Sustainabledevelopment

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Sustainabledevelopmentisaprocessformeetinghumandevelopmentgoalswhilesustainingtheabilityofnaturalsystemsto
continuetoprovidethenaturalresourcesandecosystemservicesuponwhichtheeconomyandsocietydepend.Whilethemodern
conceptofsustainabledevelopmentisderivedmoststronglyfromthe1987BrundtlandReport,itisrootedinearlierideasabout
sustainableforestmanagementandtwentiethcenturyenvironmentalconcerns.Astheconceptdeveloped,ithasshiftedtofocus
moreoneconomicdevelopment,socialdevelopmentandenvironmentalprotection.
Sustainabledevelopmentistheorganizingprincipleforsustainingfiniteresourcesnecessarytoprovidefortheneedsoffuture
generationsoflifeontheplanet.Itisaprocessthatenvisionsadesirablefuturestateforhumansocietiesinwhichlivingconditions
andresourceusecontinuetomeethumanneedswithoutunderminingthe"integrity,stabilityandbeauty"ofnaturalbioticsystems.

Contents
1 History
2 TheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)
3 Dimensions
3.1 Environmental
3.1.1 Agriculture
3.2 Economics
3.2.1 Environmentaleconomics
3.2.2 Energy
3.2.3 Manufacturing
3.2.4 Technology
3.2.5 Transport
3.2.6 Business
3.2.7 Income
3.2.8 Architecture
3.3 Politics
3.4 Culture
4 Themes
4.1 Progress
4.2 Measurement
4.3 Naturalcapital
4.4 Businessasusual
5 Criticism

Windpowers5MWwind
turbinesonawindfarm28
kmoffthecoastofBelgium.

5 Criticism
6 Seealso
7 References
8 Literaturecited
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks

History
Sustainabilitycanbedefinedasthepracticeofmaintainingprocessesofproductivityindefinitelynaturalorhumanmade
byreplacingresourcesusedwithresourcesofequalorgreatervaluewithoutdegradingorendangeringnaturalbiotic
systems.[2]Sustainabledevelopmenttiestogetherconcernforthecarryingcapacityofnaturalsystemswiththesocial,
political,andeconomicchallengesfacedbyhumanity.Sustainabilityscienceisthestudyoftheconceptsofsustainable
developmentandenvironmentalscience.Thereisanadditionalfocusonthepresentgenerations'responsibilityto
regenerate,maintainandimproveplanetaryresourcesforusebyfuturegenerations.[3]
SustainabledevelopmenthasitsrootsinideasaboutsustainableforestmanagementwhichweredevelopedinEurope
duringtheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies.[4][5]Inresponsetoagrowingawarenessofthedepletionoftimber
resourcesinEngland,JohnEvelynarguedthat"sowingandplantingoftreeshadtoberegardedasanationaldutyofevery
landowner,inordertostopthedestructiveoverexploitationofnaturalresources"inhis1662essaySylva.In1713Hans
CarlvonCarlowitz,aseniorminingadministratorintheserviceofElectorFrederickAugustusIofSaxonypublished
Sylviculturaoeconomica,a400pageworkonforestry.BuildingupontheideasofEvelynandFrenchministerJean
BaptisteColbert,vonCarlowitzdevelopedtheconceptofmanagingforestsforsustainedyield.[4]Hisworkinfluenced
others,includingAlexandervonHumboldtandGeorgLudwigHartig,eventuallyleadingtothedevelopmentofascience
offorestry.ThisinturninfluencedpeoplelikeGiffordPinchot,firstheadoftheUSForestService,whoseapproachto
forestmanagementwasdrivenbytheideaofwiseuseofresources,andAldoLeopoldwhoselandethicwasinfluentialin
thedevelopmentoftheenvironmentalmovementinthe1960s.[4][5]

TheBlueMarble,photographedfrom
Apollo17in1972,quicklybecame
aniconofenvironmental
conservation. [1]

FollowingthepublicationofRachelCarson'sSilentSpringin1962,thedevelopingenvironmentalmovementdrewattentiontotherelationshipbetweeneconomic
growthanddevelopmentandenvironmentaldegradation.KennethE.Bouldinginhisinfluential1966essayTheEconomicsoftheComingSpaceshipEarth
identifiedtheneedfortheeconomicsystemtofititselftotheecologicalsystemwithitslimitedpoolsofresources.[5]Oneofthefirstusesofthetermsustainable
inthecontemporarysensewasbytheClubofRomein1972initsclassicreportontheLimitstoGrowth,writtenbyagroupofscientistsledbyDennisand
DonellaMeadowsoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.Describingthedesirable"stateofglobalequilibrium",theauthorswrote:"Wearesearchingfora
modeloutputthatrepresentsaworldsystemthatissustainablewithoutsuddenanduncontrolledcollapseandcapableofsatisfyingthebasicmaterialrequirements
ofallofitspeople."[3]

In1980theInternationalUnionfortheConservationofNaturepublishedaworldconservationstrategythatincludedoneofthefirstreferencestosustainable
developmentasaglobalpriority[6]andintroducedtheterm"sustainabledevelopment".[7]Twoyearslater,theUnitedNationsWorldCharterforNatureraisedfive
principlesofconservationbywhichhumanconductaffectingnatureistobeguidedandjudged.[8]In1987theUnitedNationsWorldCommissiononEnvironment
andDevelopmentreleasedthereportOurCommonFuture,commonlycalledtheBrundtlandReport.Thereportincludedwhatisnowoneofthemostwidely
recogniseddefinitionsofsustainabledevelopment.[9][10]

Sustainabledevelopmentisdevelopmentthatmeetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheir
ownneeds.Itcontainswithinittwokeyconcepts:
Theconceptof'needs',inparticular,theessentialneedsoftheworld'spoor,towhichoverridingpriorityshouldbegivenand
Theideaoflimitationsimposedbythestateoftechnologyandsocialorganizationontheenvironment'sabilitytomeetpresentandfutureneeds.

WorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment,OurCommonFuture(1987)

SincetheBrundtlandReport,theconceptofsustainabledevelopmenthasdevelopedbeyondtheinitialintergenerationalframeworktofocusmoreonthegoalof
"sociallyinclusiveandenvironmentallysustainableeconomicgrowth".[11]In1992,theUNConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopmentpublishedtheEarth
Charter,whichoutlinesthebuildingofajust,sustainable,andpeacefulglobalsocietyinthe21stcentury.TheactionplanAgenda21forsustainabledevelopment
identifiedinformation,integration,andparticipationaskeybuildingblockstohelpcountriesachievedevelopmentthatrecognisestheseinterdependentpillars.It
emphasisesthatinsustainabledevelopmenteveryoneisauserandproviderofinformation.Itstressestheneedtochangefromoldsectorcenteredwaysofdoing
businesstonewapproachesthatinvolvecrosssectoralcoordinationandtheintegrationofenvironmentalandsocialconcernsintoalldevelopmentprocesses.
Furthermore,Agenda21emphasisesthatbroadpublicparticipationindecisionmakingisafundamentalprerequisiteforachievingsustainabledevelopment.[12]
UndertheprinciplesoftheUnitedNationsChartertheMillenniumDeclarationidentifiedprinciplesandtreatiesonsustainabledevelopment,includingeconomic
development,socialdevelopmentandenvironmentalprotection.Broadlydefined,sustainabledevelopmentisasystemsapproachtogrowthanddevelopmentand
tomanagenatural,produced,andsocialcapitalforthewelfareoftheirownandfuturegenerations.ThetermsustainabledevelopmentasusedbytheUnited
Nationsincorporatesbothissuesassociatedwithlanddevelopmentandbroaderissuesofhumandevelopmentsuchaseducation,publichealth,andstandardof
living.
A2013studyconcludedthatsustainabilityreportingshouldbereframedthroughthelensoffourinterconnecteddomains:ecology,economics,politicsand
culture.[13]

TheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)
OnSeptember2015,theUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyformallyadoptedthe"universal,integratedandtransformative"2030AgendaforSustainable
Development(https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdgs),asetof17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).
Thegoalsaretobeimplementedandachievedineverycountryfromtheyear2016to2030.

