Computer Communication & Collaboration (2013)

Submitted on 27/May/2013
DOIC: 2292-1036-2013-01-024-08

A Study on Anatomy of Smartphone

Muhammad Shiraz(Corresponding Author), Md Whaiduzzaman, Abdullah Gani
Mobile Cloud Computing Lab,
Faculty of computer Science and Information Technology,
University of Malaya, Malaysia
E-mail: muh_Shiraz@siswa.um.edu.my, wzaman110054@siswa.um.edu.my,
abdullahgani@um.edu.my
Abstract: The latest smartphones are attributed with the quality graphics, portable size and user
applications support and multimode connectivity features. Smartphone incorporatesthe capabilities
of both computing and communication devices. The latest distributed computing models are
focused on employing smartphone as a significant stakeholder for enabling complicated and
ubiquitous applications in the changing mobile computing world. Therefore, it is necessary to
understand the components of smartphone and its working behavior for operation in the cellular and
data networks. In this paper we study the anatomy of the smartphone by discussing its major
components such as application processor and baseband processor. We describe different
subcategories of smartphone components and highlight the behavior and significance of each
component for dual mode functionalities of smartphone. The paper provides tutorial for
understanding the architecture of the smartphone and exploring the functionalities of the dual
processors of smartphone which are used for accessing different types of wireless networks. It helps
in developing optimal procedures for deploying the components of the smartphone while accessing
cellular and data networks
Keywords: Smartphone, Application Processor, Baseband Processor, Anatomy

1 Introduction
Smartphone is a new generation high featured and multifunctional cell phone which has
become universal replacements for Personal Digital Assistants (PDA's). A smartphone incorporates
the functionalities of a handheld computer with the communication capabilities of a cell phone. It
provides multimodal connectivity and user customized applications support for local and distributed
services.
Ssmartphones have high end features such as email, a mini browser, external USB
options, large screen, GPS capability, and large memory capacity and basic PC functionality. Many
third party applications, tools and programs are installed by the user to make the smartphone all in
one device [1]. The latest smartphone has replaced different portable devices such PDAs, digital
cameras, Internet browsing devices, and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) [2]. Users dependency
on the latest smartphones is increasing rapidly in various domains such as e-businness, m-learning
and m-gamming, m-healthcare and mobile management information systems[3]. Smartphones are
predicted the dominant future computing devices.
Smartphone are quipped with two different processors for accessing communication network
and performing computation. Baseband Processor (BP) is a dedicated processor which is used for
employing GSM protocol stack, and Application Processor (AP) is a multicore general purpose
processor which is used for providng user interface and running applications. AP and BP
processor havetheir own memory (RAM and Flash), peripherals and clocking. However, due to the
demands for portable devices with rich functionalities, highly integrated products are produced by

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integratingthe AP and BP inside one physical package. Each processor is allocated isolated memory
access by assigning separate portions of the integrated RAM and Flash memory to each of the two
processors. Therefore each processor is provided access to its own memory address space [4].
The latest distributed computing models, such as Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC) and Cloud
Computing are focused on employing smartphone as a significant stakeholder for enabling
complicated and ubiquitous applications in the changing mobile computing world [5]. Therefore, it
is necessary to understand the components of smartphone and its working behavior for operating in
the cellular and data networks. This paper reviews the anatomy of smartphone by analyzing and
modeling major components of the smartphone. We discuss the working of each component from
different perspectives. The paper provides tutorial for understanding the architecture of the
smartphone and exploring the functionalities of the dual processors of smartphone which are used
for accessing different types of wireless networks. It helps in developing optimal procedures for
deploying the components of the smartphone while accessing cellular and data networks.
The paper is organized into four sections. Section 2 presents the architecture of GSM model
and the components associated with baseband processor. Section 3 discusses the architecture of
application processor and models the anatomy of smartphone. Section 4 draws conclusive remarks.

2 Baseband Processor
Baseband processor employs GSM protocol stack for enabling smartphone to access different
types of wireless network technologies such as WCDMA, EDGE, CDMA, Zifgbee, Bluetooth 4.0,
Wi-Fi, or LTE. BP manages radio communications and control functions such as signal modulation,
radio frequency shifting and encoding. Baseband processors were used earlier inordinary mobile
phone technology for accessing cellular network,however, its architecture has evolved in several
stages from analog to digital to 3G, and the latest development to LTE. Smartphone has a GSM
modem which interfaces with the GSM network [6]. The GSM modem consists of the following
parts.Figure 1, shows the block diagram of the parts of baseband processor associated with GSM.

Figure 1.Block Diagram of GSM Modem components

The baseband processor is differentiated into two sections; analog functions and digital
function;whereas the RF section remains as a whole circuit section.
2.1 Radio Frequency (RF) Section
Radio Frequency (RF) front end component of the BP is responsible for receiving and
transmitting on different frequencies. RF is employed as the mode of communication for all types of
wireless technologies; such as cordless phones, radar, ham radio, GPS, and radio and television

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 2013 Academic Research Centre of Canada

broadcasts. RF waves are electromagnetic waves which propagate at the speed of light, or 186,000
miles per second (300,000 km/s). The frequencies of RF waves, however, are slower as compared to
visible light; for that reason RF waves are invisible to the human eye. RF component is responsible
for the access of wireless cellular network and communication between smartphone and base
transceiver station (BTS). RF section is composed of a transceiver for transmission and reception of
signals and a power amplifier.
2.1.1 Transceiver
A smartphone employs transmitter and receiver circuits for correspondence with other mobile
phone. A transmitter circuit transmits radio signals in the air and a receiver is used to receive
transmissions (radiation) which are spread in the air by any transmitter on a specific frequency. The
two way communication is made possible by setting two transmitters and two receivers
synchronized in such a manner that a transmitter in a cell phone is synchronized with the frequency
of other cell phone's receiving frequency; similarly the transmitter of second cell phone is
synchronized with the receiving frequency of first cell phone. Figure 2, shows the basic operation
methods of RF section.

Figure 2. The Basic Operation Methods Of RF Section

2.1.2 The Analog Baseband (ABB)
The ABB part of a GSM modem is responsible to interface between the digital domain and the
analog domain of the GSM modem. ABB consists of the following components.
A/D and D/A section: Analog to Digital (A/D) and Digital to Analog (D/A) component is
responsible for modulation and demodulation; digital to analog and analog to digital conversions.
Control section: The control subsection acts as the controller of the input and output of any
analog and digital signal.
Power Management: The power management subsection is responsible for the management of
energy matter of the smart mobile devices. The power management subsections is composed of two
components; power distribution and switching section and charging subsection.
Power Distribution (PD):The power distribution subsection of ABB is used for the
distributionof desired voltage and current to the other sections of the smartphone. It takes power
from a battery (commonly 3.6 Volts) and in some places it converts or step down to various volts

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such as 2.8 V, 1.8V and 1.6V. On the other hand, PD steps up the voltage such as 4.8 V. Power
distribution section is commonly designed around a power IC (and integrated circuit) which is used
to distribute and regulate the voltage used in other components [12].
Charging Component: The charging component is responsible for charging the battery of
smartphone. It is composed of a charging IC which takes power from an external source and gives it
to battery of the smartphone. It uses 6.4 V, from an external battery charger and regulates it to 5.8 V
while giving it to battery.
Audio Codecs Section: AudiCodecs is responsible for the processing of analog and digital audio
signals received through microphone, earpiece speaker headset and ring tones and the vibrator
circuits. Figure 3, shows operational structure of analog baseband processor component.

Figure 3. Functioning Diagram of Analog Base Band Processor

2.1.3Digital Baseband Processor (BBP)
A baseband processor (also known as baseband radio processor, BP, or BBP) is a chip or part
of a chipin a smartphone that is responsible for managingall functions that require an antenna [7].
The digital BBPemploys the actual GSM protocols from Layer1 up to Layer 3 as well as higher
layers; such as a user interface in the case of the feature phone. In a smartphone, the BBP employs a
machine interface which is used by the AP. A normal BBP design includes a Digital Signal
Processor (DSP) for the lower half of Layer1, and a general purpose processor (MCU) for the upper
part of Layer1. DSP and MCU communicate by employing shared memory interface.
The shared memory contains both actual data, control information. The actual data is processed
by application processor; whereas, control information and parameters describe the action to be
taken with the respective data. The MCU instructs the DSP to perform decoding for a particular
GSM burst type on the receiving side, after which the DSP receives I/Q samples from the ABB, and
performs detection/demodulation/decoding and the result of the operation (including any decoded
data) is reported back to the MCU. For the transmit path, the MCU presents the transmittable data
and auxiliary information to the DSP, which then takes care of encoding and sends the
corresponding burst bits to the ABB (remember, most ABB devices take care of the modulation to
reduce DSP load) [4]. The Baseband Processor (MCU) cores have the typical set of peripherals of
any Advanced RISC Machine (ARM 7) based microcontroller, such as RTC, UARTs for RS 232
and IrDA, SPI, I2C, SD/MMC card controller, keypad scan controller and USB device. The
additional GSM specific peripherals are: GPRS crypto unit, GSM TDMA timers and smart card
reader interface for the SIM card. The MCU generally runs a very small real time operating system

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 2013 Academic Research Centre of Canada

(RTOS) such as Nucleus, VxWorks or the L4 microkernel [2]. Figure 4 shows the components of
digital baseband processor for mobile device.

Figure 4.Components of the Digital Baseband Processor

Recently, a number of multi-SIM mobile devices entered the market such as Dual-SIM or
Triple-SIM. Multi-SIM functionality of the smartphone is implemented in different ways. One
way of implementing the dual SIM operating procedure of the mobile devices is that a multiplexer
is employed on the mobile device, which allows electrical switching between multiple SIM card
slots. This is technique is similar to replacing the SIM card in a phone, just without the manual
process of mechanically removing/inserting the card. As a result, mobile user can use one of the two
SIMs at any time. The second method of implementing dual SIM functionalities on the smartphone
is by employing two complete phones in one case. Mobile device contains two full GSM phone
chipsets, i.e. 2 antennas, 2 RF frontends, 2 analog basebands, 2 digital basebands. Dual sets are
implemented in such a way so that one of the two basebands does not have keypad or display and is
simply a GSM modem connected via serial line to the other baseband processor. A smartphone is a
GSM modem connected to a PDA in one case, similarly a Dual-SIM phone is a GSM modem
connected to a ordinary phone in one case [4].

