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International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 1995, 5, 206-214

it 1995 Human Kinetics Publishers, inc.

An Assessment of Carbohydrate Intake


in Collegiate Distance Runners
Jill A. Tanaka, Hirofumi Tanaka, and William Landis
To determine the extent to which well-trained endurance athletes practice
the dietary recommendations for maximizing muscle glycogen resynthesis,
collegiate cross-country runners (14 males and 10 females) kept 4-day dietary
and activity records during a training period and a competitive period in the
regular cross-country season. The mean running mileages for men and women
were 16.0 1.0 and 10.7 0.6 km/day during the training period and 14.6
0.8 and 8.7 0.5 km/day during the competitive period, respectively.
Males reported adequate energy intake in both phases, whereas females fell
short of the RDA. However, the percentage of calories from carbohydrate
was found to be inadequate (<60%) for male runners. Although female
runners derived 65-67% of calories from carbohydrate, the daily amount of
carbohydrate taken was insufficient (<10 g/kg body weight). Carbohydrate
was ingested immediately postexercise approximately 50% of the time or
less, with even far less taken in suggested quantities (-1 g carbohydrate/kg
body weight). There were no significant differences in dietary trends between
training and competitive phases. The results suggest that these endurance
athletes were not practicing the recommended feeding regimen for optimal
muscle glycogen restoration.
Key Words: exercise, nutrition, dietary carbohydrate, muscle glycogen

It is well established that there is a significant relationship between muscle


glycogen content and endurance capacity (2). Since muscle glycogen appears to
be the major fuel both in competition and in daily training, the resynthesis of
muscle glycogen is of primary importance for optimum endurance performance
and training adaptations. A considerable amount of research (6, 13, 14) has been
conducted in an attempt to design the optimum regimen for rapid repletion of
muscle glycogen stores following strenuous exercise. It is recommended that,
besides balancing daily energy intake with energy expenditure, endurance athletes
who train exhaustively on successive days should consume a diet containing 60
to 70% of calories from carbohydrate or 10 g of carbohydrate/kg body weight/
day (5, 6, 21). In addition to the carbohydrate consumption in the daily diet, a

J.A. Tanaka and W. Landis are with the Department of Home Economics, Ball State
University, Muncie, IN 47306. H. Tanaka is with the Exercise Science Unit, University of
TennesseeKnoxville, Knoxville, TN 37996-2700. Direct correspondence to H. Tanaka.
206

Carbohydrate Intake in Runners / -207

carbohydrate supplement of approximately 1 g/kg body weight should be consumed immediately after a glycogen-depleting exercise bout, especially during
intensive training periods (13, 14). The continuation of supplementation every
2 hr will maintain a maximal rate of storage up to 6 hr after exercise (13,
14). Only when this regimen is carefully followed can muscle glycogen be
resynthesized to at least preexercise levels within 24 hr of completion of strenuous
exercise (13).
A study by Costill et al. (4) suggested that endurance athletes experienced
chronic muscle fatigue primarily because of depleted muscle glycogen, as a result
of insufficient carbohydrate intake to match the energy demand of repeated days
of intense training. This is in line with findings of Kirwan et al. (17), who
reported a higher perceived exertion and lower running economy when endurance
athletes consumed a moderate-carbohydrate diet. Thus, one can suspect that if
an endurance athlete consumes an optimum amount of carbohydrate within the
proper time frame, the risk of overtraining may be minimized due to maximized
glycogen repletion.
" Several studies (10, 24) have shown that few of today's endurance athletes
consume adequate dietary carbohydrate. Likewise, it is suspected that most endurance athletes do not adhere to recommendations for maximizing muscle glycogen
repletion immediately following exercise. Since no research has demonstrated
whether endurance athletes practice the recommended carbohydrate feeding regimen, the primary purpose of this study was to compare collegiate cross-country
runners' carbohydrate intakes with the dietary recommendations made to ensure
maintenance of muscle glycogen levels. A unique aspect of this study was the
special reference to carbohydrate intake immediately postexercise.
Methods
Subjects

