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INTRODUCTION
Up to 70s there used to be isolated EDP centers with mainframe computers in large companies
with specialist programmers & for any reports etc. one had to give requisition to the dept. and
reports used to take any length of time depending on complexities and in case the report was not
satisfactory another requisition and another waiting period was required.
However, in early 80s, when desktop PCs started entering market, it was assumed that PCs
would be use independently by their users in the way they linked. With desktop available with
user, he could enter information himself, manipulate him and produced the report he really
needed. However, information already available in mainframes needed to be entered again. At
that time nobody imagined what would happen next.
Gradually PCs became more and more powerful and powerful application like spreadsheets;
database and word processors were available. PC market exploded with the fierce competition.
Because of intense competition, there was increase power and dramatic fall in prices of PCs.
PCs were soon outperforming older, slower mainframe applications and accomplished what was
earlier thought as miracles, desktop publishing, graphics, computer-aided drafting, more
powerful database & sophisticated user interfaces. Small business also started getting benefits of
information management, which earlier very large companies could afford.
Passing information through paper was cumbersome as each individual had to re-enter.
Passing files after coping in floppies was inconvenient particularly when the users were
geographical separated and also there was no guarantee that the floppy contains the latest version
of information.
Networking is the concept of sharing resources and services. A network of computers is a group
of interconnected systems sharing resources and interacting using a shared communications link
in the figure below.
A network, therefore, is a set of interconnected systems with something to share. The shared
resource can be data, a printer, a fax modem, or a service such as a database or an email system.
The individual systems must be connected through a pathway (called the transmission medium)
that is used to transmit the resource or service between the computers. All systems on the
pathway must follow a set of common communication rules for data to arrive at its intended
destination and for the sending and receiving systems to understand each other. The rules
governing computer communication are called protocols.
Resource Sharing- programs, equipment, data & information are available to any one
the network without regard to his physical location.
NETWORK TYPES
We can classify network technologies as belonging to one of two basic groups. Local area
network (LAN) technologies connect many devices that are relatively close to each other, usually
in the same building. The library terminals that display book information would connect over a
local area network. Wide area network (WAN) technologies connect a smaller number of devices
that can be many kilometers apart. For example, if two libraries at the opposite ends of a city
wanted to share their book catalog information, they would most likely make use of a wide area
network technology, which could be a dedicated line leased from the local telephone company,
intended solely to carry their data.
They are privately – owned networks within a single building or campus of up-toup a few
kilometers in size. LANs can be small, linking as a few as three computers, but often link
hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking
protocols and media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and
educational organization.
A network that covers a larger area such as a company. This is accomplished by connecting the
different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial
dial-up
up phone lines (both
synchronous & asynchronous), satellite links and data pac packet
ket carrier services. Wide Area
networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for employees to dial into, or
it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally
linked using special routing protocols and filters to minimize the eexpense
xpense of sending data sent
over vast distances.
As the term implies, a wide-area
area network spans a large physical distance. A WAN like the
Internet spans most of the world! A WAN is a geographically dispersed collection of LANs. A
network device called a router
outer connects LANs to a WAN. In IP networking, the router maintains
both a LAN address and a WAN address. WANs differ from LANs in several important ways.
Like the Internet, most WANs are not owned by any one organization but rather exist under
collective or distributed ownership and management. WANs use technology like ATM, Frame
Relay and X.25 for connectivity.
It is a single network but a network of networks. The internet is a system of linked networks that
are worldwide in scope and facilitate data communication services such as remote login, file
transfer, electronic mail, the World Wide Web and newsgroups. With the meteoric rise in
demand of connectivity, the internet has become a communication highway for millions of users.
The internet was initially restricted to military and academic institutions, but now it is a full
fledged conduct for all and any form of information and commerce. Internet websites now
provide personal, educational, public and economic resources to every corner of the planet.
▫ INTRANET
With the advancements made in browser-based software for the internet, many private
organizations are implementing intranets. As intranet is a private network utilizing Internet-type
tools & protocols, but available only within that organization. For large organizations, an intranet
provides an easy access mode to corporate information for employees.