Dimensions
Sustainabledevelopmenthasbeendescribedintermsofthreedimensions,domainsorpillars.Inthethreedimension
model,theseareseenas"economic,environmentalandsocial"or"ecology,economyandequity"[14]thishasbeen
expandedbysomeauthorstoincludeafourthpillarofculture,[15][16]institutionsorgovernance.[14]

Environmental
Theecologicalstabilityofhumansettlementsispartoftherelationshipbetweenhumansandtheirnatural,socialandbuilt
environments.[17]Alsotermedhumanecology,thisbroadensthefocusofsustainabledevelopmenttoincludethe
domainofhumanhealth.Fundamentalhumanneedssuchastheavailabilityandqualityofair,water,foodand
shelterarealsotheecologicalfoundationsforsustainabledevelopment[18]addressingpublichealthriskthrough
investmentsinecosystemservicescanbeapowerfulandtransformativeforceforsustainabledevelopmentwhich,
inthissense,extendstoallspecies.[19]
Environmentalsustainabilityconcernsthenaturalenvironmentandhowitenduresandremainsdiverseand
productive.Sincenaturalresourcesarederivedfromtheenvironment,thestateofair,water,andtheclimateareof
particularconcern.TheIPCCFifthAssessmentReportoutlinescurrentknowledgeaboutscientific,technicaland
socioeconomicinformationconcerningclimatechange,andlistsoptionsforadaptationandmitigation.[20]
Environmentalsustainabilityrequiressocietytodesignactivitiestomeethumanneedswhilepreservingthelife
supportsystemsoftheplanet.This,forexample,entailsusingwatersustainably,utilizingrenewableenergy,
andsustainablematerialsupplies(e.g.harvestingwoodfromforestsataratethatmaintainsthebiomassand
biodiversity).

Theseiconsrepresentthe17headline
SDGs.Thereare169targetsunder
thegoals.

Schemeofsustainabledevelopment:
attheconfluenceofthreeconstituentparts.(2006)

Anunsustainablesituationoccurswhennaturalcapital(thesumtotalofnature'sresources)isusedupfaster
thanitcanbereplenished.Sustainabilityrequiresthathumanactivityonlyusesnature'sresourcesatarateat
whichtheycanbereplenishednaturally.Inherentlytheconceptofsustainabledevelopmentisintertwinedwith
theconceptofcarryingcapacity.Theoretically,thelongtermresultofenvironmentaldegradationisthe
inabilitytosustainhumanlife.Suchdegradationonaglobalscaleshouldimplyanincreaseinhumandeath
rateuntilpopulationfallstowhatthedegradedenvironmentcansupport.Ifthedegradationcontinuesbeyonda
certaintippingpointorcriticalthresholditwouldleadtoeventualextinctionforhumanity.
Relationshipbetweenecologicalfootprintand
HumanDevelopmentIndex(HDI)

Consumptionofnonrenewableresources

Stateofenvironment

Sustainability

Morethannature'sabilitytoreplenish

Environmentaldegradation Notsustainable

Equaltonature'sabilitytoreplenish

Environmentalequilibrium Steadystateeconomy

Lessthannature'sabilitytoreplenish

Environmentalrenewal

Environmentallysustainable

Integralelementsforasustainabledevelopmentareresearchandinnovationactivities.AtellingexampleistheEuropeanenvironmentalresearchandinnovation
policy,whichaimsatdefiningandimplementingatransformativeagendatogreeningtheeconomyandthesocietyasawholesotoachieveatrulysustainable
development.ResearchandinnovationinEuropeisfinanciallysupportedbytheprogrammeHorizon2020,whichisalsoopentoparticipationworldwide.[21]A
promisingdirectiontowardssustainabledevelopmentistodesignsystemsthatareflexibleandreversible.[22][23]
Pollutionofthepublicresourcesisreallynotadifferentaction,itjustisareversetragedyofthecommons,inthatinsteadoftakingsomethingout,somethingis
putintothecommons.Whenthecostsofpollutingthecommonsarenotcalculatedintothecostoftheitemsconsumed,thenitbecomesonlynaturaltopollute,as
thecostofpollutionisexternaltothecostofthegoodsproducedandthecostofcleaningthewastebeforeitisdischargedexceedsthecostofreleasingthewaste
directlyintothecommons.So,theonlywaytosolvethisproblemisbyprotectingtheecologyofthecommonsbymakingit,throughtaxesorfines,morecostlyto
releasethewastedirectlyintothecommonsthanwouldbethecostofcleaningthewastebeforedischarge.[24]
So,onecantrytoappealtotheethicsofthesituationbydoingtherightthingasanindividual,butintheabsenceofanydirectconsequences,theindividualwill
tendtodowhatisbestforthepersonandnotwhatisbestforthecommongoodofthepublic.Onceagain,thisissueneedstobeaddressed.Because,left
unaddressed,thedevelopmentofthecommonlyownedpropertywillbecomeimpossibletoachieveinasustainableway.So,thistopiciscentraltothe
understandingofcreatingasustainablesituationfromthemanagementofthepublicresourcesthatareusedforpersonaluse.
Agriculture
Sustainableagricultureconsistsofenvironmentallyfriendlymethodsoffarmingthatallowtheproductionofcropsorlivestockwithoutdamagetohumanor
naturalsystems.Itinvolvespreventingadverseeffectstosoil,water,biodiversity,surroundingordownstreamresourcesaswellastothoseworkingorlivingon
thefarmorinneighboringareas.Theconceptofsustainableagricultureextendsintergenerationally,passingonaconservedorimprovednaturalresource,biotic,
andeconomicbaseratherthanonewhichhasbeendepletedorpolluted.[25]Elementsofsustainableagricultureincludepermaculture,agroforestry,mixedfarming,
multiplecropping,andcroprotation.[26]
Numeroussustainabilitystandardsandcertificationsystemsexist,includingorganiccertification,RainforestAlliance,FairTrade,UTZCertified,BirdFriendly,
andtheCommonCodefortheCoffeeCommunity(4C).[27][28]

Economics

Ithasbeensuggestedthatbecauseofruralpovertyandoverexploitation,environmentalresourcesshouldbetreatedas
importanteconomicassets,callednaturalcapital.[29]Economicdevelopmenthastraditionallyrequiredagrowthinthe
grossdomesticproduct.ThismodelofunlimitedpersonalandGDPgrowthmaybeover.[30]Sustainabledevelopment
mayinvolveimprovementsinthequalityoflifeformanybutmaynecessitateadecreaseinresourceconsumption.[31]
AccordingtoecologicaleconomistMalteFaber,ecologicaleconomicsisdefinedbyitsfocusonnature,justice,and
time.Issuesofintergenerationalequity,irreversibilityofenvironmentalchange,uncertaintyoflongtermoutcomes,
andsustainabledevelopmentguideecologicaleconomicanalysisandvaluation.[32]
Asearlyasthe1970s,theconceptofsustainabilitywasusedtodescribeaneconomy"inequilibriumwithbasic
ecologicalsupportsystems."[33]ScientistsinmanyfieldshavehighlightedTheLimitstoGrowth,[34][35]andeconomists
havepresentedalternatives,forexamplea'steadystateeconomy'[36]toaddressconcernsovertheimpactsof
expandinghumandevelopmentontheplanet.In1987theeconomistEdwardBarbierpublishedthestudyTheConcept
ofSustainableEconomicDevelopment,whereherecognisedthatgoalsofenvironmentalconservationandeconomic
developmentarenotconflictingandcanbereinforcingeachother.[37]

Asewagetreatmentplantthatusessolar
energy,locatedatSantuarideLluc
monastery,Majorca.

AWorldBankstudyfrom1999concludedthatbasedonthetheoryofgenuinesavings,policymakershavemanypossibleinterventionstoincreasesustainability,
inmacroeconomicsorpurelyenvironmental.[38]Astudyfrom2001notedthatefficientpoliciesforrenewableenergyandpollutionarecompatiblewithincreasing
humanwelfare,eventuallyreachingagoldenrulesteadystate.[39]Thestudy,InterpretingSustainabilityinEconomicTerms,foundthreepillarsofsustainable
development,interlinkage,intergenerationalequity,anddynamicefficiency.[40]
ButGilbertRistpointsoutthattheWorldBankhastwistedthenotionofsustainabledevelopmenttoprovethateconomicdevelopmentneednotbedeterredinthe
interestofpreservingtheecosystem.Hewrites:"Fromthisangle,'sustainabledevelopment'lookslikeacoverupoperation....Thethingthatismeanttobe
sustainedisreally'development',notthetolerancecapacityoftheecosystemorofhumansocieties."[41]
TheWorldBank,aleadingproducerofenvironmentalknowledge,continuestoadvocatethewinwinprospectsforeconomicgrowthandecologicalstabilityeven
asitseconomistsexpresstheirdoubts.[42]HermanDaly,aneconomistfortheBankfrom1988to1994,writes:
WhenauthorsofWDR'92[thehighlyinfluential1992WorldDevelopmentReportthatfeaturedtheenvironment]weredraftingthereport,theycalled
measkingforexamplesof"winwin"strategiesinmywork.WhatcouldIsay?Noneexistsinthatpureformtherearetradeoffs,not"winwins."But
theywanttoseeaworldof"winwins"basedonarticlesoffaith,notfact.IwantedtocontributebecauseWDRsareimportantintheBank,[because]
taskmanagersread[them]tofindphilosophicaljustificationfortheirlatestroundofprojects.Buttheydidnotwanttohearabouthowthingsreally
are,orwhatIfindinmywork..."[43]