Intercollegiate male (n = 14) and female (n = 10) cross-country runners on a


men's varsity team and a women's varsity team (NCAA Division I) served as
subjects for this study. Prior to participation, the procedure was explained verbally
and in writing, and informed consents were obtained in accordance with the
procedures of the Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects. All the data
were collected during the regular competitive cross-country season. The subject
characteristics are shown in Table 1.
Dietary Information

Food intake records were used to collect dietary data for the regular cross-country
season during a training period and during a competitive period, including an
important racing day. A 4-day food record was chosen because 4 to 6 days are
required to accurately quantify true average group macronutrient intake data (1).
Moreover, I weekend day was included in the 4 days to obtain valid information
on a group level (1).
Less than a week before the first recording period, a registered dietitian
gave each team standardized instructions on the procedures for completing the
food intake records. The athletes were instructed to record the exact times of

208 / Tanaka, Tanaka, and Landis

Table 1 Subject Characteristics

Variable

Age (years)
Height (cm)
Weight (kg)
Training
Competitive

Males (n = 14)
Al SE

Females

(n = 10)

M SE

19.2
177.6

0.4
1.8

19.6
166.6

0.5
1.9

63.7
64.0

1.3
1.3

54.8
54.7

1.3
1.3

exercise and intake of any food or drink. The importance of accurately recording
each food or beverage immediately after consumption was emphasized. Runners
were asked to record supplements in a separate area on the food records. They
were also instructed to follow their customary eating habits during recording days.
At the end of the 4-day period for both occasions (training and competitive),
the records were returned to a registered dietitian for review. When any information on the diet record was in question, clarification was immediately sought
from the athlete via telephone. The dietary records were analyzed for nutrient
content using Nutritionist IV (N-Squared Computing, Salem, OR). Carbohydrates
consumed immediately postexercise were classified as glucose, fructose, sucrose,
or other sugar (e.g., lactose or starch), based on the primary ingredient in each
food/beverage. Only food and beverage sources of nutrients were included in
the dietary analyses. When a food item was not available in the program, the
food was broken down into its components. In cases where a subject recorded
with uncertainty a food item eaten in the university's cafeteria, verification of
portion sizes and ingredients was obtained via telephone from the food service
managers. Moreover, to ensure consistency, all instructions and coding work
were conducted by one investigator.
During the 4-day recording periods, each athlete reported his or her daily
running mileage along with the time of exercise, which was recorded on the
same daily dietary intake records. Since the women performed deep water running
once a week, their running mileage was assessed based on a mean of the days
where land running was the sole mode of exercise.
Statistical Analysis

Standard descriptive statistics were used to calculate means and standard errors

(SE). Test data were analyzed with a two-way ANOVA with repeated measures.
When a significant F ratio was obtained, a post hoc test using Newman-Keuls

procedure was used to further identify the difference among mean values. The
level of significance was set at p < .05 in all comparisons.
Results

The mean running mileages for men were 16.0 1.0 km/day in the training
period and 14.6 0.8 km/day in the competitive period. Most runners performed
two or more bouts of running per day. The mean running mileages for women

