Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Formation and Occurrence in Processed Food 2016 Food Chemistry

Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
Review
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formation and occurrence

in processed food
Lochan Singh, Jay G. Varshney, Tripti Agarwal
National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, Kundli, Sonipat, Haryana 131028, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 September 2015
Received in revised form 7 December 2015
Accepted 16 December 2015
Available online 17 December 2015
Keywords:
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Food processing
Human health
a b s t r a c t
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emerged as an important contaminant group in a gamut of processed food groups like dairy, nuts, herbs, beverages, meat products etc. Different cooking processes and
processing techniques like roasting, barbecuing, grilling, smoking, heating, drying, baking, ohmic-infrared
cooking etc. contribute towards its formation. The level of PAHs depends on factors like distance from
heat source, fuel used, level of processing, cooking durations and methods, whereas processes like reuse,
conching, concentration, crushing and storage enhance the amount of PAHs in some food items. This
review paper provides insight into the impact of dietary intake of PAHs, its levels and formation mechanism in processed food items and possible interventions for prevention and reduction of the PAHs contamination. The gaps and future prospects have also been assessed.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAHs dietary exposure and associated health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAHs occurrence in different food groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanism of PAHs formation in food and governing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
PAHs forming direct processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1.
Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2.
Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3.
Baking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4.
Frying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5.
Ohmic-infrared cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6.
Roasting and toasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.7.
Grilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.8.
Barbecuing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.9.
Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
PAHs enhancing miscellaneous processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.
Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.
Conching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.
Re-using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5.
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interventions to prevent/reduce PAHs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Choosing correct cooking method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Controlling cooking procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1.
Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2.
Time and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tripti.niftem@gmail.com (T. Agarwal).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.12.074
0308-8146/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781
6.
7.
5.2.3.
Cooking Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4.
Use and re-use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Choose suitable fuel and heat source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.
Application of suitable ingredients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.
Modifying edible forms or methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.
Monitoring processing aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.1.
Refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.2.
Storing and canning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.3.
Tracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.
Use alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.
Innovative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gaps and future research prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A.
Supplementary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are highly hydrophobic and
organic lipophilic compounds with fused aromatic rings mainly
of hydrogen and carbon atoms. These compounds are semi- or
non-volatile in nature, non-biodegradable-environmentally persistent, variably structured toxic compounds; combined and categorized as chemically related ubiquitous group of environmental
carcinogens (Essumang, Dodoo, & Adjei, 2013; Ledesma,
Rendueles, & Daz, 2014). Four and more ringed (or cycles) compounds with less volatility, adsorb on other combustion particles
like soot, are classified as Larger or Heavy PAHs while widely distributed, extremely volatile compounds with less than four aromatic cycles comprises Smaller or Light PAHs. PAHS are a
product of incomplete combustion of organic material during
pyrolysis (Veiga et al., 2014). PAHs are emitted during forest fires,
volcanic eruptions, fossil fuels and wood combustion, industrial
processes and cooking. In the atmosphere, these compounds
undergo photochemical and chemical oxidation reactions with
nitrogen oxides (NOX), atmospheric oxygen (O2), sulfur oxides
(SOX) and hydroxyl radical (OH) producing more toxic compounds
(Naccari et al., 2011). Human exposure to these compounds occurs
in a mixed, non-uniform composition and hence, none single compound is held responsible for human health hazards (Iwegbue,
Onyonyewoma, Bassey, Nwajei, & Martincigh, 2015). Besides, 2
12% inhalation exposure to PAHs, diet contributes to 8898% PAHs
exposure especially in case of non-smoking populations (Alomirah
et al., 2011). Use of polluted water and contaminated soil during
crop production stages, agricultural burning, fire, contact with
non-grade mineral oils along with deposition of air particulates
(vehicle fume exposure, asphalt) on food items, and Post-harvest
and food processing phases act as major pathways for PAHs formation and contamination in food (Jimnez, Ballesteros-Gmez, &
Rubio, 2014).
The present review thus focuses on the dietary exposure of
humans to PAHs, its occurrence in different food groups, mechanism and factors involved in its formation, proposed interventions
for controlling their levels in food and identified gaps.
2. PAHs dietary exposure and associated health hazards
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Agency of
Toxic substance and Disease register (ATS-DR), Environmental Protection Agency and European Union has mentioned PAHs in priority pollutant list owing to their carcinogenic and mutagenic
properties (Table 1). The Codex Alimentarius Commission asserted
the presence of Bay and Fjord regions in PAHs structure as a reason
for their high reactivity (Orecchio, Ciotti, & Culotta, 2009). These
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Table 1
Carcinogenic and mutagenic properties of PAHs.
Sr. No.
Compound names
Genotoxicity
IARC classificationa
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Acenaphthene
Acenaphthylene
Anthracene
Benz(a)anthracene
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Chrysene
Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
Fluoranthene
Flourene
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene (IP)
Phenanthrene
Pyrene
Naphthalene
Questionable
Questionable
Negative
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Negative
Positive
Questionable
Questionable
Positive
Not yet evaluated

Not yet evaluated
3
2B
2B
2B
3
1
2B
2A
3
3
2B
3
3
2B
a
1 Carcinogenic, 2A Probably carcinogenic, 2B Possibly carcinogenic and 3
Not classifiable.
compounds themselves convert to diol epoxides or act synergistically in efficient covalent binding with cellular macromolecules
like DNA, add errors in its replication, mutation and tumor genesis,
thereby initiating cancer (Iwegbue et al., 2015; Orecchio et al.,
2009). The number of rings in the compounds positively correlates
to toxicity level. Positive linkage between PAHs exposure and cancers of lung, respiratory system and stomach is established by
methods like biochemical and cytogenetic markers and DNA
adducts (Ledesma et al., 2014). Daniel et al. (2011) showed
enhanced risk to renal cell carcinoma on consumption of barbequed meat through histological studies. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)
exhibited adverse and toxic effects on cells and tissues, reproduction, development and immune system of animals (Essumang
et al., 2013; Manda et al., 2012).
Alomirah et al. (2011) found high genotoxic PAHs in grilled vegetables, shish tauk and chicken and smoked foods which were key
diet contributors for Kuwait children, adolescent and adults. The
cancer risk associated with consumption of animal origin foods
by children/adolescents and adults amounted to 2.63/107 and
9.3/107 benzo(a)pyrene equivalent respectively. Human exposure
studies demonstrated that magnitude of Benzo(a)pyrene dietary
exposures is 2500 ng/day which supersedes inhalation exposure
of 1050 ng/day. Globally, the estimated average intake of PAHs
range from 0.02 to 3.6 lg/person/day while in countries like India,
Nigeria and China it ranged as 11, 6.0 and 3.56 lg/person/day
respectively, relative to cooking oil intake or BaP content in fish
consumed (Diggs et al., 2011). Shen et al. (2014) mentioned that
770
ambient PAHs exposure induces a 3.1 10

cancer risk (ILCR) globally.

