JSPR

Article

Navigating romantic
relationships on
Facebook: Extending
the relationship
dissolution model to social
networking environments

Journal of Social and

Personal Relationships
2015, Vol. 32(1) 7898
The Author(s) 2014
Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/0265407514524848
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Leah LeFebvre1, Kate Blackburn2, and Nicholas Brody3

Abstract
The present study explores how people use social networking sites to adjust to
breakups by studying their postdissolution behaviors. We apply Rollie and Ducks
(2006) relationship dissolution model by examining how collegiate Facebook users
(N 208) enact behaviors in breakups to extend the model to online environments
during and after breakups. Furthermore, we employed a retrospective design utilizing
qualitative methods to define categories of behavioral responses to a breakup on
Facebook. The analysis revealed online behaviors that overlapped with the dissolution
model as well as paralleled previous research into online behaviors. Results are discussed using the relationship dissolution model framework to individuals modifying
online relationship statuses, unfriending previous partners, and limiting profile access
in order to manage relationship termination.

Keywords
Adjustment, breakups, Facebook, relationship dissolution model, romantic relationships,
social networking sites, stage models of relationships
1
2
3

University of Wyoming, USA

The University of Texas at Austin, USA
University of Puget Sound, USA

Corresponding author:
Leah LeFebvre, University of Wyoming, 1000 E. University Avenue, Dept. 3904, Laramie, WY 82072, USA.
Email: leah.lefebvre@uwyo.edu

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In the last decade, the increased popularity of social networking sites (SNSs) has profoundly influenced the nature of relational communication. SNSs have dominated
Internet traffic as individuals logged in daily to check status updates, post articles, and
upload photos. Approximately two thirds of online adults have an SNS profile (Madden
& Zickuhr, 2011) such as Facebook. Currently, Facebook (2012) reports that more than
one half of its over 950 million active members log in everyday, along with an estimated
250 million photo postings uploaded daily to individuals profiles. Interacting and
perusing SNSs has become a routine ritual; accordingly, certain online behaviors have
become especially salient features adding complexity to romantic relationships. The
increased popularity and total time spent on the relatively new phenomena of SNS
prompts questions as to how interpersonal relationships are assimilating their networks
into their lives (Hand, Thomas, Buboltz, Deemer, & Buyanjargal, 2013).
This exploratory study aims to examine the effect of SNSs on relationship dissolution
processes. In particular, we examine relationship termination asserting that breakups do
not constitute communication finality; rather, relationships can continue to live on in
communication and memories, especially through the advent of technology (Koenig
Kellas, 2006). There is little known about the overlaps between online and off-line behaviors (Elphinston & Noller, 2011). By gathering descriptive data on the prevalence and
variance of relationship termination behaviors off-line, we can determine what is occurring through SNSs, while heeding Parks (2009) call for more descriptive research of
online communication. Additionally, although recent research has examined the role
of Facebook in the development of romantic relationships, more research is needed to
examine how SNSs influence the breakup process (Fox, Warber, & Makstaller, 2013).
Specifically, this research extends a traditional relationship dissolution model (Rollie &
Duck, 2006) by examining phases of online breakup behaviors and their relationship to
postdissolution adjustment.
In this study, we consider how SNSs display users experience and progress through
the processes of relational dissolution as articulated by Rollie and Duck (2006). This
study extends this traditional research and examines the impact of technology on the
dissolution process. We first discuss existing literature highlighting how technology
influences relationships. Then we describe the relationship dissolution model before
exploring our research question: What Facebook behaviors do people engage in during
and after relationship breakups? After detailing the methodological approaches used to
gather data, we report and interpret the results in the discussion.

Technology and relationships

Computer-mediated communication has provided new forums and opportunities for individuals to strategically present themselves through the careful editing of their written
messages (Walther, 1996). The present study focuses on Facebook because it is the most
frequently used online SNSs (Madden &Zickuhr, 2011), where individuals construct and
manage their online identity by posting photographs, status updates, and news stories.
Previous research suggests that the Internet creates a new public space for individuals
to disclose information linked to identity (Bargh, McKenna, & Fitzsimons, 2002).

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Individuals use SNSs to present a public personal image (Boyd & Ellison, 2007) and with
a touch of a few buttons, users can gather information about another persons relationship status, place of employment, political view, common friends, and other highly
personal information. The act of observing personal information from another individual
is known as interpersonal electronic surveillance. It is defined as the surreptitious
strategies individuals use over communication technologies to gain awareness of another
users offline and online behaviors (Tokunaga, 2011, p. 706). In particular, surveillance
occurring through technology is considered a conscious and goal-oriented observation
strategy that often negatively impacts romantic relationships (Elphinston & Noller,
2011). In other words, interpersonal electronic surveillance offers, with a concerted
effort, the ability to collect information by looking at others profiles, photos, and wall
comments. Facebook operates with the ability to accumulate a larger and larger social
network providing tantalizing and incomplete information lending its users to technological techniques that can be risky; implementing Facebook practices in untenable and
often destructive ways for their relationships (Gershon, 2011).