▫ CLIENT/SERVER
This type of network is designed to support a large number of users and uses dedicated server/s
to accomplish this. Clients log on to the server/s in order to run applications or obtain files.
Security and permissions can be managed by 1 or more administrators which cut down on
confusion. This type of network also allows for convenient backup services, reduces network
traffic and provides a host of other services that come with the network operating system (NOS)
▫ BRIDGE
A bridge is a L2 device that divides a network into separate collision domains while retaining the
broadcast domain. It divides a network into segments with each segment having a reduced
number of nodes that are competing for access to the transmission medium.
Bridges operate at the MAC sub layer of the OSI Data Link layer (see Chapter 2). A repeater
passes on all signals that it receives. A bridge, on the other hand, is more selective and passes
only those signals targeted for a computer on the other side. A bridge can make this
determination because each device on the network is identified by a unique physical address.
Each packet that is transmitted bears the address of the device to which it should be delivered.
2. The bridge references an internal table of addresses. This table is either learned by the bridge,
from previous packet deliveries on the network, or manually programmed into the bridge.
▫ SWITCH
A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within
one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link
Layer) of the OSI model.
Network switches appear nearly identical to network hubs, but a switch generally contains more
intelligence (and a slightly higher price tag) than a hub. Unlike hubs, network switches are
capable of inspecting data packets as they are received, determining the source and destination
device of each packet, and forwarding them appropriately. By delivering messages only to the
connected device intended, a network switch conservesnetwork bandwidth and offers generally
better performance than a hub.
A network hub, or repeater, is a fairly unsophisticated network device. Hubs do not manage any
of the traffic that comes through them. Any packet entering a port is broadcast out or "repeated"
There are specialized applications where a hub can be useful, such as copying traffic to multiple
network sensors. High end switches have a feature which does the same thing called port
mirroring. There is no longer any significant price difference between a hub and a low-end
switch.
When a packet arrives, the header is checked to determine which segment the packet is destined
for, and then it is forwarded to that segment. If the packet is destined for the same segment that it
arrives on, the packet is dropped and not retransmitted. This prevents the packet being
“broadcasted” onto unnecessary segments, reducing the traffic.
Pawan Kumar (Electronic Instrumentation & Control Engg.) Page 13
▫ ROUTER
Routers are a step up from bridges. They are able to route and filter information to different
networks. Some routers can automatically detect problems and redirect information around the
problem area. These are called "intelligent routers."
Routers organize the large network in terms of logical network segments. Each network segment
is assigned an address so that every packet has both a destination network address and a
destination device address. Routers are more “intelligent” than bridges. Not only do routers build
tables of network locations, but they also use algorithms to determine the most efficient path for
sending a packet to any given network. Even if a particular network segment isn’t directly
attached to the router, the router knows the best way to send a packet to a device on that network.
In Figure below, for example, Router A knows that the most efficient step is to send the packet to
Router C, not Router B.
Router B presents a redundant path to the path Router A provides. Routers can cope with this
situation because they exchange routing information to ensure that packet loops don’t occur. In
Figure below, if Router A fails, Router B provides a backup message path, thus making this
network more robust. One consequence of all the processing a router performs on a packet is that
ROM contains microcode for basic functions to start and maintain the router.
RAM contains the software and data structures that allow the router to function. The
principle software running in RAM is the Cisco IOS image and the running
configuration.
Non-volatile RAM is mainly used to store the configuration. NVRAM uses a battery to
maintain the data when power is removed from the router.
Routers were devised in order to separate networks logically. For instance, a TCP/IP router can
segment the network based on IP subnets. Filtering at this level (on IP addresses) will take longer
than that of a bridge or switch which only looks at the MAC layer. Most routers can filter
packets at a protocol level, is to act as a firewall. This is essentially a barrier, which prevents
unwanted packets either entering or leaving the networking.