5
incremental life time
3. PAHs occurrence in different food groups

PAHs formation and accumulation takes place in wide range of
food matrices like dairy products, fruits and vegetables, cereal
products, meat and related products, confections, beverages, oils,
medicinal plants and herbs, infant based formulations, nuts and
spices (Table 2 and Supplementary text 1). Among different food
categories (as shown in Supplementary text 1), Erva-mates used
as medicinal products and herbs, possessed highest levels of PAHs
(9001 lg/kg) followed with dark Sumatra coffee (3091.1 lg/kg)
and Seafood Crabs (2618.4 lg/kg) compared to all other food
groups (Jimnez et al., 2014; Mostafa, 2002; Vieira et al., 2010).
Drying of mate leaves includes two stages namely, Sapeco i.e.
rapid drying stage and final drying stage. Both stages participate
in degradation of mate compounds and were held responsible for
PAHs accumulation in them (Vieira et al., 2010). Degree of darkens
or time of roasting, type of roaster used and expected quality of
coffee (light, medium and dark) guide the roasting conditions
and affect the PAHs levels of the processed product. Dark coffee
blends like dark Sumatra undergoes higher degree of roasting for
longer duration to achieve its dark texture and desired aroma,
and thus exhibited highest contamination of PAHs over light and
medium coffee blends (Jimnez et al., 2014). Contrarily, in animal
foods like meat, fish and other sea foods etc., the parameters like
lipid deposits or tissues, body structure and texture, skin or
exoskeleton tissues, metabolism etc. affect their bioconcentrating and PAHs accumulating properties. Also, capability
to metabolically transformation PAHs to less toxic form and
excrete the same out of the body system is another factor which
affects levels of PAHs in animal foods. The make-up, body-lipid
deposits and low metabolic transformation in Crabs body resulted
in higher PAHs accumulation which also leaches out in foods like
soups, gravies etc. during boiling (Mostafa, 2002).
4. Mechanism of PAHs formation in food and governing factors
PAHs occurrence in different food products has drawn focus to
their cooking methodologies. Processing, packaging and thermal
processes like drying, smoking, baking, roasting, grilling, frying
etc. are reported to contribute significantly in PAHs formation
(Ledesma et al., 2014; Orecchio et al., 2009). Free radicals generated during food combustion at high temperature undergo recombination to form Light PAHs followed by Heavy PAHs which move
to hydrophobic food chain compartments, finally retained in fat
rich food items (Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al., 2013;
Luzardo, Zumbado, & Boada, 2013). In this review, for convenience,
the processes have been classified into two major groups: (a) direct
processes and (b) miscellaneous processes. The basic terminology
is mentioned in Supplementary text 2.
4.1. PAHs forming direct processes
4.1.1. Heating
PAHs formation in a food takes place on its direct heating at
high temperatures resulting in food combustion. Milk, a dairy product available at varied fat levels, undergoes different type of processing like Pasteurization, Skimming etc. Evaluated PAHs in
different heat treated milk samples exhibited following increasing
order: Raw milk < Pasteurized < Ultra High Temperature (UHT)
semi-skimmed milk < UHT whole milk (Naccari et al., 2011). Lactating ruminants exposure to contaminated air, feed or grasses
and dermal adsorption has been identified as probable reason for
the presence of PAHs in raw milk. The compounds enter the animal
system, crosses blood mammary barrier efficiently and becomes a
constituent part of milk, despite of their lower transfer rate in milk
(Londoo, Garcia, Scussel, & Resnik, 2013). Additionally, presence
of chrysene in Pasteurized and UHT samples along with Benzo(k)
Fluoranthene in UHT whole milk samples exhibits significant role
of heat treatment in PAHs formation. Also, the differences in PAHs
amount of UHT whole and semi-skimmed samples were dependent on their fat contents and lipophilic interaction with milk
triglycerides (Londoo et al., 2013). Contrarily, in another study,
skimming of milk reduced the PAH content. Natural emulsified
globules with native stabilizing membrane found in raw whole
milk damages on mechanical treatments like skimming or homogenization resulting in reduction of fat globule size and changes in
their electrostatic and interfacial properties (Girelli, Sperati, &
Tarola, 2014). The milk samples lacked Heavy PAHs supported
the fact that PAHs distribution capacity, volatility and lipophilicity
is governed by their aqueous soluble nature, air transportation and
tissue accumulation apropos to plants and animals.
Among sixteen PAHs, 0.337.02 ng/g naphthalene was reported
in Sun-dried salt, heat processed at 250700 C, with different carbon sources. Citric acid exhibited significant contribution in PAHs
formation while processing (Kim, Kim, Choi, & Lee, 2014). Similarly, sucralose, an artificial food sweetener loses its stability at
high temperatures above 119 C and undergoes thermal degradation to form toxic compounds like chloropropanols, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), probable
PAHs successors (Dong, Liu, Hu, & Zheng, 2013).
4.1.1.1. Boiling. Perell, Mart-cid, Castell, Llobet, and Domingo
(2009) conducted studies on meat, hake, potato, string beans, rice
and olive oil disposed to 23 l of boiling water for variable cooking
period and studied cooking effect on PAHs formation in these food
items. Among all the boiled products, hake showed highest total
PAHs content (5.36 lg/kg) while potato contained lowest PAHs
(3.15 lg/kg). The rice boiling added PAHs in quantity double to initial raw product. Additionally, in another study, boiled ham possessed 1.22 lg/kg total PAHs (Martorell et al., 2010) while no
significant difference was observed between grilled and boiled beef
samples (1.87 and 1.09 lg/kg) but differed from unprocessed ones
(<0.10 lg/kg). Hence, meat processing practices like grilling, smoking and roasting as well as boiling must be cautiously done so as to
meet safety and quality aspects.
In another study, PAHs levels were found higher when coffee
brewing was done through filtration than boiling process (Tfouni
et al., 2013). It was observed that the addition of boiling water or
brewing pattern affected leaching of these contaminants and the
denouement profile.
4.1.2. Drying
Drying is a commonly used method for moisture removal from
food grains, oilseeds, vegetables, tea etc. Corn Drying is performed
in industrial and other small scale kilns and the future use of the
dried corn largely determines the kind of fuel used, way of air heating and composition of combustion gases used during the process.
Combustion of corn is accompanied with two processes namely:
pyrolysis resulting in instable PAHs formation and the pyrosynthesis favoring transformation to highly complex PAHs. The
surface of dried corn exhibited higher value of adsorbed PAHs compared to raw, non-contaminated corn seeds. Moreover, light oil
based kiln drying resulted in higher B(a)P contamination over natural gas based kilns (Kis et al., 2009). Smoke drying of oilseeds,
drying degrees and refining or rafination processes greatly varied
PAHs content among different batches and brands of vegetable
oils and cold pressed unconventional vegetable oils containing
Table 2
Reported PAHs concentrations in different food groups.
Sr.
No.
Food group/category
Main food products in a category
Detected PAHs sum range (lg/kg)
References
Dairy products
Milk
5.4147.2
Cheese
Milk Powder
0.21643.18
11.878.4
Yogurt
7.1212.8
Others (butter, vegetable creams, margarines

and mayonnaise)
1.721.7
Naccari et al. (2011), Girelli et al. (2014), Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013) and
Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013)
Cirillo et al. (2012) and Esposito et al. (2015)
Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013), Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013) and Esposito
et al. (2015)
Hernndez et al. (2014), Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013) and Luzardo, Zumbado
et al. (2013)
Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013), Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013) and Camargo and
Toledo (2000)
Fruits and Vegetables
Processed
1.097335.7
Ossai, Iwegbue, Ajogungbe, and Tesi (2015) and Kis et al. (2009)
Cereal based products
Processed
0.57880
Iwegbue et al. (2015), Ciecierska and Obiedzinski (2013), Olabemiwo, Tella, Omodara, Esan,
and Oladapo (2013)
Eggs, meat and related

food products
Eggs
Chicken
Pork
Fish
Others (crabs, sea food, beef sausages etc.)
49.6496.26
1.131.74
0.1534.65
1.591068.8
0.222618.4
(Highest value corresponds to Seafood
crabs)
Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013) and Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013)

Rozentale et al. (2015) and Aaslyng et al. (2013)
Rozentale et al. (2015) and Aaslyng et al. (2013)
Ahmed et al. (2015), Iwegbue et al. (2015), and Hailei et al. (2015)
Kpoclou et al. (2014), Mostafa (2002), and Drabova et al. (2013)
Confections
Sugar
Salt
Others (Honey, Chocolates, Cocoa Butter)
0.074.03
0.337.02
0.17235.91
Silva et al. (2011)

Kim et al. (2014)
Ciemniak, Witczak, and Mocek (2013), Kumari et al. (2012), and Misnawi (2012)
Beverages
Tea and Coffee
Olesen et al. (2015) and Jimnez et al. (2014)
Alcoholic Drinks
Sugarcane based drinks
3.83091.1
(Highest value corresponds to Dark
Sumatra Coffee type)
0.2172.3
0.01351.57
0.548234.30
Kang et al. (2014), Rojo Camargo et al. (2012), Payanan et al. (2013), and Ciecierska and
Obiedzinski (2013)
Pimentel, Martnez-Carballo, Regueiro, and Simal-Gndara (2013)
Falcn and Gndara (2005)

Tfouni et al. (2009) and Machado et al. (2014)
Oils
Plant based
Fish oils
9.535
Medicinal products and

herbs
Plant based products
Yu et al. (2012), Martena et al. (2011), Vieira et al. (2010)
Animal oils and Bee Products
619001
(Highest value corresponds to Ervamates)
2.58 and 73.8
Infant based formulations
Targeting different age groups
0.0542.54
10
Nuts
Dried or processed
0.944.57
Iwegbue et al., 2014

Salgueiro, Martnez-Carballo, Garca-Falcn et al. (2009) and Salgueiro, Martnez-carballo,
Garca-falcn, and Simal-gndara (2009)
Muntean et al. (2013)
Martena et al. (2011)
Note: Details in Supplementary text 1.
771
772
bioactive compounds (Ciecierska & Obiedzinski, 2013; Muntean,