SNSs and interpersonal outcomes

Experiencing a romantic breakup can be emotionally distressing and is frequently cited
among lifes most distressing psychological events (Kendler, Hettema, Butera, Gardner, &
Prescott, 2003); therefore, it is likely that the outcomes of breakups would influence
the experience and expression of online emotions. Recent research has found that
Facebook behaviors relate to an individuals predicted relational functioning (Papp,
Danielwicz, & Cayemberg, 2012) as demonstrated by mixed findings about satisfaction and intimacy. A dyadic analysis by Papp and colleagues revealed that male use of
a partnered relational status on Facebook (e.g., listing oneself as in a relationship) positively predicted relational satisfaction for both male and female partners.
Female partners use of a profile picture featuring the relationship was associated with
higher levels of male and female relational satisfaction (Papp et al., 2012). Contrarily,
Hand and colleagues (2013) found no significant relationships between individuals
usage of SNSs and partners perception of relationship satisfaction and intimacy. They
argued that attributional bias led individuals to more likely perceive their partner usage
as negative compared with their own.
Additionally, the frequent use of Facebook by individuals in relationships has been
found to relate to some measures of jealousy. Muise, Christofides, and Desmarais (2009)
found that more frequent Facebook use by relational partners related to increased reports
of Facebook-related jealousy, such as becoming jealous when a partner adds a member
of the opposite sex as a friend. Similarly, Elphinston and Noller (2011) determined cognitive jealousy and surveillance behaviors were linked to relationship dissatisfaction.
This research suggests that SNS behavior has an effect on relational outcomes. To examine the interplay of SNSs behavior and relational processes more specifically, the present study extends Ducks (1982) model of relationship dissolution to understand and
describe online behavior in response to a breakup. The following section reviews the
framework (Duck, 1982; Rollie & Duck, 2006), which highlights the personal cognitions
and communication of individuals off-line relational behaviors during breakups. This

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present study situates commonly reported online SNS behaviors of partners in dissolving
relationships within a well-established relationship-focused model.

Relationship dissolution model

Relationship dissolution is a normative part of the relationship life cycle. Two commonly
utilized communication models of relationship dissolution include Duck (1982) and
Knapp (1978). At the fundamental level, these two models (e.g., Duck, 1982; Knapp,
1978; Knapp & Vangelisti, 1992; Rollie & Duck, 2006) discuss the processes in which
relational dissolution commonly unfolds as sequential events from couplehood to
singlehold. Ducks dissolution model emphasizes the interface between partners and
social network throughout their movement through phases as relationships separate,
whereas as Knapp emphasizes what takes place between partners (Vangelisti, 2011).
We utilize Ducks model over other competing relationship dissolution models because it
conceptualizes both psychological and communicative approaches addressing individual,
dyadic, and network actions through the phases. These elements are particularly salient
for understanding how relationship dissolution processes in off-line relationship
actions extend to online behaviors.
The original relational dissolution model (Duck, 1982) emphasized psychological
states that have recently been modified by Rollie and Duck (2006) extending the
communication patterns individuals experience throughout the relationship breakup
processes. Their work (e.g., Duck, 1982, 2011; Rollie & Duck, 2006) argued that the
relationship dissolution model is a process that individual partners experience as they
move through five processes (i.e., intrapsychic, dyadic, social, grave dressing, and
resurrection) occurring over variable time periods. Although the five processes are
linearly depicted as separate functions, they can overlap and multiple processes can
simultaneously occur. Additionally, individuals may experience the demise of a relationship in multifarious fashion based on but not limited to the initiator, nature of the
breakup, level of investment and commitment, and relationship length.
These relationship dissolution processes begin with individual psychological cognitions, progressing between partners and social networks and concludes with the individuals ability to enter a new relationship. First, the intrapsychic process focuses on the
partner as an internal desire by one or both partners that stems from an individualistic
reflection about the state of the relationship. Next, the dyadic process focuses on the
relationship and transpires when the two partners then discuss their problems or reservations about the relationship calling to question and potentially jeopardizing the future
or redefinition of the relationship. Partners can choose to dissolve, repair, or postpone the
relationship.
After one or both partners have decided to terminate the relationship, news of the
breakup is communicated to outside parties in the social process. This process focuses on
facing the social and public consequences of publicizing the decision (Duck, 1982) to
family, friends, and acquaintances. Rollie and Duck (2006) described the social process
unfolding, as account(s) of the relationship dissolution are made public among an
individuals network members.

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Duck (1982) highlighted three major goals for this process: (1) to dissolve the relationship, (2) to have the dissolution recognized and accredited by relevant social network
members, and (3) to finalize the process socially while remaining psychologically intact.
The social process entails first an individualized reflection of what occurred and then
presents publicized versions for sharing within networks. Communicative elements
within the social process focus on marketing versions of accounts of the breakup in an
effort to save face or place blame. Social processes entitle partners the means to create
and distribute public stories about their particular version of the relationship dissolution.
The outcome of the social process is to publicly acknowledge the separation and
move into grave dressing. This process focuses on tidying up the accounts representing
explanations for past actions and events, which includes characterizations of self and
significant others (Sorenson, Russell, Harkness, & Harvey, 1993). Through the public
and private accounting individuals retrospectively recall their memories and attempt to
make sense of their relational history. This adjustment process includes the major goal of
putting the relationship to rest, which includes a considerable amount of post mortem
attributional activity (Duck, 1982, p. 27) where retrospective accounting occurs for
both the relationships initiation and termination.
Lastly, the new version of the model (e.g., Rollie & Duck, 2006) included the
resurrection process, which focuses on the potential lessons learned from the previous relationship as individuals prepare for future romantic relationships. The
resurrection phase encompasses a rebirth rising from the end of the previous relationship projecting a new generalized self who has learned from experience (Rollie &
Duck, 2006). This process communicates that individuals are ready to start anew and
reenter the dating world.
Thus, the relationship dissolution model set forth by Rollie and Duck (2006) provided
a generalized theoretical framework depicting the central goals and content of communication during breakups. This study explores how off-line behavior (i.e., breaking up
with a partner) affects Facebook activities. The investigation of these processes in online
environments strengthens the understanding of relational features and processes while
extending the original framework to include technology influences on behaviors.

