such interactions
between mechanical and geometrical effects can
now be quantified using the approach presented in
this paper. As a result, decisions which affect both
productivity and cost can be made on a more
objective basis.

6Pd
6Pgr
6P m
6Pradial
6Pskin
6Ptotal

S .
Sa

Nomenclature
Note: Although the derivations are based on the
following units, the resulting equations are
dimensionless, so that any consistent units may be
used.
aw

major axis of ellipse formed by well in

transformed coordinates (m)

30

minor axis of ellipse formed by well in

transformed coordinates (equal to wellbore
radius in the transformation used) (m)
half the fodallength of an ellipse (m)
Term defined by equation 3 (or equation
C2)
Vertical formation thickness (m)
Length of completed interval, measured
along the hole (m~
Permeability (~m )
Permeability in damaged region (~m2)
Gravel permeability (~m2)
= Horizontal permeability in damaged region

(~m2)

Horizontal permeability (~m2)

= Permeability in completed interval (~m2)
Permeability of cemented gravel in
prepacked screen (~m2)
Vertical permeability (~m2)
Half length of horizontal well (m)
Measured length of well corresponding to
one vertical foot (m)
Flowrate (m3/s)
Radius of damaged region (m)
Distance from centre of well to outer
boundary of damaged region in horizontal
direction (m)
Inner radius of prepacked screen (m)
Outer radius of prepacked screen (m)
Outer radius of screen (m)
Well radius (m)
Pressure (Pa)
Well pressure (Pa)
Additional pressure drop due to completion
geometry skin (Pa)
Pressure drop in damaged interval (Pa)
Pressure drop due to open hole gravel
pack (Pa)
Additional pressure drop due to
mechanical skin (Pa)
= Pressure drop due to radial flow with no
skin (Pa)
Additional pressure drop due to skin (Pa)
Total pressure drop between reservoir
boundary and well
(Pa)
Total skin
Skin due to anisotropy (defined by
equation 2)
Skin due to drilling damage
Skin due to deviation
Mechanical skin
Mechanical skin due to material inside
wellbore radius
= Skin due to perforations
Skin due to partial completion
Horizontal dimension (m)
Vertical dimension (m)

SPE 2310 0

= Dimension along an axis perpendicular to

8. Ahmed, U.: "Combined effects of wellbore damage,

partial penetration and permeability stratification on
well performance" paper no. 82-33-01 presented at
the 33rd Annual Technical Meeting of the Petroleum
Society of CIM, Calgary, June 6-9,1982

the well, which passes through the high

side of the wellbore (see Figure A2) (m)

01

flw

Bcor
JJ.

Formation dip (from the horizontal)

Apparent formation dip in the plane of the
well
= Horizontal angle between dip direction and
azimuth of well
elliptical coordinate
elliptical coordinate for outer boundary of
damaged region
elliptical coordinate for wellbore boundary
- Deviation angle of well (from the vertical)
Deviation angle corrected for dip
Viscosity (Pa.s)

9. Cinco, H., Miller, F.G. and Ramey, H.J.: "Unsteadystate pressure distribution created by directionally
drilled well" JPT (November 1975) 1392-1400
10. Bilhartz, H.L. and Ramey, H.J.: "The combined
effects of storage, skin, and partial penetration on
well test analysis" paper SPE 6753 presented at
52nd Annual Fall Technical Conference, Denver,
October 9-12, 1977
11. Goode, P.A. and Thambynayagam, R.K.M.:
"Pressure drawdown and buildup analysis of
horizontal wells in anisotropic media" SPE
Formation Evaluation (December 1987) 683-697

Superscripts
=

Dimension in transformed coordinates

12. Odeh, A.S.: "Pseudo steady-state flow capacity of

oil wells with limited entry, and with an altered zone
around the wellbore" paper SPE 6132, presented at
51 st Annual Fall Technical Conference, New
Orleans, October 3-6, 1976

References
1. Locke, S: "An advanced method for predicting the
productivity ratio of a perforated well" JPT
(December 1981) 2481-2488
2.

Hong, K.C.: "Productivity of perforated completions

in formations with or without damage" JPT (August
1975) 1027-1038

3.