Muntean, & Duda, 2013).
Cocoa beans used in chocolate making were dried on asphalt,
direct firing or sun dried on bitumen to 11% moisture content.
Smoke treatment of beans results in PAHs formation and absorption on bean shells which penetrates to cotyledons facilitated by
butter migration during roasting and micronizing processes. During secondary cocoa processing, the shell debris further contributes
in cotyledon contamination. Phynolic compounds may become
precursors for PAHs in beans especially during drying and fermentation stages (Misnawi, 2012). In a study, effects of drying method,
arrangements, time, dryer types and fuel used on PAHs concentration were assessed. Higher PAHs were formed when the beans
were dried by artificial and sun-drying combination or incrementing time of sun-drying. Artificial dryer with wood produced higher
PAHs than kerosene or diesel oil based dryer and the risk enhanced
when firing gas came in direct contact with beans due to leakage in
gas separator (Misnawi, 2012).
Withering and rolling process of tea leaves accompanies moisture loss, cells break; and aroma, enzyme and color release
whereas drying of tea leaves prevents enzymatic degradation or
substitute initial set of processes after fermentation (Olesen,
Navaratnam, Jewula, & Jensen, 2015). Large surface area of tea
leaves favors PAHs adsorption and during processing, the fresh
leaves are subjected to drying and roasting involving wood, oil or
coal combustion. Rociek, Surma, and Cieslik (2014) found 10.6
and 11.8 lg/kg PAHs in green and white tea respectively which
was much lower than 16.9 and 17 lg/kg PAHs in black and red
tea, respectively. In comparison to the withered and dried tea,
dry tea leaves possess 3- and 211-folds more PAHs respectively.
White tea undergoes purest and least form of processing involving
steps like slight withering (30 C, 65% R.H., 26 h), dry baking, minimal oxidation while tea leaves picking, rapid heat application, rolling and least oxidation, quick processing (12 days) steaming
forms the processing procedure for Green tea. Contrarily, Yellow
tea processing includes drying, stacking, covering, gentle heating
in humid conditions and oxidation whereas black tea undergoes
withering, moisture reduction to 6877%, maceration, complete
oxidation (2030 C, 4590 min to 3 h), rolling and cutting. The
variation in processing of tea may be the possible reason for varied
PAHs levels.
Similarly, total PAHs and B(a)P content varied among different
stages of sugar making from beet industry in the following order:
Molasses < Sugar beet < Consumer sugar < After product sugar <
Dried sugar beet pulp. It was established that after sugar
extraction, the sugar-beet pulp is exposed to different gases in a
combustion chamber to obtain a dry product leading to PAHs contamination. Higher PAHs in after product sugar in comparison to
consumer sugar was due to its impurities brought about by surrounding syrup layer (krbic, Cvejanov, & uriic-Mladenovic,
2008).
4.1.3. Baking
Baking in combination with grilling is used to develop sundry
products like cakes, tarts, pastries, breads, crackers etc. at high
temperature contributing PAHs formation in food. The PAHs
amount in baked bread was 26 times higher than the flour used
for production and exhibited variable distribution of these contaminants at crust, loaf and crumb parts of the final product (Ciecierska
& Obiedzinski, 2013). PAHs contamination incremented significantly in crumb with an increase of 20 C above defined baking
temperatures for the product. Similarly, the bran of wheat and
rye used for product development in a bakery chain were contaminated with low PAHs concentration due to adsorption from air or
grinding procedures incorporated for flour production. The concentration raised from 1.073.65 lg/kg detected in raw materials to
1.5913.6 lg/kg in bread baked at different temperatures. In

another study, Shortcakes, Cookies, Crackers, Wafers, Shortbreads,
Digestives, Cabins and Pringles biscuit brands were analyzed in
Nigeria for sixteen PAHs, each exhibiting wide variation (Iwegbue
et al., 2015). Highest level was observed in crackers (880 lg/kg)
followed by shortcakes (645.3 lg/kg) while less PAHs were found
in cabin (241.6 lg/kg). The amount of pyrene, fluoranthene and
phenanthrene increased as baking temperature moved above
220 C. Rise in pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene and chrysene levels
was observed at temperature near 260 C which may be due to
transformation of light PAHs and other determining factors like
raw materials used, fuel type, variations in oven temperature and
baking method.
4.1.4. Frying
During frying, high temperatures are achieved, for example,
170205 C temperatures reached during frying of chips and
extruded products in different oils. Similarly, temperatures
between 160 and 185 C are achieved during discontinuous frying
of French fries and fish (Perell et al., 2009). Mono-unsaturated
hydrocarbons present in oils or fat undergoes aromatization and
de-hydrocyclization, favoring PAHs formation and contamination
of food processed with these fats (Olatunji, Fatoki, Ximba, &
Opeolu, 2014). Sixteen PAHs concentration were determined in
fried products like sardine, tuna, veal, hake, chicken, pork, lamb
and potato (Perell et al., 2009) which exhibited higher PAHs concentration (13.3035.42 lg/kg) over same samples cooked by
other methods (3.1527.93 lg/kg). Among all samples, fried fish
showed highest PAHs concentration (35.42 lg/kg). Contrarily,
PAHs concentration in roasted hake and chicken (19.26 and
27.93 lg/kg respectively) superseded fried samples (13.30 and
14.96 respectively). Contemporary fish processing involves processes like char-boiling, grilling, roasting, boiling and braaing.
PAHs levels in fish fillets of hake, snoek, yellow tail and angel fish
cooked by frying, boiling and grilling were determined. The sum of
P
BaP and BkF ( 2PAH) was 1.46 lg/kg in fried fish and 0.56 lg/kg
as least in boiled angel fish. PAHs abundance followed the order:
snoek > hakes > yellow tail > angel fish. Variations in fillets PAHs
depended on several factors like penetration of oil, duration, temperature achieved and air circulations (Olatunji, Fatoki, Opeolu, &
Ximba, 2015).
4.1.5. Ohmic-infrared cooking

Semi-cooked meatballs (75 C, 0 s holding time,15.26 V/cm
voltage gradient) possessed 4.44 1.90 lg/kg total PAHs with
0.09 lg/kg B(a)P and 0.19 lg/kg Benzo(b)Fluoranthene which were
considered safe (Sengun, Yildiz Turp, Icier, Kendirci, & Kor, 2014).
During ohmic cooking the center temperature reaches 75 C while
during infrared cooking nearly 120 C temperatures reaches at the
surface facilitating PAHs formation. The combined effect of ohmic
preheating and infrared cooking on PAHs levels of meatballs under
variable parameters like application distances, heat fluxes and
treatment durations was studied and 4.4764 lg/kg total PAHs
levels was reported (Kendirci, Icier, Kor, & Altug, 2014). Heat fluxes
provided during infrared cooking shared direct positive correlation
with meatball temperatures but were negatively correlated with
total PAHs level. The enhanced flux developed crust on meat balls
minimizing the fat migration to surface, less pyrolysis and less
PAHs formation. Additionally, total PAHs irrespective of duration,
was minimum when infrared cooking was performed at application distance of 13.5 and 16.5 at 8.475 kW/m2. The Ace concentration was found more in the combined ohmic-infrared cooking
compared to stewing, barbecuing and frying except smoking
method (Kendirci et al., 2014).
773
4.1.6. Roasting and toasting

Freshly prepared samples of meat (suya), fish, plantain and yam
collected from ten roadside vendors showed variability in PAHs
concentrations (Ogbuagu & Ayoade, 2012). Flourene showed highest heterogeneity in suya, anthracene content varied in roasted
yams whereas diverse concentrations of anthracene and phenanthrene were found in roasted plantain. Roasted fish exhibited variability in phenanthrene and acenaphthene contents. Minimum
concentration of chrysene, Benzo(a)anthracene and pyrene were
observed in the samples since the fuel used for roasting lacked
these three compounds. The study confirms influence of roasting
process and duration, food fat content, direct contact to heat source
and pyrolysis on fat tripping on heat source from the food product
which was melted during cooking favoring PAHs adsorption and
absorption by food. Peking duck, a famous Chinese cuisine is prepared by roasting in closed oven (Men-lu) or in, presently dominating, hung oven conditions (Gua-lu) where ducks are hung on
flames from hardwood burning. These ducks are specially reared
and fat accumulation occurs in their subcutaneous region which
drips in the form of excess fat, onto the flames generating Flare
ups. Total PAHs in Gua-lu cooked ducks reached 129 lg/kg with
skin exhibiting major contamination. Moreover, the ducks when
hung or placed on open flame in an oven at a temperature of about
270 C for 4045 min becomes susceptible to PAHs (Lin, Weigel,
Tang, Schulz, & Shen, 2011). The effect of cooking methods like
shallow pan frying, electric oven grilling and direct heat charcoal
roasting on PAHs concentrations in goat meat, pork and raw beef
were analyzed (Onyango, Lalah, & Wandiga, 2012). Direct heat
charcoal roasting introduced five and three new PAHs in beef
and goat meat and enhanced the total PAHs level over raw samples
from 1.39 to 17.88 lg/kg and 2.13 to 4.77 lg/kg respectively. Additionally, frying pork added seven new PAHs over raw samples and
the total PAHs changed from 0.17 to 3.47 lg/kg. Overall, highest
PAHs contamination was reported in roasted beef.
Bread and coffee toasting can be done through direct methods
or indirect methods. Direct method brings the food is in direct contact with thermal agent through gas oven toasting, coal grilling and
flame toasting while indirect method like electric oven toasting,
smoke or thermal agent does not influence the food material
directly through contact. Bread toasting is accompanied with partial carbonization of food, activated charcoal formation and PAHs
adsorption and retention in electric oven maintained at 220
250 C (Orecchio et al., 2009; Salgueiro, Garca-Falcn, MartnezCarballo, & Simal-Gndara, 2008). The different toasting conditions
like gas oven toasting, flame toasting and coal-grilling significantly
affected PAHs levels in toasted bread. Samples toasted with electric