Ametareviewin2002lookedatenvironmentalandeconomicvaluationsandfoundalackof"sustainabilitypolicies".[44]Astudyin2004askedifweconsumetoo
much.[45]Astudyconcludedin2007thatknowledge,manufacturedandhumancapital(healthandeducation)hasnotcompensatedforthedegradationofnatural
capitalinmanypartsoftheworld.[46]Ithasbeensuggestedthatintergenerationalequitycanbeincorporatedintoasustainabledevelopmentanddecisionmaking,
ashasbecomecommonineconomicvaluationsofclimateeconomics.[47]Ametareviewin2009identifiedconditionsforastrongcasetoactonclimatechange,
andcalledformoreworktofullyaccountoftherelevanteconomicsandhowitaffectshumanwelfare.[48]AccordingtofreemarketenvironmentalistJohnBaden
"theimprovementofenvironmentqualitydependsonthemarketeconomyandtheexistenceoflegitimateandprotectedpropertyrights."Theyenabletheeffective
practiceofpersonalresponsibilityandthedevelopmentofmechanismstoprotecttheenvironment.TheStatecaninthiscontext"createconditionswhich
encouragethepeopletosavetheenvironment."[49]
Environmentaleconomics
Thetotalenvironmentincludesnotjustthebiosphereofearth,air,andwater,butalsohumaninteractionswiththesethings,withnature,andwhathumanshave
createdastheirsurroundings.[50]
Ascountriesaroundtheworldcontinuetoadvanceeconomically,theyputastrainontheabilityofthenaturalenvironmenttoabsorbthehighlevelofpollutants
thatarecreatedasapartofthiseconomicgrowth.Therefore,solutionsneedtobefoundsothattheeconomiesoftheworldcancontinuetogrow,butnotatthe
expenseofthepublicgood.Intheworldofeconomicstheamountofenvironmentalqualitymustbeconsideredaslimitedinsupplyandthereforeistreatedasa
scarceresource.Thisisaresourcetobeprotectedandtheonlyrealefficientwaytodoitinamarketeconomyistolookattheoverallsituationofpollutionfroma
benefitcostperspective.Itthenbecomesessentiallyanallocationofresources,basedonanevaluationoftheexpectedcourseofactionandtheconsequencesof
thisaction,whencomparedtoanalternativecourseofactionthatmightallocatethelimitedresourcesinadifferentway.
Benefitcostanalysisbasicallycanlookatseveralwaysofsolvingaproblemandthenassigningthebestrouteforasolution,basedonthesetofconsequencesthat
wouldresultfromthefurtherdevelopmentoftheindividualcoursesofaction,andthenchoosingthecourseofactionthatresultsintheleastamountofdamageto
theexpectedoutcomefortheenvironmentalqualitythatremainsafterthatdevelopmentorprocesstakesplace.Furthercomplicatingthisanalysisarethe
interrelationshipsofthevariouspartsoftheenvironmentthatmightbeimpactedbythechosencourseofaction.Sometimesitisalmostimpossibletopredictthe
variousoutcomesofacourseofaction,duetotheunexpectedconsequencesandtheamountofunknownsthatarenotaccountedforinthebenefitcostanalysis.
Energy
Sustainableenergyiscleanandcanbeusedoveralongperiodoftime.Unlikefossilfuelsthatmostcountriesareusing,renewableenergyonlyproduceslittleor
evennopollution.[51]ThemostcommontypesofrenewableenergyinUSarehydroelectric,solarandwindenergy.Solarenergyiscommonlyusedonpublic
parkingmeters,streetlightsandtheroofofbuildings.[52]Windpowerhasexpandedquickly,it'sshareofworldwideelectricityusageattheendof2014was
3.1%.[53]MostofCaliforniasfossilfuelinfrastructuresaresitedinornearlowincomecommunities,andhavetraditionallysufferedthemostfromCalifornias
fossilfuelenergysystem.Thesecommunitiesarehistoricallyleftoutduringthedecisionmakingprocess,andoftenendupwithdirtypowerplantsandotherdirty
energyprojectsthatpoisontheairandharmthearea.Thesetoxicantsaremajorcontributorstohealthproblemsinthecommunities.Asrenewableenergybecomes

morecommon,fossilfuelinfrastructuresarereplacedbyrenewables,providingbettersocialequitytothesecommunities.[54]Overall,andinthelongrun,
sustainabledevelopmentinthefieldofenergyisalsodeemedtocontributetoeconomicsustainabilityandnationalsecurityofcommunities,thusbeing
increasinglyencouragedthroughinvestmentpolicies.[55]
Manufacturing
Technology
Oneofthecoreconceptsinsustainabledevelopmentisthattechnologycanbeusedtoassistpeoplemeettheirdevelopmentalneeds.Technologytomeetthese
sustainabledevelopmentneedsisoftenreferredtoasappropriatetechnology,whichisanideologicalmovement(anditsmanifestations)originallyarticulatedas
intermediatetechnologybytheeconomistE.F.Schumacherinhisinfluentialwork,SmallisBeautiful.andnowcoversawiderangeoftechnologies.[56]Both
Schumacherandmanymoderndayproponentsofappropriatetechnologyalsoemphasisethetechnologyaspeoplecentered.[57]Todayappropriatetechnologyis
oftendevelopedusingopensourceprinciples,whichhaveledtoopensourceappropriatetechnology(OSAT)andthusmanyoftheplansofthetechnologycanbe
freelyfoundontheInternet.[58]OSAThasbeenproposedasanewmodelofenablinginnovationforsustainabledevelopment.[59][60]
Transport
Transportationisalargecontributortogreenhousegasemissions.Itissaidthatonethirdofallgassesproducedareduetotransportation.[61]Motorizedtransport
alsoreleasesexhaustfumesthatcontainparticulatematterwhichishazardoustohumanhealthandacontributortoclimatechange.[62]
Sustainabletransporthasmanysocialandeconomicbenefitsthatcanacceleratelocalsustainabledevelopment.AccordingtoaseriesofreportsbytheLow
EmissionDevelopmentStrategiesGlobalPartnership(LEDSGP),sustainabletransportcanhelpcreatejobs,[63]improvecommutersafetythroughinvestmentin
bicyclelanesandpedestrianpathways,[64]makeaccesstoemploymentandsocialopportunitiesmoreaffordableandefficient.Italsooffersapracticalopportunity
tosavepeoplestimeandhouseholdincomeaswellasgovernmentbudgets,[65]makinginvestmentinsustainabletransporta'winwin'opportunity.
Somewesterncountriesaremakingtransportationmoresustainableinbothlongtermandshorttermimplementations.[66]Anexampleisthemodificationsin
availabletransportationinFreiburg,Germany.Thecityhasimplementedextensivemethodsofpublictransportation,cycling,andwalking,alongwithlargeareas
wherecarsarenotallowed.[61]
Sincemanywesterncountriesarehighlyautomobileorientatedareas,themaintransitthatpeopleuseispersonalvehicles.About80%oftheirtravelinvolves
cars.[61]Therefore,California,isoneofthehighestgreenhousegasesemittersintheUnitedStates.Thefederalgovernmenthastocomeupwithsomeplansto
reducethetotalnumberofvehicletripsinordertolowergreenhousegasesemission.Suchas:
Improvepublictransitthroughtheprovisionoflargercoverageareainordertoprovidemoremobilityandaccessibility,newtechnologytoprovideamore
reliableandresponsivepublictransportationnetwork.[67]