Carbohydrate Intake in Runners /

209

were 10.7 0.6 km/day in the training period and 8.7 0.5 km/day in the
competitive period.
Daily energy-providing nutrient intakes are shown in Table 2. A significantly (p < .05) lower percentage of total calories was derived from carbohydrates
among the men compared to the women in both phases. Unlike the females,
male runners fell short of recommendations for carbohydrate intake (60-70%).
Although female runners derived 65-67% of calories from carbohydrate, the
daily amount of carbohydrate ingested was substantially lower than the recommended value (>10 g/kg/day) (19). When the carbohydrate intake was expressed
in a fixed daily amount, male runners were closer to the recommendation than
female runners (8 vs. 6 g/kg/day). Both males and females ingested significantly
more simple carbohydrate during the training phase than during the competitive phase.
Trends for postexercise carbohydrate ingestion are displayed in Table 3.
Whereas females ingested carbohydrate approximately half of the time immediately postexercise, the males ingested carbohydrate less than 40% of the time
during both phases. While the men had only a slight variation in frequency
between training and competitive phases, the women ingested carbohydrate more
often during the competitive phase. When the amounts of carbohydrate taken by
these athletes were compared to amounts recommended (>1 g carbohydrate/kg
body weight) in the literature (13), less than a quarter of the time were the
recommendations met during the training phase.
Table 2 Mean ( SE) Daily Nutrient Intake of Male and Female Distance
Runners
Males
Nutrient
Energy (kcal)*
(kcal/kg)*
Total CHO (g)*
(g/kg BW)*
(% kcal)*
Complex CHO (g)*
Simple CHO (g)*#
Protein (g)*
(% kcal)
Fat (g)*
(% kcal)*
Alcohol (g)
Fiber (g)**

Training
M SE

Competitive
M SE

Females
Training
M SE

Competitive
M SE

3,629.0 223.4 3,542.1 192.5 1,988.3 138.6 1,945.4 161.1


36.0
3.4
36.4
2.5
3.6
55.5
2.9
57.1
331.3 22.1
326.1 20.4
507.8 34.1
504.3 36.8
6.0
0.4
0.5
6.1
0.4
0.6
8.0
7.9
67.1
2.0
68.9
3.5
1.6
1.7
57.0
55.4
237.7
12
320.4 20.0
235.9 18.6
297.5 24.3
6.0
88.4
9.2
187.4 25.5
95.4
206.7 25.1
64.1
4.7
8.3
63.7
5.3
118.7
128.3
8.7
13.1
0.3
0.6
13.0
0.6
0.8
13.4
14.3
50.7
5.8
7.4
47.8
7.9
7.3
110.7
115.4
22.6
1.6
20.7
2.5
1.3
1.3
28.3
28.9
0.0
0.0
11.9
5.0
9.7
17.1
14.7
1.6
18.5
1.7
1.9
2.1
16.3
20.6

*Males significantly different (p < .05) from females.


#Training phase significantly different (p < .05) from competitive phase.
**Males significantly different (p < .05) from females in training phase.

210 / Tanaka, Tanaka, and Landis

As can be seen in Table 4, Combo (liquid and solid carbohydrate taken


together, other than sources already used), such as cold cereal with milk, represented well over half of the carbohydrate forms consumed by the males immediately postexercise. Solids were the least ingested form of carbohydrate by males
during both phases. In contrast, females preferentially consumed a solid form of
carbohydrate. Carbohydrates with primary ingredients other glucose, fructose,
and sucrose, including sweetened cereals and milk, doughnuts, and waffles, were
the types selected most often by the men immediately postexercise. Similarly,
other types of carbohydrate, mainly dry cereals and breads, were ingested by the
women most often. While the male runners' next favorites were a relatively equal
distribution of glucose and sucrose sources, such as bananas and sports drinks,
the women's second choices were glucose and fructose, usually via sports bars
and sports drinks. The men chose fructose the least often, and the women sucrose.
Discussion

The endurance athlete must balance daily energy intake with expenditure, as
negative caloric balance can compromise successful muscle glycogen resynthesis.
The male runners' mean energy intake was 55.5-57.1 kcal/kg/day, which is very
similar to the RDA of 58 kcal/kg/day for exceptionally active men. In contrast,
36.0-36.4 kcal/kg/day, the female runners' mean energy intake, corresponds to
the RDA for women whose activity is light to moderate. The inadequacy of
caloric intake is in agreement with previous studies (7, 19) that have reported a
negative caloric balance among female long-distance runners. This has been
attributed to increased metabolic efficiency through aerobic exercise. Thompson
et al. (23) reported a significantly lower 24-hr energy expenditure in endurance
athletes with low energy intake than in athletes with adequate energy intake
Table 3 Trends of Postexercise Carbohydrate Ingestion of Male and Female
Distance Runners
Males