Karakas, M. and Tariq, S: "Semianalytical

productivity models for perforated completions" SPE
Production Engineering (February 1991) 73-82

13. Cinco-Ley, H., Ramey, H.J. and Miller, F.G.:

"Pseudo-skin factors for partially-penetrating
directionally drilled wells" paper SPE 5589,
presented at 50th Annual Fall Meeting, Dallas,
September 28 - October 1, 1975
14. Joshi, S.D.: "Augmentation of well productivity with
slant and horizontal wells" JPT (June 1988) 729-739
15. Muskat, M.: "Flow of homogeneous fluids through
porous media" McGraw-Hili, 1937

4. Yeh, N. and Reynolds, A.C.: "Computation of the

pseudoskin factor caused by a restricted-entry well
completed in a multilayer reservoir" SPE Formation
Evaluation (June 1989) 253-263
5.

16. Ablewhite, P.K.: "The analysis of deviated wells

using a 3-D finite element simulator" M.Eng. Project,
Heriot-Watt University, 1982/83

Saidikowski, R.M.: "Numerical simulation of the

combined effects of wellbore damage and partial
penetration" paper SPE 8204 presented at the 1979
SPE Annual Technical Conference, Las Vegas,
September 23-26

17. Dake, L.P.: "Fundamentals of reservoir

engineering" Elsevier, 1978
18. Goode, P.A. and Wilkinson, D.J.: "Inflow
Performance of partially open horizontal wells"
paper SPE 19341, presented at SPE Eastern
Regional meeting, Morgantown, October 24-27,
1989

6. Jones, L.G. and Watts, J.W.: "Estimating skin effect

in a partially completed damaged well" JPT
(February 1971) 249-252
7. Jones, L.G. and Slusser, M.L.: "The estimation of
productivity loss caused by perforations - including
partial completion and formation damage" paper
SPE 4198 presented at the 2nd Midwest Oil and
Gas Symposium, Indianapolis, March 28-29,1974

19. Arfken, G.: "Mathematical methods for physicists"

Academic press, New York, 1970

31

seE 23100
Appendix A

But as:

Flow Into a deviated well when the vertical

permeability does not equal the horizontal
permeability
To account for anisotropy the vertical dimension is
transformed as indicated by equation 1. In the
transformed coordinates the well's cross section is
elliptical as indicated in Figure A1. This "inner boundary"
condition should be considered when calculating the
deviation skin.

cosh 2 71 - sinh271

and:

Then:

a2 _ b2

a 2 _ b 2
w
w

Which is equivalent to:

Steady state flow in an infinite system with an elliptical
inner boundary can be described by the following
equation, as presented in various mathematical texts (eg
Arfken 19):
p-p

Q'1l

= 2 71" k h h' (71 - 71 w)

tanh 71

sinh 71 =

sinh 71 w

x2
+""""'2-'-h-=2- = 1
cosh 71
f
Sln 71
(Z,)2

(a

w + b w) (a w - b w)

::1

Using equation A7 this becomes:

0.5 In

w= In

b J2

a +
[a w + b w

'[a: : ~wJ

(AB)

(A2)

(A3)

r' is the distance to a point in the x (ie horizontal)

direction from the centre of the well. aw and bw are the
major and minor axes defining the well in the
transformed coordinates. The equations are derived
from the geometry of an ellipse which is described by
the following equation:

b)

71 - 71 w = 0.5 In [:: : : : : : : :

r'

(a -

From equations AS and A6:

71 - 71

+ b)

(AI)

As only flow close to the well is considered, the effect of

the upper and lower boundaries of the reservoir can be
neglected. (It will be demonstrated later the effect of the
elliptical inner boundary condition is indeed a near
wellbore effect). Values of 71 and 71w can be calculated
as follows:
b

(a

For the transformation being considered the x (ie

horizontal) axis is unchanged, therefore bw is equal to
is at an angle to the
the well radius. The other axis,
vertical for a deviated well as shown in Figure A2b.

aw

In real coordinates "d", in Figure A2a is:

r

= sine

In transformed coordinates this vertical distance

becomes (from equation 1):

(A4)

From equation A2 and similar equations:

71 w = 0.5 In [
71

a: _

From Figure A2:

+ b )
b:

(AS)

a w = d' sine'

b)

(A6)

~ aw

a +
0.5 In [ -----a - b

From the geometry of an ellipse:

, h2 71
cosh 2 71 - Sln

sine'
rw
sine ~kv/kh

From Appendix C (equation C3):