Encouragewalkingandbikingthroughtheprovisionofwiderpedestrianpathway,bikesharestationincommercialdowntown,locateparkinglotfarfrom
theshoppingcenter,limitonstreetparking,slowertrafficlaneindowntownarea.
Increasethecostofcarownershipandgastaxesthroughincreasedparkingfeesandtolls,encouragingpeopletodrivemorefuelefficientvehicles.Theycan
producesocialequityproblem,sincelowerpeopleusuallydriveoldervehicleswithlowerfuelefficiency.Governmentcanusetheextrarevenuecollected
fromtaxesandtollstoimprovethepublictransportationandbenefitthepoorcommunity.[68]
Otherstatesandnationshavebuilteffortstotranslateknowledgeinbehavioraleconomicsintoevidencebasedsustainabletransportationpolicies.
Business
Themostbroadlyacceptedcriterionforcorporatesustainabilityconstitutesafirmsefficientuseofnaturalcapital.Thisecoefficiencyisusuallycalculatedasthe
economicvalueaddedbyafirminrelationtoitsaggregatedecologicalimpact.[69]ThisideahasbeenpopularisedbytheWorldBusinessCouncilforSustainable
Development(WBCSD)underthefollowingdefinition:"Ecoefficiencyisachievedbythedeliveryofcompetitivelypricedgoodsandservicesthatsatisfyhuman
needsandbringqualityoflife,whileprogressivelyreducingecologicalimpactsandresourceintensitythroughoutthelifecycletoalevelatleastinlinewiththe
earthscarryingcapacity."(DeSimoneandPopoff,1997:47)[70]
Similartotheecoefficiencyconceptbutsofarlessexploredisthesecondcriterionforcorporatesustainability.Socioefficiency[71]describestherelationbetween
afirm'svalueaddedanditssocialimpact.Whereas,itcanbeassumedthatmostcorporateimpactsontheenvironmentarenegative(apartfromrareexceptions
suchastheplantingoftrees)thisisnottrueforsocialimpacts.Thesecanbeeitherpositive(e.g.corporategiving,creationofemployment)ornegative(e.g.work
accidents,mobbingofemployees,humanrightsabuses).Dependingonthetypeofimpactsocioefficiencythuseithertriestominimisenegativesocialimpacts
(i.e.accidentspervalueadded)ormaximisepositivesocialimpacts(i.e.donationspervalueadded)inrelationtothevalueadded.
Bothecoefficiencyandsocioefficiencyareconcernedprimarilywithincreasingeconomicsustainability.Inthisprocesstheyinstrumentalisebothnaturaland
socialcapitalaimingtobenefitfromwinwinsituations.However,asDyllickandHockerts[71]pointoutthebusinesscasealonewillnotbesufficienttorealise
sustainabledevelopment.Theypointtowardsecoeffectiveness,socioeffectiveness,sufficiency,andecoequityasfourcriteriathatneedtobemetifsustainable
developmentistobereached.
Income
Atthepresenttime,sustainabledevelopment,alongwiththesolidaritycalledforinCatholicsocialteaching,canreducepoverty.Whileovermanythousandsof
yearsthestronger(economicallyorphysically)overcametheweaker,nowadaysforvariousreasonsCatholicsocialteaching,socialsolidarity,sustainable
developmentthestrongerhelpstheweaker.Thisaidmaytakevariousforms.TheStrongeroffersrealhelpratherthanstrivingfortheeliminationor
annihilationoftheother.Sustainabledevelopmentreducespovertythroughfinancial(amongotherthings,abalancedbudget),environmental(livingconditions),
andsocial(includingequalityofincome)means.[72]
Architecture

InsustainablearchitecturetherecentmovementsofNewUrbanismandNewClassicalarchitecturepromoteasustainableapproachtowardsconstruction,that
appreciatesanddevelopssmartgrowth,architecturaltraditionandclassicaldesign.[73][74]ThisincontrasttomodernistandInternationalStylearchitecture,aswell
asopposingtosolitaryhousingestatesandsuburbansprawl,withlongcommutingdistancesandlargeecologicalfootprints.[75]Bothtrendsstartedinthe1980s.(It
shouldbenotedthatsustainablearchitectureispredominantlyrelevanttotheeconomicsdomainwhilearchitecturallandscapingpertainsmoretotheecological
domain.)

Politics
Astudyconcludedthatsocialindicatorsand,therefore,sustainabledevelopmentindicators,arescientificconstructswhoseprincipalobjectiveistoinformpublic
policymaking.[76]TheInternationalInstituteforSustainableDevelopmenthassimilarlydevelopedapoliticalpolicyframework,linkedtoasustainabilityindex
forestablishingmeasurableentitiesandmetrics.Theframeworkconsistsofsixcoreareas,internationaltradeandinvestment,economicpolicy,climatechangeand
energy,measurementandassessment,naturalresourcemanagement,andtheroleofcommunicationtechnologiesinsustainabledevelopment.
TheUnitedNationsGlobalCompactCitiesProgrammehasdefinedsustainablepoliticaldevelopmentisawaythatbroadenstheusualdefinitionbeyondstatesand
governance.Thepoliticalisdefinedasthedomainofpracticesandmeaningsassociatedwithbasicissuesofsocialpowerastheypertaintotheorganisation,
authorisation,legitimationandregulationofasociallifeheldincommon.Thisdefinitionisinaccordwiththeviewthatpoliticalchangeisimportantfor
respondingtoeconomic,ecologicalandculturalchallenges.Italsomeansthatthepoliticsofeconomicchangecanbeaddressed.Theyhavelistedseven
subdomainsofthedomainofpolitics:[77]
1.Organizationandgovernance
2.Lawandjustice
3.Communicationandcritique
4.Representationandnegotiation
5.Securityandaccord
6.Dialogueandreconciliation
7.Ethicsandaccountability
ThisaccordswiththeBrundtlandCommissionemphasisondevelopmentthatisguidedbyhumanrightsprinciples(seeabove).

Culture
Workingwithadifferentemphasis,someresearchersandinstitutionshavepointedoutthatafourthdimensionshouldbeaddedtothedimensionsofsustainable
development,sincethetriplebottomlinedimensionsofeconomic,environmentalandsocialdonotseemtobeenoughtoreflectthecomplexityofcontemporary
society.Inthiscontext,theAgenda21forcultureandtheUnitedCitiesandLocalGovernments(UCLG)ExecutiveBureauleadthepreparationofthepolicy
statement"Culture:FourthPillarofSustainableDevelopment",passedon17November2010,intheframeworkoftheWorldSummitofLocalandRegional
Leaders3rdWorldCongressofUCLG,heldinMexicoCity.althoughsomewhichstillarguethateconomicsisprimary,andcultureandpoliticsshouldbe
includedin'thesocial'.Thisdocumentinauguratesanewperspectiveandpointstotherelationbetweencultureandsustainabledevelopmentthroughadual

approach:developingasolidculturalpolicyandadvocatingaculturaldimensioninallpublicpolicies.TheCirclesof
Sustainabilityapproachdistinguishesthefourdomainsofeconomic,ecological,politicalandcultural
sustainability.[78][79]
Otherorganizationshavealsosupportedtheideaofafourthdomainofsustainabledevelopment.TheNetworkof
Excellence"SustainableDevelopmentinaDiverseWorld",[80]sponsoredbytheEuropeanUnion,integrates
multidisciplinarycapacitiesandinterpretsculturaldiversityasakeyelementofanewstrategyforsustainable
development.TheFourthPillarofSustainableDevelopmentTheoryhasbeenreferencedbyexecutivedirectorofIMI
InstituteatUNESCOVitoDiBari[81]inhismanifestoofartandarchitecturalmovementNeoFuturism,whosename
wasinspiredbythe1987UnitedNationsreportOurCommonFuture.TheCirclesofSustainabilityapproachusedby
Metropolisdefinesthe(fourth)culturaldomainaspractices,discourses,andmaterialexpressions,which,overtime,
expresscontinuitiesanddiscontinuitiesofsocialmeaning.[77]

Themes

Framingofsustainabledevelopment
progressaccordingtotheCirclesof
Sustainability,usedbytheUnitedNations.