3 Application Processor
Smartphone is equipped with a dedicated Application Processor (AP) for performing
computation. The AP is a special type of System on a Chip (SoC) which supports a number of
multimedia related features such as web browsing, email, multimedia entertainment and games.
Application processor enables smartphone to run autonomous operating systems [13] and employ
customized user applications. The application processor provides additional processing capabilities
for performing such taskswith minimal power consumption [8]. A smartphone runs different types
of operating system such as Android, Windows Mobile and Symbian [9, 13]. Application processor
processes The multimedia contents which are either delivered to the consumer's multimedia device,
or produced by the consumers multimedia device are processed by the application processor with
the intention of sharing the content with others or storing it for later use [10]. The application
processor is comprised of the following vital components.
1. Processor Core (ARM926EJS)
2. Multimedia Modules
3. Wireless Interfaces
4. Device Interfaces

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3.1 Processor Core
Smartphone application processor is Advanced RISC Machine (ARM) based RISC processor
which is specially optimized for application for minimal power consumption (measured as joules
per instruction).
3.1.1 Multimedia Modules
Multimedia modules perform multimedia related computation; for that reason, they are
hardware implementation of one or more multimedia standards. Multimedia related operations are
often time consuming; therefore, single purpose hardware is generally better than general purpose
hardware in order to save power. Application processor is composed of the following modules.
1. JPEG module for decoding pictures for viewing on the LCD screen, and encoding
pictures taken with the camera, for later viewing or for sending out on the network.
2. MPEG module decoding streaming live video, video on demand, and incoming video
conferencing data, and encoding video taken with the video camera for later viewing, or for
sending out via the network (for video sharing or conferencing)
3. Audio modules allow the device to act as an MP3 (music) player, or encode/decode voice
data.
Smartphone contain Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) for rapidly manipulating multimedia
functions. It is a specialized electronic circuit which is designed to speedily operate and change
memory for accelerating the creation of images in a frame buffer which is intended for output to
display. The highly parallel structure of modern GPUs make them highly effective than
general-purpose CPUs for algorithms wherein large blocks of data is processed in parallel [14]. The
role of the GPU is to manage 2D and 3D graphics, video capture, playback, deliver mobile gaming,
and provide a rich user interface.
3.1.2 Wireless Interfaces
The wireless modules found within an application processor enable the smartphone to
communicate with the cellular network and data network (internet). The digital components of the
wireless communication scheme are integrated into the chip as part of the application processor,
whereas the analog parts are placed off-chip. A smartphone employs the following wireless
modules.
1. Bluetooth Module allows for communication with peripherals such as headset, or other
nearby mobile devices.
2. WiFi module enables smartphone to communicate with local 802.11 network.
3. GSM modules enable smartphone to communicate with the cellular network for both vice
communication and access to internet.
Figure 5 shows smartphone device
wireless network interfaces.

Figure 5. Smartphone Network

Components

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 2013 Academic Research Centre of Canada

3.1.3 Device Interfaces
Devices interfaces enable the smartphone to communicate with any peripheral device.
Examples of the peripheral devices attached to an application processor include; LCD screen,
keypad, camera, Universal Serial Bus (USB), Secure Digital (SD), Multimedia Card (MMC). Each
type of peripheral device is connected to application processor through a separate interface. For
example display controller interface allow for convenient communication between the display and
other modules. Similarly camera interface allow for interaction between the camera and other
digitial modules integrated with SoC. USB interface facilities the connection of external devices
on USB port. SD/MMC interface enables smartphone to connect external memory devices.
Examples of the application processor are ARM Cortex-A9, Samsung S5PC100, and TIOMAP4
Platform, Apple A4. Figure 6 shows the anatomy of smartphone.
Smartphone

Application Processor

DRAM

BaseBand Processor

Digital Baseband
Processor

Flash Memory

Analog Baseband
Processor

SD/MMC Card

SRAM

ADC/DAC

Keypad

SIM Card

Control A/D, D/A

IrDA

Power Manament

Radio Frequency

Transceiver
Power Amplifier

Camera
Power Battery
Bluetooth

Power Distributor

GPRS

Charger

Wi-Fi

Audio Codec
Speaker

GPS

Head Phone

USB
FM Radio
LCD Screeen
Touch Screen Sensor
Orientation Sensor

Figure 6.Anatomy of Smartphone

Smartphones contain highly integrated computing and communication components. For
instance, main chips include the CPU, GPU, other specialized coprocessors, motherboard buses,
memory controller, LCD controller, sound chipset, CMOS camera interface, on-board memory, and
several peripheral devices (such as Cell, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth radios). The application processor
is the chip responsible for general processing (like a CPU and motherboard chipset of desktop
computer) and can have several other functions built into it; whereas, the baseband processor is
responsible for cellular wireless communications [11] which include all functions that require an
antenna.

4 Conclusion
Smartphone is a portable device that encapsulates computing capabilities and cellular network
access functionalities in a single integrated multicore processor. In modern smartphones, dual core
processor is composed of two processors; each one with a separate RAM and flash memory access

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and distinct objectives. The baseband processor is responsible for radio access of the wireless
network environment and the application processor is specially designed for the execution of
software stack on smartphone. Application processor is assisted by some specialized multimedia
modules in the execution of multimedia functions such as audio, and video with optimal computing
resources consumption. A hardware interface bridges the functionalities gap between application
processor and baseband processor.

Acknowledgments: This research is carried out as part of the Mobile Cloud Computing
research project funded by the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education under the
University
of
Malaya
High
Impact
Research
Grant
with
reference
UM.C/HIR/MOHE/FCSIT/03.

References
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next? (Accessed on 15th December 2011) [Online Available] http://www.pcmag.com/article2/
[4] Welt. H. (2010), Anatomy of contemporary GSM cellphone hardware, April 2010,
http://laforge.gnumonks.org/papers/gsm_phone-anatomy-latest.pdf Accessed on 15th January
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[5] Shiraz. M., Gani. A., Khokhar. H. R., Buyya. R.(2012), A Review on Distributed Application
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SURV.2012.111412.00045, November 2012.
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Accessed on 14th January 2012
[7] Baseband_processor (2012), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseband_processor Accessed on 14th
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[14] Atkin. D.(2013), Computer Shopper: The Right GPU for You. Accessed on 15th June 2013.

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CELL-PHONE TECHNOLOGY
Wireless phones which receive their signals from towers. A cell is typically the area (several
miles) around a tower in which a signal can be received.
Cell phones provide an incredible array of functions. Depending on the cell-phone model, you
can:
Store contact information
Make task or to-do lists
Keep track of appointments and set reminders
Use the built-in calculator for simple math
Send or receive e-mail
Get information (news, entertainment, stock quotes) from the internet
Play games
Watch TV
Send text messages
Integrate other devices such as PDAs, MP3 players and GPS receivers
A cell phone is a full-duplex device. That means that you use one frequency for talking and a
second, separate frequency for listening. Both people on the call can talk at once.
Division of a city into small cells allows extensive frequency reuse across a city, so that
millions of people can use cell phones simultaneously. Cell phones operate within cells, and they
can switch cells as they move around. Cells give cell phones incredible range. Someone using a
cell phone can drive hundreds of miles and maintain a conversation the entire time because of the
cellular approach. Each cell has a base station that consists of a tower and a small building
containing the radio equipment.

A single cell in an analog cell-phone system uses one-seventh of the available duplex voice
channels. That is, each cell is using one-seventh of the available channels so it has a unique set of
frequencies and there are no collisions:
A cell-phone carrier typically gets 832 radio frequencies to use in a city.
Each cell phone uses two frequencies per call -- a duplex channel -- so there are typically
395 voice channels per carrier. (The other 42 frequencies are used for control channels)
Therefore, each cell has about 56 voice channels available. In other words, in any cell, 56 people
can be talking on their cell phone at one time. Analog cellular systems are considered
first-generation mobile technology, or 1G. With digital transmission methods (2G), the number
of available channels increases. For example, a TDMA-based digital system (more on TDMA
later) can carry three times as many calls as an analog system, so each cell has about 168
channels available.
Cell phones have low-power transmitters in them. Many cell phones have two signal strengths:
0.6 watts and 3 watts. The base station is also transmitting at low power. Low-power transmitters
have two advantages:
The transmissions of a base station and the phones within its cell do not make it very
far outside that cell. Therefore, 2 different cells can reuse the same 56 frequencies.
Hence, the same frequencies can be reused extensively across the city.
The power consumption of the cell phone, which is normally battery-operated, is
relatively low. Low power means small batteries, and this is what has made handheld
cellular phones possible.
The cellular approach requires a large number of base stations in a city of any size. A typical
large city can have hundreds of towers. But because so many people are using cell phones, costs
remain low per user. Each carrier in each city also runs one central office called the Mobile
Telephone Switching Office (MTSO). This office handles all of the phone connections to the
normal land-based phone system, and controls all of the base stations in the region.

All cell phones have special codes associated with them. These codes are used to identify the
phone, the phone's owner and the service provider. The various Cell Phone Codes used are as
follows:
1. Electronic Serial Number (ESN) : It is a unique 32-digit number programmed into the
phone when it is manufactured.
2. Mobile Identification Number (MIN) : A 10-digit number derived from the phones
number
3. System Identification Code (SID) : A unique 5-digit number that is assigned to each
carrier by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
ESN is a permanent part of the phone while both MIN and SID codes are programmed into
the phone when a service plan is purchased and the phone is activated.
Some of the necessary terminologies for cell-phone connection are described:
1. Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) : The switching office that all base
station cell sites connect to. It is a sophisticated computer that monitors all cellular calls,
keeps track of the location of all cellular-equipped vehicles traveling in the system,
arranges hand-offs, keeps track of billing information, etc. The MTSO in turn interfaces
to the PSTN by connection to a Control Office.
2. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) : It is the network of the world's public
circuit-switched telephone networks, in much the same way that the Internet is the
network of the world's public IP-based packet-switched networks. Originally a network
of fixed-line analogue telephone systems, the PSTN is now almost entirely digital, and
now includes mobile as well as fixed telephones.
3.

If you have a cell phone, you turn it on and someone tries to call you. Here is what happens to
the call:
When you first power up the phone, it listens for an SID on the control channel. The
control channel is a special frequency that the phone and base station use to talk to one
another about things like call set-up and channel changing. If the phone cannot find any
control channels to listen to, it knows it is out of range and displays a "no service"
message.
When it receives the SID, the phone compares it to the SID programmed into the phone.
If the SIDs match, the phone knows that the cell it is communicating with is part of its
home system.
Along with the SID, the phone also transmits a registration request, and the MTSO
keeps track of your phone's location in a database -- this way, the MTSO knows which
cell you are in when it wants to ring your phone.
The MTSO gets the call, and it tries to find you. It looks in its database to see which
cell you are in.
The MTSO picks a frequency pair that your phone will use in that cell to take the call.
The MTSO communicates with your phone over the control channel to tell it which
frequencies to use, and once your phone and the tower switch on those frequencies, the
call is connected. Now, you are talking by two-way radio to a friend.
As you move toward the edge of your cell, your cell's base station notes that your signal
strength is diminishing. Meanwhile, the base station in the cell you are moving toward

(which is listening and measuring signal strength on all frequencies, not just its own
one-seventh) sees your phone's signal strength increasing. The two base stations
coordinate with each other through the MTSO, and at some point, your phone gets a
signal on a control channel telling it to change frequencies. This hand off switches your
phone to the new cell.