Exploring online behaviors based on the relationship

dissolution model
Although studies have shown that online behavior relates to relational outcomes (e.g.,
Papp et al., 2012), more research is needed to explore how off-line relational events, such
as breakups, influence online behavior (e.g., Gershon, 2011). We utilized a sample of
collegiate students because they are particularly frequent users of Facebook, averaging
approximately 12 hr on Facebook daily (Kalpidou, Costin, & Morris, 2011), which is
consistent with our samples average daily time spent on Facebook for collegiate students
ranging from 30 min to over 2 hr (e.g., Ellison, Steinfeld, & Lampe, 2007; Raacke &
Bonds-Raacke, 2008). Approximately 70% of college students have experienced a
romantic relationship breakup (Knox, Zusman, & Nieves, 1998). Breakups can be publicly displayed on Facebook at the touch of a button and users must consider how the
breakup is then publicized to those in their social network (Fox et al., 2013).

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For this studys purpose, we conceptualize breakups happening as two phases

before and afterbecause various disengagement strategies and situational factors can
alter the process of termination (e.g., Baxter, 1982; Cody, 1982). Additionally, Sprecher, Felmlee, Metts, Fehr, and Vanni (1998) found that individuals experience different
types of distress during the breakup than they do after the breakup. Incidentally, by
assessing behaviors that individuals enact during and after the relationship dissolution
provides insight into the nature of how breakups are communicated and managed
throughout the process in online public networks, specifically the most popular SNS,
Facebook. Therefore, we propose following research question for our exploratory
investigation:
RQ: What Facebook behaviors do people engage in during and after relationship
breakups?

Method
Participants
Participants (N 226) in the study were asked to provide information pertaining to the
process of romantic relationship dissolution behaviors associated with their Facebook
accounts and associated usage. Participants (N 18) without Facebook accounts were
asked the same questions about their off-line behavior (not reported in the present
study). All participants were allowed to complete the survey for extra credit. However,
these individuals were removed from data set in order to address the overarching
research question within the context of Facebook interaction. Hence, the final sample
consisted of 208 participants.
Participants were recruited from undergraduate courses at a large and diverse
southern university. The sample consisted of 77 males and 131 females (M 20.17 years
old, SD 2.25). Most of the participants were Caucasian (58%), followed by Hispanic
(18%), Asian (13%), African American (4%), Multiracial (4%), and Arabic (2%) ethnic
origin. Two participants did not report ethnic origin. Most participants reported on
opposite sex friendships (N 198). However, seven participants reported on malemale
relationships and three participants reported on femalefemale relationships. Additionally, participants partners were Caucasian (64%), followed by Hispanic (11%), Asian
(8%), African American (5%), Multiracial (4%), Arabic (1%), and other (5%) ethnic
origin. Four participants did not report on the ethnic origin of their partner.
Participants completed an online survey where they reported on a romantic relationship, which had ended within the past 2 years similar to other relationship dissolution
studies (e.g., Koenig Kellas, Bean, Cunningham, & Cheng, 2008). On average, participants reported about relationships that had ended 10.92 months ago (SD 7.28).
Participants were asked to rate the seriousness of their romantic relationship when they
were most committed to that partner (1 Causally involved to 5 Seriously involved;
M 3.67, SD 1.16). Prior to the breakup, the relationships had lasted a mean of 18.87
months (SD 18.25). Regarding who initiated the breakup, 41.3% of the participants
reported they initiated the breakup, 21.7% reported their partner initiated the breakup,
and 37% of the participants reported the breakup was a mutual decision.

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Additionally, participants were asked to indicate how frequently they had communicated face to face with their romantic partner and how frequently they used
Facebook. Survey participants, on average, reported 2.84 (SD 1.93) face-to-face
communications with their previous partners on a 7-point Likert-type items (1 Not at
all to 7 Very frequently). Additionally, participants reported using Facebook for 47.6
months (SD 28.82; Mdn 48.00). Participants indicated they spent a mean of 116.09
min (SD 173.80; Mdn 60) on Facebook per day. On average, participants reported
having 882.02 (SD 534.41; Mdn 800) members in their social network (e.g.,
Facebook friends) and shared approximately 161 (SD 176.21; Mdn 110) mutual
friends (e.g., network overlap) with their most recent breakup partners.

Procedures and measurements

Each individual who voluntarily agreed to participate was asked to complete an online
questionnaire through Qualtrics (www.qualtrics.com). Participants were asked to report
on their online communication and behaviors that had occurred during and after their
romantic relationship breakups. For the study, the breakup progression was labeled by
the distinctive phaseduring and after. The questionnaire measured relationship dissolution and Facebook behaviors.
Breakup behaviors. Participants were asked to recall their breakup via several open-ended
questions. To provide a baseline, questions were posed to understand the behaviors individuals engaged in during their romantic relationship. Another question was implemented to account for online behaviors unknown or unintended. Participants were asked,
After completing the survey were there any questions you thought might be asked but
were not?