Progress
TheUnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopment(UNCSDalsoknownasRio2012)wasthethirdinternationalconferenceonsustainable
development,whichaimedatreconcilingtheeconomicandenvironmentalgoalsoftheglobalcommunity.Anoutcomeofthisconferencewasthedevelopmentof
theSustainableDevelopmentGoalsthataimtopromotesustainableprogressandeliminateinequalitiesaroundtheworld.However,fewnationsmettheWorld
WideFundforNature'sdefinitionofsustainabledevelopmentcriteriaestablishedin2006.[82]Althoughsomenationsaremoredevelopedthanothers,allnations
areconstantlydevelopingbecauseeachnationstruggleswithperpetuatingdisparities,inequalitiesandunequalaccesstofundamentalrightsandfreedoms.[83]

Measurement
In2007areportfortheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencystated:"Whilemuchdiscussionandefforthasgoneintosustainabilityindicators,noneofthe
resultingsystemsclearlytellsuswhetheroursocietyissustainable.Atbest,theycantellusthatweareheadinginthewrongdirection,orthatourcurrentactivities
arenotsustainable.Moreoften,theysimplydrawourattentiontotheexistenceofproblems,doinglittletotellustheoriginofthoseproblemsandnothingtotell
ushowtosolvethem."[84]Nevertheless,amajorityofauthorsassumethatasetofwelldefinedandharmonisedindicatorsistheonlywaytomakesustainability
tangible.Thoseindicatorsareexpectedtobeidentifiedandadjustedthroughempiricalobservations(trialanderror).[85]
Themostcommoncritiquesarerelatedtoissueslikedataquality,comparability,objectivefunctionandthenecessaryresources.[86]Howeveramoregeneral
criticismiscomingfromtheprojectmanagementcommunity:Howcanasustainabledevelopmentbeachievedatgloballevelifwecannotmonitoritinanysingle
project?[87][88]

TheCubanbornresearcherandentrepreneurSoniaBuenosuggestsanalternativeapproachthatisbaseduponthe
integral,longtermcostbenefitrelationshipasameasureandmonitoringtoolforthesustainabilityofeveryproject,
activityorenterprise.[89][90]Furthermore,thisconceptaimstobeapracticalguidelinetowardssustainable
developmentfollowingtheprincipleofconservationandincrementofvalueratherthanrestrictingtheconsumptionof
resources.
ReasonablequalificationsofsustainabilityareseenU.S.GreenBuildingCouncils(USGBC)LeadershipinEnergy
andEnvironmentalDesign(LEED).Thisdesignincorporatessomeecological,economic,andsocialelements.The
goalspresentedbyLEEDdesigngoalsaresustainablesites,waterefficiency,energyandatmosphericemission
reduction,materialandresourcesefficiency,andindoorenvironmentalquality.Althoughamountofstructuresfor
sustainabilitydevelopmentismany,thesequalificationhasbecomeastandardforsustainablebuilding.
RecentresearcheffortscreatedalsotheSDEWESIndextobenchmarktheperformanceofcitiesacrossaspectsthatare
relatedtoenergy,waterandenvironmentsystems.TheSDEWESIndexconsistsof7dimensions,35indicators,and
closeto20subindicators.Itiscurrentlyappliedto58cities.[91]

Naturalcapital

Deforestationandincreasedroadbuilding
intheAmazonRainforestareaconcern
becauseofincreasedhumanencroachment
uponwildernessareas,increasedresource
extractionandfurtherthreatsto
biodiversity.

Thesustainabledevelopmentdebateisbasedontheassumptionthatsocietiesneedtomanagethreetypesof
capital(economic,social,andnatural),whichmaybenonsubstitutableandwhoseconsumptionmightbe
irreversible.[92]LeadingecologicaleconomistandsteadystatetheoristHermanDaly,[36]forexample,pointsto
thefactthatnaturalcapitalcannotnecessarilybesubstitutedbyeconomiccapital.Whileitispossiblethatwe
canfindwaystoreplacesomenaturalresources,itismuchmoreunlikelythattheywilleverbeabletoreplace
ecosystemservices,suchastheprotectionprovidedbytheozonelayer,ortheclimatestabilizingfunctionof
theAmazonianforest.Infactnaturalcapital,socialcapitalandeconomiccapitalareoftencomplementarities.
Afurtherobstacletosubstitutabilityliesalsointhemultifunctionalityofmanynaturalresources.Forests,for
example,notonlyprovidetherawmaterialforpaper(whichcanbesubstitutedquiteeasily),buttheyalso
maintainbiodiversity,regulatewaterflow,andabsorbCO2.
Anotherproblemofnaturalandsocialcapitaldeteriorationliesintheirpartialirreversibility.Thelossin
DeforestationofnativerainforestinRiodeJaneiro
biodiversity,forexample,isoftendefinite.Thesamecanbetrueforculturaldiversity.Forexample,with
Cityforextractionofclayforcivilengineering
globalisationadvancingquicklythenumberofindigenouslanguagesisdroppingatalarmingrates.Moreover,
(2009picture).
thedepletionofnaturalandsocialcapitalmayhavenonlinearconsequences.Consumptionofnaturaland
socialcapitalmayhavenoobservableimpactuntilacertainthresholdisreached.Alakecan,forexample,
absorbnutrientsforalongtimewhileactuallyincreasingitsproductivity.However,onceacertainlevelofalgaeisreachedlackofoxygencausesthelakes
ecosystemtobreakdownsuddenly.

Businessasusual
Ifthedegradationofnaturalandsocialcapitalhassuchimportantconsequencethequestionariseswhyactionisnot
takenmoresystematicallytoalleviateit.CohenandWinn[93]pointtofourtypesofmarketfailureaspossible
explanations:First,whilethebenefitsofnaturalorsocialcapitaldepletioncanusuallybeprivatised,thecostsareoften
externalised(i.e.theyarebornenotbythepartyresponsiblebutbysocietyingeneral).Second,naturalcapitalisoften
undervaluedbysocietysincewearenotfullyawareoftherealcostofthedepletionofnaturalcapital.Information
asymmetryisathirdreasonoftenthelinkbetweencauseandeffectisobscured,makingitdifficultforactorstomake
informedchoices.CohenandWinnclosewiththerealizationthatcontrarytoeconomictheorymanyfirmsarenot
perfectoptimisers.Theypostulatethatfirmsoftendonotoptimiseresourceallocationbecausetheyarecaughtina
"businessasusual"mentality.

Criticism
Ithasbeenarguedthatsincethe1960s,theconceptofsustainabledevelopmenthaschangedfrom'conservation
management'to'economicdevelopment',wherebytheoriginalmeaningoftheconcepthasbeenstretched
somewhat.[94]:4854

Beforefluegasdesulfurizationwas
installed,theairpollutingemissions
fromthispowerplantinNewMexico
containedexcessiveamountsofsulfur
dioxide.

Inthe1960s,theinternationalcommunityrealisedthatmanyAfricancountriesneedednationalplanstosafeguardwildlifehabitats,andthatruralareashadto
confrontthelimitsimposedbysoil,climateandwateravailability.Thiswasastrategyofconservationmanagement.Inthe70s,however,thefocusshiftedtothe
broaderissuesoftheprovisioningofbasichumanneeds,communityparticipationaswellasappropriatetechnologyusethroughoutthedevelopingcountries(and
notjustinAfrica).Thiswasastrategyofeconomicdevelopment,andthestrategywascarriedevenfurtherbytheBrundtlandReportwhentheissueswentfrom
regionaltointernationalinscopeandapplication.[94]:4854Ineffect,theconservationistswerecrowdedoutandsupersededbythedevelopers.
Butshiftingthefocusofsustainabledevelopmentfromconservationtodevelopmenthashadtheimperceptibleeffectofstretchingtheoriginalforestmanagement
termofsustainableyieldfromtheuseofrenewableresourcesonly(likeforestry),tonowalsoaccountingfortheuseofnonrenewableresources(like
minerals).[95]:13Thisstretchingofthetermhasbeenquestioned.Thus,environmentaleconomistKerryTurnerhasarguedthatliterally,therecanbenosuchthing
asoverall'sustainabledevelopment'inanindustrialisedworldeconomythatremainsheavilydependentontheextractionofEarth'sfinitestockofexhaustible
mineralresources:

Itmakesnosensetotalkaboutthesustainableuseofanonrenewableresource(evenwithsubstantialrecyclingeffortanduserates).Anypositive
rateofexploitationwilleventuallyleadtoexhaustionofthefinitestock.[95]:13

Ineffect,ithasbeenarguedthattheIndustrialRevolutionasawholeisunsustainable.[96]:20f[36]:22f[97]:6167

Seealso
Appliedsustainability
Circulareconomy
Computationalsustainability
Conservationbiology
Conservationdevelopment
Cradletocradle
Ecologicalmodernization
Ecologicallysustainabledevelopment
Environmentalissue
Environmentaljustice
Greendevelopment
Microsustainability
Outlineofsustainability
Regenerativedesign

Regenerativedesign
Socialsustainability
Sustainablecoffee
Sustainablefishery
Sustainableforestmanagement
Sustainablelandmanagement
Sustainableliving
Sustainableyield
Sustainopreneurship
Weakandstrongsustainability
Zerocarboncity

