NOTES IN GENERAL SOCIOLOGY

Prof. Gil Astrophel B. Orcena

BA Political Science & MA Sociology (UP Diliman)
Phd Development Studies (UST Graduate School)

COURSE INTRODUCTION
1. Introduce and develop liberal perspectives in the course.
2. Contribute something new to a field of inquiry
3. A systematic way to determine ones contribution to inquiry is to fill in the
research gap.
4. Research, surf the net to gather all pertinent & recent materials; summarize.
5. Observe ethics in doing research (survey/interview )
6. Operationalize concepts in doing research
7. Sociology as a systematic discipline exploring the dynamics, structures,
processes, relationships among others, in a society.
8. Homosexuality as an alternative gender; Do not discriminate anyone.
9. Analysis of homosexuality requires the need to contextualize to identify
contributing factors; Perceptions and definitions matter a lot.
10. Situated or casual homosexuality is no big deal; Emerging patterns and cases of
homosexuality (g2g relationship, baklitas, straight guy) are subject to further
investigations.
11. Prostitution is a multi-dimensional phenomenon.
12. An evolving sense of morality in postmodern times is subject to debate & inquiry
(cases of sex video scandals)
13. Cultural practices are relative; People are culture-bound; (Cases: tribal feeding
practice, UP Oblation Run)

CHAPTER 1: Nature and Scope of Sociology (Dimensions/Focuses)

1. Social Organization process of structuring the society to attain social, economic,
and political order; the opposite is social disorganization characterized by chaos,
conflicts, disagreements, and struggles.
2. Social Psychology how an individuals behavior is influenced by group
behavior and vice versa.
3. Social Change the dynamics and transformation of the society over time
4. Human Ecology deals with mans relationship to environment, and vice versa
5. Population Studies concerns examination of peoples attributes and statuses in a
particular geographic area
6. Applied Sociology the practical side of Sociology (Empirical Research /
Sociological inquiry)
7. Sociological Theory tentative descriptions and explanations of sociological
concepts formulated by sociologists

8. Social Institutions major social groups; abstractions of values, beliefs,

knowledge, etc. to serve particular group needs
9. Culture religion, traditions, costumes and practices; a groups lifestyle; an allencompassing concept
A sociological theory may describe and/or explain a phenomenon, a process or a
concept. It may also prescribe solutions to a social problem.
Macro-sociological theories (grand, general theories)
1. Structuralism-functionalism views the society as a system whose function is
to maintain equilibrium among its component parts; idealistic as it requires interconnections (inter-sectoral collaboration); views a chaotic situation as
disequilibrium resulting from system dysfunctions; a theory underlying social
organization.
2. Evolutionary theory describes a changing, transforming society from simple to
complex; agricultural to industrial to information; conservative to liberal; precolonial to colonial to neo-colonial; a theory underlying social change.
3. Conflict/Marxist theory views the society as an arena of constant struggle
between the upper class (bourgeoisie; the oppressor) and the lower class
(proletariat; the oppressed); proposes revolution to eliminate oppressive economic
and political conditions; a theory underlying social organization, disorganization,
social change and social institutions.
Withering of the state occurs when revolution succeeds;
Overhauling the system must bring about radical changes to the lives of the people;
Notable examples of revolution include the Industrial and the French Revolution.
The Marxist paradigm for change is challenged by the recent political and
economic crisis in the Philippines; Alternative solutions may be sought. A coup de e
tat is antagonistic to democracy unless the people consent it. Sir Gil
Micro-sociological theories (specific, particular theories)
1. Exchange theory describes regularity of interactions and relationships between
individual or groups through rules of mutuality, symbiosis, and support;
prescribes termination of relationship once the rule of exchange is violated; a
theory underlying the dynamics of social interactions.