If you're on the phone and you move from one cell to another -- but the cell you move into is
covered by another service provider, not yours. Instead of dropping the call, it'll actually be
handed off to the other service provider.
If the SID on the control channel does not match the SID programmed into your phone, then the
phone knows it is roaming. The MTSO of the cell that you are roaming in contacts the MTSO of
your home system, which then checks its database to confirm that the SID of the phone you are
using is valid. Your home system verifies your phone to the local MTSO, which then tracks your
phone as you move through its cells. All of this happens within seconds.
On most phones, the word "roam" will come up on your phone's screen when you leave your
provider's coverage area and enter another's. If you want to roam internationally, you'll need a

phone that will work both at home and abroad. Different countries use different cellular access
technologies.

ANALOG CELL-PHONES (FIRST GENERATION)

In 1983, the analog cell-phone standard called AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) was
approved by the FCC and first used in Chicago. AMPS uses a range of frequencies between 824
megahertz (MHz) and 894 MHz for analog cell phones. In order to encourage competition and
keep prices low, the U. S. government required the presence of two carriers in every market,
known as A and B carriers. One of the carriers was normally the local-exchange carrier (LEC),
a fancy way of saying the local phone company.
Carriers A and B are each assigned 832 frequencies: 790 for voice and 42 for data. A pair of
frequencies (one for transmit and one for receive) is used to create one channel. The frequencies
used in analog voice channels are typically 30 kHz wide -- 30 kHz was chosen as the standard
size because it gives you voice quality comparable to a wired telephone.
The transmit and receive frequencies of each voice channel are separated by 45 MHz to keep
them from interfering with each other. Each carrier has 395 voice channels, as well as 21 data
channels to use for housekeeping activities like registration and paging.
A version of AMPS known as Narrowband Advanced Mobile Phone Service (NAMPS)
incorporates some digital technology to allow the system to carry about three times as many
calls as the original version. Even though it uses digital technology, it is still considered analog.
AMPS and NAMPS only operate in the 800-MHz band and do not offer many of the features
common in digital cellular service, such as e-mail and Web browsing.

DIGITAL CELL-PHONES (SECOND GENERATION)

They use the same radio technology as analog phones, but they use it in a different way. Analog
systems do not fully utilize the signal between the phone and the cellular network -- analog
signals cannot be compressed and manipulated as easily as a true digital signal. Digital phones
convert your voice into binary information (1s and 0s) and then compress it. This compression
allows between three and 10 digital cell-phone calls to occupy the space of a single analog call.
Many digital cellular systems rely on frequency-shift keying (FSK) to send data back and forth
over AMPS. FSK uses two frequencies, one for 1s and the other for 0s, alternating rapidly
between the two to send digital information between the cell tower and the phone. Clever
modulation and encoding schemes are required to convert the analog information to digital,
compress it and convert it back again while maintaining an acceptable level of voice quality.
Hence, digital cell phones have to contain a lot of processing power.

INSIDE A CELL-PHONE
A basic digital cell phone contains just a few individual parts:
A circuit board containing the brains of the phone
An antenna
An Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) screen
A keyboard
A microphone
A speaker
A battery
The circuit board is the heart of the system and contains several chips. The analog-to-digital and
digital-to-analog conversion chips translate the outgoing audio signal from analog to digital and
the incoming signal from digital back to analog. The digital signal processor (DSP) is a highly
customized processor designed to perform signal-manipulation calculations at high speed. The
microprocessor handles all the functions for the keyboard and display, deals with command and
control signaling with the base station and also coordinates the rest of the functions on the
board.The Read Only Memory (ROM) and Flash Memory chips provide storage for the phone's
operating system and customizable features, such as the phone directory. The Radio Frequency
(RF) and power section handles power management and recharging, and also deals with the
hundreds of FM channels. Finally, the RF amplifiers handle signals traveling to and from the
antenna.
The display has grown considerably in size as the number of features in cell phones have
increased. Most current phones offer built-in phone directories, calculators and games. And
many of the phones incorporate some type of PDA or Web browser. Some phones store certain
information, such as the SID and MIN codes, in internal Flash memory, while others use external
cards. Cell phones have tiny speakers and microphones.

CELL-PHONE TOWER
A cell-phone tower is typically a steel pole or lattice structure that rises hundreds of feet into the
air. The box houses the radio transmitters and receivers that let the tower communicate with
the phones. The radios transmitters and receivers connect with the antennae on the tower through
a set of thick cables. The tower and all of the cables and equipment at the base of the tower are
heavily grounded.

HOW VIBRATOR WORKS IN CELLPHONE

If you have a cell phone or a pager, then you know that having it ring in the middle of a movie or
performance is enough to get you killed in some cities. Vibrating devices that quietly replace the
ringer are therefore life-saving devices that are an important part of urban survival!

Figure below shows the inside of a small toy which vibrates heavily similar to a cellphone
device.

Inside the control unit is a small DC motor which drives the gear. Attached to the gear, there is a
small weight. This weight is about the size of a stack of 5 U.S. nickels, and it is mounted
off-center on the gear. When the motor spins the gear/weight combination (at 100 to 150 RPM),
the off-center mounting causes a strong vibration. Inside a cell phone or pager there is the same
sort of mechanism in a much smaller version.

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN SECOND GENERATION

CELL-PHONES
There are four common technologies used by 2G cell-phone networks for transmitting
information:
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) : FDMA separates the spectrum into
distinct voice channels by splitting it into uniform chunks of bandwidth. Each call
sends its signal at a different frequency within the available band. FDMA is used mainly

for analog transmission.

2.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) : TDMA is the access method used by the
Electronics Industry Alliance and the Telecommunications Industry Association for
Interim Standard 54 (IS-54) and Interim Standard 136 (IS-136). Using TDMA, a
narrow band that is 30 kHz wide and 6.7 milliseconds long is split time-wise into three
time slots. Each conversation gets the signal for one-third of the time. This is possible
because voice data that has been converted to digital information is compressed so that it
takes up significantly less transmission space. Therefore, TDMA has three times the
capacity of an analog system using the same number of channels. TDMA systems
operate in either the 800-MHz (IS-54) or 1900-MHz (IS-136) frequency bands.

3.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) : CDMA takes an entirely different approach
from TDMA. CDMA, after digitizing data, spreads it out over the entire available
bandwidth. Multiple calls are overlaid on each other on the channel, with each assigned
a unique sequence code. CDMA is a form of spread spectrum, which simply means that
data is sent in small pieces over a number of the discrete frequencies available for use at
any time in the specified range.

4.

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) : GSM implements TDMA in a

somewhat different and incompatible way from IS-136. GSM systems use encryption to
make phone calls more secure. GSM operates in the 900-MHz and 1800-MHz bands in
Europe and Asia and in the 850-MHz and 1900-MHz band in the United States. It is
used in digital cellular and PCS (Personal Communication Services)-based systems.
GSM is also the basis for Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (IDEN), a popular
system introduced by Motorola and used by Nextel.

PCS was designed from the ground up for greater user mobility. PCS has smaller cells and
therefore requires a larger number of antennas to cover a geographic area. PCS phones
use frequencies between 1.85 and 1.99 GHz (1850 MHz to 1990 MHz).
Technically, cellular systems in the United States operate in the 824-MHz to 894-MHz
frequency bands; PCS operates in the 1850-MHz to 1990-MHz bands. And while it is
based on TDMA, PCS has 200-kHz channel spacing and eight time slots instead of the
typical 30-kHz channel spacing and three time slots found in digital cellular.
GSM is the international standard in Europe, Australia and much of Asia and Africa. In
covered areas, cell-phone users can buy one phone that will work anywhere where the
standard is supported. To connect to the specific service providers in these different
countries, GSM users simply switch subscriber identification module (SIM) cards. SIM
cards are small removable disks that slip in and out of GSM cell phones. They store all the
connection data and identification numbers you need to access a particular wireless service

provider.
The 850MHz/1900-MHz GSM phones used in the United States are not compatible with
the international system. If you live in the United States and need to have cell-phone
access when you're overseas, you can either buy a tri-band or quad-band GSM phone and
use it both at home and when traveling or just buy a GSM 900MHz/1800MHz cell phone
for traveling.

MULTI-BAND VS. MULTI-MODE CELL-PHONES

Multiple band - A phone that has multiple-band capability can switch frequencies. For
example, a dual-band TDMA phone could use TDMA services in either an 800-MHz or
a 1900-MHz system. A quad-band GSM phone could use GSM service in the 850-MHz,
900-MHz, 1800-MHz or 1900-MHz band.
2. Multiple mode - In cell phones, "mode" refers to the type of transmission technology
used. So, a phone that supported AMPS and TDMA could switch back and forth as
needed. It's important that one of the modes is AMPS -- this gives you analog service if
you are in an area that doesn't have digital support.
3. Multiple band/Multiple mode - It allows you to switch between frequency bands and
transmission modes as needed.
1.

Changing bands or modes is done automatically by phones that support these options. Usually
the phone will have a default option set, such as 1900-MHz TDMA, and will try to connect at
that frequency with that technology first. If it supports dual bands, it will switch to 800 MHz if it
cannot connect at 1900 MHz. And if the phone supports more than one mode, it will try the
digital mode(s) first, then switch to analog.
You can find both dual-mode and tri-mode phones. The term "tri-mode" can be deceptive. It
may mean that the phone supports two digital technologies, such as CDMA and TDMA, as well
as analog. In that case, it is a true tri-mode phone. But it can also mean that it supports one
digital technology in two bands and also offers analog support.

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN THIRD GENERATION

CELL-PHONES
3G technology is intended for the true multimedia cell phone -- typically called smartphones -and features increased bandwidth and transfer rates to accommodate Web-based applications and
phone-based audio and video files. 3G comprises several cellular access technologies as follows:
1. CDMA2000 : based on 2-G Code Division Multiple Access
2. Wideband Code Division Multiple Access-UMTS (WCDMA-UMTS) : In W-CDMA
interface different users can simultaneously transmit at different data rates and data rates
can even vary in time. UMTS networks need to support all current second generation
services and numerous new applications and services.