References
1.Blewitt(2015),p.7
2.LynnR.Kahle,EdaGurelAtay,Eds(2014).CommunicatingSustainabilityforthe
GreenEconomy.NewYork:M.E.Sharpe.ISBN9780765636805.
3.Finn(2009),pp.38
4.UlrichGrober:DeeprootsAconceptualhistoryof"sustainabledevelopment"
(Nachhaltigkeit),WissenschaftszentrumBerlinfrSozialforschung,2007
5.Blewitt(2015),pp.616
6.WorldConservationStrategy:LivingResourceConservationforSustainable
Development(PDF).InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNatural
Resources.1980.
7.Sachs(2015),p.4
8.WorldCharterforNature,UnitedNations,GeneralAssembly,48thPlenary
Meeting,October28,1982
9.BrundtlandCommission(1987)."ReportoftheWorldCommissionon
EnvironmentandDevelopment".UnitedNations.
10.Smith,CharlesRees,Gareth(1998).EconomicDevelopment,2ndedition.
Basingstoke:Macmillan.ISBN0333722280.
11.Sachs(2015),p.5
12.WillAllen.2007."LearningforSustainability:SustainableDevelopment."(http://le
arningforsustainability.net/susdev/)

13.LiamMageeAndyScerriPaulJamesJamesA.ThomLinPadghamSarah
HickmottHepuDengFelicityCahill(2013)."Reframingsocialsustainability
reporting:Towardsanengagedapproach".Environment,Developmentand
Sustainability.UniversityofMelbourne.doi:10.1007/s1066801293842.
14.UnitedNations(2014).PrototypeGlobalSustainableDevelopmentReport(Online
unediteded.).NewYork:UnitedNationsDepartmentofEconomicandSocial
Affairs,DivisionforSustainableDevelopment.
15.James,PaulwithMagee,LiamScerri,AndySteger,ManfredB.(2015).Urban
SustainabilityinTheoryandPractice:CirclesofSustainability.London:
Routledge.
16.CirclesofSustainabilityUrbanProfileProcess(http://citiesprogramme.com/archiv
es/resource/circlesofsustainabilityurbanprofileprocess)andScerri,Andy
James,Paul(2010)."Accountingforsustainability:Combiningqualitativeand
quantitativeresearchindeveloping'indicators'ofsustainability".International
JournalofSocialResearchMethodology.13(1):4153.
doi:10.1080/13645570902864145.
17.http://citiesprogramme.com/aboutus/ourapproach/circlesofsustainabilityScerri,
AndyJames,Paul(2010)."Accountingforsustainability:Combiningqualitative
andquantitativeresearchindeveloping'indicators'ofsustainability".International
JournalofSocialResearchMethodology.13(1):4153.
doi:10.1080/13645570902864145..

18.White,FStallones,LLast,JM.(2013).GlobalPublicHealth:Ecological
Foundations.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780199751907.
19.Bringinghumanhealthandwellbeingbackintosustainabledevelopment.In:IISD
AnnualReport201112.http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2012/annrep_2011_2012_en.pdf
20.IPCCFifthAssessmentReport(2014)."ClimateChange2014:Impacts,
AdaptationandVulnerability"(PDF).Geneva(Switzerland):IPCC.
21.SeeHorizon2020theEU'snewresearchandinnovationprogramme
http://europa.eu/rapid/pressrelease_MEMO131085_en.htm
22."Flexiblestrategiesforlongtermsustainabilityunderuncertainty".Building
Research.40:545557.2012.doi:10.1080/09613218.2012.702565.
23.Zhang,S.X.V.Babovic(2012)."Arealoptionsapproachtothedesignand
architectureofwatersupplysystemsusinginnovativewatertechnologiesunder
uncertainty"(PDF).JournalofHydroinformatics.
24.Daly,H.E.Economics,Ecology,Ethics:EssaystowardaSteadyStateEconomy.
Hardin,G."Thetragedyofthecommons".NewYorkandSanFrancisco:W.H.
FreemanandCompany.pp.100114.
25.NetworldProject(19980209)."EnvironmentalGlossary".Greennetworld.com.
Retrieved20110928.
26.BenFalk,Theresilientfarmandhomestead:Aninnovativepermacultureand
wholesystemsdesignapproach.ChelseaGreen,2013.pp.6178.
27.Manning,StephenBoons,FrankVonHagen,OliverReinecke,Juliane(2012).
"NationalContextsMatter:TheCoEvolutionofSustainabilityStandardsin
GlobalValueChains".EcologicalEconomics.83:197209.
doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.08.029.
28.Reinecke,JulianeManning,StephenVonHagen,Oliver(2012)."TheEmergence
ofaStandardsMarket:MultiplicityofSustainabilityStandardsintheGlobal
CoffeeIndustry".OrganizationStudies.33(5/6):789812.
29.Barbier,EdwardB.(2006).NaturalResourcesandEconomicDevelopment.
//books.google.com/books?id=fYrEDAVnyUC&pg=PA45:CambridgeUniversity
Press.pp.4445.ISBN9780521706513.RetrievedApril8,2014.
30.Korowitz,David(2012),IgnorancebyConsensus,FoundationfortheEconomics
ofSustainability
31.Brown,L.R.(2011).WorldontheEdge.EarthPolicyInstitute.Norton.
ISBN9780393080292.
32.MalteFaber.(2008).Howtobeanecologicaleconomist.EcologicalEconomics
66(1):17.Preprint(https://ideas.repec.org/p/awi/wpaper/0454.html).
33.Stivers,R.1976.TheSustainableSociety:EthicsandEconomicGrowth.
Philadelphia:WestminsterPress.
34.Meadows,D.H.,D.L.Meadows,J.Randers,andW.W.BehrensIII.1972.The
LimitstoGrowth.UniverseBooks,NewYork,NY.ISBN0876631650
35.Meadows,D.H.Randers,JrgenMeadows,D.L.(2004).LimitstoGrowth:The
30YearUpdate.ChelseaGreenPublishing.ISBN9781931498586.

36.Daly,HermanE.(1992).Steadystateeconomics(2nded.).London:Earthscan
Publications.
37.Barbier,E.(1987)."TheConceptofSustainableEconomicDevelopment".
EnvironmentalConservation.14(2):101110.doi:10.1017/S0376892900011449.
38.Hamilton,K.Clemens,M.(1999)."Genuinesavingsratesindeveloping
countries".WorldBankEconomyReview.13(2):333356.
doi:10.1093/wber/13.2.333.
39.AyongLeKama,A.D.(2001)."Sustainablegrowthrenewableresources,and
pollution".JournalofEconomicDynamicsandControl.25(12):19111918.
doi:10.1016/S01651889(00)000075.
40.Stavins,R.Wagner,A.Wagner,G."InterpretingSustainabilityinEconomic
Terms:DynamicEfficiencyPlusIntergenerationalEquity".EconomicLetters.79
(3):339343.doi:10.1016/S01651765(03)000363.
41.TheHistoryofDevelopment,3rdEd.(NewYork:Zed,2008)194.
42.DanielP.Castillo,"IntegralEcologyasaLiberationistConcept"inTheological
Studies,Vol77,2,June2016,374.
43.MichaelGoldman,ImperialNature:theWorldBankandtheStruggleforJustice
intheAgeofGlobalization.(NewHaven:YaleUniversity,2005),128,quotedin
TheologicalStudies,supra.
44.Pezzey,JohnC.V.MichaelA.,Toman(2002)."TheEconomicsofSustainability:
AReviewofJournalArticles"(PDF).Resourcesforthefuture.RetrievedApril8,
2014.
45.Arrow,K.J.Dasgupta,P.Goulder,L.Daily,G.Ehrlich,P.R.Heal,G.M.
Levin,S.Maler,KG.Schneider,S.Starrett,D.A.Walker,B.(2004)."Arewe
consumingtoomuch?".JournalofEconomicPerspectives.18(3):147172.
doi:10.1257/0895330042162377.JSTOR3216811.
46.Dasgupta,P.(2007)."Theideaofsustainabledevelopment".Sustainability
Science.2(1):511.doi:10.1007/s116250070024y.
47.Heal,G.(2009)."ClimateEconomics:AMetaReviewandSomeSuggestionsfor
FutureResearch".ReviewofEnvironmentalEconomicsandPolicy.3(1):421.
doi:10.1093/reep/ren014.
48.Heal,Geoffrey(2009)."ClimateEconomics:AMetaReviewandSome
SuggestionsforFutureResearch".ReviewofEnvironmentalEconomicsand
Policy.OxfordJournals.3:421.doi:10.1093/reep/ren014.RetrievedApril8,
2014.
49.L'conomiepolitiquedudveloppementdurable(http://www.euro92.com/acrob/b
aden.pdf),JohnBaden,documentdel'ICREI
50.EnvironmentalEconomics,3rdEdition.J.J.Seneca/M.K.Taussig.1984.Page3.
51.Fainstein,SusanS.2000."NewDirectionsinPlanningTheory,"UrbanAffairs
Review35:4(March)
52.Bedsworf,LouiseW.andEllenHanak.2010."AdaptationtoClimateChange,
"JournaloftheAmericanPlanningAssociation,76:4.