Qualitative analysis procedures

We used an interpretative approach to gather an understanding of Facebook behaviors
during and after romantic relationship dissolution to answer the research question.
During initial analysis stages, we employed a grounded theory approach (e.g., Glaser &
Strauss, 1967) to preliminarily make sense of the data. To begin, each author independently reviewed the open-ended questionnaire responses pertaining to during and after
breakup behaviors in an effort to identify primary categories. After several of these independent reviews, we were able to engage in a constant comparative approach using both
open and axial coding to examine the emerging likenesses and differences in the multiple
behaviors provided by participants. Open coding involved examining the initial
responses reported (rather than all behaviors in the open-ended responses) across the
breakup experience with the goal of identifying distinct concepts encompassing specific
Facebook behavior properties and dimensions. Ultimately, we were then able to organize
properties so that behaviors could be grouped into separate categories to explain these
unique emerging behaviors (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Next applying axial coding,
we redefined the codebook to incorporate conceptually overlapping phenomena and contexts and establish saturation among categories.

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Table 1. During and after dissolution online behaviors.

During dissolution

After dissolution

Impression management
Minimal or no Facebook activity
Miscellaneous
New relationship interest
Normative Facebook activities
Relational cleansing
Self-regulation from Facebook
Self-regulation from partner
Surveillance
Virtual mourning
New relationship interest
Withdrawing access

Impression management
Minimal or no Facebook activity
Miscellaneous
New relationship interest
Normative Facebook activities
Off-social network communication
Relational cleansing
Relational transgressions
Self-regulation from Facebook
Self-regulation from partner
Social network support
Surveillance
Virtual mourning
Virtual reconciliation
Withdrawing access

Upon reaching saturation of the reported behaviors emerging from the data, all
authors independently reviewed during and after behaviors from 12.5% of the participants (n 26). Participants identified multiple behaviors within their open-ended
responses; however, we examined only the predominant or initial written response behavior (Vangelisti, Young, Carpenter-Theune, & Alexander, 2005), considering the criteria
indicated that dissolution occurred within the past 2 years. A relatively high reliability
(Krippendorffs a .80) was established between the three authors for this process.
Authors independently coded the remainder of the sample.
Many of the categories intersected across the breakup time phase of during and after;
therefore, the list of all 15 categories represented account modifications, impression
management, minimal or no Facebook impact, new relationship interest, normative
Facebook activities, off-social network communication, relational cleansing, relational
transgressions, self-regulation from Facebook, self-regulation from partner, social network support, surveillance, virtual reconciliation, virtual mourning, and withdrawing
access. Those responses unable to be identified or interpreted were coded as miscellaneous. In order to better understand and organize the categories that emerged from participants responses, we calculated the frequencies to analyze how often the behaviors
occurred in this context.

Results
These results reveal categories produced from Facebook behaviors individuals engaged
in during and after their relationship breakup. For reporting purposes, the results are
separated into two sections surrounding the relationship dissolution phasesduring and
after (Table 1).
Individuals experience different types of distress during the breakup than they do after
the breakup. Assessing behaviors enacted during and after the relationship dissolution

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provides insight into the nature of how breakups are communicated and managed
throughout the process (e.g., Sprecher et al., 1998). Therefore, participants were allowed
to interpret the phases to reflect their experiences. These categories are described in
order from the most to least frequently occurring Facebook behaviors. Table 2 displays
the categories, descriptions, and percentages associated with behaviors that appeared
throughout the breakup process. We report the most to least salient categories (reporting
frequencies of 5% or higher) below in the results.

During relationship dissolution

The categories that emerged during relationship dissolution involved minimal or no
Facebook activity, relational cleansing, surveillance, self-regulation from partner, normative Facebook activities, self-regulation from Facebook, impression management,
virtual mourning, withdrawing access, virtual reconciliation, new relationship interest,
and miscellaneous.
The most frequent behavior to emerge during dissolution process was minimal or no
Facebook activity; thus, suggesting that many respondents did not engage or display
Facebook management strategies during relationship deterioration. For instance, one
participant articulated, Our breakup stayed off of Facebook, because I didnt want to
get other people involved in my business. Here specifically, respondents minimized or
did not use technology during their romantic relationship termination.
However, other respondents immediately altered relationship association through
relational cleansing. Within this category, individuals employed behaviors that purged
or purified their online relational presence by minimizing their public relationship
associations. Respondents indicated either hiding or removing their relationship status to
conceal relationship changes from their networks (e.g., Facebook friends). More visible
examples of relational cleansing included individuals altering their online relationship
status to single or its complicated. While other respondents reported clearing away
the presence of the previous partner and their relationship by removing wall postings and
pictures that demonstrated varying degrees of intimacy, public displays of affection, and
togetherness.
Another commonly reported behavior was interpersonal electronic surveillance.
These behaviors indicated that respondents felt the need to observe their romantic
partners online actions during the breakup process, including the interactions their
partners had with others. Participants called it creeping or stalking and used these
colloquial terms interchangeably to describe interpersonal electronic surveillance
behaviors. One participant said that she stalked his wall and all the girls who wrote on
his wall. This category involved behaviors about participants desires to investigate
partners by seeking out information about romantic partners and their social networks.
A participant expressed, I check to see if there was someone else or if he was back with
his ex-girlfriend. Another articulated that, During the breakup, I would look at his
profile religiously checking to see if he was moving on and what not, and yet another
expressed I checked his page ALL THE TIME. Upwards of 5 times a day. Clearly, the
affordances of SNSs allowed individuals the ability to observe their previous partners
behavior as they progressed through the relationship termination process.