3.

Time Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access (TD-SCDMA) :

TD-SCDMA uses the Time Division Duplex (TDD) mode, which transmits uplink
traffic (traffic from the mobile terminal to the base station) and downlink traffic (traffic
from the base station to the terminal) in the same frame in different time slots. That
means that the uplink and downlink spectrum is assigned flexibly, dependent on the type
of information being transmitted. When asymmetrical data like e-mail and internet are
transmitted from the base station, more time slots are used for downlink than for uplink.
A symmetrical split in the uplink and downlink takes place with symmetrical services
like telephony.

PROBLEMS WITH CELL-PHONES

Generally, non-repairable internal corrosion of parts results if you get the phone wet or
use wet hands to push the buttons. Consider a protective case. If the phone does get wet,
be sure it is totally dry before you switch it on so you can try to avoid damaging internal
parts.
2. Extreme heat in a car can damage the battery or the cell-phone electronics. Extreme cold
may cause a momentary loss of the screen display.
3. Analog cell phones suffer from a problem known as "cloning." A phone is "cloned"
when someone steals its ID numbers and is able to make fraudulent calls on the owner's
account. When your phone makes a call, it transmits the ESN and MIN to the network at
the beginning of the call. The MIN/ESN pair is a unique tag for your phone -- this is
how the phone company knows who to bill for the call. When your phone transmits its
MIN/ESN pair, it is possible for nefarious sorts to listen (with a scanner) and capture the
pair. With the right equipment, it is fairly easy to modify another phone so that it
contains your MIN/ESN pair, which allows the nefarious individual to make calls on
your account.
1.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE
Most of us experience electromagnetic interference on a fairly regular basis. For example:

If you put your cell phone down on your desk near the computer, you can hear loud
static in your computer's speakers every time the phone and the tower handshake. In the
same way, your car's stereo produces loud static whenever you make a call on your cell
phone.
When you dial a number on your home's wireless phone, you can hear the number being
dialed through the baby monitor.
It is not uncommon for a truck to go by and have its CB radio overwhelm the FM station
you am listening to.
Most of us have come across motors that cause radio or TV static.

None of these things, technically, should be happening. For example, a truck's CB radio is not
transmitting on the FM radio bands, so your radio should never hear CB signals. However, all
transmitters have some tendency to transmit at lower power on harmonic side bands, and this is
how the FM radio picks up the CB. The same thing holds true for the wireless phone crossing
over to the baby monitor. In the case of the cell phone affecting the computer's speakers, the wire
to each speaker is acting like an antenna, and it picks up side bands in the audible range.
These are not dire problems -- they are just a nuisance. But notice how common they are. In an
airplane, the same phenomena can cause big trouble.
An airplane contains a number of radios for a variety of tasks. There is a radio that the pilots use
to talk to ground control and air traffic control (ATC). There is another radio that the plane uses
to disclose its position to ATC computers. There are radar units used for guidance and weather
detection, and so on. All of these radios are transmitting and receiving information at specific
frequencies. If someone were to turn on a cell phone, the cell phone would transmit with a great
deal of power (up to 3 watts). If it happens to create interference that overlaps with radio
frequencies the plane is using, then messages between people or computers may be garbled. If
one of the wires in the plane has damaged shielding, there is some possibility of the wire picking
up the phone's signals just like my computer's speakers do. That could create faulty messages
between pieces of equipment within the plane.
Many hospitals have installed wireless networks for equipment networking. For example, in
case of a heart monitor, the black antenna sticking out of the top of the monitor connects it back
to the nursing station via a wireless network. If you use your cell phone and it creates
interference, it can disrupt the transmissions between different pieces of equipment. That is true
even if you simply have the cell phone turned on -- the cell phone and tower handshake with
each other every couple of minutes, and your phone sends a burst of data during each handshake.
The prohibition on laptops and CD players during takeoff and landing is addressing the same
issue, but the concerns here might fall into the category of "better safe than sorry." A poorly
shielded laptop could transmit a fair amount of radio energy at its operating frequency, and this
could, theoretically, create a problem.

CELL PHONE JAMMERS

It's great to be able to call anyone at anytime. Unfortunately, restaurants, movie theaters,
concerts, shopping malls and churches all suffer from the spread of cell phones because not all
cell-phone users know when to stop talking. Who hasn't seethed through one side of a
conversation about an incredibly personal situation as the talker shares intimate details with his
friend as well as everyone else in the area?
Disrupting a cell phone is the same as jamming any other type of radio communciation. A cell
phone works by communicating with its service network through a cell tower or base station.
Cell towers divide a city into small areas, or cells. As a cell-phone user drives down the street,
the signal is handed from tower to tower.
A jamming device transmits on the same radio frequencies as the cell phone, disrupting the
communication between the phone and the cell-phone base station in the tower. It's a called a
denial-of-service attack. The jammer denies service of the radio spectrum to the cell-phone
users within range of the jamming device.

Jamming devices overpower the cell phone by transmitting a signal on the same frequency and at
a high enough power that the two signals collide and cancel each other out. Cell phones are
designed to add power if they experience low-level interference, so the jammer must recognize
and match the power increase from the phone.
Some jammers block only one of the frequencies used by cell phones, which has the effect of
blocking both. The phone is tricked into thinking there is no service because it can receive only
one of the frequencies. Less complex devices block only one group of frequencies, while

sophisticated jammers can block several types of networks at once to head off dual-mode or
tri-mode phones that automatically switch among different network types to find an open signal.
Some of the high-end devices block all frequencies at once, and others can be tuned to specific
frequencies.
Although different cellular systems process signals differently, all cell-phone networks use radio
signals that can be interrupted. GSM, used in digital cellular and PCS-based systems, operates in
the 900-MHz and 1800-MHz bands in Europe and Asia and in the 1900-MHz (sometimes
referred to as 1.9-GHz) band in the United States. Jammers can broadcast on any frequency and
are effective against AMPS, CDMA, TDMA, GSM, PCS, DCS,iDEN and Nextel systems.
Old-fashioned analog cell phones and today's digital devices are equally susceptible to jamming.
The actual range of the jammer depends on its power and the local environment, which may
include hills or walls of a building that block the jamming signal. Low-powered jammers block
calls in a range of about 30 feet (9 m). Higher-powered units create a cell-free zone as large as a
football field. Units used by law enforcement can shut down service up to 1 mile (1.6 km) from
the device.

CELL-PHONE JAMMER

Electronically speaking, cell-phone jammers are very basic devices. The simplest just have an
on/off switch and a light that indicates it's on. More complex devices have switches to activate
jamming at different frequencies. Components of a jammer include:
1. Antenna : Every jamming device has an antenna to send the signal. Some are
contained within an electrical cabinet. On stronger devices, antennas are external to
provide longer range and may be tuned for individual frequencies.
2. Circuitry : The main electronic components of a jammer are
a) Voltage-controlled oscillator - Generates the radio signal that will
interfere with the cell phone signa
b) Tuning circuit - Controls the frequency at which the jammer broadcasts its
signal by sending a particular voltage to the oscillator
c) Noise generator - Produces random electronic output in a specified
frequency range to jam the cell-phone network signal (part of the tuning
circuit)
d) RF amplification (gain stage) - Boosts the power of the radio frequency
output to high enough levels to jam a signal

1.

Power Supply : Smaller jamming devices are battery operated. Some look like cell
phone and use cell-phone batteries. Stronger devices can be plugged into a standard
outlet or wired into a vehicle's electrical system.

During a hostage situation, police can control when and where a captor can make a phone call.
Police can block phone calls during a drug raid so suspects can't communicate outside the area.
Cell-phone jammers can be used in areas where radio transmissions are dangerous, (areas with a
potentially explosive atmosphere), such as chemical storage facilities or grain elevators. The
TRJ-89 jammer from Antenna System & Supplies Inc. carries its own electrical generator and
can block cellular communications in a 5-mile (8-km) radius.
Corporations use jammers to stop corporate espionage by blocking voice transmissions and
photo transmissions from camera phones. On the more questionable end of the legitimacy
spectrum, there are rumors that hotel chains install jammers to block guests' cell-phone usage
and force them to use in-room phones at high rates.

CELL-PHONE RADIATIONS
There's a lot of talk in the news these days about whether or not cell phones emit enough
radiation to cause adverse health effects. The concern is that cell phones are often placed close to
or against the head during use, which puts the radiation in direct contact with the tissue in the
head. There's evidence supporting both sides of the argument.
When talking on a cell phone, a transmitter takes the sound of your voice and encodes it onto a
continuous sine wave.A sine wave is just a type of continuously varying wave that radiates out
from the antenna and fluctuates evenly through space. Sine waves are measured in terms of
frequency. Once the encoded sound has been placed on the sine wave, the transmitter sends the
signal to the antenna, which then sends the signal out.
Cell phones have low-power transmitters in them. A handheld cell phone operates on about 0.75
to 1 watt of power. The position of a transmitter inside a phone varies depending on the
manufacturer, but it is usually in close proximity to the phone's antenna. The radio waves that
send the encoded signal are made up of electromagnetic radiation propagated by the antenna.
The function of an antenna in any radio transmitter is to launch the radio waves into space; in the
case of cell phones, these waves are picked up by a receiver in the cell-phone tower.
When talking on a cell phone, most users place the phone against the head. In this position, there
is a good chance that some of the radiation will be absorbed by human tissue. All cell phones
emit some amount of electromagnetic radiation. Given the close proximity of the phone to the
head, it is possible for the radiation to cause some sort of harm to the user. What is being debated
in the scientific and political arenas is just how much radiation is considered unsafe, and if there
are any potential long-term effects of cell-phone radiation exposure.

