PHYSIOLOGICAL

PRINCIPLES FOR HEATH

AND SOCIAL CARE

TASK 1

1.1 Outline the main anatomical features of the human body

A system of human body means a collective functional unit made by several organs in which
the organs work in complete coordination with one another. Organs cannot work alone
because there are certain needs of every organ that need to be fulfilled and the organ itself
cannot fulfil those needs. So all organs of human body need the support of other organs to
perform their functions and in this way an organ system is formed.
Example of dependence of organs of a system on one another:

Systems of the Human Body:

Human body is made of ten different systems. All the systems require support and
coordination of other systems to form a living and healthy human body. If any one of these

systems is damaged, human body will become unstable and this lack of stability will
ultimately lead to death. The instability caused by damage of one system cannot be stabilized
by other systems because functions of one system cannot be performed by other systems.
Knowledge of human body systems is very important for a medical professional because it is
the base of all medical sciences and clinical practices. Although, generally, the structural
aspects of human body systems are studied in anatomy and the functional aspects are studied
in physiology but it is very important to have a coordination between the two subjects
because knowledge of structure is incomplete without the knowledge of function and the
knowledge of function is incomplete without the knowledge of structure.

Name:
Skeletal

Components

Role

Bones, Associated cartilages, Joints

System

Strength,

Support,

Shape,

Protection,

Leverage,

Cell

Production
Muscular
System

Muscles (Skeletal Muscles, Smooth mucles, Cardiac Motor

Muscles)

power

movements

of

for
body

parts.
Nervous

Brain, Spinal Cord, Nerves, Nerve Endings

System

Control

and

Coordination
body

of

all

functions

(Nervous coordination)
Respiratory
System

Lungs, Nose, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Alveolar Gaseou exchange

sacs, Alveoli

Cardiovascular Heart, Blood vessels (Arteries, Veins and Capillaries), Flow

System

Blood

of

nutrients)

blood

(and

throughout

body
Lymphatic
System
Endocrine
System

Lymph vessels, Central lymphoid tissue, Peripheral Drainage

Lymphoid Organs, Lymphocytes

and

Protection

Endocrine glands (Pituitary gland, Thyroid gland, Regulation

of

Parathyroid

(Chemical

glands,

Adrenal

glands,

Pancreas functions

body

(endocrine part), Testes (endocrine part), Ovary coordination)

(endocrine part), Liver (endocrine part))
Digestive

Alimentary Canal (Oral Cavity, Esophagus, Stomach, Digestion

and

System

Small

Intestine,

Large

Intestine,

Anus),

Liver, absorption of food

Pancreas, Salivary glands, Teeth, Tongue

Urinary

Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra

System

Regulation
internal
and

of

bodys

environment,

production

and

excretion of urine
Male

Penis, Testes

Reproductive

and

System
Female

Formation

of

semen,

sperms
and

fertilizing the female

Uterus, Ovaries, Vulva, Labia, Clitoris

Reproductive
System

Three systems functions:

Nervous System

Receives incoming information (senses).

Sends messages to the body about how to react.

Skeletal System

Provides Shape and structure to the body.

Allows for movement.

Protects vital organs.

Produces blood cells.

Reproductive System

Produces sex cells (sperm and eggs).

Produces sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen).

Nurtures the unborn baby (fetus).

Formation of eggs and

bearing

the

fetus

during development

1.2 Discuses the role of Cellular metabolism & growth hormone in ensuring our body to
grow.

Cellular metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in
order to maintain life. Cellular metabolism involves complex sequences of controlled
biochemical reactions, better known as metabolic pathways. These processes allow organisms
to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to environmental changes.
Anabolism refers to the process which builds molecules the body needs; it usually requires
energy for completion. Catabolism refers to the process that breaks down complex molecules
into smaller molecules; it usually releases energy for the organism to use.
Energy is produced from the food we eat. However, in order to release the maximal amount
of energy, the molecules of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen which make up our
food are stored as a high energy molecule known as ATP or Adenosine Triphosphate
There are two energy systems.
The aerobic energy system
The aerobic energy system produces the largest amounts of energy, although at the lowest
intensity. So at the start of exercise the body cannot deliver oxygen to the muscles fast
enough to initiate the complex chemical reactions which occur during aerobic metabolism.
Therefore the body relies on anaerobic processes for the first couple of minutes.
The anaerobic energy system
As already mentioned the anaerobic energy system provides energy in the absence of
Oxygen. This is used in the first few minutes of all exercise, before there is sufficient oxygen