Females

Training Competitive

Training Competitive

CHO intake immediately postexercise

% of time CHO taken


% of time recommended
amounts of CHO were
met'

38.2
22.6

37.1
20.6

47_6
21.4

54.8
26.2

9.0
0.0

4.1
0.0

9.5
0.0

4.8
2.4

CHO intake at 2-hr intervals

% of time CHO taken


% of time recommended
amounts of CHO were
met'

The recommended amount of CHO refers to ?_ 1 g carbohydrate/kg body weight (14).

Carbohydrate Intake in Runners / 211

Table 4 Relative Percentages of the Forms and Types of Carbohydrate Ingested


Immediately Postexercise in Distance Runners

Training
CHO forms
Solid
Liquid
Combo
CHO types
Glucose
Fructose
Sucrose
Other

Males
Competitive

Training

Females
Competitive

6.9
24.1
69.0

3.0
39.4
57.6

50.0
15.0
35.0

47.8
17.4
34.8

16.9
4.5
29.2
49.4

22.0
6.1
17.1
54.9

22.2
27.8
19.4
30.6

26.7
24.4
4.4
44.4

Note. Percentages include times in which the recommended amount of CHO 1 g

carbohydrate/kg body weight) (15) was not consumed as well. Combo represents both a
solid and a liquid taken together, while Other represents a primary sugar besides those
listed, such as lactose or starch.

matched for lean body mass, body weight, and activity levels. However, Horton
et al. (11), using trained female cyclists and lean controls, determined energy
balance between energy expenditure measured with whole room indirect calorimetry and energy intake determined by a controlled feeding regimen. They found
no significant difference in the energetic efficiency between the two groups. This
is in line with findings of Edwards et al. (8), who compared dietary intake to
energy expenditure using doubly labeled water. These results suggested that
low caloric intake in female endurance athletes may have been the result of
underreporting by the subjects. The prevalence of underreporting in the present
study is difficult to determine since underreporting appears to be subconscious
in nature. We cannot exclude the possibility that some female runners underreported their dietary intakes since underreporting is quite common in this weightconscious population (8).
Along with adequate energy intake, the percentage of calories from carbohydrate should be approximately 60-70% to maintain muscle glycogen day to day
(6, 21). The male runners in this study failed to ingest the recommended amount
despite their adequate caloric intake. Unfortunately, when very high carbohydrate
diets are practiced, the amount of food that should be ingested tends to exceed
that required for satiety (5). Given the absolute amount of calories the male
runners ingested, it seems likely that a feeling of fullness was responsible for
their inadequate carbohydrate intake.
Ellsworth et al. (9) reported that in a group of cross-country skiers, cafeteria
eating at a training camp led to decreased carbohydrate intake because the food
offered did not reflect personal choice. Interestingly, these skiers' overall intakes
consisted of significantly greater amounts of carbohydrate when they ate on their