oven and toaster were non-polluted while total PAHs in wood
flame treated samples achieved 350 lg/kg PAHs level (Salgueiro
et al., 2008).
Coffee toasting or roasting involves berries sorting, fermentation, drying and roasting accompanying moisture and weight loss,
caramelization, maillard reaction, fat and sugar degradation concomitant with undesirable PAHs formation. Near 220 C, coffee
beans possessed phenanthrene, benzo(a)anthracene and anthracene while the pyrene and chrysene formation took place at
260 C. Dark roasting near 260 C involved partial-degradation of
3 ring PAHs, transformation of light PAHs to heavy forms and formation of benzo(ghi)perylene (Olesen et al., 2015). In infusions, the
transfer of PAHs was found to have moderate rate of about less
than 35% (Orecchio et al., 2009). Seven PAHs determined in different types of coffee including green coffee, instant coffee granules,
non-caffeine coffee and roasted coffee beans showed presence of
dibenzo(a,h)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene in all samples except
green coffee (Stanciu, Dobrinas, Birghila, & Popescu, 2008). Decaffeinated and instant coffee showed lower PAHs levels whereas
highest was reported in dark roasted coffee (Jimnez et al.,
2014). The PAHs formation during coffee roasting was delineated
as a factor of the desired coffee quality, roasting method and
degree of roasting (Olesen et al., 2015; Stanciu et al., 2008).
High temperature (500700 C) proved optimal for PAHs creation but in various sources, these occur at lower temperatures
also. Integral and milled seeds of sesame and pumpkin are roasted
at high temperatures mainly 250 C and 110130 C respectively
(Nederal et al., 2013). Processing of Guarana fruits also encompasses toasting process in Amazon region. Guarana fruit samples
with husk possessed higher PAHs levels than fruits without husk
due to direct nutrients pyrolysis and deposition of smoke generated from incomplete combustion of fuel. The generated PAHs
may enter the seed becoming a source of contamination. Environmental exposures like vehicular fumes, forest fires, contact with
non- food grade mineral oil and contaminated packages may also
be a source in guarana fresh fruits (Veiga et al., 2014). The different
studies on PAHs concentrations and roasted products are given in
Table 3.
4.1.7. Grilling
Food cooked over open flames also becomes contaminated with
PAHs. Fat drips from the food item onto the flames and burns
resulting in smoke generation. PAHs carried with smoke deposits
as coating on food known as charbroiling (Terzi, G
elik, & Nisbet,
Table 3
PAHs concentration in roasted food products.
S.
No.
Food product
Samples
PAHs value
Finding
References
Nigerian staple
foods
Roasted plantain
The higher concentrations of combined PAHs

recorded in roasted plantain than meat (suya)
and roasted fish could be due to the closer
distances the plantain samples were (usually)
placed to the source of the heat and the higher
temperature required for roasting the
plantains than meat and fish
Ogbuagu and
Ayoade (2012)
Roasted Fish
Average PAHs: 4.22 lg/kg Combined

PAHs: 46.5 lg/kg
Average PAHs: 3.38 lg/kg Combined
PAHs: 37.2 lg/kg
Combined PAHs: 13.5 lg/kg
Suya
Romanian Coffee
samples
Market coffee samples
0.00190.732 lg/kg
Green coffee samples lacked BaP
Stanciu et al. (2008)
Edible oils
Refined sunflower oil

Virgin olive oil
Cold pressed pumpkin
seed oil
Roasted sesame oil
Roasted pumpkin
seed oil
Total PAHs: 0
3.44 lg/kg
29.16 lg/kg
Levels of PAHs in cold pressed seed oil, roasted

pumpkin seed oil and roasted sesame oil was
much higher
Nederal et al. (2013)
103.56 lg/kg
34.79 lg/kg
774
2008). Turkish doner kebab prepared from meat fillets, roasted on

vertical grill under continuous rotation on heat source generated
PAHs mainly at surface owing to charboiling. Charcoal and gas
grilled kebab contained 24.2 0.48 lg/kg and 5.7 0.85 lg/kg
BaP, respectively (Terzi et al., 2008). Similarly, skin and fat part
of charcoal grilled ducks from Hong Kong market exhibited
106 lg/kg total PAHs (Lin et al., 2011).
Fat rich food products are more susceptible to PAHs formation.
Total PAHs of about 6.3238.8, 0.1547.5 and 6.6249.7 ng/g were
observed in charcoal grilled poultry meat, red meat and seafood
products respectively (Kao, Chen, Huang, Chen, & Chen, 2014).
Only, lamb-stick (11.96% fat, 12 min grilling) showed 5.8 ng/gm
BaP content. Higher total PAHs were reported in octopus and
chicken breast possessing 0.03% and 0.16% fat respectively due to
higher surface area exposed to heat. Duck drumstick BaP content
increased from 2.6 to 3.1 lg/kg on doubling grilling time at 20 C
or augmenting temperature from 78 to 85 C. The PAHs concentration in charcoal grilled meat also increases on marinating with edible oils before cooking (Farhadian, Jinap, Faridah, & Zaidul, 2012).
Basic oil marinated and commercially marinated beef satay were
contaminated with 98.9109 and 73.485.9 lg/kg PAHs respectively with no effect of marinating time on concentration
(Farhadian et al., 2012).
4.1.8. Barbecuing
Barbecued samples showed marked differences in PAHs concentration than fried, grilled and roasted samples apropos to variables like cooking times, fuel type, fuel amount, sample type,
distance from heat source and prevalent weather conditions
P
(Rose et al., 2015). 4PAHs in homemade barbecued Beef, Chicken
and Pork were 17.3, 1.1 and 2.6 lg/kg respectively, flames being
major contributor in formation (Aaslyng, Duedahl-Olesen, Jensen,
& Meinert, 2013). Twothree fold increment was observed in
phenanthrene, flourene and anthracene when raw trout was barbecued while two fold rises in flourene, pyrene, phenanthrene,
flouranthene and anthracene occurred during barbecuing of bass
samples (Dost & Ideli, 2012). Chung et al. (2011) found higher PAHs
amount in charcoal barbecued chicken compared to grilled and
roasted pork and beef. PAHs concentration on barbecuing was stated to increase two-eight folds over raw samples (Dost & Ideli,
2012). Contrarily, Nisha, Dinesh Kumar, Arivudainambi, Umer,
and Khan (2015) in their review reported that PAHs concentration
in pizza baked in wood-burning oven were higher than barbecued
pork and beef.
Beef burgers cooked at 7 cm (charcoal, 8 min) and 4 cm (charcoal + wood, 12 min) above heat source possessed 95.87 and
P
79.48 lg/kg 4PAHs which decreased when cooking time was prolonged. Sausages cooked above charcoal and wood chips (4 cm,
P
12 min) was found to possess highest amount of
4PAHs i.e.
84.18 lg/kg, which reduced on doubling the cooking time.
Prolonged cooking re-volatilized or degraded the adsorbed PAHs.
P
4PAHs were found fifteen fold higher in beef burger samples
(33.7444.96 lg/kg) than sausages (3.244.15 lg/kg) when cooked
over briquettes with 4 cm distance. Additionally, it was observed
that the rough textured burgers due to their large surface area: volume dripped fat and favored PAHs adsorption while the skinned
sausages exuded less fat and at a distance from itself, thereby,
adsorbing less PAHs. The gas flames, cooking food surfaces,
dripping fat and the close distance between food item and heat
source (except charcoal cooked salmon, briquettes cooked
sausages and beef burgers) were the main reason for PAHs in
barbecued samples (Rose et al., 2015).
4.1.9. Smoking
Smoke is colloidal suspension of liquid droplets, vapor and solid
particles inclusive of acids, carbonyls, phenols and many more
compounds (Ledesma et al., 2014). Solid phase components like

