CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Sustainable development was firstly defined by the Brundtland Commission of the United
Nations in 1987 as (UNECE, 2005)
"Development which meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability
of future generations to meet their own needs"
Sustainable development was addressed at the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development which took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Agenda 21
was implemented as plan of action, aiming to acknowledge the importance of achieving
sustainable development as the foundation to reach social equity and economic development
while ensuring environmental protection and tackling negative environmental effects. Agenda
21 also establishes the necessity of variation of energy consumption trends, mainly in
industrialized nations. It reports that unsustainable and unbalanced patterns of production and
consumption are responsible for the continuous deterioration of the natural environment
(UNDESA, 2007) and recommends accomplishing greater efficiency in the use of energy and
natural resources. Ever since, energy use has constituted an agenda in modern society;
supporting most, if not all, human activities.
Traditional fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal continue to be the dominant
sources of primary energy in the worlds economy. In the United Kingdom, natural gas
accounts for about 40% of the national energy supply in 2009, followed by oil and coal at
33% and 15% respectively (IEA, 2010). Fossil fuels dependence as the worlds primary
source of energy has driven public scrutiny about future sustainability. With an estimated 9
billion people to populate Earth by 2050, the global energy demand is predicted to increase
by a somewhat alarming 80% (Shell Global, 2014). Use of fossil fuels in vehicles, industry
and energy generation leads to detrimental environmental impacts such as air pollution and
climate change. Since the availability of fossil fuel resources is limited, a theoretical
boundary on the worlds cumulative consumption of them should be established: if society in
future wanted to consume fossil fuels at the current or increasing levels, in the end it would
be unable to do so. In that sense, consumption of fossil fuels is unsustainable.

In view of this, the UK has established international and domestic targets for greenhouse gas
emissions reduction. In 2008, the European Union committed to a legally-binding 20%
reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 2020 across its 28 Member States. This
reduction was implemented through the EU 20/20/20 Climate and Energy Package (20%
emissions cuts/20% renewable energy/20% energy efficiency by 2020) correspondent with
the basket of six greenhouse gases the Kyoto Protocol set out. This basket of Kyoto Protocol
greenhouse gases comprises carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O),
from a baseline of 1990; and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), for which the baseline is 1995.
On the other hand, the United Kingdom has pledged to guarantee GHG emissions reduction
through the introduction of the 2008 Climate Change Act which targets a reduction by at least
80% of the UKs greenhouse gas emissions to be achieved by 2050, taking into account a
1990 baseline. Furthermore, the Act enables the UK Government to set carbon budgets.
These constitute legally-binding limitations on the amount of GHG emissions in the UK over
a five year period. The initial three carbon budgets were established in 2009 and require
reductions of at least 34% by 2020; whereas the fourth carbon budget -set in 2011- includes
the period 2023 to 2027 and requires emissions reduction of 50% (Committee on Climate
Change, 2008; Institute for Industrial Productivity, 2013).
The built environment represents the greatest consumer of resources, accounting for 40-50%
of natural resource usage, 20% of water use, 30-40% of energy use as well as approximately
a third of CO2 emissions worldwide (UK Green Building Council, 2014). Carbon dioxide
accounted for 82% of the United Kingdoms greenhouse gas emissions in 2013. A significant
proportion of the total UK energy consumption is attributed to the domestic sector,
accounting for 30% of the total national energy usage (Shorrock and Utley, 2003). In
addition, approximately 17% of CO2 emissions were attributed to the residential sector in
2013 (UK DECC, 2014a).
Similarly, in the United States, about 22% of the nations total energy consumption
corresponds to the residential sector (US EIA, 2009). In light of these facts, through shaping
energy-related human behaviours and traditional house construction practices, there is room
for improvement in household energy usage and consumption.

There is ample opportunity to achieve energy savings in the residential sector through
enhanced occupant behaviour due to the fact that proprietors and other occupants have the
authority at their own household, to regulate factors which their energy consumption depends
upon.
In 2008, 1/5 households in Britain were estimated to be living in what is known as fuel
poverty. Fuel poverty is best described as having to spend 10% or more of a households
income to heat the home to an adequate standard of warmth (Boardman, 1991). An evident
area to start with is to improve the energy efficiency and consumption of households. The
occupants can make physical changes to their homes straight away to start improving the
energy efficiency of the household and make savings.
1.1.

Motivation

Engineering professionals are qualified to identify technical approaches to ecological issues.