2. Symbolic Interactionism describes patterns of interaction via communication,

verbal and non-verbal, and symbols to convey meanings and contexts; definitions
and perceptions of concepts and/or situations determine extent of relationships.
A positive perception of family situation and experience may result to a positive
relationship between and among the family members (Case in point: OCW families)
CHAPTER 2: SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY (RESEARCH)
1. Sociological inquiry as a research process and a tool used in investigating social
phenomena to further knowledge, validate or invalidate theories, and possibly
resolve social problems.
2. A more practical approach in undertaking research is linking theory to practice.
3. Theorizing after the formulation of problems is conventional; theorizing from the
results of the study is a logical and modern approach.
4. Procedures in undertaking a research activity:
Level 1: Getting started
Step 1: Brainstorming sessions
Expected output: Research topic, General problem,
Specific problems of the study
Brainstorming sessions must be democratically conducted
Consult others (teachers, researchers, sociologists, experts)
Research topic must appeal to ones interest
Research topic must lead to a contribution to a field of inquiry
Research topic must achieve focus (specific, empirical, particular)
Problems of the study must be consistently formulated
Problems of the study must be stated in question form or a combination of questions
and descriptive, declarative statements
Seek approval of your research adviser/Sociology professor
Step 2: Gathering & Organizing research materials
Expected output: properly labeled materials
3-5 pages per material
(Introduction, Literature Review, Conclusions)
Research materials include published books, articles, journals, magazines,
newspaper editorials, monographs, audio-video, thesis, dissertations, etc.
Visit world-class libraries of MIT, UP, Ateneo, DLSU, & UST
Observe library rules/comply with research requirement (permission, letters.)
Be systematic in gathering materials; learn to strategize; ask help from the librarian.
Materials must be pertinent to your study (relevance to your topic)
Materials must be recent (year 2000 onwards)
Do not forget to get the bibliographic data/information
Organize the materials, label them properly & place them in a folder or envelope.

Label the envelope; indicate the names of the group members.

Present the output to your instructor for approval.
Level 2:Writing the Literature Review
Step 1: Summarizing the research materials
Expected output: summaries in 5x8 index cards
Write the synopses of the materials in 1-3 paragraphs per material (5x8 index cards).
Properly label the index cards; Indicate bibliographic data.
Step 2: Working on the literature review
Expected output: review of related literature
Write the review of related literature using a format (thematic or topical,
recency, major vs. minor studies);
Document the literature review using the APA style - (Orcena, 2006).
Review rules of technical writing/documentation.
Beware of plagiarism
Ask a technical writing instructor to edit your work; check your grammar/spellings.
A sample review (OCW migration) will be discussed in the succeeding sessions.
Place the output in an envelope, properly labeled, & discuss it with your instructor.
LEVEL 3: Refining the Research Problems
Output #1: Research Matrix
Output #2: Reformulated Problems of the Study
Identify the research gap in the review of related literature
Design a matrix showing the focuses/dimensions explored in previous studies.
Briefly discuss the matrix in one to two paragraphs; state your groups
contribution to inquiry (significance of the study)
Reformulate the research problems; observe consistency.
Present outputs for approval.
LEVEL 4: Working out the Methodology
Output #1: Questionnaire/Instrument
Output #2: Validated Questionnaire/Instrument (Optional)
Output #3: Raw Data(tape, record, video, pictures, accomplished Qs)
Choose the appropriate methods for the research (quantitative or qualitative).
Combine methods if necessary to verify responses.
Methods: survey, interview, FGD, essay method.
Design the questionnaire/instrument (structured, unstructured, or a combination).
Be sure to formulate questions correctly and ethically. Check your grammar.
Have the questionnaire validated by an expert.