tars and ashes often adsorbs Heavy PAHs whose amount directly
correlates with pyrolysis temperature (4001000 C) achieved during smoke generation. Tar is highly viscous, black and thick liquid
undergoing direct condensation, aerosol formation and polymerization to complex structure favoring deposition on food. Tertiary
tar compounds are formed at temperatures above 750 C producing PAHs without substituent (Ledesma et al., 2014). Smoke developed by burning or smouldering material like wood is used to cook,
preserve and enhance aroma in food products like cheeses, meats,
fishes, vegetables and ingredients for beverages. Smoke generated
by incomplete combustion comes in contact of food resulting in its
contamination during cooking. However, smoke composition is
affected greatly by process environment oxidizing power, generator type, fuel used, presence of smoking flavor agents and combustion temperature.
Augmented PAHs formation is observed at process end phase
which undergoes degradation by light and other compounds but
still some of them enter the food products and stabilizes at some
concentration in non-light and non-oxygen conditions of food
items. In most cases of smoking, the product shares direct contact
with the smoke resulting in higher accumulation of PAHs. The traditional method accompanies straw and wood chip partial combustion in smokehouses whereas alternatives like immersing
food items in smoke extracted solution is also performed to
achieve desired outcomes. Sometimes restricted or illegal methods
like use of painted wood and corrugated or smooth cardboards for
smoke generation are also performed and determine the profile
and distribution pattern of PAHs in food (Esposito et al., 2015).
PAHs levels, due to smoking, in meat and sea food products, and
other food products are dealt separately in following section.
4.1.9.1. Food products (excluding meat and seafood). Cirillo, Milano,
and Cocchieri (2012) studied PAHs concentration in Mozzarella
cheeses with and without upper (external) layer and found 83
693 and 67184 lg/kg w.w. PAHs concentration respectively, concluding pronounced impact of smoking on PAHs generation in
these foods especially at outer layers or rind. The non-smoked
and raw milk samples possessed lower concentration exhibiting
ubiquitous nature of PAHs. In another study, PAHs levels in Mozzarella cheese varied with part of product analyzed (like rind, core
and whole product), materials used for smoke generation (wood,
straw and cardboard boxes) and also with smoking techniques.
P
Higher PAHs accumulation ( 4PAHs: 130 mg/kg) was observed
in outer surface and during cardboard smoking (Esposito et al.,
2015).
Marc spirits are developed from residues of wine making procedures and are smoked to develop novel beverages. Smoking techniques, raw material exposure to smoke and temperature were
some identified key determinant sources of PAHs contamination
in smoked marc spirits. Presence of light PAHs in scotch malts
was considered a consequence of peat fumes based flavoring. Also,
drying barley (especially in peat fuelled furnace) for malt production, imparts flavor but also act as possible source of PAHs in alcoholic drinks (Falcn & Gndara, 2005). The Asian origin black tea
leaves like Lapsang Souchong, Earl Grey and Formosan Straight
during their processing and flavor development are hot iron plate
dried and smoked from pine, bamboo or spruce fire. Infusions
made from these smoked tea products exhibited higher level of
benzo(a)anthracene and chrysene compared to non-smoked samples (Pincemaille, Schummer, Heinen, & Moris, 2014). Similarly,
total PAHs content in eight Brazillian brands of Yerba mates
accounted to 1500 and 1090 ng/g in 2008 and 2010 year samples.
Results showed that non-smoking of leaves during drying resulted
in minimum BaP concentration in one brand while similar PAHs
distribution among all brands showed common contamination
775

Table 4
Studies on smoked fish and meat products.
S. No.
Food product
Samples
Fish
80 smoked fish of 4 species
PAHs value
P
4PAHs: 312 lg/kg
Foods in Abobo market
Smoked fish
Smoked meats
P
PAHs: 159.48 lg/kg
P4
4PAHs: 57.23 lg/kg
Spanish traditional smoked

sausage varieties
Chorizo de cebolla
Chorizo gallego
Chourico de Carne
Salpicao
Tras-os-Montes
Alentejo
Total PAHs: 101.81 lg/kg

Total PAHs: 98.49 lg/kg
5.35 lg/kg
4.51 lg/kg
3.57 lg/kg
0.41 lg/kg
Portuguese traditional meat and

blood sausages
Moura
Chourico de Carne
Salpicao
Tras-os-Montes
Alentejo
BaP content: 5.87 lg/kg

5.35 lg/kg
4.51 lg/kg
3.57 lg/kg
0.41 lg/kg
Smoked cured muscle foods,

Canadian Tlazten and Llheidli
Tenneh First Nation
communities
Smoked salmon
Smoked moose

source. Processing method, batch and brands had a determining

impact on PAHs concentration in mates (Golozar et al., 2012).
Air contamination and smoke drying of plant material or seeds,
extraction solvent type, heating time, temperature, fuel used, distance from heat source and impact of smoke are some variables
that contributes significantly to PAHs contamination in vegetable
and edible oils (Esposito et al., 2015; Kang, Lee, & Shin, 2014).
Direct smoke drying of soybean seeds in 2007 and 2008 resulted
in 10208 lg/kg and 26316 lg/kg PAHs content respectively
(Rojo Camargo, Antoniolli, & Vicente, 2012). Similarly, BaP concentration in olive oil, pumpkin oil, sea buckthorn, sunflower oil,
sesame oil, soybean oil and rapeseed oil undergoing direct smoking
or drying processes ranged from 0.23.75, 0.1614.1, 1.34116,
0.110.87, 0.721.47, 0.260.54 and 0.426.65 lg/kg respectively
(Drabova et al., 2013).
4.1.9.2. Meat and seafood products. Various studies on PAHs concentration in smoked fish and meat products are given in Table 4.
Different variables to be monitored during smoking to ensure
food safety includes fuel type, pyrolysis temperature, smoke generator air flow (smouldering, friction, thermostated plates), smoking
chamber design, smoking and drying method type (direct and indirect), relation to other methods (atomized smoke condensate),
food fat content, processing effect, distance between food and heat
source, duration of smoking and the cleanliness condition of the
equipment (Ledesma, Rendueles, & Diaz, 2015a, 2015b). Frankfurters Sausages and mini-salamis smoked with sundry woods
possessed 8.22 and 9.03 lg/kg total PAHs respectively. Alder and
beech woods with cherry spice mix application produced higher
PAHs than simple beech wood. Sausage smoking with Poplar wood,
hickory and combination of beech wood with apple spice mix gave
30% PAHs reduction than beech chips. Similarly, hickory, poplar
and oak based salamis smoking reduced PAHs content to 40%. Contrarily, moisture content of wood chips, their particle sizes and
smoke generation temperatures were not correlated with the PAHs
concentrations (Hitzel, Phlmann, Schwagele, Speer, & Jira, 2012).
In another study, PAHs content in Frankfurter type sausages
cooked through different smoke generation techniques is in order:
Friction smoked < Light smouldering smoke < Steam smoke < Medium smouldering smoke < Touch smoke < Intensive smouldering
smoke. Moreover, pressure changes were accompanied with
Finding
References
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
had the highest PAHs
Mohammadi,
GhasemzadehMohammadi, Haratian,
Khaksar, and Chaichi (2013)
Smoking produce more PAHs

compared to frying or grilled
cooking
Manda et al. (2012)
Phenenanthrene, Naphthalene,
Anthracene found in both
Lorenzo et al. (2011)
Roseiro, Gomes, Patarata,