There are two types of electromagnetic radiation:

1. Ionizing radiation - This type of radiation contains enough electromagnetic energy to
strip atoms and molecules from the tissue and alter chemical reactions in the body.
Gamma rays and X-rays are two forms of ionizing radiation. We know they cause
damage, which is why we wear a lead vest when X-rays are taken of our bodies.
2. Non-ionizing radiation - Non-ionizing radiation is typically safe. It causes some
heating effect, but usually not enough to cause any type of long-term damage to tissue.
Radio-frequency energy, visible light and microwave radiation are considered
non-ionizing.
On its Web site, the FDA states that "the available scientific evidence does not demonstrate any
adverse health effects associated with the use of mobile phones." However, that doesn't mean
that the potential for harm doesn't exist. Radiation can damage human tissue if it is exposed to
high levels of RF radiation, according to the FCC. RF radiation has the ability to heat human
tissue, much like the way microwave ovens heat food. Damage to tissue can be caused by
exposure to RF radiation because the body is not equipped to dissipate excessive amounts of
heat. The eyes are particularly vulnerable due to the lack of blood flow in that area.
The added concern with non-ionizing radiation, the type of radiation associated with cell phones,
is that it could have long-term effects. Although it may not immediately cause damage to tissue,
scientists are still unsure about whether prolonged exposure could create problems. This is an
especially sensitive issue today, because more people are using cell phones than ever before.
Here are a few illnesses and ailments that have potential links to cell-phone radiation:
1. Cancer
2. Brain Tumers
3. Alzheimers
4. Parkinsons
5. Fatigue
6. Headaches
Studies have only muddled the issue. As with most controversial topics, different studies have
different results. Some say that cell phones are linked to higher occurrences of cancer and other
ailments, while other studies report that cell-phone users have no higher rate of cancer than the
population as a whole. No study to date has provided conclusive evidence that cell phones can
cause any of these illnesses. However, there are ongoing studies that are examining the issue
more closely.
If you are worried about the potential hazards of cell-phone radiation, here are few ways to
reduce your risk:
1. Use a hands-free headset
2. Use a phone that places the antenna as far away from you as possible.

3.
4.
5.
6.

Extend the antenna during use.

Limit calls inside buildings.
Use the phone in open spaces as often as possible.
Limit use by children.

CELL-PHONE VIRUSES
The first known cell-phone virus appeared in 2004 and didn't get very far. Cabir.A infected only
a small number of Bluetooth-enabled phones and carried out no malicious action -- a group of
malware developers created Cabir to prove it could be done. Their next step was to send it to
anti-virus researchers, who began the process of developing a solution to a problem that
promises to get a lot worse.
A cell-phone virus is basically the same thing as a computer virus -- an unwanted executable file
that "infects" a device and then copies itself to other devices. But whereas a computer virus or
worm spreads through e-mail attachments and Internet downloads, a cell-phone virus or worm
spreads via Internet downloads, MMS (multimedia messaging service) attachments and
bluetooth transfers. The most common type of cell-phone infection right now occurs when a cell
phone downloads an infected file from a PC or the Internet, but phone-to-phone viruses are on
the rise.
Current phone-to-phone viruses almost exclusively infect phones running the Symbian operating
system. The large number of proprietary operating systems in the cell-phone world is one of the
obstacles to mass infection. Cell-phone-virus writers have no Windows-level marketshare to
target, so any virus will only affect a small percentage of phones.
Infected files usually show up disguised as applications like games, security patches, add-on
functionalities and, of course, pornography and free stuff. Infected text messages sometimes steal
the subject line from a message you've received from a friend, which of course increases the
likelihood of your opening it -- but opening the message isn't enough to get infected. You have to
choose to open the message attachment and agree to install the program, which is another
obstacle to mass infection: To date, no reported phone-to-phone virus auto-installs. The
installation obstacles and the methods of spreading limit the amount of damage the current
generation of cell-phone virus can do.
Phones that can only make and receive calls are not at risk. Only smartphones with a Bluetooth
connection and data capabilities can receive a cell-phone virus. These viruses spread primarily in
three ways:
1. Internet downloads - The virus spreads the same way a traditional computer virus does.
The user downloads an infected file to the phone by way of a PC or the phone's own
Internet connection. This may include file-sharing downloads, applications available
from add-on sites (such as ringtones or games) and false security patches posted on the
Symbian Web site.

Bluetooth wireless connection - The virus spreads between phones by way of their
Bluetooth connection. The user receives a virus via Bluetooth when the phone is in
discoverable mode, meaning it can be seen by other Bluetooth-enabled phones. In this
case, the virus spreads like an airborne illness.
3. Multimedia Messaging Service - The virus is an attachment to an MMS text message.
As with computer viruses that arrive as e-mail attachments, the user must choose to open
the attachment and then install it in order for the virus to infect the phone. Typically, a
virus that spreads via MMS gets into the phone's contact list and sends itself to every
phone number stored there.
2.

In all of these transfer methods, the user has to agree at least once (and usually twice) to run the
infected file. But cell-phone-virus writers get you to open and install their product the same way
computer-virus writers do: The virus is typically disguised as a game, security patch or other
desirable application.
The Commwarrior virus arrived on the scene in January 2005 and is the first cell-phone virus
to effectively spread through an entire company via Bluetooth. It replicates by way of both
Bluetooth and MMS. Once you receive and install the virus, it immediately starts looking for
other Bluetooth phones in the vicinity to infect. At the same time, the virus sends infected MMS
messages to every phone number in your address list. Commwarrior is probably one of the more
effective viruses to date because it uses two methods to replicate itself.
The first known cell-phone virus, Cabir, is entirely innocuous. All it does is sit in the phone and
try to spread itself. Other cell-phone viruses, however, are not as harmless.
A virus might access and/or delete all of the contact information and calendar entries in your
phone. It might send an infected MMS message to every number in your phone book -- and
MMS messages typically cost money to send, so you're actually paying to send a virus to all of
your friends, family members and business associates. On the worst-case-scenario end, it might
delete or lock up certain phone applications or crash your phone completely so it's useless. Some
reported viruses and their vital statistics are listed below.
The best way to protect yourself from cell-phone viruses is the same way you protect yourself
from computer viruses: Never open anything if you don't know what it is, haven't requested it or
have any suspicions whatsoever that it's not what it claims to be. That said, even the most
cautious person can still end up with an infected phone. Here are some steps you can take to
decrease your chances of installing a virus:
1. Turn off Bluetooth discoverable mode. Set your phone to "hidden" so other phones
can't detect it and send it the virus. You can do this on the Bluetooth options screen.
2. Check security updates to learn about filenames you should keep an eye out for. It's
not fool-proof -- the Commwarrior program generates random names for the infected
files it sends out, so users can't be warned not to open specific filenames -- but many
viruses can be easily identified by the filenames they carry.

3.

Install some type of security software on your phone. Numerous companies are
developing security software for cell phones, some for free download, some for user
purchase and some intended for cell-phone service providers. The software may simply
detect and then remove the virus once it's received and installed, or it may protect your
phone from getting certain viruses in the first place. Symbian has developed an
anti-virus version of its operating system that only allows the phone's Bluetooth
connection to accept secure files.

Future possibilities include viruses that bug phones -- so someone can see every number you call
and listen to your conversations -- and viruses that steal financial information, which would be a
serious issue if smartphones end up being used as payment devices. Ultimately, more
connectivity means more exposure to viruses and faster spreading of infection. As smartphones
become more common and more complex, so will the viruses that target them.

Computer Fundamental
Tutorial

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTAL TUTORIAL

Simply Easy Learning by tutorialspoint.com

tutorialspoint.com

ABOUT THE TUTORIAL

Computer Fundamentals Tutorial

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes it
under the control of set of instructions (called program), gives the result (output), and saves it for the
future use.
This Computer Fundamentals tutorial covers a foundational understanding of computer hardware,
software, operating systems, peripherals etc. along with how to get the most value and impact from
computer technology.

Audience
This tutorial has been prepared for the beginners as well as advanced learners who want to deal with
computers. This tutorial is also very useful for the undergraduate students of computer science,
engineering, business administration, management, science, commerce and arts where an introductory
course on computers is a part of curriculum. After completing this tutorial you will find yourself at a
moderate level of expertise in knowledge of computer basics from where you can take yourself to next
levels

Prerequisites
Knowledge of computers is not a prerequisite to follow the contents of this tutorial. This tutorial assumes
no background in computers or computer programming.

Copyright and Disclaimer Notice

Copyright 2014 by Tutorials Point Pvt. Ltd.
All the content and graphics published in this e-book are the property of Tutorials Point Pvt. Ltd. The user
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This tutorial may contain inaccuracies or errors. Tutorials Point Pvt. Ltd. provides no guarantee
regarding the accuracy, timeliness or completeness of our website or its contents including this tutorial.
If you discover any errors on our website or in this tutorial, please notify us at
contacts@tutorialspoint.com

Table of Content
Computer Fundamentals Tutorial ............................................. 2
Audience .................................................................................. 2
Prerequisites ............................................................................ 2
Copyright and Disclaimer Notice .............................................. 2
Overview .................................................................................. 8
Functionalities of a computer ..................................................................... 8
Definition .................................................................................................... 8
Advantages ................................................................................................ 9
High Speed ................................................................................................ 9
Accuracy .................................................................................................... 9
Storage Capability ...................................................................................... 9
Diligence .................................................................................................... 9
Versatility.................................................................................................... 9
Reliability .................................................................................................. 10
Automation ............................................................................................... 10
Reduction in Paper Work ......................................................................... 10
Reduction in Cost ..................................................................................... 10
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 10
No I.Q ....................................................................................................... 10
Dependency ............................................................................................. 11
Environment ............................................................................................. 11
No Feeling ................................................................................................ 11

Applications ........................................................................... 12
Banking .................................................................................................... 13
Insurance ................................................................................................. 14
Education ................................................................................................. 14
Marketing ................................................................................................. 15
Health Care .............................................................................................. 16
Engineering Design .................................................................................. 17
Military ...................................................................................................... 18
Communication ........................................................................................ 18
Government ............................................................................................. 19

Generations ........................................................................... 21
First Generation ....................................................................................... 21
Second Generation .................................................................................. 23
Third Generation ...................................................................................... 24
Fourth Generation .................................................................................... 25

Fifth Generation ....................................................................................... 27

Types ..................................................................................... 29
PC (Personal Computer) .......................................................................... 29
Workstation .............................................................................................. 30
Minicomputer............................................................................................ 30
Mainframe ................................................................................................ 31
Supercomputer ......................................................................................... 31

Components .......................................................................... 33
Input Unit .................................................................................................. 34
CPU (Central Processing Unit) ................................................................. 34
Output Unit ............................................................................................... 34

CPU Central Processing Unit .............................................. 35

Memory or Storage Unit: .......................................................................... 36
Control Unit .............................................................................................. 36
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit) ....................................................................... 37
Arithmetic Section .................................................................................... 37
Logic Section............................................................................................ 37

Input Devices ......................................................................... 38

Keyboard .................................................................................................. 38
Mouse ...................................................................................................... 39
Advantages .............................................................................................. 39
Joystick .................................................................................................... 40
Light Pen .................................................................................................. 40
Track Ball ................................................................................................. 41
Scanner .................................................................................................... 41
Digitizer .................................................................................................... 42
Microphone .............................................................................................. 42
Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR) ............................................................ 43
Optical Character Reader(OCR) .............................................................. 43
Bar Code Readers ................................................................................... 44
Optical Mark Reader(OMR) ...................................................................... 44

