Natural Radioactivity

Nuclear and Ionizing Radiation Technologies

Master Course

28 Feb 2013

Natural radiations

Cosmic rays
14.24%

Ingestion

Artificial radiations

10.68%

Medical diagnostics
14.24%

Others (0.32%)
Atmospheric nuclear
testing

Terrestrial gamma rays

0.18%
17.80%
Chernobyl accident
0.07%
Nuclear power
production
0.07%

Inhalation (mainly radon)

42.72%

Pie chart showing the relative contributions from natural and man-made sources
of radiation to the estimated gross worldwide average annual effective dose.
Derived from (1)
2

Estimated contributions to public exposure (mSv/y) from different sources for Italy (Dionisi, 2005)
and UNSCEAR estimates of worldwide average exposure.

Derived from (6)

Average annual human exposure to ionizing radiation

Derived from (6, 7)

5

Cosmic Rays

Derived from (6)

Cosmic Rays

Radionuclides Induced in the Earths Atmosphere by Cosmic Rays

Derived from (13)

Cosmic Rays

Used SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) elevation map. 1 km x 1 km grid.

Derived from (4)

Cosmic Rays

Estimate of the maximum dose of radiation received at an altitude of 12 km January 20, 2005,
following a violent solar flare. The doses are expressed in microsieverts per hour.
Derived from (6)

Primordial radionuclides

Non series Primordial Radionuclides ligher than Lead

Derived from (13)

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Primordial radionuclides

Man as radioactive source

K = 2.5 g/kg in man
1 g of K = 31 Bq
Man of 70 kg as total of 175 g of K
That is amost 5400 Bq

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12

13

Primordial radionuclides

Properties of Natural Uranium Isotopes

Mean values of the uranium, thorium, and potassium content for the earth crust
Derived from (13)

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15

NaI(Tl)
2x2

PMT and base

HV
Power
Supply

Preamplifier

Amplifier

ADC
MCA

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Multi-Channel Analyzer (MCA)

Analog to Digital Converter

Pulse Height Analysis (PHA)

Microprocessor & memory

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60-Co

Gamma ray:
Energy(keV) Intensity(rel)
346.93
0.0076
826.28
0.0076
1173.237
99.9736
1332.50199.9856
2158.77
0.00111
2505
2.0E-6

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60-Co
NaI(Tl)

19

20

238-U
NaI(Tl)

21

22

23

24

25

Tree regions 40-K, 238-U and 232-Th detection

NaI(Tl)

3x3 NaI(Tl), 900 s C.T.

MDA

MeV

Rad Chain

40-K

1.46

214-Bi

1.76

(238-U)

208-Tl

2.62

(232-Th)
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Derived from (13)

Distribution map of the potential radon ux

Derived from (14)

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137-Caesium Deposition on Europe after the Chernobyl Accident.

Derived from (4)
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137-Cs spatial sampling distribution. Derived from (5).

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137-Cs deposited after

Chernobyl accident.
All data have been normalized to
10 May 1986.
Derived from (5)

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Sampling locations and geographical averages by year for 3H in drinking water, 2006
Derived from (15)

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Sampling locations and geographical averages by year for 90Sr in milk, 2006
Derived from (15)

32

Sampling locations and geographical averages by year for 137Cs in milk, 2006
Derived from (15)

33

Sampling locations and geographical averages by year for 90Sr in mixed diet, 2006
Derived from (15)

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Sampling locations and geographical averages by year for 137Cs in mixed diet, 2006
Derived from (15)

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Radionuclides concentration limits guidelines for international food commerce

Codex Alimentarius (FAO, Roma, 1999)