Typically, an organization which connects to the Internet will install a router as the main
gateway link between their network and the outside world. By configuring the router with access
lists (which define what protocols and what hosts have access) this enforces security by restricted
(or allowing) access to either internal or external hosts. For example, an internal WWW server
can be allowed IP access from external networks, but other company servers which contain
sensitive data can be protected, so that external hosts outside the company are prevented access
(you could even deny internal workstations access if required).
Routers are devised to separate the network logically. Routers filter the network traffic based on
the protocol level. Therefore it also acts as a firewall. This is a basically a barrier which restricts
the un-wanted packets to come in and go out of the network.
▫ FEATURES OF ROUTER
1. Passive
2. Active
3. Switching
Passive hubs do not contain any electronic components and do not process the data signal in any
way. The only purpose of a passive hub is to combine the signals from several network cable
segments. All devices attached to a passive hub receive all the packets that pass through the hub.
Hubs follow the 5-4-3 rules, where no more than 5 network segments can be connected to 4 hubs
with only 3 of them being populated.
▫ Active HUB
Active hubs incorporate electronic components that can amplify and clean up the electronic
signals that flow between devices on the network. This process of cleaning up the signals is
called signal regeneration.
. Hub management. Hubs now support network management protocols that enable the
hub to send packets to a central network console.
. Switching. The latest development in hubs is the switching hub, which includes circuitry
that very quickly routes signals between ports on the hub. Instead of repeating a packet to
all ports on the hub, a switching hub repeats a packet only to the port that connects to the
destination computer for the packet.
A physical layer device that extends the distance of a network by amplifying and retiming
signals. A repeater corrects for attenuation problems.
Each media type, therefore, has a maximum range that it can reliably carry data. The purpose of
a repeater is to extend the maximum range for the network cabling. A repeater is a network
device that repeats a signal from one port onto the other ports to which it is connected .
Repeaters operate at the OSI Physical layer. (Refer to “The OSI Reference Model” section in
Chapter 2.) A repeater does not filter or interpret—it merely repeats (regenerates) a signal,
passing all network traffic in all directions. A repeater doesn’t require any addressing
information from the data frame because a repeater merely repeats bits of data. This means that if
data is corrupt, a repeater will regenerate the signal anyway. A repeater will even repeat a
broadcast storm caused by a malfunctioning adapter.
The advantages of repeaters are that they are inexpensive and simple. Also, although they cannot
connect networks with dissimilar data
The International Standards Organization, defines a 7 layer model for describing interconnected
systems. It is referred to as the Open Systems interconnection (OSI) model. Here is an easy way
to memorize the order of the 7 layer model and it is as follows:
The first letter of each word corresponds to the first letter of one of the layers.
1. Physical layer
2. Data link layer
3. Network layer
4. Transport layer
5. Session layer
6. Presentation layer
7. Application layer
The physical layer describes the medium used to connect the systems. Examples are coax cable
and fiber optic cable. Example of protocol is ETHERNET.
The Physical layer defines all the electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular,
it defines the relationship between a device and a physical medium. This includes the layout of
pins, voltages, and cable specifications. Hubs, repeaters, network adapters and Host Bus
Adapters (HBAs used in Storage Area Networks) are physical-layer devices.
The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:
Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer. Various physical-layer Ethernet standards are also in
this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data-link layer. The same applies to other
local-area networks, such as Token ring, FDDI, and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area
networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.
The data link layer describes representation of bits on the physical medium and the format of
messages on the medium. The data link layer may do some checking of messages on the
medium. The data link layer may do some checking of messages and error recovery, but does not
guarantee delivery of a message. Many descriptions of link layer systems break the link layer
into a number of sub layers.
The Data Link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical layer.
The best known example of this is Ethernet. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a
shared medium. Other examples of data link protocols are HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point
This is the layer at which the bridges and switches operate. Connectivity is provided only among
locally attached network nodes forming layer 2 domains for unicast or broadcast forwarding.
Other protocols may be imposed on the data frames to create tunnels and logically separated
layer 2 forwarding domain.