available at the muscles for aerobic metabolism. It is also used for fast, powerful bursts of
energy, for which the aerobic system is insufficient.
The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the atmosphere and moves that oxygen into the
bloodstream. The circulatory system then carries the oxygen to all the cells in the body and
picks up carbon dioxide waste which it returns to the lungs. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the
blood into the lungs and it is then exhaled into the atmosphere.
The digestive system is dependent upon the respiratory system, because the digestive tract
functions by using muscular contractions to break up food and move it along the tract. These
muscles depend upon oxygen in order to function because without oxygen, the digestive tract
would stop working.
Similarly, your respiratory tract wouldn't be able to function without the products of
digestion. In order to inhale, the respiratory muscles must contract. Muscles need fuel in
order to contract, and the efforts of the digestive tract provide the cells of the respiratory
muscles with fuel.

b)
Growth hormone is released into the bloodstream from the anterior pituitary gland. The
pituitary gland also produces other hormones which have different functions to growth
hormone.
Growth hormone acts on many parts of the body to promote growth in children. In adults, it
does not cause growth but it helps to maintain normal body structure and metabolism,
including helping to keep blood glucose levels within set levels.

Physiologic Effects of Growth Hormone

A critical concept in understanding growth hormone activity is that it has two distinct types of
effects:

Direct effects are the result of growth hormone binding its receptor on target cells. Fat cells
(adipocytes), for example, have growth hormone receptors, and growth hormone stimulates
them to break down triglyceride and suppresses their ability to take up and accumulate
circulating lipids.
Indirect effects are mediated primarily by a insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), a hormone
that is secreted from the liver and other tissues in response to growth hormone. A majority of
the growth promoting effects of growth hormone is actually due to IGF-I acting on its target
cells.
Keeping this distinction in mind, we can discuss two

The posterior pituitary makes and releases just two hormones

Hormone

Main

released

target

Function

Antidiuretic

Kidneys

Decreases urine production. (It causes more water filtered by

hormone

the kidneys to be returned to the blood. This reduces the

(ADH)

amount of urine.)

ADH also causes a rise in blood pressure.

Oxytocin

Breasts

Stimulates contraction of the womb during childbirth. Helps

and womb

breasts to release milk.

(uterus)

TASK 2
2.1 Explain normal body responses to everyday activities
+
2.2 Discuss how body responses are explained by cellular and tissue structure and
physiology

If human cells could use the food eaten in that form, there would be no need for a
digestive system. The digestive system changes the food into a form that can be used by the
cells and that enables the nutrients to get into the blood so they can be transported throughout
the body.
The digestive system consists of one long tube and the organs that attach to it. The organs
produce digestive chemicals (enzymes and acids) that break down the nutrients into simpler
forms so that absorption through the intestinal wall and into the blood stream can occur.
Mechanical and Chemical Digestion

There are two kinds of digestion: mechanical and chemical. Mechanical digestion involves
physically breaking the food into smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth
as the food is chewed. Chemical digestion involves breaking down the food into simpler
nutrients that can be used by the cells. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food
mixes with saliva. Saliva contains an enzyme (amylase) that begins the breakdown of
carbohydrates. (An enzyme is a protein that can catalyze certain biochemical reactions).

The Digestive Process

Mouth
Food is chewed into smaller pieces.

Adults have 32 specialized teethteeth that can grind, chew, and tear different kinds of food.
The tongue is an organ consisting of skeletal muscles (voluntary muscles) that move the food
around the mouth to allow for efficient mechanical digestion. Salivary glands beneath and in
back of the tongue secrete the saliva that allows for easier swallowing of food and the
beginning of chemical digestion.

Pharnyx

Swallowing forces the chewed food through a tubular entrance (pharynx) to the

esophagus (food tube). As food is swallowed a flap-like valve, the epiglottis, closes over the
trachea (windpipe) to prevent food entering the windpipe and causing choking.