(A9)

(A7)

32

SPE
Consider the application of A1 to a deviated well; the
values, 0' and h' needed are those in the transformed
coordinate system. As the flowrate is a volumetric term
with a vertical compon~nt:
Q'

The additional pressure drop caused by this term is

(from equation A15):

- ~kv/kh

23100

By comparison of this equation with equation 6, the

contribution to the total skin is:

(AID)

From equation C2
h
S=-F8
+8
hac

h' =

(All)

F ~kv/kh

Inclusion of these equations, and equation AB, into A1

gives:
p-p

Replacing
p-p

2W~:hm

F In [a: :

~wl

(A12)

8w (equation A9) and bw :

In [ r a F ++b r 1

(A13)

As a and b become large, the elliptical pressure

contours associated with the well (in transformed
coordinates) tend to become circular. Consequently:

a .. b .. r'

(A14)

r' is the radius of the pressure contours at a distance

from the well in the transformed coordinates. Due to the
nature of the transformation, it is also equal to the actual
distance from the well centre to the pressure contour in
the horizontal direction.
Using equation A14, A13 becomes:
p-p

p-p

w
(AlS)

The first term in brackets in the above equation

describes normal "radial" flow, close to the well in the
transformed coordinates. This is accounted for in the
methods used to calculate the completion geometry
skin. The second term is a type of "skin" which accounts
for the permeability anisotropy, ie:

8a

= In

[_2_)
1 + F

(A16)

(AI?)

This equation also includes the completion geometry

skin, Sc which accounts for pressure disturbances
further from the well.
These equations are only valid when equation A14 is
reasonable approximation. This occurs at a certain
distance from the well, which must be small if the
anisotropy skin and completion geometry effects are to
be separated, as indicated in equation A17.
Calculations show that for vertical to horizontal
permeability ratios of 0.05 and above, the pressure drop
will be in error by under 3% at a distance of 10 wellbore
radii. This is considered acceptable.

AppendiX B
Skin caused by filtrate invasion In a deviated well
where the vertical permeability ,Is less than the
horizontal permeability
In a vertical well it is invariably assumed that the
damage due to filtrate invasion forms a circular annulus
around the well. The outer boundary of this annulus will
parallel the circular pressure contours associated with
flow into or out of the well (see Figure B1). In a deviated
well in an anisotropic formation, it is again assumed that
the damaged zone is parallel to the pressure contours.
However these contours are now elliptical, giving an
elliptical damaged zone as illustrated in Figure B2. This
simplifying assumption may not be precise, but will have
the effect of making the damage extend further in the
higher permeability direction, which seems more
reasonable than the assumption of radial damage.
By assuming that the damage boundaries are parallel to
the damage contours, the following equation can be
used to calculate pressure drops in the near wellbore
region in an "open hole" completion. This can be
derived from A1, A10 and A11:

dP

2W~:hm

(~

~w)

(Bl)

The pressure drop due to damage can be calculated as

follows:

33

SPE

23100

Using equation 6 and 81, this becomes:

and:

2
M
.. (M')2 =

This simplifies to:

('Il

hd

'Il )
w

(B2)

[kh -1)
k

('Il

hd

'Il )
w

From equation C2 and C4, F can also be defined as:

(B3)

(CS)

Appendix C
Relationships between dimensions in real and
transformed coordinates
Figure C1 illustrates the relationship between a length M
in real coordinates and an equivalent length M' in the
transformed coordinates. In this construction:

AIM'

sin8

AIM

Therefore:

sin8' M
sin8 = M'

(Cl )

It is convenient to define a term F:

M

F = M'

~kv/kh

(C2)

From equation C1 and C2

sin8'
1
= sin8 ~ k/k

tan 2 8

(C4)

Equation 83 is then directly comparable with equation 5,

which applies to isotropic formations.

sin8'

It is convenient to define the mechanical skin caused by

damage as:

sm =

(kh/k )
v

+ 1

Which simplifies to:

~ F[kh - 1)

tan 8

(C3)

Alternatively, (by Pythagoras):

34

SPE

23100

Definitions of dimensionless terms used by Cinco

and others In isotropic and anisotropic systems

Dimensionless

Definition in

Definition In

term

Isotropic

Anisotropic

formation

formation

-hr

h
h

wD

-rr

ZD

-Zr

Z
Z

wD

~ ~kh/kv

2
hw J
rcos e kh/k
v

w
w

-rr

~ ~kh/kv

Z
w -~k h /k v
-r

w
w

. 2

s~n

e=

tan

-1

qkv/k h tan

e)

Well

.-

..