LEVEL 5: Organizing & Interpreting the Data

Output #1: Organized Data
Output #2: Interpretation of Results / The Theory
Output #3: (Creative) Presentation of the Research Study
Output #4: The Final Research Output
Organize the data into charts, tables or graphs, when necessary.
Use statistical measures (frequency distribution), when necessary.
Check accuracy and consistency of figures.
Present the data into cases, when necessary (qualitative study); quote responses.
Interpret the organized data; answer the problems of the study; theorize!
(2-3 pages, single-spaced)
Have the write-up (interpretation) edited by an expert.
The final research output (in a clear book) must include the following:
Title page, Table of contents, Introduction (1 page, single-spaced), Research
problems, Literature review, Matrix, Data Presentation, Interpretation /Theory,
Questionnaire, Materials (appendices), & References.
CHAPTER 3: CULTURE
Popular definition of culture ones education, refinement of manners, standards etc.
// traditions, customs, primitive/old practices.
Sociological definition of culture - a totality of peoples traits, costumes, practices,
beliefs, knowledge, laws, mores, language, technology among others.
Eliminate biases or prejudices against other groups; develop a liberal attitude.
Culture co-exists with the society; A sociological study is a cultural study.
Culture is an all-encompassing, multi-dimensional concept.
Cultural relativity amidst cultural diversity and/or cultural pluralism
Do not use your cultural standards to judge other cultures; Be liberal-minded.
Culture as a synthesis of various influences (resist or accept change)
Culture can be learned; it can be passed from one generation to another.
Culture as organized, unorganized and disorganized patterns of group behavior
Culture is dynamic (Restructuring of roles, role reversal, introduction of novelties,
technological innovations; changing of values, emergence of new norms, standards)
Culture defines and redefines moral, political, economic standards, orientations,
ideologies & value system.
Cultural Concepts/ Cultural studies (suggested topics for research proposals)
1. Stereotypes general impressions attributed to other cultures
2. Sub-culture a component of culture
3. Counterculture attacks & deviates from the cultural mainstream
4. Culture shock feelings of disorientation & loss of belongingness
5. Ethnocentrism superiority of ones culture to those of others

6. Xenocentrism the opposite of ethnocentrism

7. Cultural integration assimilation & acculturation
8. Cultural relativity differences of cultural standards, orientations, etc.
9. Cultural unity similarities of cultures
10. Cultural diversity differences/pluralism of cultures
Cultural Unity and Diversity: Contributing Factors
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Goals
Standards, orientations, ideologies
Environment (physical, social, natural)
Availability of resources
Historical experience (colonial)
Idiosyncracies

CHAPTER 4: VALUES
1. Values are underlying & invisible forces in ones behavior or group behavior.
2. Values influence ones decisions (conflict of values); PMS as example.
3. Values shape or define ones personality
4. Values change over time.
5. Values are caught, not taught. Do not impose values on others.
6. Values are relative just like cultures.
7. Values are perceived and defined differently. (Value of disobedience as example)
8. Values are not consciously acknowledged.
9. Values change over time. (Case in point: Philippine politics)
10. Some values are practised; some are discarded.
11. Values are supposed to be positive but they sometimes become perverted.
12. Attempt to translate vices into values; Evaluate ones value system.
13. Typical Filipino values (pakikisama, hiya, utang na loob, amor propio, etc.)
14. Rationalism vs. irrationalism :cheating as example
15. Personalism vs. impersonalism: trabaho lang walang personalan
16. Regionalism vs. Nationalism: antagonistic or complementary?
17. Universal values : peace, honesty, equality, democracy, & love (stories)
18. Is there a need to restructure the Filipino value system? Why & how?
19. An eclectic approach may work in reshaping our value system.
CHAPTER5 5: PERSONALITY & SOCIALIZATION
Popular definitions
Theories /definitions of personality & socialization
1. Wilsons theory

2.
3.
4.
5.