Esophagus

The esophagus connects the pharynx with the stomach. Contractions of the

esophagus push the food through asphincter (a ring of smooth muscle that closes off an
opening in the body) and into the stomach.

NOTE: The digestive system moves food along by way of peristalsis, a wavelike

contraction of smooth (involuntary) muscle.

Other than the chemical digestion of carbohydrates in the mouth, all digestion to this

point has been mechanical.

2.3 Explain how the body coordinates its internal activities

Constant conditions in the internal environment of the body are maintained through the
process of homeostasis. Relatively constant conditions are maintained in the body by the
functions performed by all organs and tissues.
There are two stages involved in the transportation of extra-cellular fluid through all the body
parts (Gorsky and Stepanov, 2000). The first stage includes the movement of blood through
the body in the blood vessels. In the second stage, the movement of fluid occurs between the
blood capillaries and the intercellular spaces between the tissue cells. During the process of
picking up oxygen by the blood in the lungs, the lung alveoli release the carbon dioxide into
the blood. Carbon dioxide is carried to the atmosphere through the in and out movement of
the air through the lungs. Hence lungs help in the removal of carbon dioxide.

During the passage of blood through the kidneys, removal of other substances such as urea
and uric acid from the plasma occurs (Schulkin, 2003). The excess of ions and water that
might have accumulated in the extra-cellular fluid are also removed. The substances needed
by the body are reabsorbed by the kidneys. The substances that are not required by the body
are removed in the form of urine (Vargas and et.al., 2009). Hence continuous mixing of the
extracellular fluid occurs in every part of the body which maintains homogeneity throughout
the body.
Homeostasis

Maintaining a stable internal environment

Depend on normal concentrations of water, nutrients, and oxygen, and normal body

temperature and pressure

Involves the homeostatic mechanism (negative feedback)

Homeostatic Mechanism
Stimulus

Receptors: provide information about specific conditions (stimuli) in the body

Control center (brain): detects the change from the set point
Effectors: cause response that alters the conditions in the body
Response

Homeostatic Mechanism Example

Stimulus: body temperature rises above normal

Receptors: sensory receptors send signals to control center
Control center: detects deviation from the set point (98.6 degrees)
Signals effector organs
Effectors: skin blood vessels dilate (to release heat) and sweat glands activate
Response: body heat is lost to surroundings; temperature drops to normal

Negative Feedback

Works to correct a deviation from a set point (Tries to get back to the set
point/normal)

Examples of Negative Feedback

Body temperature
Blood pressure
Oxygen levels in blood
Thirst sensation

Positive Feedback

Changes from the normal point and amplifies it.

Examples of Positive Feedback
Blood clot formation (amplifies chemicals in the clot promote further clotting UNTIL

it's sealed)
Milk production (as long as baby is nursing. milk will be produced UNTIL babies

done)
Uterine contractions during childbirth (contraction UNTIL babies out/no more

stimulus)
Fever (virus/bacteria, body heats self to get rid of it UNTIL the enemy destroyed)

Hormones are chemical substances that regulate processes in the body. Hormones are
secreted by glands and travel to their target organs in the bloodstream. Several hormones are
involved in the female menstrual cycle. Hormones can be used to control human fertility and
have advantages and disadvantages.
Control of internal conditions

The internal environment of the body is controlled by the nervous system and hormones. The
maintenance of a constant internal environment is calledhomeostasis. Below are some of the
internal conditions that need to be controlled.
Water content in the body
Water in the body has to be controlled to protect cells from either too much water entering or
too much water leaving them. Water content is controlled by water loss from:

the lungs - when we exhale

the skin - through sweating
passing urine - produced by the kidneys.