Civil Engineers have the capacity to make a tangible difference to the built environment and
to contribute to sustainable development. The ultimate goal of sustainable development is to
guarantee that humans can satisfy their everyday needs and carry out activities with the
highest quality life possible, but without compromising the ability of future generations to
have these same privileges.
Civil Engineers take a leading role in sustainable development and have the knowledge and
power to ensure a sustainable future. The industry recognises that natural resources are
limited and will exhaust completely one day, as a consequence they are driven to fulfil their
duty to promote and practice sustainable development on a global scale to guarantee that
future generations can exist and thrive successfully, to meet their energy and power demands
and to deliver solutions to environmental problems.
The need for sustainable development is critical as governing bodies and institutions intend to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce waste and encourage efficient waste management
and recycling, and maximize energy efficiency. However, if such energy efficiency objective
is to be met, it will require a tangible reduction in domestic energy consumption. Measures
for energy use reductions should not only include the emissions of, but also enhance the
manner in which energy is used.
Therefore, it is essential to have a full understanding of home energy use patterns, its
variations between households, determinants of the way energy is used in households and

attitudes of consumers and occupants towards applied technologies. Only by a thorough

understanding, it will be possible to deliver the solutions and provide the appropriate support
and assistance to enable dwellings to reduce their energy use. These approaches frequently
consist of shifts in consumer behaviour, housing construction methods and practices,
appliance design improvements and implementation of newly-introduced technologies.
1.2.

Objectives and thesis roadmap

This thesis aims to provide an assessment of the opportunities for addressing energy
reductions in the domestic sector achieved through behavioural shifts and the employment of
building sustainability standards and frameworks and the incorporation of new features or
construction methodologies, particularly in the United Kingdom. The objective of this
dissertation serves a double purpose: to address the manner in which energy is used in UK
dwellings and what factors energy consumption is dependent upon; and to provide a multidisciplinary approach in terms of a collaborative effort between Civil Engineering,
government framework and incentives, and environmental education in order to set out a
variety of manners to apply conduct understanding to overcome boundaries that prevent
occupants from being more energy efficient, and create awareness and encourage individuals
to reduce their household energy usage while enabling these with the information necessary
to carry out these practices effectively.
Household energy consumption is complex to model and examine, as it must consider wide range of
socio-economic factors. As a consequence; rather than adopting a one-discipline approach, a

combined solution would address and comprise the multidimensional nature of

environmentally significant conducts and attitudes and to successfully motivate home-owners
and residents to adopt more sustainable behaviour standards, hence reducing negative
environmental effects.
Chapter 2 sets out the background for this thesis by providing a review of literature
undertaken on thermal comfort and the interaction between control devices and household
occupants. Methodology employed in this chapter consists of a thorough analysis of the
research carried out by Karjaialenen (2007; 2010; 2012; 2013) regarding the optimum level
of automation in households and a critique of the work with possible improvements
suggested. This chapter provides an in-depth review of how the internal environment of
households is currently controlled and how the role of both occupant and thermostat is

paramount to determining what dominant factor delivers better thermal control and thus,
enhanced energy efficiency.
Chapter 3 sets out the composition of the energy mix in the UK, primary sources for
electricity generation and how energy is used across sectors, focusing on the residential
sector. It intends to answer why energy consumption is set to increase in the domestic sector.
Furthermore, it explores the determinant factors that support UK households to consume
energy in the manner they currently do and how these patterns vary across comparable
dwellings; perspectives taken into consideration are fundamentally demographic,
geographical and the physical characteristics of UK dwellings. Methodology employed in this
chapter consists of a comprehensive analysis of academic and governmental research on
home energy consumption developed in the UK particularly in Northern Ireland and
different regions of England (e.g. Manchester and London areas)- in representative
households, based on interviews and temperature monitoring over a set period of time.
Factors examined include the influence of the regional weather conditions, property size and
age, home ownership, lifestyle of the occupants, their daily habits, age groups, preferred level
of energy services and temperature management measures.
Chapter 4 intends to explore how energy efficiency of buildings and homes is being
addressed through the use of modern methods of construction and how the expertise of design
and construction professionals such as Civil Engineers can make a significant contribution to
sustainable development. Factors examined include advancements in materials and how they
are used and higher standards of construction and assessment of buildings.
Chapter 5 provides a detailed insight into how the UK Government is striving to achieve
behavioural change. It aims to address how the areas of behavioural economics and
psychology are being employed to better understand human behaviour and what influences
certain behaviours. Furthermore, it discusses that the UK government is employing research
in these areas to develop policies and guidelines to educate occupants and enforce the
necessity of change to meet and surpass climate change targets and to make residents more
energy efficient.