212 / Tanaka, Tanaka, and Landis

own. The majority of the cross-country runners in the present study ate in the
cafeteria, and it is possible that many of the athletes may have consumed more
carbohydrates had more sources been available.
Many studies have reported inadequate carbohydrate intake among female
distance runners (7, 19). Surprisingly, the female runners in the present study
ingested more than 65% of calories from carbohydrate in both phases. However,
when carbohydrate intake was expressed in a fixed daily amount, their intake of
6.0 and 6.1 g/kg body weight/day was substantially lower than the amount
recommended (<10 g/kg/day) in the literature (21). These results indicate that
although the female distance runners in the present study chose carbohydrate as
a primary energy source, they failed to meet the caloric requirements of this
macronutrient, resulting from the lower total energy intake. Recently, Lamb et al.
(18) reported no advantage of an 80% carbohydrate diet over 43% for maintaining
strenuous swim training. The authors argued that a 43% carbohydrate diet provided a sufficient amount of carbohydrate to fully replenish muscle glycogen
since the overall energy intake was high (18). These results suggest that the
dietary recommendation for carbohydrate intake should be expressed as a daily
amount of carbohydrate relative to body weight rather than as a percentage of
energy from carbohydrate (21).
Overall, no significant differences were found in carbohydrate intake between training and competitive phases. Both male and female cross-country
runners failed to improve their diets in the competitive phase, when performance
is highly regarded. The present finding is in line with other studies (15, 22) in
which no significant differences were found in the carbohydrate intakes of endurance athletes between phases. Yet these investigators noted that calories from
carbohydrate rose from an inadequate quantity to a desirable level, and their
athletes were able to increase muscle glycogen resynthesis in a prerace period
by increasing bread and fruit consumption. While bread consumption rose in
both genders from the training period to the competitive period in the present
investigation, the difference did not significantly affect carbohydrate adequacy.
Carbohydrate intake immediately after exercise is important since the rate
of muscle glycogen resynthesis is enhanced during this time (14). In order for
endurance athletes to fully replenish muscle glycogen stores on a daily basis,
they not only must consume adequate calories consisting of 60-70% carbohydrate
but also must follow a specific regimen in ingesting carbohydrates immediately
after exercise. Ingesting carbohydrate in the quantity of approximately 1 g/kg
body weight is suggested within the first 30 min following a bout of intense
exercise (14). Slightly less than 40% of males and slightly more than 50% of
females in the present study ingested carbohydrate immediately postexercise. In
addition, the percentage of times carbohydrate was taken immediately in the
recommended amounts was only about 20-25%. This trend was observed despite
the fact that the athletic training rooms provide sports drinks for runners after
practice.
An overall grazing pattern was evident in the distance runners, as has been
demonstrated in other studies (9, 12, 16). This nontraditional pattern of eating
appears to allow athletes to meet their high energy demands without causing
unwanted gastrointestinal distress. It seems that this frequent eating pattern would
resemble the regimen for maximizing muscle glycogen resynthesis following
exercise. Kirsch and von Ameln (16) reported that runners' and cyclists' average

Carbohydrate Intake in Runners / 213

frequency of intake was 8-10 times per day; the runners specifically showed a
very low eating frequency the hour after training. Since heavy exercise tends to
depress appetite immediately following the exercise bout, most endurance athletes
would be less inclined to consume carbohydrate during a time critical for complete
muscle glycogen repletion. These results suggest that coaches and trainers should
encourage athletes to consume carbohydrate after intense exercise, along with
providing these carbohydrate sources.
While some studies (4, 5, 17) have reported beneficial effects of highcarbohydrate diets, other studies (18, 20, 21) do not support the hypothesis that
reductions in dietary carbohydrate stores impair training adaptations or endurance
performance. For example, Sherman et al. (20) recently reported that a highcarbohydrate diet had no significant benefit on training capability or exercise
performance although it maintained muscle glycogen levels over 7 consecutive
days of training. However, since dietary carbohydrate helps to maintain carbohydrate stores in the body and a high-carbohydrate diet does not impair endurance
performance, endurance athletes should be advised to follow nutritional practices
for maximizing muscle glycogen repletion, especially during intense training
(20, 21).
This investigation described dietary practices for endurance athletes. A
unique aspect of this study was the examination of additional needs and strategies
in respect to muscle glycogen repletion. Although it is uncertain whether these
athletes were experiencing difficulties in maintaining normal exercise intensity
or were experiencing a gradual deterioration in performance, it is evident that
they were not following recommendations to maximize muscle glycogen stores.
The results suggest that endurance athletes need to be educated on how to
follow nutritional guidelines. Second, consistent support and encouragement by
registered dietitians, coaches, and trainers are of great importance if athletes are
to adhere to dietary practices on a regular basis. As these factors are implemented,
following the dietary recommendations for reducing the risk of chronic fatigue,
and thus promoting the change for optimal performance, may become a trend
among endurance athletes.
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