and Santos (2012)
Traditional smoke processing

methods indicating requirement
for risk assessment
Kitts, Chen, and Broda

(2012)
changes in PAHs content in friction and steam based techniques

while smoke density and ventilator velocities had prominent influence on PAHs content in smouldering based smoking techniques
(Phlmann, Hitzel, Schwgele, Speer, & Jira, 2012). Variability in
moisture levels, BaP content, PAHs concentration and PAHs profile
was high in chorizo casing than the interior layers of chorizo. The
concentration of PAHs decreased from casing to food core
(Ledesma et al., 2014). Increment in chorizo smoking time (0
5 days) decreased moisture content from 49.9% to 31.3% parallely
increased in BaP content from 0.24 to 0.75 lg/kg till 5th day, after
which BaP concentration stabilized. Blockage of casing pores and
coat formation after 5th day obstructed PAHs penetration and stabilized concentration. After 7th day, few samples faced excessive
drying, casing tearing and more BaP accumulation. Between 3rd
and 5th days, two fold accretions occurred in BaP content
(Ledesma et al., 2014).
It was also observed that preferring traditional smoking method
over modern methods resulted in higher PAHs contamination in
food products. Nearly 0.383.21 lg/kg of benzo(a)pyrene was estimated in meat samples (chorizo) smoked by non-environmental
friendly, traditional direct smoking process involving wood combustion (Ledesma et al., 2015a, 2015b). Total PAHs concentration
in dry fermented Portuguese traditional sausages prepared by traditional (raw products in traditional smoking room for 40 days
under discontinuous smoking regime) and modified (controlled
drying room for 12 day without smoking and transferred later to
traditional room for achieving 0.88aW) processes were found to
be 3237.10 and 1702.85 lg/kg (Dry Matter) respectively and
mainly comprised light PAHs. The raw material mixtures (used as
animal feed) were found to possess 244.34 lg/kg (Dry Matter) and
the profile pattern showed significant contribution of frequent fire
woods. Besides, variability in PAHs levels brought by raw material,
the PAHs concentrations varied inversely with the distance from
smoking source. Products hanged on rods/bars nearer to source
facilitated rapid PAHs transfer from outer to inner product parts
(Roseiro, Gomes, & Santos, 2011).
Ledesma, Rendueles, and Daz (2016) mentioned ten mainly
researched variables affecting PAHs formation and concentrations
in food during smoking process apropos to Codex Alimentarius
Commission CAC/RCP 68/2009 and also highlighted role of casing
type as a new variable. Traditionally Serbian smoked naturally
776
cased, dry fermented sausages (Petrovsk klobsa) reported highP

est 13PAHs levels at end of drying and storage period (220 and
495 lg/kg respectively) while industrial type smoked collagen casing sausages showed least amount (31.3 and 54.1 lg/kg respectively) explaining better barrier properties of collagen casing.
Sample weight loss and drying during storage enhanced PAHs content at the end of storage period. Moreover, in industrial conditions, particle free smoke traveling through pipes reaches meat
while traditional conditions involves direct smoke and meat contact (Skaljac et al., 2014). Similarly, natural casing (66.8% porosity,
wrinkled morphology) resulted in outward fat flow from meat product aiding adherence of soot and tar particles while synthetic casing (16.6% porosity, smooth morphology) offered poor soot affinity
and good fat flow barrier (Ledesma et al., 2015a, 2015b). In another
study, the total PAHs in Portuguese sausages prepared by direct
and indirect smoking process ranged between 150 and 870 lg/kg
and the effect of fat addition at 20% and 40% along with casing type
(hog and collagen) were analyzed. Hog casing samples with high
applied fat and direct smoking exhibited higher PAHs content
while single factors application i.e. fat and smoking technique
alone showed negligible influence on PAHs levels. Contrarily, lower
concentrations were achieved by application of collagen casing on
sausages, at all fat and smoking parameters, exhibiting casing type
as highly influential variable (Gomes, Santos, Almeida, Elias, &
Roseiro, 2013).
PAHs levels in different fishes also varied with the choice fire
sources (woods) and smoking durations in order: Smoked mackerel > Sardine > smoked Cigar minnows > tuna. Low lignin: cellulose ratio and higher oxygen content of sugarcane bagasse than
acacia and mangrove sources, reduced PAHs concentrations and
favored smoking in restricted temperature-oxygen ambience.
PAHs amount followed positive correlation with lipid contents in
fish but negatively correlated with wood moisture content. Increment in smoking duration resulted in high PAHs content but
decreased moisture and lipid content while 8 h smoked samples
deviated normal pattern since volatization of adsorbed PAHs from
skin surfaces occurred (Essumang et al., 2013). Fish smoking in
processing industries requires special kilns (Ahmed, Malhat, &
Loutfy, 2015). Barrel kiln produced more PAHs than Chorkor kiln
owing to higher processing time in smoked shrimp (Kpoclou
et al., 2014). The PAHs content increased in wood based kiln compared to charcoal based due to high flames and more smoke, and
also when acacia wood (23% humidity) was used against mango
wood. Moreover, positive correlation was observed between wood
humidity and the smoke production.
4.2. PAHs enhancing miscellaneous processes
4.2.1. Concentration
Herbs and botanicals have gained major importance in food
industry in past few years due to their role in shelf life increment,
foods safety, health benefits and immunity enhancement against
diseases. Botanical preparations undergo processes like pressing
and squeezing, extraction, distillation and fractionation, concentration, drying and fermentation. Combustion gases obtained from
different fuels, used for drying botanicals, directly comes in contact
with it and increments PAHs concentration by three-ten folds. During 20032007, the maximum B(a)P content in food supplements
and botanical samples of Vitamin E, Camellia sinensis (Green tea),
St. Johns Wort, Gingko biloba, Valerina officinalis (Valerian), Multivitamins (with and without botanicals) and multi-ingredients
were 207, 145, 144, 64.4, 52.6, 43.4 and 33.5 lg/kg respectively.
P
Similarly, 4PAHs mean in 20082009 for Resveratrol, Resveratrol
based multi-ingredients; Propolis and G. biloba were found to be
183, 152, 99.7 and 46.7 lg/kg respectively. In seaweeds and marine botanicals, accidental oil spills was identifiable source. Root
uptake of PAHs from soils by botanicals is another probable reason

(Martena, Grutters, De Groot, Konings, & Rietjens, 2011). Similarly,
PAHs contamination in nine Chinese herbs used as health food
additives amounted to 98.2 (Cassia seed samples)-2245 lg/kg
(Eucommia bark samples) with presence of 631.3, 551.0, 435.2
and 432.3 lg/kg Phenanthrene in samples of Liqourice root, Indigowoad leaf, Rose flower and Eucommia bark respectively (Yu, Cao,
Zhang, Cui, & Sun, 2012).
4.2.2. Crushing
Sugarcane processing involves crop burning and moisture loss
at maturity stage for enhancing manual harvest efficiency and
sugar content. Sugarcane surface retains the atmospheric PAHs
which during crushing gets transferred to juices and contaminates
spirits, cachacas and sugars (Tfouni et al., 2009). PAHs in sugarcane
juices before sugar formation was higher when burnt canes are
preferred over non-burned canes (Tfouni et al., 2009). Crop burning, machines use, oils and waxes blends juice during grinding,
greases from mills, storage in asphaltic resins tanks or heattreated wooden barrels and residual pesticides add PAHs in sugar
and by-products (Silva, Cristale, Ribeiro, & De Marchi, 2011).
4.2.3. Conching
Chocolate processing involves re-distribution of cocoa butter
and fat phase substances from dry cocoa through surface scrapping, agitation and frictional heat, favoring release of volatiles,
acids and oxidation for flavor development. Air flows through conche removing impurities, moisture and some volatiles. Controlled
temperature used throughout the processing varies apropos to
type of chocolate prepared (49 C for milk chocolates-82 C for
dark ones). Partial caramelized flavor developed due to elevated
temperature and Maillard reaction (milk chocolate) may accompany PAHs formation in chocolates (Kumari, Chaturvedi, Ansari,
Murthy, & Patel, 2012).
4.2.4. Re-using
PAHs in edible oils are formed during purification process and
cooking. Used edible oils contained 2.811.5 lg/kg naphthalene,
5.411.5 lg/kg phenanthracene, 9.417.2 lg/kg fluoranthene,
0.52.2 lg/kg BaP and 17.754.0 lg/kg IP which were significantly
higher compared to other refined oils owing to its usage in deep
frying of food items like meat and thus the reuse of oils should
be properly monitored for safety purposes (Payanan,
Leepipatpiboon, & Varanusupakul, 2013). Similarly, coconut oil
undergoing repeated heating, during frying and cooking purposes
was proved to have genotoxic effects (Srivastava et al., 2010).
Reuse of cooking oils for frying food items is a common practice
in street food items and favors PAHs formation. Hence, the general
awareness and preventive measures in systematic way needs to be
implemented in order to reduce relative toxicological risk factors
(Proietti, Frazzoli, & Mantovani, 2014).
4.2.5. Storage
Barrels used for the storage of alcoholic drinks like Whisky, Beer
etc. are traditionally and convectional charred (also known as raw
material toasting) for the aging process. In traditional method
direct contact with fire and wood occurs while in convection
method hot air is circulated in clean close environment. The toasting pattern of storage barrel determines the PAHs levels and the
amount was higher in traditional charring, at inner side and across
width of the charred stave, from where they migrate into the
drinks. High molecular weight spirits exhibited higher PAHs
amounts depending on barrel charring method and frequency of
reusing those barrels (Falcn & Gndara, 2005). Tank milk farms
located near emission sources may affect milk quality and its
derived products like infant foods (Salgueiro, Martnez-Carballo,
Garca-Falcn, Gonzlez-Barreiro, & Simal-Gndara, 2009;