The data link layer might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment
mechanism to provide reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and
derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD. In modern practice, only error detection, not
flow control using sliding window, is present in modern data link protocols such as Point-to-
Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most
protocols on Ethernet, and, on other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment
mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the
transport layers by protocols such as TCP.
Sends data frames from the Network layer to the Physical layer.
Packages raw bits into frames for the Network layer at the receiving end.
Responsible for providing error free transmission of frames through the Physical layer.
Media Access Control (MAC) defines how packets are placed on media.
▫ ETHERNET
Ethernet is a shared local area networking technology. The basic design consists of a shared
transmission medium in the form of a cable or hub. Since the communication medium is shared,
nodes listen to make sure the cable is not in use before transmitting. Since it is possible that two
computers might
ght transmit at the same time, causing a “collision”, a collision detection scheme
was built into the system. When collision occurs any packets being transmitted are corrupted and
thus collisions can be detected. When collision occurs, both stations back off o and try
retransmitting later. Each computer waits for a few thousandths of a second, this interval is
random & different from other computers wait period, and then tries again. Hence this type of
method is called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple access/C
access/Collision
ollision Detection).
Ethernet actually
ually just refers to the LAN implementations that include three principal categories.
The network layer describes how to transmit messages between connected network segments.
The network layer does not guarantee delivery of a message.
The Network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length
data sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks while maintaining the
quality of service requested by the Transport layer. The Network layer performs network routing
functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report delivery errors.
Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the extended network and making the
Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme – values are chosen by the network
engineer. The addressing scheme is hierarchical. The best known example of a layer 3 protocol is
the Internet Protocol (IP). Perhaps it's easier to visualize this layer as managing the sequence of
human carriers taking a letter from the sender to the local post office, trucks that carry sacks of
mail to other post offices or airports, airplanes that carry airmail between major cities, trucks that
distribute mail sacks in a city, and carriers that take a letter to its destinations. Think of
fragmentation as splitting a large document into smaller envelopes for shipping, or, in the case of
the network layer, splitting an application or transport record into packets.
Responsible for addressing messages and translating logical addresses and names into
physical addresses.
Determines the route from the source to the destination computer.
Manages traffic such as packet switching, routing and controlling the congestion of data.
IP is categorized in five classes. The bits in the first octet identify the address class. The router
uses the first bits to identify how many bits it must match to interpret the network portion of the
address.
IP Datagram
Network layer addresses consist of two parts: A network segment prefix which identifies the
network segment and a node suffix, which identifies the node on the segment.
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is implemented by all TCP/IP hosts. ICMP
messages are carried in IP datagrams and are used to send error and control messages.
1. Destination Unreachable
2. Time Exceeded
3. Parameter Problem
4. Subnet Mask Request
5. Redirect
6. Echo
7. Echo Reply
8. Information Request
9. Information Reply
10.Address Request
11.Address Reply
▫ TRANSPORT Layer
The transport layer multiplexes message streams used by various applications. It may guarantee
in order delivery of data. Example of protocol is TCP, but it also includes some features that OSI
includes in level 5.
The transport layer multiplexes data for various connections. Each connections represent a path
between a pair of applications on a pair of computers. The connections multiplexed by the
transport protocol may come from several computers and may be for several applications.
The Transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable
data transfer while relieving the upper layers of it. The transport layer controls the reliability of a
given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols
are state and connection oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the
segments and retransmit those that fail. The best known example of a layer 4 protocol is the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). The transport layer is the layer that converts messages
into TCP segments or User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP), etc. packets. Perhaps an easy way to visualize the Transport Layer is to compare it with
a Post Office, which deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do
remember, however, that a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may
Pawan Kumar (Electronic Instrumentation & Control Engg.) Page 30
have the equivalent of double envelopes, such as cryptographic Presentation services that can be
read by the addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer,
such as carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or
end-to-end encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to
be a network layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint,
GRE becomes closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or
packets to deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packets.
The basic roles of the Transport Layer are to establish end-to-end connections from one
computer to another on the network and provide reliable "transport" of data between devices.