Limits
(Bq/kg)
10

Example
Nuclides
Am, 239Pu

241

100
1000

Sr

90
131

I, 134Cs, 137Cs

Milk and food for infants

Limits
(Bq/kg)
1
100
1000

Example
Nuclides
Am, 239Pu

241

131
134

I, 90Sr

Cs, 137Cs

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Radon

Radon is the largest natural source of human exposure to ionizing radiation in most
countries
Evidence of increased mortality from respiratory disease among certain groups of
underground miners in central Europe dates back to the sixteenth century, but it was not
until the nineteenth century that it was appreciated that the disease was in fact lung cancer:
Radon as the main cause of lung cancers in the mine workers was identified in the 1920s and
its causal role in lung cancer became firmly established in the 1950s.
Studies of underground miners exposed occupationally to
Radon, usually at high concentrations, have consistently demonstrated an increased risk of
lung cancer for both smokers and non-smokers.
Radon is now considered to be, after cigarette smoking, the second largest killer through
carcinoma of the lungs.
Some investigators have even attributed other types of cancer, e.g. those of kidneys or blood
and bone-marrow leukaemias, to high levels of radon; but this has been questioned by other
research workers.
In Italy lung cancer is the third neoplasm in men and the fourth in women, cigarette
smoking is responsible of 85-90% of new cases. Known risk factors for lung cancer also
include passive smoking and environmental exposure to radon and heavy metals.
Radon is considered the second cause of lung cancer in the general population, after
smoking.
Derived from (6), (9) and (15)
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Radon

Relative risk of lung cancer mortality by cumulative exposure to radon decay products in WLM.
The overall contribution of radon + progeny to airborne radioactivity is quantified by the
working level parameter (WL).
1 WL equals any combination of short-lived 222Rn progeny (218Po, 214Pb, 214Bi, and 214Po) in 1
liter of air that releases 1.3 105 MeV of potential alpha Energy; one WL is equivalent to
2.08 105 joules per cubic meter of air (J/m3). One WL is defined also as the potential
alpha particle energy released by short-lived radon daughters in radioactive equilibrium
with 3700 Bq/m3 of 222Rn.
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Radon in USA
EPA risk assesment:
Radon is estimated to cause about 21,000 lung cancer deaths
per year, according to EPA's 2003 Assessment of Risks from
Radon in Homes (EPA 402-R-03-003). The numbers of
deaths from other causes are taken from the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention's 2005-2006 National
Center for Injury Prevention and Control Report and 2006
National Safety Council Reports.

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The estimated incidence rates for 1970-2010 for lung cancer (http://www.tumori.net/it/banca_dati/query.php)
considering a mixed population, weighted on male and female populations, are taken into access Incidence
estimates refer to the age class 0-84 years.
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Derived from (13)

Some statistics for European radon surveys. Radon-prone areas are usually sampled more than
others, overall statistics are usually biased and not always meaningful. Hence, the data presented
above are based on estimations derived from statistics and/or models and one should be careful 41
when using such information. Derived from (1)

2005
Radon Mapping Methods
Self-speaking figure underlining
the variety in the mapping
methods adopted (average values
on grids or administrative
boundaries, isolines derived from
spatial interpolation), in the
chosen resolution (municipality
level up to regional level), as well
as in the number of isoline levels
used to describe the various
concentrations (low, medium and
high concentration levels differ).
Sampling
strategies
diverge
between countries and so is the
bias in the overall statistics of the
measurements.
Measurements have been made
using various types of detectors
and for different time intervals.
Some countries measure mainly
in winter to estimate an average
maximum concentration while
others do measurements for a
whole year.
Derived from (1)

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Decided at Prague conference, 2006:

10 x 10 km grid, annual mean in ground floor rooms

Example of a 10 x 10 km grid map: Czech Republic.

Derived from (2)

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Radon Survey
August 2010:
21 countries
17,922 non empty cells,
797,051 measurements
Derived from (3)

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Radon Survey
May 2012:
Derived from (4)

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Radon Measurements
May 2012:
25 countries
18,791 non empty cells
818,791 measurements
Derived from (4)

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Derived from (3)

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Radon Nugget Effect

Derived from (2)

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49

ISPESL (Istituto Superiore per la Prevenzione e la Sicurezza del Lavoro). Il radon in

Italia: guida per il cittadino. Nov 2007.