Output Devices ...................................................................... 46

Monitors ................................................................................................... 46
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor ........................................................... 46
Flat-Panel Display Monitor ....................................................................... 47
Printers ..................................................................................................... 48
Impact Printers ......................................................................................... 48
Character Printers .................................................................................... 49
Dot Matrix Printer ..................................................................................... 49

Advantages .............................................................................................. 49
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 49
Daisy Wheel ............................................................................................. 50
Advantages .............................................................................................. 50
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 50
Line Printers ............................................................................................. 50
Drum Printer ............................................................................................. 51
Advantages .............................................................................................. 51
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 51
Chain Printer ............................................................................................ 51
Advantages .............................................................................................. 51
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 52
Non-impact Printers ................................................................................. 52
Laser Printers ........................................................................................... 52
Advantages .............................................................................................. 52
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 52
Inkjet Printers ........................................................................................... 53
Advantages .............................................................................................. 53
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 53

Memory .................................................................................. 55
Cache Memory ......................................................................................... 55
Advantages .............................................................................................. 55
Disadvantages ......................................................................................... 55
Primary Memory (Main Memory) .............................................................. 56
Secondary Memory .................................................................................. 57

Random Access Memory ....................................................... 59

Static RAM (SRAM).................................................................................. 60
Dynamic RAM (DRAM) ............................................................................ 60

Read Only Memory ................................................................ 61

MROM (Masked ROM)............................................................................. 61
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory) ............................................. 62
EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) .................... 62
EEPROM.................................................................................................. 62
(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory) ............... 62
Advantages of ROM ................................................................................. 62

Motherboard .......................................................................... 63
Features of Motherboard .......................................................................... 63
Popular Manufacturers ............................................................................. 64
Description of Motherboard ...................................................................... 64

Memory Units ......................................................................... 65

Ports ...................................................................................... 67
Serial Port ................................................................................................ 68
Parallel Port.............................................................................................. 68
PS/2 Port .................................................................................................. 68
VGA Port .................................................................................................. 69
Power Connector ..................................................................................... 69
Firewire Port ............................................................................................. 69
Modem Port.............................................................................................. 69
Ethernet Port ............................................................................................ 70
Game Port ................................................................................................ 70
Digital Video Interface, DVI port ............................................................... 70
Sockets .................................................................................................... 70

Hardware ............................................................................... 71
Relationship between Hardware and Software ........................................ 72

Software................................................................................. 73
System Software ...................................................................................... 73
Application Software ................................................................................ 74

Number System ..................................................................... 76

Decimal Number System.......................................................................... 76
Binary Number System ............................................................................ 77
Characteristics of binary number system are as follows........................... 77
Example ................................................................................................... 77
Octal Number System .............................................................................. 77
Characteristics of octal number system are as follows ............................. 77
Example ................................................................................................... 77
Hexadecimal Number System .................................................................. 78
Example ................................................................................................... 78

Number Conversion ............................................................... 79

Decimal to Other Base System ................................................................ 79
Example ................................................................................................... 79
Other base system to Decimal System .................................................... 80
Example ................................................................................................... 80
Other Base System to Non-Decimal System............................................ 80
Example ................................................................................................... 80
Step 1: Convert to Decimal ...................................................................... 81
Step 2: Convert Decimal to Binary ........................................................... 81
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal ............................................................ 81
Example ................................................................................................... 81

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary ............................................................ 81

Data and Information ............................................................. 84

Data Processing Cycle ............................................................................. 85

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Network Card ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Internal Network Cards............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
External Network Cards ............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Characteristics of Operating System .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Monitor ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Operating System ...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Optical Drive (CD / DVD / Blu-ray) ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Memory ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Hard Drive .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
CPU............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Diploma Courses ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER

Overview

odays world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for everyone to know about

computers. Purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you about computer and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

Takes data as input.

Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.

Processes the data and converts it into useful information.

Generates the output

Controls all the above four steps.

Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which

accepts and stores data input,

processes the data input, and

generates the output in a required format.

Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.

High Speed

Computer is a very fast device.

It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.

The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.

It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months for
doing the same task.

Accuracy

In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.

The calculations are 100% error free.

Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been given.

Storage Capability

Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.

It can store large amount of data.

It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.

Diligence

Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of concentration.

It can work continuously without any error and boredom.

It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

Versatility

A computer is a very versatile machine.

A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.

This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.

At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a
card game.

Reliability

A computer is a reliable machine.

Modern electronic components have long lives.

Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

Automation

Computer is an automatic machine.

Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.

Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer memory, the program and instruction can
control the program execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work

The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in
speeding up a process.

As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large
number of paper files gets reduced.

Reduction in Cost

Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces the cost of each of
its transaction.

Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena.

No I.Q

A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.

Each instruction has to be given to computer.

A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

10

Dependency

It functions as per a users instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being.

Environment

The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

No Feeling

Computers have no feelings or emotions.

It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a human being.

11

CHAPTER

Applications

ollowing list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.

Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which made it an integrated
part in all business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for:

Payroll calculations

Budgeting

Sales analysis

Financial forecasting

Managing employees database

Maintenance of stocks etc.

12

Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:

Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest
charges, shares, and trustee records.

ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.

13

Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The insurance companies,
finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing

procedure to continue with policies

starting date of the policies

next due installment of a policy

maturity date

interests due

survival benefits

bonus

Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.

The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education).

CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.

The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

14

There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to educate the students.

It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:

Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and
print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of computerised catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.

15

Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are being used in
hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different
diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:

Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac
Arrest, ECG etc.
Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drugs side effects etc.

Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

16

Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and modification of images. Some
fields are:

Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets,
Airplanes etc.

Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement of integrated
systems of people, materials and equipments.

Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

17

Military
Computers are largely used in defence. modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also employs computerised
control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:

Missile Control

Military Communication

Military Operation and Planning

Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and understood clearly
and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this category are:

E-mail

Chatting

Usenet

FTP

Telnet

Video-conferencing

18

Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:

Budgets

Sales tax department

Income tax department

Male/Female ratio

Computerization of voters lists

Computerization of driving licensing system

Computerization of PAN card

Weather forecasting

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20

CHAPTER

Generations
Computer Generations

eneration in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used. Initially, the

generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation
includes both hardware and software, which together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed in detail along
with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates against each generations have been mentioned
which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers
S.N. Generation and Description
1

First Generation
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards.ULSI microprocessor based

First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic
components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced
a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be
afforded only by very large organisations. In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used.
Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and output devices. The computers in this
generation used machine code as programming language.

21

The main features of first generation are:

Vacuum tube technology

Unreliable

Supported machine language only

Very costly

Generated lot of heat

Slow input and output devices

Huge size

Need of A.C.

Non-portable

Consumed lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

ENIAC

EDVAC

22

UNIVAC

IBM-701

IBM-650

Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used that were cheaper,
consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of
vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic
disks as secondary storage devices. In this generation assembly language and high-level programming languages
like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating
system.

The main features of second generation are:

Use of transistors

Reliable in comparison to first generation computers

Smaller size as compared to first generation computers

Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers

Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers

Faster than first generation computers

Still very costly

23

A.C. needed

Supported machine and assembly languages

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM 1620

IBM 7094

CDC 1604

CDC 3600

UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used integrated circuits (IC's) in
place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this
generation remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High-level languages
(FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

IC used

More reliable in comparison to previous two generations

Smaller size

Generated less heat

24

Faster

Lesser maintenance

Still costly

A.C needed

Consumed lesser electricity

Supported high-level language

Some computers of this generation were:

IBM-360 series

Honeywell-6000 series

PDP(Personal Data Processor)

IBM-370/168

TDC-316

Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their
associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth
generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to
personal computer (PC) revolution. In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating
system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.

25

The main features of fourth generation are:

VLSI technology used

Very cheap

Portable and reliable

Use of PC's

Very small size

Pipeline processing

No A.C. needed

Concept of internet was introduced

Great developments in the fields of networks

Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

DEC 10

STAR 1000

26

PDP 11

CRAY-1(Super Computer)

CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra
Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million
electronic components. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers
think like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:

Robotics

Neural networks

Game Playing

Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.

Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

ULSI technology

27

Development of true artificial intelligence

Development of Natural language processing

Advancement in Parallel Processing

Advancement in Superconductor technology

More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features

Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

Desktop

Laptop

NoteBook

UltraBook

ChromeBook

28

CHAPTER

Types

omputers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

Sr. No.

Type

Specifications

PC (Personal
Computer)

It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

microprocessor

WorkStation

It is also a single user computer system which is similar to personal

computer but have more powerful microprocessor.

Mini Computer

It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting

hundreds of users simultaneously.

Main Frame

It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting

hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is different
from minicomputer.

Supercomputer

It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of

millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. PCs are based
on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use
personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and
database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is playing games and
surfing Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally linked together to
form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same
computing power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and
Dell.

29

Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software
development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and
relatively high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network
support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive,
but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also singleuser computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be
used as stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

30

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands
of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and supports many simultaneous
execution of programs.

Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are
employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of mathematical calculations (number
crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical
prospecting).

31

32

CHAPTER

Components

ll types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic

operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users
Sr. No.

Operation

Description

Take Input

The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system.

Store Data

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and
when required.

Processing Data

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert them

into useful information.

Output Information

The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a
printed report or visual display.

Control the workflow

Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
performed.

33

Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit makes link between user
and computer. The input devices translate the information into the form understandable by computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It stores
data, intermediate results and instructions(program).It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory Unit

Control Unit

Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from computer. This unit is a link
between computer and users. Output devices translate the computer's output into the form understandable by
users.

34

CHAPTER

CPU Central Processing Unit

PU consists of the following features:

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

CPU performs all types of data processing operations.

It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).

It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

Memory or Storage Unit:

Control Unit

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

35

Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to the other units of
the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or primary storage or
Random access memory(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories
in the computer. Functions of memory unit are:

It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

It stores intermediate results of processing.

It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data processing
operations.
Functions of this unit are:

It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.

It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.

It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.

It does not process or store data.

36

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely

Arithmetic section

Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of
data.

37

CHAPTER

Input Devices

ollowing are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

Keyboard

Mouse

Joy Stick

Light pen

Track Ball

Scanner

Graphic Tablet

Microphone

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

Bar Code Reader

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the computer. The
layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet.

38

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sr. No.

Keys

Description

Typing Keys

These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally
give same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of

a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most
adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys

The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a
row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has unique meaning and is
used for some specific purpose.