Salgueiro, Martnez-carballo, Garca-falcn, & Simal-gndara,
2009). Similarly, plastic containers, concrete or asbestos tanks,
asphalt resin coated tanks, stainless steel stills or wood casks are
heat treated and used for processing, aging, storing or transporting
drinks like Cachacas for which direct correlation between contamination levels and storage vessels nature (glass jugs and plastic
tank) was established. Five and Six ring PAHs were found associative to cachacas stored in poly-ethylene tank only whereas low
molecular weight PAHs were found in glass jugs stored drink
(Machado et al., 2014).
5. Interventions to prevent/reduce PAHs
The concern raised by these processing contaminants has directed research towards interventions to reduce them and assure food
safety and quality. Some of these interventions are mentioned
below:
5.1. Choosing correct cooking method
Type of cooking method used also have a pronounce impact on
PAHs contamination. It was observed that in smoking process, the
product lacked the desired standards when cooked with uncontrolled traditional direct smoking which involved PAHs formation
through incomplete thermal organic material degradation making
the process non-environmental friendly, unsafe and un-optimized
food processing technology (Ledesma et al., 2015a, 2015b). Similarly, outdoor barbecuing is often influenced by weather conditions
and is an uncontrollable parameter for PAHs formation and needs
to be checked (Rose et al., 2015). Compared to open oven Flame
roasting for cooking Peking duck, traditional closed roasting
method seemed cleaner and safe, though its use was reduced
due to changes in consumer preferences (Lin et al., 2011). Since
incomplete combustion or pyrolysis is the main mechanism
involved in PAHs formation in most of the food items, it becomes
mandatory to avoid such conditions favoring its formation.
5.2. Controlling cooking procedure
The PAHs profile and levels are affected by various cooking factors. Proper checking of these parameters and following proper
procedures will prove beneficial in reducing these contaminants
in cooked or processed foods.
5.2.1. Distance
Sausages cooked at 9 cm distance from gas or fuel possessed
P
least 4PAHs (0.180.23 lg/kg) compared to sausages cooked at
distances like 4 and 7 cm (1.3347.14 lg/kg) and gas barbecued
burgers (12.2623.85 lg/kg) (Rose et al., 2015). Regardless of time
period, the Phenanthrene and Fluoranthene levels in meatballs
could be reduced at cooking conditions 3.706 kW/m2-16.5 cm
and 8.475 kW/m2-10.5 cm showing pronounced impact of distance
on PAHs formation (Kendirci et al., 2014).
5.2.2. Time and temperature
Charcoal grilling of lamb steak must be done at 77 C for 6 min
specifically to prevent BaP formation, meet safety issues and obtain
maximum safety (Kao et al., 2014). Similarly, smoke curing of fish
at longer durations (4 h) in any type of hardwood incorporating
traditional kiln makes it unfit for consumption due to high PAHs
levels (Essumang et al., 2013). Smoking of cheese has been advised;
to be performed below 300 C temperatures and smoked with liquid solution to reduce PAHs associated risk (Esposito et al., 2015).
Since PAHs formation shows link with timing and temperature
777
parameters also, it becomes important to regulate these factors

with respect to food item cooked and process used.
5.2.3. Cooking Intensity
Intensity of Infra-red cooking also affects the PAHs profile
and levels. Cooking meatball with infrared method at
8.475 kW/m2-4 min-10.5 cm conditions was found most suitable
as it resulted in low Chrysene and Pyrene levels. While at same
time and distance, BaP levels could be controlled to minimum
levels by reducing flux to a level of 3.706 kW/m2 (Kendirci et al.,
2014). Moreover, the PAHs levels in roasted coffee is guided by
process degree and intensity making it necessary to control
roasting conditions to avoid PAHs formation (Jimnez et al., 2014).
5.2.4. Use and re-use
As stated, edible oils use and re-use in cooking especially during
frying of food products may be accompanied by PAHs level increment and thus needs to be checked to minimize risk exposure
(Olatunji et al., 2014).
5.3. Choose suitable fuel and heat source
Fuel and heat source as mentioned above are contributing factors to PAHs generation. Replacing normal grilling method with
electric grilling and properly designed grills results in no PAHs formation in cooked products (Chung et al., 2011). Similarly, in case of
smoking the raw material amount used for smoke generation must
be monitored. It has been stated as per European standards that
Acacia charcoal based kiln smoking of shrimps ensures safety
and is superior to other fuels (Kpoclou et al., 2014). A reasonable
approach to reduce PAHs formation in smoked sausages (hot and
cold) is to substitute beech wood with suitable woodchips-spice
mix (Hitzel et al., 2012). Similarly, sugarcane bagasse proved best
and safe smoke generator for fish smoke curing process replacing
all other hardwood based fuels (Essumang et al., 2013).
5.4. Application of suitable ingredients
PAHs in meat and respective gravies were profiled and the
impact of addition of spices mainly onion and garlic on their levels
P
was elucidated. Initially, the
6PAHs levels in gravies and meat
products was 0.050.06 and 27.2 ng/g respectively, which was
reduced by 90% and 60% respectively through addition of 30 g of
onion/100 g meat. Similarly, incorporation of garlic at the rate of
15/100gm of meat resulted in 45% reduction in PAHs in meat
and 13.579% reduction in gravies (Janoszka, 2011). In another
study, it was observed that scavenging and anti-radical activities
of beer marinades like Pilsner beer, Black beer and non-alcoholic
Pilsner beer, exhibited respective 13%, 53% and 25% inhibitory
P
effect on 8PAHs, providing a better mitigation strategy (Viegas,
Pimentel, Carballo, Gandara, & Ferreira, 2014). Similarly, storing
or canning of mussels in pickle sauce (possessing paprika, vinegar,
vegetable oil, salt and other spices) reduced concentration of heavy
PAHs (56 rings) than in normal sauce made up of salt, water and
other spices (Salgueiro, Martnez-Carballo, Garca-Falcn et al.,
2009; Salgueiro, Martnez-carballo, Garca-falcn, & Simalgndara, 2009). Contrarily, seasoning and curing salts application
to raw material mixtures, used as feed for pigs reared for preparing
Portuguese sausages, slightly increased the PAHs levels in them
(Roseiro et al., 2011).
5.5. Modifying edible forms or methods
De-shelling of cocoa beans before carrying out other operations
reduced BaP content from 512 lg/kg (whole bean) to 0.81 lg/kg
(Misnawi, 2012). Chorizo used as ingredients in many dishes like
778
paella rice dish, chickpeas, lentils, white beans etc. contains casing,
not removed during these preparations and possess maximum
PAHs contamination due to smoking and other cooking practices.
Hence, it has been advised to remove meat product casing before
eating it so as to reduce risk exposure due to these contaminants
(Ledesma et al., 2014). Moreover, collagen casings must be used
while smoking sausages to reduce PAHs contamination and
enhance barrier to their entry (Skaljac et al., 2014). Similarly, in
another study, 3.4,88,1779 and 9937 lg/kg PAHs concentration
was observed in bread (Pan-de-Cea), cheeses (San-Simon-da Costa,
Idiazabal and Humus), sausage (Chorizo garlic pork) and paprika
(Pimenton de La Vera) respectively, and it was advised to remove
external part of cheeses and sausages before ingestion. Moreover,
use of paprika spice in small quantities will not pose much harm
despite of its high PAHs concentrations (Fasano, Yebra-pimentel,
& Martnez-carballo, 2016).
5.6. Monitoring processing aspects
5.6.1. Refining
A monitoring programme for oil refining industries needs to be
developed and application of activated charcoal to remove PAHs
should be strictly followed (Rojo Camargo et al., 2012).
5.6.2. Storing and canning
Studies conducted on cachaca drink has shown that its packaging in containers added to PAHs contamination and hence, the
storage and other containers like can etc. must be monitored properly (Machado et al., 2014).
5.6.3. Tracing
Alomirah et al. (2010) studied PAHs content in different vegetable oils and fats in Kuwait including the products imported
from different countries. High PAHs level was reported in Indian
imported products to Kuwait like sesame oil, mustard oil and
mixed vegetable oils. Maximum concentration of PAH8 was
found in mixed vegetable cooking oil samples imported from
China and Egypt i.e. 12 and 7.15 lg/kg respectively stating that
PAHs and its alkylated form must be properly monitored. Since,
trans-boundaries are involved, effective tracing back the product
may also help in checking quality and safety of food products.
5.7. Use alternatives
Protein rich food products undergoing thermal treatment e.g.
charcoal grilled meat are subjected to PAHs generation and deposition through pyrolysis and adsorption process respectively
(Farhadian, Jinap, Hanifah, & Zaidul, 2011). Preheating by steam
and microwave as well as aluminum and banana leaf based wrapping employed prior grilling reduced PAHs levels of meat sample.
BaP and other PAHs were not found in treatment subjected samples while the levels of Fluorene initially present in chicken and
beef samples reduced by 81% and 46% respectively (Farhadian
et al., 2011). Sorption of PAHs present in Meat by packaging film
or vacuum packaging or employing sugar smoking technique
rather than traditional method removes up to 50% PAHs (Nisha
et al., 2015). Similarly, for aged drinks, barrels manufactured with
convective toasting minimized PAHs associated risks and hazards
(Falcn & Gndara, 2005). Also, use of commercial liquid smoking
techniques rather than traditional methods assured food safety
(Esposito et al., 2015).
5.8. Innovative interventions
PAHs formed during smoke curing of fish was reduced to
2169% and removed by adsorption through a specially designed
traditional kiln possessing charcoal filters (Essumang et al., 2013).