Critique against the Wilsons theory

Freudian theory of socialization: Id, Ego & Superego
Cultural determinism: culture shaping personality; organized social behavior
Symbolic interactionism: social self through language & symbols
: George Meads generalized others; role-playing
: Charles Cooleys looking glass self; impressions,
& perceptions of others
6. Goffmans presentation of self: All the world is a stage; a dramaturgical
approach in the analysis of personality.
The Socialization Process: Theoretical perspectives
1. Kendall The child must be socialized to function effectively in society; calls
for the teaching of values, beliefs, norms among others, .to the child.
2. Broom & Selznick Socialization is the process of fitting into an organized way
of life and established cultural tradition and includes the complementary process
of transmission of the culture and social heritage and the development of
personality.
3. Medina identifies functions of socialization: transmission of cultural traits,
developing a socially functioning person, & means of social control to make one
conform to group norms & values.
4. Wright, Weiss & Unkowic Socialization is directed at the problem of
continuity which occurs when children become productive adult members;
conformity or non-conformity to norms as an issue.
Agents of Socialization
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Family: gender role socialization

Peer Group: sometimes a primary group; a support group
School: furthering knowledge/development of skills, competence & personality
Church: development of moral standards, spirituality
Media: shaping of public opinion; influence on ones values, beliefs, etc.
Workplace: enhancing work ethics, professionalism, responsibility, etc.
As an agent of socialization, the ultimate goal of MIT is to produce globally
competitive engineers who can help build a better Philippines
and a better world to live in

CHAPTER 6: DEVIANCE & SOCIAL CONTROL

Psychologists perspectives on deviance: biological & Freudian theories (coping
mechanisms, frustrations, defense mechanisms, id-ego-superego system)

Sociologists perspectives on deviance: non-conformity, non-observance, non-adherence

to norms; breaking the norms, challenging or defiance of standards; setting a new set of
philosophies or ideologies (Bases of.deviance)
Reasons why people deviate: a matter of choice, an alternative lifestyle, a personality
outcome, an extension of freedom, a belief system, a cultural trait or idiosyncracy.
Norms are classified into folkways, mores, & laws; Non-conformity to any of these types
is deviance. (Cite examples, cases & stories)
Deviance is a multi-dimensional concept; Social deviants can be further classified as
physical deviants, mental deviants, political deviants (leftists), religious deviants among
others; counter-cultures as examples;
Deviance & Social Control: sanctions, system of rewards & punishment, levels of
acceptance & rejection (illustrate in a matrix); On prostitution: refer to framework.
Deviants do not necessarily retard social advance; deviance is either positive or
negative.
HOMOSEXUALITY
Conceptual vs. operational definitions: What is a homosexual?
Variations of homosexuality: lesbianism, bisexuality
Theories of homosexuality: biological (nature) vs. cultural (nurture)
Issues on transgenderism / homosexuality:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

immorality vs. amorality?

assets or liabilities? (gay instructors, gay politicians)
objects of ridicule?
gay rights (legalization of gay marriages)
gay husbands? (basis for annulment/legal separation)

Questions/statements to think about!

1. The society is sick as it pinpoints the 3rd sex as immorals.
2. Have you really accepted the3rd sex?
3. Would you like to have gay children?
4. Are we ready for homosexuality?
5. A revolution of the3rd sex is an endless revolution unless the society accepts
them as alternative gender& as co-equals of men and women.
INSIGHTS from the discussions on deviance, homosexuality & prostitution

1. Deviance is not all about nature against nurture; Its a consequence of nature
and nurture.
2. Deviance is not all about minority the minority have to be compared to the
cultural mainstream.
3. Deviance is a multi-dimensional phenomenon.
4. Deviance can be simple, moderate & extreme.
5. Not all deviants are liabilities; some are assets of the society.
6. Social control is the observance of a system of rewards and punishment
(sanctions).
7. Social control is designed to ensure conformity to norms.
8. Extreme deviants must be extremely sanctioned.
9. Moral deviants are either accepted or rejected by the heterosexuals.
10. Gays and prostitutes are stigmatized as immorals.
11. Prostitution, in general, boils down to the issue on poverty.
12. Homosexuality and prostitution are multidimensional concepts.
13. The issues on homosexuality are thrown back to the heterosexuals.
14. Legalization of gay marriages is an exercise in futility; The 1987 Constitution
does not contain provisions for the 3rd sex; Morals are one basis in the
formulation of laws.
15. Acknowledging homosexuality as a social problem indicates a conservative,
moralist orientation.
16. Homosexuality is no big deal for the liberal-minded heterosexuals.
17. A counternarrative on homosexuality may help re-frame mentalities.
18. Establishing organizations and social movements is necessary to liberate the 3rd
sex (and the women) from the oppressive patriarchal society (kalapastanganan,
kapalaluhan at kasakiman ng mga kalalakihan KKKK).
19. The postmodern society isnt ready yet for homosexuality.
20. Filipinos, in general, are still culture-bound, and are tied up to moral constraints.
21. Sociology of tragedy: the wowowee stampede boils down to poverty issue