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LeFebvre et al.

Table 2. During dissolution online behavior categories, descriptions, and frequencies.

Category

Description

Relational cleansing

 Hid, delayed, or removed relationship

status
 Updated status to single or its
complicated
 Untagged or deleted wall postings and
pictures/album
 No Facebook activity or limited
Facebook activity
 Stalked and crept partners, partners
social network, and mutual friends
profile
 Check partners social network
 Avoided viewing partners profile and
mutual friends profiles
 Refrained from public postings about the
relationship and writing to potential
rivals
 Unsubscribed from ex-partners
newsfeed posts
 Denied refriended ex-partner
 Walled, chatted, or poked partner
 Sent private messages to partner
 Commented on posts/statuses
 Tagged in pictures
 Liked pictures, status, and updates
 Posted nonpersonal items
 Vacation from Facebook
 Limited personal Facebook postings
 Posted emotional statuses or mentioned
ex-partner
 Defriend, delete, or block ex-partner,
ex-partners family and ex-partners
friends
 Posted on fun activities and positive
statuses
 Modified profile pictures and albums
 Checked in at new places
 Indiscernible
 Refriended ex-partner or tried to
refriend ex-partner
 Liked or commented on ex-partner
information
 Wrote apology e-mails
 Reviewed partners albums, new
partners previous profile pictures,
mutual friends, or previous relationships

Minimal or no Facebook
Surveillance

Self-regulation from partner

Normative Facebook activities

Self-regulation from Facebook

Virtual morning
Withdrawing access

Impression management

Miscellaneous
Virtual reconciliation

New relationship interest

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Percentage (%)
22.7

22.6
10.2

9.3

7.5

5.3
3.5
3.5

3.5

3.1
0.4

0.4

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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(1)

Many partners choose to distance themselves while dissolving relationships.

Although two forms of distancing occurred, the more predominant indicated distancing
from their partners. Respondents who undertook self-regulation from partner made a
conscious attempt to avoid their romantic partner by refraining from posting about the
relationship, not communicating with potential romantic rivals, and shunning other
activities to minimize interaction with a romantic partner. For example, one individual
described an attempt to self-regulate from his partner post-breakup by avoiding looking
up her Facebook account. For another individual, this meant limiting information about
her partner from any source. She said, I tried not to look at any of his friends pages, in
case I saw pictures posted of him.
For certain individuals, maintaining online normalcy (indicating no deviation from
their common Facebook account behaviors) emerged. This category was known as
normative Facebook activities that revealed typical online SNS behaviors such as
sending messages, posting comments, and posting pictures with no deviation from their
usual activities. Respondents typically either did not want to exhibit any public relationship termination behaviors or did not share with their networks.
The second distancing category indicated individuals separating themselves from
SNS by eliminating the option to partners and social networks personal communication, interpersonal electronic surveillance, or inadvertent information about their previous partner. This self-regulation from Facebook emerged as a way for individuals to
limit personal Facebook postings. For instance, a participant claimed, I decreased the
frequency of my posting and contacting her via Facebook. This limit in personal online
activity is representative of an online leave of absence or a virtual vacation away from
Facebook.

After relationship dissolution

Respondents also reported various behaviors for the time following relationship dissolution. Categories included relational cleansing, minimal or no Facebook activity,
surveillance, withdrawing access, self-regulation from partner, impression management,
virtual reconciliation, normative Facebook activities, self-regulation from Facebook, virtual mourning, account modification, social network support, off-social network communication, relational transgressions, and miscellaneous (Table 3).
Although there was much overlap in the behaviors reported during and after the
breakup, some categories were more prominent after relationship termination. For
instance, individuals continued to engage in relational cleansing to signal a public
change in romantic status and remove the online existence of the relationship. One
respondent wrote, Well I deleted every single picture of us, deleted her as a friend, and
deleted a lot of the posts. Another respondent stated he, Unchecked that I was in a
relationship and changed it to its complicated and then single. These behaviors
also encompassed acts of deleting previous wall postings, removal of photos, and limiting connection to their romantic partner. Respondents enacted a virtual cleansing to rid
themselves of unwanted relationship remains.
The second most prominent category, yet again, revealed some individuals elected
minimal or no Facebook activity. These respondents limited their Facebook activity

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89

Table 3. After dissolution online behavior categories, descriptions, and frequencies.