TASK 3
3.1 Explain the recording and use of routine measures in health and social care

If an individual concerns about their health and care, then it is useful to do some routine
measures. By recording the health care details individuals or specialist can use the data to
predict a sickness. Historical health care data of a person can easily monitor the age related
physiological changes. Mainly there are four types of routine measures as plus rate, rate of
inhaling or respiration frequency, body temperature and blood pressure.
In additionally body mass index (), height of the person, weight of the person and food
consumption is being considered while doing the routine measuring. Sometimes checks the
consistency of the stool as a routine measure.
The data, which can then be analysed using statistical methods to provide what is known as
an effect size' for how effective the therapy has been. At a higher level, it is possible for this
kind of data to be combined with other information such as the therapists' modality (eg.
Humanistic, CBT, Psychodynamic etc.) and the clients' demographic information (eg. gender,
age, ethnicity, presenting issues etc.) which can be analysed to help answer the question of
what works for whom?'
Ethical considerations
All research ought to be conducted in accordance with the BACP Ethical guidelines for
researching counselling and psychotherapy.
The use of evaluation and outcome measures should be practised in accordance with the
BACP Ethical Framework. Outcome measures should be used as part of routine therapy,
rather than as an adjunct to it; in a manner in which they are of benefit to each client and
enrichment of each clinical engagement. The principle of Beneficence within the BACP
Ethical Framework supports the process of using routine outcomes in therapy:

"Ensuring that the client's best interests are achieved requires systematic monitoring of
practice and outcomes by the best available means".
This principle, however, is tempered in this context by that of Autonomy, dictating that data
gathering and measuring must be in full accordance with the client / service user.
Routine outcome measures support the therapeutic process by enabling the therapist and the
client to monitor progress (Harmon et al., 2007; Lambert and Shimokawa, 2011; Simon et al.,
2012), and can play an important role in measuring service quality and lead to improvements.
An additional benefit is to provide evidence of the effectiveness of counselling and
psychotherapy which has the potential to influence commissioners and policy-makers.
3.2 Assess how routine measures provide information about body functioning

By assessing the routine measures an individual can easily understand the impacted body
system and causes occur when functioning. When routine measures such as body temperature
increase or decrease it indicate that the body system having some sort of a problem and the
system related components dose not functions properly.
When body temperature are growing more than the standard that is or then it indicates
that the person is suffering from fever. By measuring the pulse rate an individual can
understand their heart beat rhythm. If the pulse grow or decrease without any reason then the
individual could meet a doctor as soon as possible. If a persons respiration pattern changes
which are respiration decrease to 12 or increase more than 25 the person should get
consultancy advice and care. Blood pressure is another index which informs a personnel
regarding their health and body functioning. Consistency of the stool also may indicate the
body functioning.

An ECG (electrocardiogram) records the electrical activity of your heart at rest. It provides
information about your heart rate and rhythm, and shows if there is enlargement of the heart
due to high blood pressure (hypertension) or evidence of a previous heart attack (myocardial
infarction). However, it does not show whether you have asymptomatic blockages in your
heart arteries or predict your risk of a future heart attack. The resting ECG is different from a
stress or exercise ECG or cardiac imaging test. You may need an ECG test if you have risk
factors for heart disease such as high blood pressure, or symptoms such as palpitations or
chest pain. Or you may need it if you already have heart disease.

3.3 Examine how information about body functioning may inform care planning for
individuals

The influences of lifestyle on health can be identified as lifestyle pattern, health, lifestyle
factor, non-communicable diseases (NCD) and prevention. As considering the details in the
work study scenario the person is a businessman aged 65 years, overweight, busy individual.
It is very indeed for him to monitor his routine measures to acknowledge about his body
functioning.
The symptoms which are highlighted are flu and fever. It is essential for monitoring the
personnels historical health information to identify the condition as which the illness
inherited or whether the sicknesses occur due to seasonal factor or by other viral. The
businessman has a higher and therefore he may have non-communicable diseases (NCD)
such as diabetes, obesity, cholesterol, hypertension and etc.
If the body temperature grows drastically it is needed to check the blood pressure. If the
feverishness continues then the person requires doing urine, blood and or stooping check-up.
Sometimes the symptoms flu and fever may be happening due to dengue, malaria, swine flu,

or for viral infection. At the end of the day sufficient information about body functioning may
lead to have a better care planning.