CHAPTER 7 & 8:
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, SOCIAL INTERACTION
& COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR (Discussion Outline)

1. Essence of social organization & sociological theories

2. General categorizations of societies on the basis of
solidarity: Gemeinschaft vs. Gesselschaft
3. Types of social groups: primary vs. secondary; formal vs.
informal; personal vs. impersonal (examples)
4. Special types: reference group (examples)

5. Collective behavior: social class, mass, audience, public

& crowd (examples)
6. Types of crowds: casual, conventional, expressive &
acting crowds (examples)
7. Social movements: revolutionary vs. reform, other types
(examples)
8. Essence of Social Interaction: communication
9. Symbolic interactionism: contexts, meanings,
perceptions, definitions
10. Basic patterns of social interaction: cooperation,
competition, conflict, differentiation (cases)
11. Resolutions to conflict: types of accommodation
12. Domination, compromise, toleration, truce, mediation,
arbitration (cases)
CHAPTER 9: The Filipino Family (Powerpoint Presentation)
1. The framework for the analysis of the Filipino family today shows factors &
indicators (variables) in comparing or contrasting traditional type to nontraditional type (modern or alternative) of families (refer to illustration.)
2. How different are the modern types of families from the traditional types in terms
of parental authority, structural arrangement, gender roles, survival strategies,
support network & observance of norms and traditions?
3. The family as an institution is a microscopic reflection of social, political and
economic realities confronting the society at large.
4. The family is not collapsing nor dying as an institution; it has simply transformed
over time.
5. Modern types of families include gay & lesbian families, nuclear-extended, street
families, reconstituted families, OCW families among others.
6. What really is the measure of an intact family? Is it physical availability
/presence of family members or is it emotional intimacy?
7. The impact of migration constitutes an issue: economic rewards vs. social costs
8. Feminization of migration may comprise a gender issue.
9. Migration issues boil down to poverty issue; a need for a strong government.
10. Is migration a viable option to provide a better future for the family?
11. Migration as a decision to make reveals a practical philosophy.

12. OCW families are perceived and labeled dispersed, cyber, invisible and
transnational families; OCW families are stigmatized as lacking in emotional
intimacy between the children and the absentee parents, breeds a culture of
juvenile delinquency, among other issues.
13. Homosexuality/lesbianism may be developed in the children in the absence of a
consistent male/female model; A popular myth.
14. Exploring the impact of father-absence due to OCW migration: selected cases
of sons and daughters left behind (the masteral thesis of Sir Gil) is a modest
contribution to the inquiry on the consequences of international contract
migration on the Filipino family; On the whole, contrary to popular perceptions,
the impact is positive. OCW families have learned to adjust, survive, and come
out on top. Relatives support & get some support too!
15. Disclosure difficulty may be felt by children left-behind by OCW parents ( the
same may also be observed in non-OCW families)
16. Modern modes of communication must have facilitated the maintenance of
traditional parental authority in OCW families; the father is still the central
figure in the family despite the distance (although an egalitarian type may also be
observed); the father is appreciated; the children reciprocate & are motivated.
17. The mother assumes a very significant role in the absence of the OCW father; She
must empower herself in disciplining the children, project a positive imaginary of
the father & manage economic resources in the family, among others.
18. Family comes first is a value that we must learn & practise at all times!
LOVE your family above anything else above anyone else- Sir Gil

CHAPTER 10-13: SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

(Discussion Guide Questions)
RELIGION
1. What is religion? How is it different from philosophy?
2. What is Freuds viewpoint on religion? What about Karl
Marxs?
3. Why is religion said to be the opium of the people?
4. How does religion foster unity? Other functions of religion
(to a person, group, society?)
5. When is religion a source of conflict?
6. What is meant by phenomenology of religion?
7. What is the central thesis of the article written by your
instructor (inter-spirituality)?
8. How is an agnostic different from an atheist?