53.http://www.ren21.net/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/REN12
GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.pdfpg31
54.Campbell,Scott.1996."GreenCities,GrowingCities,JustCities?:Urban
planningandtheContradictionsofSustainableDevelopment,"Journalofthe
AmericanPlanningAssociation
55.Farah,PaoloDavide(2015)."SustainableEnergyInvestmentsandNational
Security:ArbitrationandNegotiationIssues".JOURNALOFWORLDENERGY
LAWANDBUSINESS.8(6).Retrieved26November2015.
56.Hazeltine,B.Bull,C.(1999).AppropriateTechnology:Tools,Choices,and
Implications.NewYork:AcademicPress.pp.3,270.ISBN0123351901.
57.Akubue,Anthony(WinterSpring2000)."AppropriateTechnologyfor
SocioeconomicDevelopmentinThirdWorldCountries".TheJournalof
TechnologyStudies.26(1):3343.RetrievedMarch2011.Checkdatevaluesin:
|accessdate=(help)
58.Pearce,JoshuaM.(2012)."TheCaseforOpenSourceAppropriateTechnology".
Environment,DevelopmentandSustainability.14(3):425431.
doi:10.1007/s1066801293379.
59.PearceJ.,AlbrittonS.,GrantG.,SteedG.,&ZelenikaI.2012.Anewmodelfor
enablinginnovationinappropriatetechnologyforsustainabledevelopment(http://s
spp.proquest.com/archives/vol8iss2/1012067.pearce.html).Sustainability:
Science,Practice,&Policy8(2),pp.4253,2012.
60.I.ZelenikaandJ.M.Pearce,InnovationThroughCollaboration:Scalingup
TechnologicalSolutionsforSustainableDevelopment(https://www.academia.edu/9
013667/Innovation_Through_Collaboration_Scaling_up_Technological_Solutions_
for_Sustainable_Development),Environment,DevelopmentandSustainability
16(6):12991316(2014).doi:10.1007/s1066801495287(https://dx.doi.org/10.1
007%2Fs1066801495287)
61.Buehler,RalphPucher,John(2011)."SustainableTransportinFreiburg:Lessons
fromGermany'sEnvironmentalCapital".InternationalJournalofSustainable
Transportation.5:4370.doi:10.1080/15568311003650531.
62."LEDSinPractice:Breatheclean".TheLowEmissionDevelopmentStrategies
GlobalPartnership.
63."LEDSinPractice:Createjobs".TheLowEmissionDevelopmentStrategies
GlobalPartnership.
64."LEDSinPractice:Makeroadssafe".TheLowEmissionDevelopmentStrategies
GlobalPartnership.
65."LEDSinPractice:Savemoneyandtime".TheLowEmissionDevelopment
StrategiesGlobalPartnership.
66.Barbour,ElissaandElizabethA.Deakin.2012."SmartGrowthPlanningfor
ClimateProtection"

67.Murthy,A.S.NarasimhaMohle,Henry.TransportationEngineeringBasics(2nd
Edition)(http://site.ebrary.com/lib/alltitles/docDetail.action?docID=10447877&p00
=transportation%20improvement).(AmericanSocietyofCililEngineers2001).
68.Levine,Jonathan.2013."UrbanTransportationandSocialEquity:Transportation
PlanningParadigmsthatImpedePolicyReform,"inNaomiCarmonandSusanS.
Fainstein,eds.Policy,Planningandpeople:promotingJusticeinUrban
Development(Penn)
69.Schaltegger,S.&Sturm,A.1998.EcoEfficiencybyEcoControlling.Zrich:
vdf.
70.DeSimone,L.&Popoff,F.1997.Ecoefficiency:Thebusinesslinktosustainable
development.Cambridge:MITPress.
71.Dyllick,T.&Hockerts,K.2002.Beyondthebusinesscaseforcorporate
sustainability.BusinessStrategyandtheEnvironment,11(2):130141.
72.S.Adamiak,D.Walczak,Catholicsocialteaching,sustainabledevelopmentand
socialsolidarisminthecontextofsocialsecurity,CopernicanJournalofFinance
&Accounting,Vol3,No1,p.12,17.(http://wydawnictwoumk.pl/czasopisma/inde
x.php/CJFA/article/view/CJFA.2014.001/3213)
73.CharteroftheNewUrbanism(http://www.cnu.org/charter)
74."Beauty,Humanism,ContinuitybetweenPastandFuture".Traditional
ArchitectureGroup.Retrieved23March2014.
75.IssueBrief:SmartGrowth:BuildingLivableCommunities(http://www.aia.org/Sit
eObjects/files/smartgrowth05.pdf).AmericanInstituteofArchitects.Retrievedon
20140323.
76.PaulMarieBoulanger(2008)."Sustainabledevelopmentindicators:ascientific
challenge,ademocraticissue.''S.A.P.I.EN.S.'''''1'''(1)".Sapiens.revues.org.
Retrieved20110928.
77.http://citiesprogramme.com/archives/resource/circlesofsustainabilityurban
profileprocessLiamMageeAndyScerriPaulJamesJamesA.ThomLin
PadghamSarahHickmottHepuDengFelicityCahill(2013)."Reframingsocial
sustainabilityreporting:Towardsanengagedapproach".Environment,
DevelopmentandSustainability.Springer.15:225243.doi:10.1007/s10668012
93842.
78.UnitedCitesandLocalGovernments,"Culture:FourthPillarofSustainable
Development"(http://agenda21culture.net/index.php/16officialdocumentationall/
agenda21cultureall/437culturalpoliciesandsustainabledevelopment).
79.http://www.uclg.org/en/node/21824
80."Sus.Div".Sus.Div.Retrieved20110928.
81."AgreementbetweenUNESCOandtheCityofMilanconcerningtheInternational
MultimediaInstitute(IMI)AppointmentofExecutiveDirectorUNESCO
ArchivesICAAtoMcatalogue".Atom.archives.unesco.org.19991008.Retrieved
20140117.

82."LivingPlanetReport2006"(PDF).WorldWideFundforNature,Zoological
SocietyofLondon,GlobalFootprintNetwork.24October2006.p.19.Retrieved
18August2012.Worldfailingonsustainabledevelopment(http://www.science.or
g.au/nova/newscientist/107ns_004.htm)
83.Nussbaum,Martha(2011).CreatingCapabilities:TheHumanDevelopment
Approach.Cambridge,MassachusettsandLondon,England:TheBelknapPress
ofHarvardUniversityPress.p.16.ISBN9780674050549.
84.JoyE.Hecht,CanIndicatorsandAccountsReallyMeasureSustainability?
ConsiderationsfortheU.S.EnvironmentalProtection(http://www.scribd.com/doc/
1841126/EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyhechtepaordpaper)
85."Anadaptivelearningprocessfordevelopingandapplyingsustainabilityindicators
withlocalcommunities"(PDF).Ecologicaleconomics.59:406418.2006.
doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.11.008.
86."AnnetteLang,IstNachhaltigkeitmessbar?,UniHannover,2003"(PDF).
Retrieved20110928.
87."ProjectManagementTkit,CouncilofEuropeandEuropeanCommission,
Strasbourg,2000"(PDF).Retrieved20110928.
88."Doglobaltargetsmatter?,TheEnvironmentTimes,PovertyTimes#4,
UNEP/GRIDArendal,2010".Grida.no.Retrieved20110928.
89."Sostenibilidadenlaconstruccin.Calidadintegralyrentabilidadeninstalaciones
hidrosanitarias,RevistadeArquitecturaeIngeniera,Matanzas,2009".Empai
matanzas.co.cu.20090117.Retrieved20110928.