TASK 4
4.1 How age might affect body structure and functioning

The effects of aging on the respiratory system are similar to those that occur in other organs:
maximum function gradually declines. Age-related changes in the lungs include

Decreases in peak airflow and gas exchange

Decreases in measures of lung function such as vital capacity (the maximum amount

of air that can be breathed out following a maximum inhalation)

Weakening of the respiratory muscles
Decline in the effectiveness of lung defence mechanisms

In healthy people, these age-related changes seldom lead to symptoms. These changes
contribute somewhat to an older person's reduced ability to do vigorous exercise, especially
intense aerobic exercise, such as running, biking, and mountain climbing. However, agerelated decreases in heart function may be a more important cause of such limitations.

Obesity also reduces lung function. Additionally, older people are at higher risk of developing
pneumonia after bacterial or viral infections. Thus, vaccines for respiratory infections such as
influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia are particularly important for older people.
Importantly, age-related changes in the lungs compound the effects of heart and lung diseases
the person may have, especially those caused by the destructive effects of smoking.

Changes to the nervous system:

The part of the brain that controls breathing may lose some of its function. When this
happens, your lungs are not able to get enough oxygen. Not enough carbon dioxide

may leave the lungs. Breathing may get more difficult.

Nerves in your airways that trigger coughing become less sensitive. Large amounts of
particles like smoke or germs may collect in the lungs and may be hard to cough up.

Research has identified many risk factors associated with dementia. It's impossible to
eliminate every single one; after all we can't avoid age, which is the most significant. While it
is possible to develop dementia early in life, the chances of doing so increase dramatically
with age. One in 50 people between the ages of 65 and 70 have a form of dementia, compared
to one in five people over the age of 80.

4.2 Impact of mentioned condition over body structure and functions

Some of the common disorders can take place on the body structure and functioning can
be listed as neoplastic, deterioration of immune and nervous systems skeletal disorder and
etc.
Stem cell production declines with ageing and causes epidermal cells to slow in their
reproduction and as result of that, becomes larger and irregular. This may lead to a thinner,
much translucent skin, more frequent injury, tearing, and infections. In combination of
hormonal changes and alternations in life style, the structure and chemical composition of
many tissues in various organs will be affected. Due to her age and especially with her
diabetes, it takes longer time to heal even a small wound. As result of reduction in sweat
gland activities and the reduction of blood flow to the skin, she is less able to lose her internal
body heat and further skin damages may caused due to reduction of the immune system to
about 50% if the level seen at maturity .(McCune and ,2003)
Diabetes is a lifelong condition that causes a person's blood sugar level to become too high.
The hormone insulin produced by the pancreas is responsible for controlling the amount
of glucose in the blood
Symptoms of diabetes
The main symptoms of diabetes are:

feeling very thirsty

urinating more frequently than usual, particularly at night
feeling very tired
weight loss and loss of muscle bulk
itching around the penis or vagina, or frequent episodes of thrush
cuts or wounds that heal slowly
blurred vision

Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis, affecting over eight million people in
the UK. It affects your joints, making them stiff and painful. Your knees, hips and the small
joints in your hands are the most commonly affected.
Symptoms of osteoarthritis vary, depending on which joints are affected and how severely
they are affected. However, the most common symptoms are pain and stiffness, particularly
first thing in the morning or after resting. Affected joints may get swollen, especially after
extended activity. These symptoms tend to build over time rather than show up suddenly.
Some of the common symptoms include:
Sore or stiff joints particularly the hips, knees, and lower back after inactivity or overuse.

Limited range of motion or stiffness that goes away after movement

Clicking or cracking sound when a joint bends
Mild swelling around a joint
Pain that is worse after activity or toward the end of the day

There are many causes of non-healing (chronic) ulcers and they include:

Problems

with

blood supply or drainage

Nerve damage

Excess pressure

Cancer

Infection.
When determining the cause of a non-healing ulcer, it is always important to assess the

blood supply and nerve function to the area. If cancer or unusual infection is suspected, a skin
biopsy may be required. It is important to seek medical attention early for non-healing ulcers,

so that appropriate diagnostic testing can be done and treatment commenced at an early stage.
Ulcers that are not healing or improving in a 2 week period should be assessed by a clinician