9. What is existentialism? (theist vs. atheist existentialism)

10. What is a sect? a cult? an ecclesia?
10.
Is the church a more powerful institution than the
government? Comment on Article 2, Sec. 6 of the 1987
Constitution.
ECONOMY
1. What is meant by sociology of economy/?
2. Explain the fundamental economic cycle.
3. What are the fundamental economic systems? Compare and
contrast.
4. Describe the economic situation/conditions in the Phil.
5. What do you think are the main causes of poverty?
6. Identify and explain basic theories on poverty.
7. Explain the vicious cycle of poverty.
8. How do we break the cycle? Suggest solutions/remedies.
9. What are the economic goals of the government? Evaluate
its performance.
10.
Comment on the governments direction toward
industrialization.
GOVERNANCE
1. What is political sociology? What is its significance?
2. What are the social, political, and economic functions of the
government?
3. Explain the inherent powers of the state.
4. Describe the ideal and perverted types of governance. Cite
examples.
5. Discuss the fundamental functions and powers of the
Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branches of the
government.

6. What are the underlying democratic principles in Phil.

Governance?
7. Brief history of governance in the Philippines
8. What are the fundamental political crises in the Phil.? (crises
of legitimacy, leadership, legislation & integrity)
9. Suggest remedies to political crises.
EDUCATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Education as a process; education as an output

Brief history of education in the Philippines
Key issues & concerns in education
Key solutions to address educational problems
Trends & Practices in education
MITs mission-vision

FINAL DISCUSSION: CHAPTER 18: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

TOPICS FOR REPORTING/ ORAL PROFICIENCY TEST:
1. Forms of Marriage/Marriage Practices
2. Rural Community
3. Urban Community
4. Race & Ethnicity
5. Population Studies & Migration issues
6. Social Change (theories)
7. Women / marital rape / prostitution
8. Children / child abuse / child labor
9. Fraternities/ gang wars
10. Drug addiction & prohibited drugs
11. Gay relationships/gay issues/transgenderism
12. Dormitory life / study habits
13. MIT culture / student organizations
14. Parental pressure/ peer pressure
15. Male intimacy/male bonding
16. Recent political issues
17. Religious practices/religious conflict
18. Social Impact of Technology

19. Globalization /Terrorism

20. Technophobia & Technostress

PRESENTATION DIRECTIONS
1. Choose a topic (sub-topic) in the chapter assigned to you.
2. Deliver your report in 5 to 10 minutes. Speak English!
3. Greet the audience, Introduce yourself and briefly state your purpose: I am here
to briefly discuss (topic)_________.
4. State the significance or relevance of the topic
5. State the questions or concerns to be addressed in your discussion.
6. Use 5 x 8 index cards as note cards.
7. Follow a discussion outline
8. Do not read the note cards all through out. Just glance at them once in a while.
9. Prepare a power point presentation or use any other media.
10. Be sure to show mastery of your report. Rehearse your report but be spontaneous
in your delivery!
11. Be enthusiastic and passionate in your discussion.
12. Be sure to cite specific and pertinent examples.
13. Be sure to convey significant messages.
14. Dont forget to connect to your audience; establish eye contact.
15. Be polite, honest and modest in your report.
16. Be factual; cite authorities or personalities.
17. Dont forget to smile once in a while.
18. Be pleasant; observe a semi-formal dress code.
19. Wrap up your discussion; reiterate salient points.
20. End your report properly; entertain questions, if any.