▫ Flow Control
Once the connection has occurred and transfer is in progress, congestion of the data flow can
occur at a destination for a variety of reasons.
The destination can become overwhelmed if multiple devices are trying to send it data at
the same time.
It may become overwhelmed if the source is sending faster than it can physically receive.
▫ CONGESTION PREVENTION
The Transport Layer is responsible for providing flow control to alleviate the issue of congestion
and provide reliability in the data transfer. Two main methods for flow control include:
Buffering
Windowing
Buffering is a form of data flow control regulated by the Transport Layer. It is responsible for
ensuring that sufficient buffers are available in the destination for the processing of data and that
is data transmitted at a rate that does not exceed what the buffer can handle.
▫ Windowing
Windowing is a flow control scheme in which the source computer will monitor and make
adjustments to the amount of information sent based on successful, reliable receipt of data
segments by thee destination computer. The size of the data transmission, called the "window
size", is negotiated at the time of connection establishment. It is determined by the amount of
memory or buffer that is available.
If the destination does not receive all three of the negotiated data segments, for example,
e due to a
buffer overflow, it sends no acknowledgment. Since the source does not receive an
acknowledgment, it knows the data segments should be retransmitted
retransmitted.
Allows two applications running on different computers to establish use and end a
connection called a Session.
Performs name recognition and security.
Provides synchronization by placing checkpoints in the data stream.
Implements dialog control between communicating processes.
Three different communication modes exists for data transfer within a session connection:
Single-duplex
Half-duplex
Full-duplex
Determines the format used to exchange data among the networked computers.
Translates data from a format from the Application layer into an intermediate format.
Responsible for protocol conversion, data translation, data encryption, data compression,
character conversion, and graphics expansion.
Redirector operates at this level.
▫ APPLICATION Layer
OSI Model
One can think of a topology as a network's "shape." This shape does not necessarily correspond
to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a
home LAN may be arranged in a circle, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring
topology there.
▫ Types of Topology
1. Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology
3. Star Topology
4. Tree Topology
5. Mesh Topology
6. Hybrid Topology
▫ BUS Topology
In a bus topology a single cable connects each workstation in a linear, daisy-chained fashion.
signals are broadcasted to all stations, but stations only act on the frames addressed to them.
Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone
functions as a shared communication medium, that devices attach or tap into with an interface
connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a
broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient
actually accepts and processes the message.
In a ring topology:
Unidirectional links connect the transmit side of one device to the receive side of
another device.
Devices transmit frames to the next device (downstream member) in the ring.
In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All
messages travel through a ring in the same direction (effectively either "clockwise" or
"counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the
entire network.
▫ STAR Topology
In a star topology, each station is connected to a central hub or concentrator that functions as a
multi-port repeater. Each station broadcasts to all of the devices connected to the hub. Physical
LAN topologies are usually characterized as either bus or ring.
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point
called a "hub" that may be an actual hub or a switch. Devices typically connect to the hub with
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
▫ TREE Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only
hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the "root" of a tree of
devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better
than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star
(limited by the number of hub ports) alone.
Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages
sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall
that in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some
WANs, like the Internet, employ mesh routing.
▫ HYBRID Topology
The Communication medium means what kind of medium we are going to use for networking
between different computing devices. As above said that every network means communication
between computers so we need a medium through which we can connect the computers.
I. Wired
Copper cables
Optical fiber
II. Wireless
Micro waves
Radio waves
Infrared waves
▫ CABLES
The following are the types of cables used in networks and other related topics.
Coaxial Cable
Wireless LANs
UTP cables are not shielded. This lack of shielding results in a high degree of flexibility as well
as rugged durability. UTP cables are found in many ethernet networks and telephone systems.
The quality of UTP may vary from ttelephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed speed cable. The
cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of
twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices.
The tighter
hter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per
foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association)
has established standards of UTP and rated five categories of wire.