90."Transformingthewaterandwastewaterinfrastructureintoanefficient,profitable
andsustainablesystem,RevistadeArquitecturaeIngeniera,Matanzas,2010"
(PDF).Retrieved20140514.
91."SDEWESCentreSDEWESIndex".www.sdewes.org.Retrieved20151017.
92.Dyllick,T.&Hockerts,K.2002.Beyondthebusinesscaseforcorporate
sustainability.BusinessStrategyandtheEnvironment,11(2):130141
93.Cohen,B.&Winn,M.I.2007.Marketimperfections,opportunityandsustainable
entrepreneurship.JournalofBusinessVenturing,22(1):2949.
94.O'Riordan,Timothy(1993)."ThePoliticsofSustainability".InTurner,R.Kerry,
ed.SustainableEnvironmentalEconomicsandManagement:Principlesand
Practice.London:BelhavenPress.
95.Turner,R.Kerry(1988)."Sustainability,ResourceConservationandPollution
Control:AnOverview".InTurner,R.Kerry,ed.SustainableEnvironmental
Management.London:BelhavenPress.
96.GeorgescuRoegen,Nicholas(1971).TheEntropyLawandtheEconomicProcess.
(PDFcontainsonlytheintroductorychapterofthebook).Cambridge,Massachusetts:
HarvardUniversityPress.ISBN0674257804.
97.Rifkin,Jeremy(1980).Entropy:ANewWorldView.(PDFcontainsonlythetitleand
contentspagesofthebook).NewYork:TheVikingPress.ISBN0670297178.

Literaturecited
Blewitt,John(2015).UnderstandingSustainableDevelopment(Seconded.).Routledge.
Finn,Donovan(2009).OurUncertainFuture:CanGoodPlanningCreateSustainableCommunities?.Ph.D.dissertation.UniversityofIllinoisatUrbanaChampaign.
Sachs,JeffreyD.(2015).TheAgeofSustainableDevelopment.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.ISBN9780231173155.

Furtherreading
Ahmed,Faiz(2008).AnExaminationoftheDevelopmentPathTakenbySmallIslandDevelopingStates(PDF).(pp.1726)
Atkinson,G.,S.Dietz,andE.Neumayer(2009).HandbookofSustainableDevelopment.EdwardElgarPublishing,ISBN1848444729.
Bakari,MohamedElKamel."GlobalizationandSustainableDevelopment:FalseTwins?."NewGlobalStudies7.3:2356.ISSN(Online)19400004,ISSN(Print)21946566,
DOI:10.1515/ngs2013021,November2013.
BertelsmannStiftung,ed.(2013).WinningStrategiesforaSustainableFuture.ReinhardMohnPrize2013.VerlagBertelsmannStiftung,Gtersloh.ISBN9783867934916.
Beyerlin,Ulrich.SustainableDevelopment(http://www.mpepil.com/sample_article?id=/epil/entries/law9780199231690e1609&recno=13&),MaxPlanckEncyclopediaof
PublicInternationalLaw

Borowy,Iris.DefiningSustainableDevelopmentforOurCommonFuture.AhistoryoftheWorldCommissiononEnvironmentandDevelopment(BrundtlandCommission),
MiltonPark:Routledge,2014.
Cook,Sarah&EsunaDugarova(2014)."RethinkingSocialDevelopmentforaPost2015World".Development.57(1):3035.doi:10.1057/dev.2014.25.
DanilovDanilyan,VictorI.,Losev,K.S.,Reyf,IgorE.SustainableDevelopmentandtheLimitationofGrowth:FutureProspectsforWorldCivilization.(http://www.springe
r.com/environment/environmental+management/book/9783540752493)Transl.VladimirTumanov.Ed.DonaldRapp.NewYork:SpringerPraxisBooks,2009.[1](https://
books.google.com/books?id=EgvoMe2vZuwC)atGoogleBooks
Edwards,A.R.,andB.McKibben(2010).ThrivingBeyondSustainability:PathwaystoaResilientSociety.NewSocietyPublishers,ISBN0865716412.
Farah,PaoloDavideRossi,Piercarlo(2015)."Energy:Policy,LegalandSocialEconomicIssuesUndertheDimensionsofSustainabilityandSecurity".WorldScientific
ReferenceonGlobalisationinEurasiaandthePacificRim.Retrieved26November2015.
Huesemann,M.H.,andJ.A.Huesemann(2011).Technofix:WhyTechnologyWontSaveUsortheEnvironment(http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org),Chapter6,
"SustainabilityorCollapse?",andChapter13,"TheDesignofEnvironmentallySustainableandSociallyAppropriateTechnologies",NewSocietyPublishers,ISBN
0865717044.
James,PaulNadarajah,YasoHaive,KarenStead,Victoria(2012).SustainableCommunities,SustainableDevelopment:OtherPathsforPapuaNewGuinea.Honolulu:
UniversityofHawaiiPress.
James,PaulwithMagee,LiamScerri,AndySteger,ManfredB.(2015).UrbanSustainabilityinTheoryandPractice:CirclesofSustainability.London:Routledge.
Jarzombek,Mark,"SustainabilityArchitecture:betweenFuzzySystemsandWickedProblems,"Blueprints21/1(Winter2003),pp.69.
Li,RitaYiMan.[2](http://onsustainability.com/2011/07/17/buildingoursustainablecities2/),BuildingOurSustainableCities"Illinois,PublishedbyCommonGround
Publishing.
RaudseppHearne,CPeterson,GDTeng,MBennett,EMHolland,TBenessaiah,KMacDonald,GMPfeifer,L(2010)."UntanglingtheEnvironmentalist'sParadox:
WhyisHumanWellBeingIncreasingasEcosystemServicesDegrade?".BioScience.60(8):576589.doi:10.1525/bio.2010.60.8.4.
Rogers,P.,K.F.Jalal,andJ.A.Boyd(2007).AnIntroductiontoSustainableDevelopment.Routledge,ISBN1844075214.
Sianipar,C.P.M.,Dowaki,K.,Yudoko,G.,&Adhiutama,A.(2013).SevenPillarsofSurvivability:AppropriateTechnologywithaHumanFace(http://www.ecsdev.org/imag
es/conference/siICSD2013/sianipar%20118.pdf).EuropeanJournalofSustainableDevelopment,2(4),118.ISSN22395938.
VanderStraaten,J.,andJ.CvandenBergh(1994).TowardsSustainableDevelopment:Concepts,Methods,andPolicy.IslandPress,ISBN1559633492.
Wallace,Bill(2005).Becomingpartofthesolution:theengineersguidetosustainabledevelopment.Washington,DC:AmericanCouncilofEngineeringCompanies.
ISBN0910090378.

Externallinks
Arghand(https://www.arghand.org/),acollectivethatmakesbeautyproductsfromsustainablyharvestedcropsinAfghanistan.
CarpentersWithoutBorders(http://www.carpenterswithoutborders.org/),anonprofitthatteachesreforestationandfurniturebuildingskillsindeveloping
countries.
GlobalSustainableDevelopment(http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/gsd/),anundergraduatedegreeprogramofferedbytheUniversityofWarwick.
CirclesofSustainability(http://www.circlesofsustainability.org/)
GreenwoodGlobal(http://www.greenwoodglobal.org/),anonprofitthatteachesfurniturebuildingskillsandsustainableforestrypracticesindeveloping
countries.
PrinciplesofSustainability(http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/sustainability/),anopencourseofferedbytheUniversityofIdahoandWashingtonState
University.
SustainableRealEstateResearchCenter,HongKongShueYanUniversity(http://www.hksyu.edu/srerc/en/)

ORGANIZATIONFORTHEREHABILITATIONOFTHEENVIRONMENT(http://www.oreworld.org/),encouragescultivationofbambooandtreesto
rehabilitatedeforestation.
SustainableDevelopmentKnowledgePlatform(http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/),UnitedNationsplatformonsustainabledevelopment.
SustainableDevelopmentLaw&Policy(http://www.wcl.american.edu/org/sustainabledevelopment)
UKSustainableDevelopmentCommission(http://www.sdcommission.org.uk/)
UnitedNationsSustainableDevelopmentSolutionsNetwork(http://unsdsn.org)
VrindaProjectChannel(http://www.youtube.com/eugadproject)withvideosonMDGsconnectedtotheWikibook DevelopmentCooperationHandbook
WorldBank(http://go.worldbank.org/7IS3KBWK20)websiteonsustainabledevelopment.
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_development&oldid=732685829"
Categories: Sustainabledevelopment Academicdisciplines Environmentalsocialscienceconcepts Sustainablearchitecture Sustainablebuilding
Sustainableenvironmentaldesign Sustainableurbanplanning
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon2August2016,at15:39.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUse
andPrivacyPolicy.WikipediaisaregisteredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.