Category

Description

 Hid, delayed, or removed relationship

status
 Updated status to single or its
complicated
 Untagged or deleted wall postings and
pictures/album
Minimal or no Facebook impact
 Not affected by the breakup
Surveillance
 Stalked and crept partners, partners
social network, and mutual friends
profiles
Withdrawing access
 Defriend, delete, or block ex-partner,
ex-partners family, and ex-partners
friends
Self-regulation from partner
 Avoided viewing partners profile and
mutual friends profiles
 Refrained from public postings about
the relationship and writing to
potential rivals
 Unsubscribed from ex-partners
newsfeed posts
 Denied refriended ex-partner
Impression management
 Posted on fun activities and positive
statuses
 Modified profile pictures and albums
 Checked in at new places
Normative Facebook activities
 Walled, chatted, or poked partner
 Sent private messages to partner
 Commented on posts/statuses
 Tagged in pictures
 Liked pictures, status, and updates
 Posted nonpersonal items
Virtual reconciliation
 Refriended ex-partner or tried to
refriend ex-partner
 Liked or commented on ex-partner
information
 Wrote apology e-mails
Self-regulation from Facebook
 Vacation from Facebook
 Limited personal Facebook postings
Miscellaneous
 Indiscernible
Virtual mourning
 Posted emotional statuses or
mentioned ex-partner
Account modification
 Changed individual privacy settings
 Altered relationship privacy
 Deactivated or changed account
Off-social network communication
 Increased in text, cell, and Skype
Social network support
 Discussed, sought, or received
relational support
Relational transgression
 Wrote negative disclosures about
breakup, relationship secrets
 Exposed unflattering fabricated
information
 Revealed cheating or infidelity
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 Hacked partners profile

Relational cleansing

Percentage (%)
20.4

19.9
10.2

9.3

7.5

7.1

4.0

4.0

2.2
1.3
1.3
0.4

0.4
0.4
0.18

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Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 32(1)

throughout the process. A more in-depth explanation of this category and group of individuals is provided in the discussion below.
Participants reported interpersonal electronic surveillance of romantic partners after
their breakup. Viewing an ex-partners social network along with the previous partners
profile demonstrates failure to disconnect from the relationship. As several respondents
expressed, I couldnt help but look at his profile a lot and see what he was doing, who
his pictures were, etc. and others wrote, I checked to see what his new girlfriends/
boyfriends looked like. However, some individuals took active steps to cut ties with
their romantic partner by withdrawing access. One respondent claimed, I deleted her
and blocked her account. In other words, individuals defriended, deleted, or blocked
Facebook access to their past romantic partner, their family members, and social network
of close friends. Other participants reported self-regulation from partner, in which there
was a conscious effort to avoid interacting with the past romantic partner without completely severing all communication. As one respondent expressed, I stopped looking at
his profile, I found myself looking at it out of habit and decided it was too hard. It just
made me take two steps back every time I looked at it. Facebook users made a concerted attempt to limit and avoid acquiring information connected to the past partner
either through the previous partners profile or through mutual friends profiles.
The impression management category highlighted respondents attempts to positively
self-present themselves online. These activities presented a return to previous prerelationship normalcy status as suggested by respondents, where normalcy represents
a return from breakup grieving. This strategy included behaviors aimed to evoke impressions of jealousy or regret from previous partners by presenting themselves as ready to
reengage in other romantic interests through positive promotions. For those still adjusting to the recent breakup, participants articulated comments such as Dressed up and
took a lot of pictures for my senior year and with my girlfriends so that he would see
current pictures of me and hopefully change his mind. Others were more concerned
with an effort to create positive impressions by posting fun activities, providing exciting
statuses, checking in at new places, and posting new attractive pictures. As one respondent described, I had a lot more status updates and pictures showing how much fun I
was having. These online behaviors were often promoted as a readiness toward reentering the mating market; therefore, in order to present this new image, respondents
posted flattering profile pictures and flirted online with new potential romantic
prospects.

Follow-up analysis
Because there was such high frequency of respondents who indicated minimal or no
Facebook activity throughout the dissolution process, we were compelled to further
consider the minimal or no Facebook activity category that emerged during the two
dissolution phases. Although we note that it is unconventional to combine interpretative methods that emerge from grounded theory, we argue utilizing empirical
support to further explain unanticipated nuances in the open-ended categories expands
our understanding of who may be utilizing particular behaviors. Utilizing grounded
theory and its basic presumptions led us back to reexamine all the datarather than

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looking exclusively at open-ended responses. Thus, we explored how differences

existed between individuals who participated in online activities and compared it with
those who choose not to participate in social networking relationships by asking an
additional research question:
RQ2: Do individuals who engaged in breakup-related Facebook behaviors report a
different level of postdissolutional adjustment than individuals who reported
not engaging in breakup-related Facebook behaviors?
In order to examine the emergence of minimal or no Facebook activity, we examined
other measures originally collected as a part of a larger study. Participants had also been
asked to complete a variety of measures regarding their perceptions of the breakup (e.g.,
post-breakup adjustment and Facebook intensity) involving their behaviors on an online
social network site.

Measures
Post-breakup adjustment was measured using the six 7-point Likert-type items adapted
by Koenig Kellas et al. (2008). Items included How difficult has it been for you to
make an emotional adjustment to this breakup? Since the breakup, how much has
your typical everyday functioning and routine been disrupted? and To what extent
do you feel like you have adjusted to the end of the relationship? Reliability was
acceptable (a .78; M 4.49; SD 1.36).
The Facebook intensity scale (Ellison, Heino, & Gibbs, 2006) was utilized as a
control variable to measure the importance of Facebook in individuals lives. The 6-item
measure was rated on a 5-point scale (1 Strongly disagree to 5 Strongly agree) and
also includes items that tap frequency of Facebook use. Sample items include Facebook
is part of my everyday activity, and I am proud to tell people I am on Facebook.
Reliability was very high (a .97; M 3.62; SD .85).