4.3 Effects of medical conditions and the routine care

When consider the casework circumstances the lady lives in a care home age eighty five
years. She is suffering from essential hypertension, type 02 diabetes, wound on a leg and
arthritis on knees. While taking into consideration about her age it is very difficult to respond
to the diseases positive manner. Since she is suffering from type 02 diabetes the wound would
not heal. She or her care taker has to take many preventive actions to heal the wound.
If the wound gets infected there is a threat of operating her leg for betterment. The ladys
skeletal system is much weaker and due to arthritis on knees she has to avoid walking and
standing for a longer period of time. Since she has hypertension her nervous system may also
not working efficiently. She may use medicine and therefore she has to consume large
amount of purified water to avoid urinary infections and problems. Caretakers should daily
monitor a routine measures and food intake to elude emergency situations. (, 1994)
Diabetes
Whether you have just been diagnosed or had diabetes for some time it is important that you
get the right support for managing your diabetes. This will help to ensure that your diabetes,

blood pressure and blood fats are all kept in check, as well as detecting any early signs of
complications so that they can be caught and treated successfully.

Use this self-care plan.

Use your diabetes meal plan. If you do not have one, ask your health care team about

one.
Make healthy food choices such as fruits and vegetables, fish, lean meats, chicken or
turkey without the skin, dry peas or beans, whole grains, and low-fat or skim milk and

cheese.
Keep fish and lean meat and poultry portion to about 3 ounces (or the size of a deck of

cards). Bake, broil, or grill it.

Eat foods that have less fat and salt.
Eat foods with more fiber such as whole grains cereals, breads, crackers, rice, or

pasta.
Get 30 to 60 minutes of physical activity on most days of the week. Brisk walking is a

great way to move more.

Stay at a healthy weight by using your meal plan and moving more.
Ask for help if you feel down. A mental health counselor, support group, member of
the clergy, friend, or family member who will listen to your concerns may help you

feel better.
Learn to cope with stress. Stress can raise your blood glucose (blood sugar). While it

is hard to remove stress from your life, you can learn to handle it.
Stop smoking. Ask for help to quit.
Take medicines even when you feel good. Ask your doctor if you need aspirin to
prevent a heart attack orstroke. Tell your doctor if you cannot afford your medicines

or if you have any side effects.

Check your feet every day for cuts, blisters, red spots, and swelling. Call your health

care team right away about any sores that do not go away.
Brush your teeth and floss every day to avoid problems with your mouth, teeth, or
gums

Check your blood glucose (blood sugar). You may want to test it one or more times a
day. Use the card at the back of this booklet to keep a record of your blood glucose

numbers. Be sure to take this record to your doctor visits.

Check your blood pressure if your doctor advises.
Report any changes in your eyesight to your doctor.

Arthritis
There are three different types of arthritis that can occur in your knees. The most common
type is osteoarthritis, a progressive disease that slowly wears away joint cartilage. This type
of arthritis is most likely to strike after middle age.
As with other arthritic conditions, initial treatment of arthritis of the knee is nonsurgical. Your
doctor may recommend a range of treatment options.
Lifestyle modifications. Some changes in your daily life can protect your knee joint and slow
the progress of arthritis.
Minimize activities that aggravate the condition, such as climbing stairs.
Switching from high impact activities (like jogging or tennis) to lower impact activities (like
swimming or cycling) will put less stress on your knee.
Losing weight can reduce stress on the knee joint, resulting in less pain and increased
function.

Physical therapy

Specific exercises can help increase range of motion and flexibility, as well as help
strengthen the muscles in your leg. Your doctor or a physical therapist can help develop an
individualized exercise program that meets your needs and lifestyle.
Assistive devices
Using devices such as a cane, wearing shock-absorbing shoes or inserts, or wearing a brace or
knee sleeve can be helpful. A brace assists with stability and function, and may be especially
helpful if the arthritis is centered on one side of the knee. There are two types of braces that
are often used for knee arthritis: An "unloader" brace shifts weight away from the affected
portion of the knee, while a "support" brace helps support the entire knee load.
Other remedies
Applying heat or ice, using pain-relieving ointments or creams, or wearing elastic bandages
to provide support to the knee may provide some relief from pain.

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