l.

Instrument: A device or mechanism used to determine the present value of the quantity under
measurement.
2. Measurement: The process of determining the amount, degree, or capacity by comparison
(direct or indirect) with the accepted standards of the system units being used.
3. Accuracy: The degree of exactness (closeness) of a measurement compared to the expected
(desired) value.
4. Resolution: The smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.
5. Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, i.e. successive
readings does not differ. (Precision is the consistency of the instrument output for a given value
of input).
6. Expected value: The design value, i.e. the most probable value that calculations indicate one
should expect to measure.
7 Error: The deviation of the true value from the desired value.
8. Sensitivity: The ratio of the change in output (response) of the instrument to a change of input
or measured variable.

What are the basic elements of a generalized measurement system? (Nov 2003 ECE).
The basic elements of a generalized measurement system are (i) Primary sensing unit
(ii) Data conditioning unit (iii) Display unit.
Define the term precision.

(Nov 2003 ECE).

A measure of the reproducibility of measurement i.e. given a fixed value of Variable,

precision is a measure of the degree to which successive measurement differ from one another.
What are the classifications of errors in measurements? (Nov 2004 ECE).
The classifications of errors are
Gross errors
Systematic errors
Schematic errors
Random errors
List any four static characteristics of a measuring system. (May 2004 ECE).
Some of the static characteristics of a measuring system are
Accuracy,

Sensitivity
Drift
Hysteresis
Dead zone
Linearity
Define the term Accuracy.

(May 2005, Nov 2005 ECE).

Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the true value of the quantity under
measurement
What are the two basic factors in specifying the dynamic performance of an
instrumentation system? (Nov 2005 ECE).
The two basic factors in specifying the dynamic performance of an instrumentation system
are
Transient response.
Steady state response
Mention the different types of standards in measurement. (Nov 2005 ECE).
The different types of standards in measurement are
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards.
What is meant by calibration?

(Nov 2005 ECE).

Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or making a scale so that the readings of an
instrument agree with the accepted and the certified standard.
How can time and frequency standards to be disseminated?

(May 2006 ECE)

Time and frequency can be disseminated via radio or television transmission. It is

also disseminated by low frequency navigation system called

LORON-C.

What are the different types of standards of measurement? (May 2007)

There are different types of standards of measurement, classified by their function and
application in the following categories:
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards

What is the need for measurement?(May 2007-R01)

Measurement enables a person to determine the value of an unknown quantity and is
mainly needed for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable.
Write the need for calibration? (May 2007-R01)
Calibration is needed for finding the errors and accuracy of instruments.
Define standards. Classify them.(Nov 2007)
A standard of measurement is a physical representation of unit of measurement. A unit is
realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard or a natural phenomenon including
physical and atomic constants.
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards
Bring out the difference between moving coil and moving iron instruments.(Nov 2007)
Moving iron instruments are generally used for measuring AC voltage and currents
Moving coil instruments are used for measuring DC quantities.
Define static error and how are they classified.(May 2008)
Systematic errors can also be sub divided into static or dynamic errors. Static errors are
caused by limitations of the measuring device or the physical laws governing its behavior. The
static error is introduced in a micrometer when excessive pressure is applied in torquing the
shaft.
What is the difference between analog and digital instruments.(May 2008)
The major differences between analog and digital instruments are analog instruments are
those which are based on some mechanical instruments like gears etc and digital instruments are
those based on ICs etc. For eg. Analog get input and show output mechanically and digital
instruments shows digital output
What is measurement and how is it classified?(May 2009)
Measurement is essentially the act or the result of a quantitative comparison between a
given quantity and quantity of the same kind chosen as a standard or a unit.
Distinguish between active and passive transducers. (May 2009)
Active transducers are those which require electric current (a source of energy) for
working, while passive transducers are those which does not need an external source. Passive
transducers directly produce electric signals without an external energy source.
Differentiate accuracy from precision.(Nov 2009/May 2010)

Accuracy indicates how far the measured value is close to the true value while precision
indicates how far a particular measured value is from the average of the number of reading taken.
Thus precision is not related to true value of the parameter to be measured .
What is meant by measurement?
Measurement is an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a predefined
standard.
Mention the basic requirements of measurement.
The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
What are the 2 methods for measurement?
Direct method and
Indirect method.
Explain the function of measurement system.
The measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity
to be measured in an analogous form. the analogous signal is then processed by some
intermediate means and is then fed to the end device which presents the results of the
measurement.
Define Instrument.
Instrument is defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or
variable.
List the types of instruments.
The 3 types of instruments are
Mechanical Instruments
Electrical Instruments and
Electronic Instruments
Classify instruments based on their functions.
Indicating instruments
Integrating instruments
Recording instruments
Give the applications of measurement systems.
The instruments and measurement systems are used for
Monitoring of processes and operations.
Control of processes and operations.