Type Use
▫ U N S H I E L D E D T W IIS
STED PAIR CONNECTOR
RJ-45 connector
▫ UTP Cables
Twisted pair cables were first used in telephone systems by Bell in 1881 and by 1900 the entire
American network was twisted pair, or else open wire with similar arrangements to guard against
interference. Most of the billions of conductor feet (millions of Kilometers) of twisted pairs in
the world are outdoors, owned by telephone companies, used for voice service, and only handled
or even seen by telephone workers. The majority of data or Internet connections use those wires.
For indoor telephone applications, UTP is often grouped into sets of 25 pairs according to a
standard 25-pair color code originally developed by AT&T. A typical subset of these AD1L
colors (white/blue, blue/white, white/orange, orange/white) shows up in most UTP cables.
Twisted pair cabling is often used in data networks for short and medium length connections
because of its relatively lower costs compared to fiber and coaxial cabling.
Cable Shielding
Twisted pair cables are often shielded to prevent electromagnetic interference. Because the
shielding is made of metal, it also serves as a ground. This shielding can be applied to individual
pairs, or to the collection of pairs. When shielding is applied to the collection of pairs, this is
referred to as screening. The shielding must be grounded for the shielding to work.
STP cabling includes metal shielding over each individual pair of copper wires. This type of
shielding protects cable from external EMI (electromagnetic interferences). e.g. the 150 ohm
shielded twisted pair cables defined by the IBM Cabling System specifications and used with
token ring networks.
S/STP cabling, also known as Screened Fully shielded Twisted Pair (S/FTP), is both individually
shielded (like STP cabling) and also has an outer metal shielding covering the entire group of
shielded copper pairs (like S/UTP). This type of cabling offers the best protection from
interference from external sources.
Screened Unshielded Twisted Pair, Foiled Twisted Pair, Screened Foiled Twisted Pair
▫ COAXIAL CABLE
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any
outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other co
computers.
Coaxial cable is the kind of copper cable used by cable TV companies between the community
antenna and user homes and businesses. Coaxial cable is sometimes used by telephone
Coaxial cable is called "coaxial" because it includes one physical channel that
carries the signal surrounded (after a layer of insulation) by another
concentric physical channel, both running along the same axis. The outer
channel serves as a ground. Many of these cables or pairs of coaxial tubes can
be placed in a single outer sheathing and, with repeaters, can carry
information for a great distance.
The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone Bayone-Neill
Neill-Concelman
(BNC) connector (See fig. 4). Different types of ada adapters
pters are available for BNC connectors,
including a T-connector,
connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the
weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC
connectors that crimp, rather thann screw, onto the cable.
BNC connector
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective
materials (See fig. 5). It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of
electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount
of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between
buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting.
An optical fiber (or fiber) is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide light along its length by
total internal reflection. Fiber optics is the branch of applied science and engineering concerned
with such optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communication, which
permits digital data transmission over longer distances and at higher data rates than electronic
communication. They are also used to form sensors, and in a variety of other applications.
The operating principle of optical fibers applies to a number of variants including multi-mode
optical fibers, single-mode optical fibers, graded-index optical fibers, and step-index optical
fibers. Because of the physics of the optical fiber, special methods of splicing fibers and of
connecting them to other equipment are needed. A variety of methods are used to manufacture
optical fibers, and the fibers are also built into different kinds of cables depending on how they
will be used.
The light-guiding principle behind optical fibers was first demonstrated in Victorian times, but
modern optical fibers were only developed beginning in the 1950s. Optical fibers became
practical for use in communications in the late 1970s, and since then several technical advances
have been made to extend the reach and speed capability of optical fibers, and lower the cost of
fiber communications systems.
The most common connector used with fiber optic cable is an ST connector. It is barrel shaped,
similar to a BNC connector. A newer connector, the SC, is becoming more popular. It has a
squared face and is easier to connect in a confined space.
Routing is the process by which an item gets from one location to another. Many items get
routed: for example, mail, telephone calls, and trains. In networking, a router is the device used
to route traffic.