Analysis
These 15 categories were then utilized to designate individuals into 3 groups to answer
the research question. The first group (N 131) included individuals who reported
Facebook behavior both during and after the breakup. The second group (N 54)
included individuals who reported minimal or no impact on their Facebook behaviors
during at least one phase of their breakup, but not both. The third group (N 23)
included individuals who reported that Facebook had minimal or no impact on their
behavior at either phase throughout their breakup.

Post hoc results

We utilized an analysis of covariance to explore how Facebook behaviors affect individuals during the postdissolution adjustment. We controlled for respondents report of
intensity of Facebook usage, the number of months since the breakup, participant sex,

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Table 4. During and after online behaviors in the relationship dissolution model.
Social

Grave dressing

Resurrection

Relational cleansing
Relational transgressions
Social network support
Virtual mourning

Account modification
Impression management
Relational cleansing
Self-regulation from Facebook
Self-regulation from partner
Virtual mourning
Virtual reconciliation

Impression management
New relationship interest
Self-regulation from partner
Withdrawing access

Note. We did not specify categories for Minimal and no Facebook impact, normative Facebook behaviors, offsocial network communication, or surveillance as they did not fit any predominant processes.

sexual orientation, and breakup initiator. All nominal variables were dummy coded.
Postdissolutional adjustment was the dependent variable. The analysis yielded a significant main effect for Facebook behavior, F(2, 206) 7.82, p .001, partial Z2 .07.
Post hoc Bonferroni comparisons indicated that individuals who reported minimal or no
Facebook impact at any phase of their breakup (M 5.32, SD .97) reported higher
adjustment than individuals who reported a Facebook impact both during (M 4.28,
SD 1.37) and after their breakups (M 4.56, SD 1.39).

Discussion
Theoretical implications
The relationship dissolution model (Rollie & Duck, 2006) provided a theoretical
framework for connecting online SNSs and relationship breakup processes. Table 4
maps respondents behaviors in relation to the primary dissolutional processes.
The social network process is central to SNSs; therefore, individuals behaviors
displayed through Facebook demonstrate they are engaging in social, grave-dressing,
or resurrection processes. Although these processes do not always occur in a linear
progression, the ability to see how individuals are adjusting to their new relationship
status through their behaviors showcases the communicative process of relationship
dissolution.
Participants reported behaviors both during and after their breakup that reflected progression through the relational dissolution processes. For instance, Facebook behaviors
during the dissolution process more often than not evidenced engagement in intrapsychic
and dyadic processes prior to their public displays through the Internet. Respondents who
had ended their relationships appeared to reflect their psychological state by (1) virtually
mourning the end of their relationship, (2) acknowledging the breakup with relational
cleansing behaviors, (3) continuing to ruminate about their partner and the future through
surveillance, or (4) beginning to distance themselves from their ability to communicate
with their previous partners or opportunities to interact with them or their social networks
through self-regulation. These behaviors communicate various responses to relationship
termination. SNSs enabled a readily available exchange of new circumstances and updates,

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provided public announcements of relationship termination, and mirrored personal adjustment especially when social networks were extensive and overlapping.
Additionally, several Facebook behaviors exemplified grave-dressing processes.
These behaviors focused on tidying up memories and attempting to make sense of their
relational history. In the time phase following the breakup, individuals reported relational cleansing and interpersonal electronic surveillance behaviors; although, these two
behaviors may represent different facets of the process. Relational cleansing includes
cleaning up memories and attempting to bring closure to the relationship. While interpersonal electronic surveillance may indicate individuals are still fixating on or ruminating
about their previous partners and the relationship. Furthermore, the emergence of withdrawing access behaviors demonstrated that many respondents acted to sever connections with their previous partners and bring their relationship to a close.
Respondents indicated participating in a variety of behaviors consistent with the
relational dissolution model. Specifically, participants reported defriending or blocking
their former relational partners, deleting and untagging pictures, and monitoring their
ex-partners social networking behavior. Defriending, deleting, and blocking previous
partners and their social networks limited participants ability to continue interpersonal
electronic surveillance the profiles of their ex-partners, and curtailed their ability to
counter their ex-partners accounts of the breakup. Perhaps in an effort to prepare themselves for future relationships, some participants further curtailed communication with
their former partners via self-regulation and began to reconstruct their virtual self
through the use of impression management strategies.
Although relationship dissolution is often associated with finality, many relationships
never fully dissolve (Rollie & Duck, 2006) and especially with the expansion of technology to encapsulate our relationship memories the ability to erase a relationships
existence may be even more challenging. People often clean up memories of their
relationship history over time (Duck & Sants, 1983) and as shown by these respondents
behaviors, individuals removed relational artifacts and associations (e.g., untagged
photos, removed wall posting, and defriended). These behaviors mirror the gravedressing resurrection processes as individuals moved on from a previous relationship and
prepared for future relationships. The reality is that artifacts of a previous relationship
remain retrievable online while evidence of the relationship dissolution and subsequent
behaviors also cannot be completely erased. Although cleansing may help bring closure
to a relationship, some memories continued to exist in virtual space and influenced
the development of subsequent relationships and interactions with potential partners.
These memories were difficult to completely purge; rather, they became part of each
ensuing relationship via remnants embedded in virtual SNS data.
This study begins to explore how the use of SNSs crystallizes relationship memories
after breakups, and how individuals subsequently act to strategically manage their online
identity. However, the relationship dissolution model must continue to explore how
lingering online traces of past relationships might influence new relationship formation
from the resurrection process to relationship initiation phases. The postdissolutional
adjustment process may be exacerbated and extended by SNS data, potentially interfering with the process of tidying up public accounts that depict previous relational
history and hindering formation of new relationships.