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http://www.provincia.bz.it/agenzia-ambiente/radiazioni/mappa-radon.asp

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Tracks
Solid state nuclear track detection (SSNTD).

Natural materials

Long-lived storage of information

Effects of heat and dynamic processes

Differential response. Since different materials have different thresholds

Integrated nature of record.

Freedom from electronics.

Small geometry, ruggedness, low cost.

Over the last 20 years or so, the most widely used technique for measuring radon levels in homes, in
public and private buildings, and in mines, caves, etc., has been the SSNTD method.

CR-39 (polyallyldiglycol carbonate) plastic, which can register revealable proton tracks.(9)

Cellulose nitrate (LR 115)

Polycarbonate (Makrofol E)(10)

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Tracks

Range of devices for radon measurement based on utilization of solid state nuclear track detectors (SSNTDs)
53
PE and CN stand for polyethylene and cellulose nitrate
Derived from (10)

Tracks

Registration characteristics of some radiometers of 222 Rn, used for large scale
radon surveys
Derived from (10)

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Activated Carbon Radon Detector

Activated carbon is a form of carbon processed to be riddled with small, low-volume pores that
increase the surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions.

One gram of activated carbon has a surface area in excess of 500 m2.

Activated carbon is made from coconut shell mainly.

Derived from (6)
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Activated Carbon Radon Detector

This is the simplest device for measuring

radon concentration. Accuracy is fair (+/20%) and is greatly affected by humidity and
air movement. The accuracy of the charcoal
canister decreases the longer the test
evaluation is delayed.
Charcoal canisters must be processed by a lab
resulting in a delay of a day or more for
results.

The first was Rutherford to show radon could be adsorpted on activated carbon and then
measured to obtain its air concentration.

222-Rn is determined by gamma spectrometry using a NaI(Tl), usually.

Gamma lines used are from 214-Pb (242, 295 e 352 KeV) and 214-Bi (609 KeV).
Derived from (11)
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Electrect Radon Monitor

E-PERM (Environmental Passive Electret Radon Monitor)

750 V, min 200 V

Not very sensible to humidity, working temperature range from -6 to 50 C
Dynamic range
Type S
300 to 25.000 Bq m-3 days
3 to 90 days
Type L
9000 to 600.000 Bq m-3 days
30 to 360 days
Derived from (8)

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Electrect Radon Monitor against Standar Reference

U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)

Intercomparison EPA 402-F-03-003-1 USEPA RMP

Derived from (8)

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Lucas Cell

The Lucas cell is a hollow cylinder, sealed with a glass window at one end a "quick
connect" at the other end. The inside is coated with silver activated zinc sulfide, or
ZnS(Ag). This phosphor emits a pulse of light (photon) or scintillates when an alpha
particle hits it. The cell is viewed by a photomultiplier tube and the scintillations
counted by electronics. The Lucas cell is the size of a drinking cup because that is the
range of an alpha particle in air -- a few cm.
Derived from (12)

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Ionization Chamber
The ionization chamber is the simplest of all gasfilled radiation detectors.
An ionization chamber measures the charge from
the number of ion pairs created within a gas
caused by incident radiation. It consists of a gasfilled chamber with two electrodes.
A voltage potential is applied between the
electrodes to create an electric field in the fill gas.
When gas between the electrodes is ionized by
ionising radiation, ion-pairs are created and the
resultant positive ions and dissociated electrons
move to the electrodes of the opposite polarity
under the influence of the electric field. The
ionization current is measured by an electrometer
circuit.

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Ionization Chamber

61

Radon: action and reference level

Italy has no max dwelling level. There is reference level for workers, that is 500 Bq
m-3.
EU refers to max 200 Bq/m3 for new built houses and 400 Bq/m3 for old ones.
WHO presented in 2009 a recommended national reference level of 100 Bq/m 3,
for radon in dwellings. The recommendation also says that where this is not
possible, 300 Bq/m3 should be selected as the highest level. A national reference
level should not be a limit, but should represent the maximum acceptable annual
average radon concentration in a dwelling.
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages that action be taken at
concentrations as low as 74 Bq/m3.
On 8 July 2010 the UK's Health Protection Agency issued new advice setting a
"Target Level" of 100 Bq/m3 whilst retaining an "Action Level" of 200 Bq/m3.