",,"

""

"

"

.. . -.'

..

.
...
I

()

II

\
:;".' 0

'

.. ..

II

~'- _/

, __ ....-/

'\.

II

/
'"

I
/
I

I I II ~ Regi6n over wtiich comdletion

I
II
1"-----..:I+i~-e-o-m-e-t-ry-+-~k-i-n-a-p-p....:d1-~s-----+l1
II?I
/
/
,

I~

/1

II

W~lbore

,/

I
I
\
\

Near
region /

..

......

/
/

0"

. .':.:

,
I
I

""."

I
I
I
I

'.'

I
I

'

..

" "

I
I
I
I
I

"

o "

/,.,
...... /

"-..

./

------

"

"

Pressure contours

- -

Fig. 1-lIIustratlon of pressure contours around a deviated, partially completed well.

35

,
,
I

seE 23100
14

-----------

12
10

15
ti

.!
:.;:

----------

-.......

....... ............
,

......

............

Partial completion +
deviation skin
True value from Cinco et al 13 - - - -

CIJ

~.
.!!'.
rw

=0.25
=1000

0
-2
10

,30

20

50

40

60

70

Deviation angle (degrees)

Graph shows, that deviation and partial completion cannot be considered as independent effects.
Fig. 2-Calculatlon 01 akin In devlatad and partially completed wella.

O-,-*""""-iIe---::.:---=::::::=---------,

-1

-2

Damage radius

k y Ik h 0.01
No mechanical skin
hI"' 45.7m
r w " 0.19m
Cinco as published
Cinco with anisotropy skin
Ablewhite 16

Fig. 4_0panhole gravel pack con.lde..d In papar.

-3-t---,--,---,.--,...--r---,.....--.,.---r----1

20

40
60
Angle of deviation (degrees)

Fig. 3-Comparlaon

~een

80

akin lactora calculated ualng

Cinco'. method and IInlt..elemant modelling.

'.
~

"

..

..,
: ... : ..... ~: ....

.. Q:

'0 . . . . .

hm

~~---.-.,.....---l_
..
...
...

'.:':~." '

.....~:

' ,

~'

'

"

','

~:.:

~~'.".~.~'~'

Fig. 5-Partlally complatad well.

36

.0.,,

:',',~
'.

'

seE

..... ;..... :

~ ..~ ~...~ ... :.:.:: :.....:- ..

~ ........... ~ ..~ . ~ .. ~

:', .. ~ ....: . : ..:.~'.: :'.' .

.:

:.

.~

'.

,'.

Fig. &-Devlated wen.

..-:1:Z'.
'.

.'

"

It

ax!s..

.'

..

..

.......;:--001 .'-.-.,.......:...,.....;..,....- ..... x axis

. .. .

'

. ....

As bwis iii the horizontal plane it is unchanged by the transformation and is

therefore equal to the well radius. rw
Fig. A1-Wen croaa eectlon In tranaforrnecl coordlnatea

..

. ... .z axis
'

a) Deviated well in real coordinates

b) Deviated well in transformed coordinates

Fig. A2-Wen dlmenalona In real and trenaforrned coordlnat...

37

23100

.,/

"..

---

.---

------.

--

"- ..........

"'-

I/
l
\

Pressure contour

Damage
zone

.--P\..

,"

"\

""""

--

....... ------ ......... --,.,.,

,/

/"

When the permeabilities perpendicular to the well are not equal. the zone of damage due to filtrate
invasion will not be circular. In the above horizontal well it is assumed that its' boundary will be
parallel to the pressure contours associated with flow into (or out of) the well.
Fig. B1-Shape of region of damage caused by filtrate Invasion In horizontal well.

\M'
\
\

\
\
\
\

\
\

~--------------~
A

a = Well deviation to vertical

a' ==

Well "deviation" in transformed coordinates

A = An arbitary distance. as this is in the horizontal
plane it is unaffected by the transformation
M = A measured length
M' = A measured length in the transformed plane
Fig. C1-Construction showing change of deviation angle between real and transformed coordinates.

38