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Postdissolutional adjustment
Individuals who reported no Facebook-related behaviors in response to their breakup
indicated a higher level of post-breakup adjustment than individuals who reported
Facebook-related behaviors during and after the breakup. Koenig Kellas (2006) and
Weiss (1975) argued that the connection to a past relationship tends to decrease over
time following a breakup, and postdissolutional communication continues to affect
adjustment. With the integrated use of technology within interpersonal relationships,
individuals are still able to maintain contactwhether through direct interaction or interpersonal electronic surveillancewith their previous partners. Clayton, Nagurney, and
Smith (2013) found that high levels of usage of SNSs damaged interpersonal relationships with predicted negative relationship outcomes (e.g., breakup, divorce, and cheating). This ongoing access and connection to their partner might relate to a reduced
ability to adjust to the end of a relationship, also perpetuating negative interpersonal and
personal outcomes. For instance, previous postdissolutional adjustment research has
shown that people can experience a host of negative outcomes following relationship termination (Rollie & Duck, 2006), adjusting to new relationship communication (Koenig
Kellas, 2006) and creating a shared social network (Foley & Fraser, 1998). Facebook can
encourage jealous thoughts and the engagement of surveillance behaviors, which have
been found to be associated with dissatisfying relationships (Elphinston & Noller,
2011). The results of the present study also suggest that undertaking Facebook behavior
related to a previous relationship impinged relational recovery from breakups. Overall,
people with minimal breakup-related SNS use after a breakup were better adjusted. Via
SNSs, individuals are able to continue to access and view their relational partners information. In the present study, respondents who chose not to utilize SNSs throughout the
breakup process perhaps resulted in higher levels of adjustment. As SNSs becomes an
increasingly important component of peoples everyday communication activity, the
examination of the communication and relational behaviors of people who do not
actively participate in online forums could lend insight into the effects of communication
technology on relationships.

Limitations and future research

We are encouraged that our results shed light on online behaviors associated with the
relationship dissolution model that was first developed based on off-line behaviors;
nonetheless, we recognize there are limitations. The convenience sample consisted
of college students who are frequently utilized in research. Previous research by Smith,
Rainie, and Zickuhr (2011) found that 87% of college students are members of SNSs;
hence, this population is the preeminent sample for exploratory relational studies in an
online context due to its overwhelming usage. Future research should continue to
examine a more diverse sample and similarities/differences that exist between age,
gender, and sexual orientation in the application of the dissolution model through
technology.
Additionally, this study applied analysis to retrospective accounts in order to reveal
the varied types of behaviors associated with online interactions during the dissolution of

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a relationship. We examined the first response to open-ended behaviors performed during and after breakups; although, we acknowledge retrospective accounts are polished by
hindsight and may alter the occurrences that were much more unclear leading up to and
during the dissolution processthis begins the exploration to see how dissolution transpires on SNSs. To increase the understanding of these behaviors, future research should
expand beyond the use of retrospective accounts and find ways to examine the process as
it occurs over time as with a longitudinal study observing behaviors throughout the relationship process. A future study may seek to recruit individuals at the beginning of a
romantic relationship and track these behaviors longitudinally and the corresponding
adjustment. In addition, this type of research could shed information on other processes
of a romantic relationship as well as how off-line and online behaviors influence SNSs
activities.
Lastly, future research could assess how the relationship dissolution model addresses
the lingering relationship memories that exist outside of the partnerships control. SNSs
provide individuals with access to constantly and covertly gather, interpret, and evaluate
information about potential, current, and past romantic partners (Fox et al., 2013). The
ability to draw on relationship memories at the touch of a button (i.e., Facebook, blogs,
tagged pictures, etc.) means a relationship never truly endsits effects continue to be
visible even during future relationships. The lingering of these online memories may
therefore hinder the complete breakup resurrection process. The relationship dissolution
model could be used to explore how the persistence of online information available about
previous relationships may not allow the cleansed rebirth described in Rollie and
Ducks (2006) resurrection process.

Conclusion
With the increasing adoption of new technology, such as Facebook, off-line behavior,
such as breaking up with a relational partner, often affects online behavior. The present
study extended Rollie and Ducks (2006) model to examine and understand the types of
behaviors individuals enact in online environments, suggesting that continuing to view
past partners on SNSs may interfere with postdissolution adjustment. Overall, the findings suggest that certain components of the relationship dissolution model are amplified
and altered by the unique affordances of online communication.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank Rene Dailey and our anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments.

Authors note
This article was presented at the 2012 International Association of Relationship Research Conference
in Chicago, Illinois, United States.

Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or
not-for-profit sectors.

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