A radiant plate hot smoker possessing heat exchanger with both
high and low temperature circuit, an innovative method, prevents product from direct PAHs exposure. Moreover, internal air
is used to dry and cook fishes (Raffray, Sebastian, & Collignan,
2015). It is thus reported that innovative smoking technologies
must be developed or simple modifications in smoking process
must be done to reduce PAHs levels in cooked food (Ledesma
et al., 2014). Similarly, refining itself cannot eliminate PAHs and
hence, innovative technology is required for effective processing
(Rojo Camargo et al., 2012). Studies thus need to be taken on this
aspect.
6. Gaps and future research prospects

The gaps and future research prospects identified through information obtained from different studies are as follows:
(a) It has been observed that cross contamination occurs while
studying different cooking methods simultaneously, adding
error and extrapolated PAHs levels. Study of single process
will aid in better understanding of PAHs formation mechanism and levels accompanied with the process (Rose et al.,
2015).
(b) Completely cooked food product is defined as per several
factors like individual, culture, food presentation etc. and no
generalized statement may be made for a cooked product
due to above factors. Hence, there is a need to identify, control
and mention the final or maximum temperature attained by
food item during cooking to develop a generalized concept
of cooked item. Regulated temperature and PAHs level study
at different cooking time intervals for a product will then provide deep insight in their relation and control measures.
(c) Many unauthorized or unintentional PAHs forming activities
are carried out during processing such as use of painted
cardboards, reuse of edible oils etc. by food vendors which
aids in PAHs contamination in food product. Exploring such
processes and creating awareness in this aspect will greatly
reduce PAHs dietary exposure (Ledesma et al., 2014).
(d) Many novel food processing techniques like ohmic heating,
infrared cooking etc. have developed. However, study of
PAHs levels produced in food items during these processes
is very limited.
(e) Need lies to incorporate a proper control during experimentation of PAHs profiling to provide better understanding of
formation mechanism. A control here means a food product
cooked by a method whose all parameters are known and
strictly maintained.
(f) System for identification of stage or source responsible for
PAHs formation or contamination respectively, throughout
a supply chain must be developed to meet out traceability
issues.
(g) Consumer preferences in food have drastically changed in
past few years for processed food owing to health awareness
and changed lifestyle. In this regard, risk exposure and its
management studies based on PAHs profiling of health
foods, canned food products and trans-boundary food items
needs to be addressed and implemented under proper
guidelines and regulations.
(h) Limited studies focused on possible interventions and innovations to prevent or reduce PAHs formation and form a
major research area to work out.
(i) Human response to PAHs may vary with their ability to bioaccumulate in adipose and subcutaneous tissues, metabolism, preferences etc. and uniform rule set may mislead
the dietary risk assessments (Olatunji et al., 2015). Additionally, expressing or relating biological effects of PAHs in food
with cigarette smoking exposure requires careful and cautious approach as internal exposure or risk will be governed
highly by administration route (gastric and pulmonary). The
need thus lies for development of proper regulations and
approach to measure risk (Golozar et al., 2012).
779
Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.
12.074.
References
7. Conclusions
Wide range of food products are present in different parts of the
world; each food product exhibit variations due to differences in
individual preferences, cooking practices, raw materials, ingredients, temperature etc. Even, same food product cooked by single
cooking method exhibits variations. All these factors contribute
difficulty in identification of striking point of PAHs formation in
that food product. Better understanding of PAHs formation mechanism can be achieved if the food products cooking method and
ingredients are standardized. Standardization of food product
apropos to above parameters will also help in providing minimum
risk level doses and setting of proper standards and regulations for
PAHs levels in that food product.
The present data on PAHs in food products and food groups is
very heterogeneous, widely spread and difficult to normalize, making the comparison between the food products tedious. Also, the
scope of studies is diverse such as focusing only on commercial
products, entire chain, single or many cooking practice, different
processing stages and diverse processed forms of food item,
becoming a limitation while comparing data. Standardization of
cooking method and product as mentioned above may remove
the constraint of comparing food products and will aid in categorizing them on basis of PAHs levels, mutagenicity levels and risk
exposure to humans.
Another constraint observed was lack of standard quantification
method and relative conversion factors to normalize data. Though
PAHs values in food are mainly reported in terms of lg/kg, however other units such as lg/l, ng/l, ng/g etc. were also used.
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etc. and correlation among these techniques is yet not illustrated
which may be a contributing factor for heterogeneity in data. The
need arises for standardizing quantification method and standardizing units.
Additionally, the results of different studies were reported for a
P
P
P
single or few detected PAHs viz.
4PAHs,
8PAHs,
13PAHs or
P
16PAHs making it difficult to normalize and address suitable toxicological evaluations. Though European Food Safety Authority
P
P
identified
8PAHs or
4PAHs as good toxicity indicators, but
reports on food PAHs levels show that these indicators solely fail
to give overall view of the exposure and also stated them as not
sufficient indicators to establish dietary exposure of PAHs.
Regulatory standards (minimum risk level doses or maximum
contaminant levels) do not exist for all types of food categories.
In this case, the comparison of PAHs concentration in food products, not having standards, is done with other related or nearest
product for dietary exposure risk assessment and the products
has been stated as safe. Moreover, general public food preferences
and eating habits are very different and complex, and very few
studies have targeted them. For better risk assessment and evaluations, it becomes necessary to focus the general public and their
food habits. Hence, there lies an immediate need for regulatory
standards covering different food products or groups and as per
different cooking practices.
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Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Formation and Occurrence in Processed Food 2016 Food Chemistry

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons formation and occurrence

L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781

Not yet evaluated

ambient PAHs exposure induces a 3.1 10

L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781

incremental life time

3. PAHs occurrence in different food groups

Main food products in a category

Detected PAHs sum range (lg/kg)

Others (butter, vegetable creams, margarines

Fruits and Vegetables

Cereal based products

Eggs, meat and related

Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013) and Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013)

Silva et al. (2011)

Tea and Coffee

Olesen et al. (2015) and Jimnez et al. (2014)

Falcn and Gndara (2005)

Medicinal products and

Plant based products

Yu et al. (2012), Martena et al. (2011), Vieira et al. (2010)

Animal oils and Bee Products

Infant based formulations

Targeting different age groups

Iwegbue et al., 2014

L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781

Martena et al. (2011)

Note: Details in Supplementary text 1.

L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781

bioactive compounds (Ciecierska & Obiedzinski, 2013; Muntean,

1.5913.6 lg/kg in bread baked at different temperatures. In

4.1.5. Ohmic-infrared cooking

L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781

4.1.6. Roasting and toasting

affected PAHs levels in toasted bread. Samples toasted with electric

The higher concentrations of combined PAHs

Average PAHs: 4.22 lg/kg Combined

Market coffee samples

Green coffee samples lacked BaP

Stanciu et al. (2008)

Refined sunflower oil

Levels of PAHs in cold pressed seed oil, roasted

Nederal et al. (2013)

L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781

2008). Turkish doner kebab prepared from meat fillets, roasted on

compounds (Ledesma et al., 2014). Solid phase components like

L. Singh et al. / Food Chemistry 199 (2016) 768781

80 smoked fish of 4 species

Foods in Abobo market

Spanish traditional smoked

Total PAHs: 101.81 lg/kg

Portuguese traditional meat and

BaP content: 5.87 lg/kg

Smoked cured muscle foods,

BaP content: 3.6 lg/kg

source. Processing method, batch and brands had a determining

Smoking produce more PAHs

Manda et al. (2012)

Lorenzo et al. (2011)

Roseiro, Gomes, Patarata,

Traditional smoke processing

Kitts, Chen, and Broda