Destination Address - What is the destination (or address) of the item that needs to be
routed?
Identifying sources of information - From which source (other routers) can the router
learn the paths to given destinations?
Discovering routes - What are the initial possible routes, or paths, to the intended
destinations?
Selecting routes - What is the best path to the intended destination?
Maintaining routing information - A way of verifying that the known paths to
destinations are the most current.
▫ ROUTED PROTOCOLS
Any network protocol that provides enough information in its network layer address to allow a
packet to be forwarded from host to host based on the addressing scheme. Routed protocols
define the format and use of the fields within a packet. Packets generally are conveyed from end
system to end system. The Internet protocol IP is an example of a routed protocol.
▫ ROUTING PROTOCOLS
Supports a routed protocol by providing mechanisms for sharing routing information. Routing
protocol messages move between the routers. A routing protocol allows the routers to
communicate with other routers to update and maintain tables. examples of routing protocols are
RIP,IGRP,EIGRP and OSPF.
Static routing
Default routing
Dynamic routing
▫ Static Routing
Routes learned by the router when an administrator manually establishes the route. The
administrator must manually update this static route entry whenever an internetwork topology
change requires an update.
Benefits:
Disadvantage:
The administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each router is
connected to configure routes correctly.
If a network is added to internetwork, the administrator has to add route to it on all
routers-by hand
A default route is a special type of static route. A default route is a route to use for situations
when the route from a source to a destination is not known or when it is unfeasible for the
routing table to store sufficient information about the route.
▫ DYNAMIC ROUTING
Routes dynamically learned by the router after an administrator configures a routing protocol
that helps determine routes. Unlike static routes, once the network administrator enables dynamic
routing, route knowledge is automatically updated by a routing process whenever new topology
information is received from the internetwork.
Routing metrics are used by routing algorithms to determine the desirability of a given route to a
destination network. Different routing protocols implement different routing metrics. Routing
metrics represent network characteristics. Metric information is stored in routing tables.
Path length
Reliability
Delay
Bandwidth
Load
Cost
▫ Hop Count
Hop count is a value that counts the number of intermediate systems (such as
routers) through which a packet must pass to travel from the source to the
destination. The path length is the sum of all the hops in the path.
▫ Reliability
The reliability routing metric can be based on any of a number of network characteristics. These
include:
▫ Delay
The delay routing metric is based on the length of time required to move a packet from the
source to a destination through the internetwork.
▫ Bandwidth
The bandwidth routing metric is based solely on the available traffic capacity of each network
link. However, routes through links with greater bandwidth do not necessarily provide better
routes than routes through slower links.
Pawan Kumar (Electronic Instrumentation & Control Engg.) Page 56
▫ Load
The load routing metric is based on the degree to which a network resource (such as a router) is
busy.
CPU utilization
Packets processed per second
▫ Cost
The cost routing metric is based on the monetary cost of using each network link. For example, a
slower company-owned link can be configured as preferable over faster public links that cost
money for usage time.
RIP, or Routing Information Protocol, is a routing protocol located within IP. There are two
versions of RIP supported by Cisco. RIP version 1 and an enhanced version RIPv2, a classless
routing protocol.
▫ Characteristics of RIP
IGRP is an advanced distance vector routing protocol developed by Cisco in the mid-1980s.
IGRP has several features that differentiate it from other distance vector routing protocols, such
as RIP.
▫ Characteristics of IGRP
Increased scalability - Improved for routing in larger size networks compared to networks
that use RIP.
Sophisticated metric - IGRP uses a composite metric that provides significant route
selection flexibility. Internetwork delay and bandwidth by default, and optionally
reliability, and load are all factored into the routing decision. IGRP can be used to
overcome RIP's 15-hop limit. IGRP has a default maximum hop count of 100 hops,
configurable to a maximum of 255 hops.
Multiple paths - IGRP can maintain up to six nonequal paths between a network source
and destination; the paths do not mandate equal costs like with RIP. Multiple paths can be
used to increase available bandwidth or for route redundancy.