Experimental engineering analysis.

Why calibration of instrument is important?
The calibration of all instruments is important since it affords the opportunity to check
the instrument against a known standard and subsequently to errors in accuracy.
Explain the calibration procedure.
Calibration procedure involves a comparison of the particular instrument with either.
A primary standard
A secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated or an
instrument of known accuracy.
Define Calibration.
It is the process by which comparing the instrument with a standard to correct the
accuracy.
Name the different essential torques in indicating instruments.
Deflecting torque
Controlling torque
Damping torque
Name the types of instruments used for making voltmeter and ammeter.
PMMC type
Moving iron type
Dynamometer type
Hot wire type
Electrostatic type
Induction type.
State the advantages of PMMC instruments
Uniform scale.
No hysteresis loss
Very accurate
High efficiency.
State the disadvantages of PMMC instruments
Cannot be used for ac measurements
Some errors are caused by temperature variations.
State the applications of PMMC instruments
measurement of dc voltage and current

used in dc galvanometer.
How the range of instrument can be extended in PMMC instruments.
In ammeter by connecting a shunt resister
In voltmeter by connecting a series resister.
State the advantages of Dynamometer type instruments
Can be used for both dc and ac measurements.
Free from hysteresis and eddy current errors.
State the advantages of Moving iron type instruments
Less expensive
Can be used for both dc and ac
Reasonably accurate.
What are the basic elements of a generalized measurement system?
The basic elements of a measurement system are primary sensing element, variable
conversion element, variable manipulation element, data transmission element and data
presentation element.
Define the term precision.
Precision is the measure of the consistency or repeatability of a series of measurements.
Precision=1-|Xi-X/Xi|
Xi=the value of the ithmeasurements.
X=the average value of n measurements
What is the difference between accuracy and precision?
Accuracy : It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value
of the variable being measured.
Precision: It is the measure of reproducibility of the measurements.
Define resolution of an instrument.
Resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the measured quantity that will
produce a detectable change in the instrument reading.
Define span.
Span is defined as the algebraic difference the highest and lowest scale values of an
instrument.
What is random error?
Random error is an error due to unknown causes and observed when the magnitude and
polarity of a measurement fluctuates in a unpredictable manner.

Define standard deviation.

Standard deviation or root mean square deviation is a statistical measure for analyzing
grouped data by quantifying the dispersion of individual data points about theirmean value.
Define primary standards.
They are basic fundamental or derived unit standard maintained by a countrys national
standards laboratory. They are absolute standards of high accuracy that can be used as ultimate
reference standards.
Define sensitivity of an instrument.
Sensitivity of an instrument is a measure of the change in reading of an instrument for a
given change in the measured quantity.
Define resolution of an instrument.
Resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the measured quantity that will
produce a detectable change in the instrument reading.
What is meant by systematic error?
Systematic errors are those errors that remain constant with repeated measurements, such
as zero, scale, response time and loading errors.
Define limiting error.
In most instruments, the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of full
scale reading. Manufacturers have to specify the deviations from the nominal value of a
particular quantity. The limits of these deviations from the specified value are defined as limiting
errors or guarantee errors.
Limiting error = accuracy x full-scale value.
Define probable error.
The probable error is defined as probable error r = 0.6745
where is the standard deviation. Probable error is a measure of precision.
What is transducer? Write the classifications of transducers?
A measuring device which measures and converts nonelectrical variable into
electricalvariable is known as transducer.
Transducers are classified into several types. However, these can be categorized intofive types.
They are,
1. Classification on the basis of transduction principle used.
2. Active and passive transducers
3. Analog and digital transducers

4. Primary and secondary transducers

5. Transducers and inverse transducers.

What parameters should be considered in selecting a transducer?

Parameters to be considered in the selection of a transducer for a particularapplication are.
1. Operating Principle
Basically the transducers are selected based on their operating principle. Examples ofoperating
principles used by the transducers are resistive, capacitive, piezoelectric,inductive, up to
electronic principle etc.
2. Operating Range
This factor is considered so that the transducer should be able to function within thespecified
range with good resolution. Every transducer should be provided with somerating within which
there will be breakdown in its function.
3. Accuracy
It is one of the most desired characteristic of any transducer. If the transducer doesn'tneeds
frequent calibration, it must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.
4. Sensitivity
It is also a desired characteristic of a transducer. Every transducer should be sufficientlysensitive
to provide some output that can be sufficient and detectable.
5. Stability and Reliability
The transducer should have high degree of stability during its function and also storagelife. It
should also have a high degree of reliability.

Compare RTD with thermistor.