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References:
(1) G. Dubois and P. Bossew, A European Atlas of Natural Radiations including harmonized radon maps of the
European Union, What do we have, what do we know, quo vadimus? European Commission DG
Joint Research Center, Institute for Environment and Sustainability. Via Fermi 1, TP441, 21021 Ispra (VA),
Italy.
(2) G. Dubois and P. Bossew, European radon map(s) in the frame of a European Atlas of Natural Radiations,
DG JRC - European Commission Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) Ispra, Italy.
(3) Valeria Gruber, Tore Tollefsen, Marc De Cort and Peter Bossew, Status of the European Atlas of Natural
Radiation, IES - Institute for Environment and Sustainability Ispra, Italy. JRC Prague September 2010.
(4) V. Gruber, T. Tollefsen and M. De Cort, On the way to a European Atlas of Natural Radiation, Radioactivity
Environmental Monitoring (REM) Institute for Transuranium Elements, www.jrc.ec.europa.eu
(5) De Cort, M. et al., EC, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, EU Report
Nr. 16733, 1998.
(6) Wikipedia: www.wikipedia.org
(7) B. M. R. Green, J. S. Hughest, P. R. Lomas and A. Janssen, Natural Radiation Atlas of Europe, Radiation
Protection Dosimetry, 45 n.1/4 pp.491-493, 1992.
(8) LABORATORIO di RADIOPROTEZIONE, Dipartimento di Energia - Sezione Nucleare CESNEF, Politecnico
di Milano.
(9) Saeed A. Durrani, Nuclear tracks: A success story of the 20th century, Radiation Measurements 34 513,
2001.
(10) V. A. Nikolaev a and R. Ilic, Etched track radiometers in radon measurements: a review, Radiation
Measurements 30 113, 1999.
(11) Francesco Altamura, thesis, Universit di Pescara, 2012.
(12) K.P. Eappen, R.N. Nair and Y.S. Mayya, Simultaneous measurement of radon and thoron using Lucas
scintillation cell, Radiation Measurements 43 9197, 2008.
(13) Giorgia Cinelli, Ph. D. Thesis, Universit di Bologna, 2011.
(14) M. Verdoya, P. Chiozzi, P. De Felice, V. Pasquale, M. Bochiolo, I. Genovesi, Natural gamma-ray
spectrometry as a tool for radiation dose and radon hazard modelling, Applied Radiation and Isotopes 67
964968, 2009.
(15) DG TREN Nuclear Energy Radiation Protection (Luxembourg) and JRC (Ispra), Environmental Radioactivity
in the European Community (2004-2006), report n.161.
(16) World Health Organization handbook on indoor radon: a public health perspective. 2009
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Interesting links:

EURDEP (European Radiological Data Exchange Platform)

http://eurdep.jrc.ec.europa.eu/Basic/Pages/Public/Home/Default.aspx
Radioactivity Environmental Monitoring (REM), JRC
http://rem.jrc.ec.europa.eu/RemWeb/Reports.aspx
Ukradon (you may find detailed UK radon maps)
http://www.ukradon.org/
Radiochemistry Society
http://www.radiochemistry.org/periodictable/gamma_spectra/

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Interesting links:

EURDEP (European Radiological Data Exchange Platform)

http://eurdep.jrc.ec.europa.eu/Basic/Pages/Public/Home/Default.aspx
Radioactivity Environmental Monitoring (REM), JRC
http://rem.jrc.ec.europa.eu/RemWeb/Reports.aspx
Ukradon (you may find detailed UK radon maps)
http://www.ukradon.org/
Radiochemistry Society
http://www.radiochemistry.org/periodictable/gamma_spectra/

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