Control keys

These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional
arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose
Keys

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift,
Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with
a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends corresponding signals to CPU when the
mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse can be
used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

Easy to use

Not very expensive

39

Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a
spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be
moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing(CAD) and
playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures
on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When the tip of a
light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the
screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.

40

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball
which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved,
a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a
square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is
available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner
captures images from the source which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc.
These images can be edited before they are printed.

41

Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from
the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the
computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or
Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is
used for doing fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone is used for
various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

42

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be processed every day.
The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that contains
particles of magnetic material that are machine readable. This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by character, converts
them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

43

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark lines). Bar coded
data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be
embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric
value which is then fed to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.

Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used
where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking the answer
sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

44

45

CHAPTER

Output Devices

ollowing are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer

Monitors

Graphic Plotter

Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a computer. It forms
images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends
upon the number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the image
clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter e in the
word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of
character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are
capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of
CRT

Large in Size
High power consumption

46

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and power requirement
in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel
displays include calculators, videogames, monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories

Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into light. Example are
plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or light from
some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-Crystal Device)

47

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers

Impact Printers

Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following

Very low consumable costs

Very noisy

Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

Character printers

48

Line printers

Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.
These are further divided into two types

Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular because of their
ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and head consists of a
Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix
Printer.

Advantages

Inexpensive

Widely Used

Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

Slow Speed

Poor Quality

49

Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower name) that is why it
is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices which require a few
letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

More reliable than DMP

Better quality

The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

Slower than DMP

Noisy

More expensive than DMP

Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

50

These are of further two types

Drum Printer

Chain Printer

Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided into number of
tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A
character set is embossed on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64
and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to
2000 lines per minute.

Advantages

Very high speed

Disadvantages

Very expensive

Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer
In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character set may have
48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

Character fonts can easily be changed.

Different languages can be used with the same printer.

51

Disadvantages

Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete page at a time so
they are also called as Page Printers.
These printers are of two types

Laser Printers

Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

Faster than impact printers.

They are not noisy.

High quality.

Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the characters to
be printed on a page.

Advantages

Very high speed

Very high quality output

Give good graphics quality

Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

Expensive.

Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

52

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print characters by
spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing modes available.
Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

High quality printing

More reliable

Disadvantages

Expensive as cost per page is high

Slow as compared to laser printer

53

54

CHAPTER

Memory

memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory is the

storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored. The
memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each location or cell has a unique address which
varies from zero to memory size minus one. For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64
* 1024=65536 memory locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types

Cache Memory

Primary Memory/Main Memory

Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between
the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by
CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where
CPU can access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows

Cache memory is faster than main memory.

It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows

55

Cache memory has limited capacity.

It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working. It has limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These
memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main memory. It
is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories.

It is known as main memory.

Usually volatile memory.

Data is lost in case power is switched off.

It is working memory of the computer.

Faster than secondary memories.

A computer cannot run without primary memory.

56

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main memory. These are
used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access these memories instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary memories are first transferred to main memory, and
then CPU can access it. For example: disk, CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical memories.

It is known as backup memory.

It is non-volatile memory.

Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

It is used for storage of data in a computer.

Computer may run without secondary memory.

Slower than primary memories.

57

58

CHAPTER

10
Random Access Memory

AM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program

result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched
off, data is erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to
reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is
very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence a
backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its
physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types

Static RAM (SRAM)

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

59

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data
is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no
capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a
regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage
space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

It has long life

There is no need to refresh

Faster

Used as cache memory

Large size

Expensive

High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done by placing the
memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most
system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of
one capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM

It has short data lifetime

Need to be refreshed continuously

Slower as compared to SRAM

Used as RAM

Lesser in size

Less expensive

Less power consumption

60

CHAPTER

11
Read Only Memory

OM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This

type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture. A
ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and
microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These
kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

61

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters
the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open
during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes. Usually, an
EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate
region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this
charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates
the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM
(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand
times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire
chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows:

Non-volatile in nature

These cannot be accidentally changed

Cheaper than RAMs

Easy to test

More reliable than RAMs

These are static and do not require refreshing

Its contents are always known and can be verified

62

CHAPTER

12
Motherboard

he motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. A

motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and other ports and
expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features:

Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.

Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to function properly.

Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

63

Popular Manufacturers

Intel

ASUS

AOpen

ABIT

Biostar

Gigabyte

MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through pre-drilled holes.
Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It provides a single socket for CPU whereas
for memory, normally one or more slots are available. Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard
drive, and optical drives via ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards and other
expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer, mouse, keyboard, speaker, and
network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow compatible devices to be connected in plugin/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive, digital cameras etc.

64

CHAPTER

13
Memory Units

emory unit is:

the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

Sr. No.

Unit

Description

Bit (Binary
Digit)

A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a

component in an electric circuit.

Nibble

A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte

A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can represent a
data item or a character.

Word

A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length and it may be as
small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in
the form of computer words.

65

Few higher storage units are following

Sr. No.

Unit

Description

Kilobyte (KB)

1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)

1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)

1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB

1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)

1 PB = 1024 TB

66

CHAPTER

14
Ports
What is a Port?

port:

is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer.

can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program to computer or over
the internet.

Characteristics
A port has the following characteistics

External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor, microphone, speakers etc.

67

Following are few important types of ports

Serial Port

Used for external modems and older computer mouse

Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model

Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port

Used for scanners and printers

Also called printer port

25 pin model

Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port

Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

Also called mouse port

Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard

68

Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner, mouse,
keyboard etc.

It was introduced in 1997.

Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.

Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds

USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port

Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

Has 15 holes.

Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

Power Connector

Three-pronged plug

Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket

Firewire Port

Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer

Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds

Invented by Apple

Three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin FireWire 800
connector

Modem Port

Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

69

Ethernet Port

Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

Connect network cable to a computer.

This port resides on an Ethernet Card.

Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network bandwidth.

Game Port

Connect a joystick to a PC

Now replaced by USB.

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.

Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets

Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

70

CHAPTER

15
Hardware

ardware represents the physical and tangible components of a computer i.e. the components that can be

seen and touched.

Examples of Hardware are following:

Input devices -- keyboard, mouse etc.

Output devices -- printer, monitor etc.
Secondary storage devices -- Hard disk, CD, DVD etc.
Internal components -- CPU, motherboard, RAM etc.

71

Relationship between Hardware and Software

Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work together to make a
computer produce a useful output.

Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.

Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.

To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into the hardware

Hardware is a one-time expense.

Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.

Different software applications can be loaded on a hardware to run different jobs.

A software acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.

If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to each
other.

72

CHAPTER

16
Software

oftware is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined function. A program is a

sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem.

There are two types of software

System Software

Application Software

System Software
The system software is collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the processing capabilities
of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by computer manufactures. These software
products comprise of programs written in low-level languages which interact with the hardware at a very basic
level. System software serves as the interface between hardware and the end users.
Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers etc.

Features of system software are as follows

Close to system

Fast in speed

Difficult to design

Difficult to understand

73

Less interactive

Smaller in size

Difficult to manipulate

Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software
applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's notepad for writing and editing simple
text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software package, which work together to
accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are following

Payroll Software

Student Record Software

Inventory Management Software

Income Tax Software

Railways Reservation Software

Microsoft Office Suite Software

Microsoft Word

Microsoft Excel

Microsoft Powerpoint

Features of application software are as follows

Close to user

Easy to design

More interactive

74

Slow in speed

Generally written in high-level language

Easy to understand

Easy to manipulate and use

Bigger in size and requires large storage space

75

CHAPTER

17
Number System

hen we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can

understand only numbers. A computer can understand positional number system where there are only a few
symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the position they occupy in the
number.
A value of each digit in a number can be determined using

The digit

The position of the digit in the number

The base of the number system (where base is defined as the total number of digits available in the number
system).

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal number system has
base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to the left of the
decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234 consists of the
digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the thousands position, and
its value can be written as
(1x1000)+ (2x100)+ (3x10)+ (4xl)
(1x103)+ (2x102)+ (3x101)+ (4xl00)
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234
As a computer programmer or an IT professional, you should understand the following number systems which are
frequently used in computers.
S.N. Number System and Description

76

Binary Number System

Base 2. Digits used: 0, 1

Octal Number System

Base 8. Digits used: 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters used: A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of binary number system are as follows

Uses two digits, 0 and 1.

Also called base 2 number system

Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 2 0

Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2 x where x represents the last
position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number

Step 1 101012

((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2 101012

(16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3 101012

2110

Note: 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of octal number system are as follows

Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7.

Also called base 8 number system

Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 8 0

Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x represents the last
position - 1.

Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Octal Number

Decimal Number

77

Step 1 125708

((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) + (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 2 125708

(4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 + 0)10

Step 3 125708

549610

Note: 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows

Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F.

Letters represents numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.

Also called base 16 number system

Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example 16 0
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example 16 x where x
represents the last position - 1.

Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number

Step 1 19FDE16

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

Step 2 19FDE16

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x 160))10

Step 3 19FDE16

(65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208 + 14)10

Step 4 19FDE16

10646210

Note: 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

78

CHAPTER

18
Number Conversion

here are many methods or techniques which can be used to convert numbers from one base to another.

We'll demonstrate here the following

Decimal to Other Base System

Other Base System to Decimal

Other Base System to Non-Decimal

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

Steps

Step 1 - Divide the decimal number to be converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 - Get the remainder from Step 1 as the rightmost digit (least significant digit) of new base number.
Step 3 - Divide the quotient of the previous divide by the new base.
Step 4 - Record the remainder from Step 3 as the next digit (to the left) of the new base number.

Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the most significant digit (MSD) of the new base number.

Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent:

79

Step

Operation

Result

Remainder

Step 1

29 / 2

14

Step 2

14 / 2

Step 3

7/2

Step 4

3/2

Step 5

1/2

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders have to be arranged in the reverse order so that the first remainder
becomes the least significant digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the most significant digit (MSD).
Decimal Number: 2910 = Binary Number: 111012.

Other base system to Decimal System

Steps

Step 1 - Determine the column (positional) value of each digit (this depends on the position of the digit and the
base of the number system).
Step 2 - Multiply the obtained column values (in Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding columns.
Step 3 - Sum the products calculated in Step 2. The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

111012

((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 2

111012

(16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

Step 3

111012

2910

Binary Number: 111012 = Decimal Number: 2910

Other Base System to Non-Decimal System

Steps

Step 1 - Convert the original number to a decimal number (base 10).

Step 2 - Convert the decimal number so obtained to the new base number.

Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:

80

Step 1: Convert to Decimal

Step

Octal Number

Decimal Number

Step 1

258

((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2

258

(16 + 5 )10

Step 3

258

2110

Octal Number: 258 = Decimal Number: 2110

Step 2: Convert Decimal to Binary

Step

Operation

Result

Remainder

Step 1

21 / 2

10

Step 2

10 / 2

Step 3

5/2

Step 4

2/2

Step 5

1/2

Decimal Number: 2110 = Binary Number: 101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Octal

Steps

Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
Step 2 - Convert each group of three binary digits to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Octal Number

Step 1

101012

010 101

Step 2

101012

28 58

Step 3

101012

258

Binary Number: 101012 = Octal Number: 258

Shortcut method - Octal to Binary

Steps

81

Step 1 - Convert each octal digit to a 3 digit binary number (the octal digits may be treated as decimal for this
conversion).
Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
Octal Number: 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step

Octal Number

Binary Number

Step 1

258

210 510

Step 2

258

0102 1012

Step 3

258

0101012

Octal Number: 258 = Binary Number: 101012

Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal

Steps

Step 1 - Divide the binary digits into groups of four (starting from the right).
Step 2 - Convert each group of four binary digits to one hexadecimal symbol.

EXAMPLE
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent:
Step

Binary Number

Hexadecimal Number

Step 1

101012

0001 0101

Step 2

101012

110 510

Step 3

101012

1516

Binary Number: 101012 = Hexadecimal Number: 1516

Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Steps

Step 1 - Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4 digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 - Combine all the resulting binary groups (of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example

82

Hexadecimal Number: 1516

Calculating Binary Equivalent:
Step

Hexadecimal Number

Binary Number

Step 1

1516

110 510

Step 2

1516

00012 01012

Step 3

1516

000101012

Hexadecimal Number: 1516 = Binary Number: 101012

83

CHAPTER

19
Data and Information
What is data?

ata can be defined as a representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized manner which

should be suitable for communication, interpretation, or processing by human or electronic machine.

Data is represented with the help of characters like alphabets (A-Z,a-z), digits (0-9) or special characters(+,,/,*,<,>,= etc.).

What is Information?
Information is organised or classified data which has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed data must qualify for the following characteristics

Timely - Information should be available when required.

Accuracy - Information should be accurate.
Completeness - Information should be complete.

84

Data Processing Cycle

Data processing is the re-structuring or re-ordering of data by people or machine to increase their usefulness and
add values for particular purpose. Data processing consists of basic steps input, processing and output. These
three steps constitute the data processing cycle.

Input - In this step the input data is prepared in some convenient form for processing. The form will depend on
the processing machine. For example, when electronic computers are used, the input data could be recorded
on any one of several types of input medium, such as magnetic disks, tapes and so on.
Processing - In this step input data is changed to produce data in a more useful form. For example, paychecks may be calculated from the time cards, or a summary of sales for the month may be calculated from
the sales orders.
Output -Here the result of the proceeding processing step are collected. The particular form of the output data
depends on the use of the data. For example, output data may be pay-checks for employees.

85

86

CHAPTER

20
Networking
What is a Computer Network?

computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share

information and resources.

Characteristics of a computer network

Share Resources from one computer to another

Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other computer(s) connected over the
network

Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network and let other computers of
the network use the machines available over network.

Following is the list of hardwares required to setup a computer network.

Network Cables

87

Distributors

Routers

Internal Network Cards

External Network Cards

Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is Category 5 cable RJ-45.

Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect many computers to
produce a network, this serial connection will not work. The solution is to use a central body to which other
computers, printers, scanners etc. can be connected and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

88

Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other devices that are part of a
network. A router is equipped with holes called ports and computers and other devices are connected to a router
using network cables. Now-a-days router comes in wireless modes using which computers can be connected
without any physical cable.

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Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot be connected over a
network. It is also known as network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC). Most branded computers have
network card pre-installed. Network cards are of two types: Internal and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal network cards are of two types
in which first type uses Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) connection while the second type uses Industry
Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables are required to provide network access.

External Network Cards

External network cards come in two flavours: Wireless and USB based. Wireless network card need to be
inserted into the motherboard but no network cable is required to connect to network.

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Universal Serial Bus(USB)

USB card are easy to use and connect via USB port. Computers automatically detect USB card and can install
the drivers required to support the USB network card automatically.

91

CHAPTER

21
Operating System

t is a program with following features:

An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the software and the computer
hardware.

It is an integrated set of specialised programs that are used to manage overall resources and operations of
the computer.

It is specialised software that controls and monitors the execution of all other programs that reside in the
computer, including application programs and other system software.

Objectives of Operating System

To make a computer system convenient to use in an efficient manner

To hide the details of the hardware resources from the users

To provide users a convenient interface to use the computer system

To act as an intermediary between the hardware and its users and making it easier for the users to access
and use other resources

To manage the resources of a computer system

To keep track of who is using which resource, granting resource requests, according for resource using and
mediating conflicting requests from different programs and users

To provide efficient and fair sharing of resources among users and programs

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Characteristics of Operating System

Memory Management -- keeps tracks of primary memory i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, what part is
not in use etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.

Processor Management -- allocates the processor(CPU) to a process and deallocates processor when it is
no longer required.

Device Management -- keeps track of all devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides which
process gets the device, when, and for how much time.

File Management -- allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.

Security -- prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and similar other
techniques.

Job accounting -- keeps track of time and resources used by various jobs and/or users.

Control over system performance -- records delays between request for a service and from the system.

Interaction with the operators -- The interaction may take place via the console of the computer in the
form of instructions. Operating System acknowledges the same, does the corresponding action and informs
the operation by a display screen.

Error-detecting aids -- Production of dumps, traces, error messages and other debugging and errordetecting methods.

Coordination between other software and users -- Coordination and assignment of compilers,
interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

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CHAPTER

22
Internet and Intranet
Internet

t is a worldwide system which has the following characteristics:

Internet is a world-wide / global system of interconnected computer networks.

Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.

IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a computers location.

A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so that user can locate
a computer by a name.

For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.tutorialspoint.com to a particular IP address to
uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.

Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

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Intranet

Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are connected to each other.

PCs in intranet are not available to the world outside the intranet.

Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network and members/employees of that
company can access the computers in their intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an IP Address which is unique among the computers in that
Intranet.

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Similarities in Internet and Intranet

Intranet uses the internet protocols such as TCP/IP and FTP.

Intranet sites are accessible via web browser in similar way as websites in internet. But only members of
Intranet network can access intranet hosted sites.

In Intranet, own instant messengers can be used as similar to yahoo messenger/ gtalk over the internet.

Differences in Internet and Intranet

Internet is general to PCs all over the world whereas Intranet is specific to few PCs.

Internet has wider access and provides a better access to websites to large population whereas Intranet is
restricted.

Internet is not as safe as Intranet as Intranet can be safely privatized as per the need.

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CHAPTER

23
How to Buy?

his chapter gives the following information:

In this guide, we'll help you to buy a desktop on component by component basis.

As desktops are highly customizable, so it is better to learn about main parts and then go to manufacturer or
retailer shop or site instead of looking at some specific model directly.

Popular desktop brands are Dell, Lenovo, HP and Apple.

Compare the desktops based on their specifications and base price.

Monitor

Size - It is the diagonal size of the LCD screen. Larger the area, bigger the picture screen. A bigger picture is
preferable for movie watching and gaming. It will increase productivity as well.

97

Resolution - This is the number of pixels on the screen. For example, 24-inch display is 1920x1200 (width
by length) and 22-inch display which is 1680x1050. High resolution provides better picture quality and a nice
gaming experience.
Inputs - Now-a-days monitors can accept inputs from cable as well apart from computer. They also can have
USB ports.
Stand - Some monitors come with adjustable stands while some may not.
Recommended - 24 Inch LCD.

Operating System

Operating System is the main software of the computer as everything will run on it in one form or other.

There are primarily three choices: Windows, Linux, Apple OS X.

Linux is free but people generally do not use it for home purpose.

Apple OS X works only on Apple Desktops.

Windows 7 is very popular among desktop users.

Most of the computers come pre-equipped with Windows 7 Starter edition.

Windows 8 is recently introduced and is available in market.

Windows 7 and Windows 8 come in multiple versions from starter, home basic, home premium,
professional, ultimate and enterprise editions.

As edition version increases, their features list and price increases.

Recommended - Windows 7 Home Premium.

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Optical Drive (CD / DVD / Blu-ray)

Optical drive is the drive on a computer which is responsible for using CD, DVD and Blu-ray discs.

Now-a-days, DVD burners are industry standards.

DVD Burner can burn CD, DVD and play them.

DVD Burner is cheaper than Blu-ray drives.

Blu-ray drives can play HD movies but are costlier component.

Recommended - DVD Burner.

Memory

RAM is considered as Computer Memory as performance of a computer is directly proportional to its memory
and processor.

Today's software and operating system require high memory.

Today commonly used RAM is DDR3 which operates at 1066Mhz

As per Windows 7, 1 GB is the minimum RAM required to function properly.

Recommended - 4 GB.

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Hard Drive

Hard disk is used for storage purpose. Higher the capacity, more data you can save in it.

Now-a-days computers are equipped with 500GB hard drive which can be extended to 2TB.

Most hard drives in desktop operate at the standard performance speed of 7200RPM.

Recommended - 500GB.

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CPU

Frequency (GHz) - This determines speed of the processor. More the speed, better the CPU.
Cores - Now-a-days CPUs come with more than one core, which is like having more than one CPU in the
computer. Programs which can take advantage of multi-core environment will run faster on such machines.
Brand - Intel or AMD. Both are equivalent. Intel is in lead.
Cache - Higher the L1, L2 cache, better the CPU performance
Recommended - Intel Core i3 i3-3225 3.30 GHz Processor.

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CHAPTER

24
Available Courses

owa-days, various types of educational courses are provided by educational institutions.

Course

Name

Duration Minimum
(years)
Qualification

B.C.A

Bachelor of Computer Applications

10+2

P.G.D.C.A

Post Graduate Diploma in Computer Applications

Graduation

M.C.A

Master of Computer Applications

Graduation

B.Sc.(CS)

Bachelor of Science (Computer Science)

10+2

M.Sc.(CS)

Master of Science (Computer Science)

Graduation

B.Tech.(CSE)

Bachelor of Technology (Computer Science and

Engineering)

10+2

B.Tech.(IT)

Bachelor of Technology (Information Technology)

10+2

B.Tech / B.E.

M.Tech.(CSE) Master of Technology (Computer Science and Engineering)

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M.Tech.(IT)

Master of Technology (Information Technology)

B.Tech / B.E.

B.E.(CSE)

Bachelor of Engineering (Computer Science and

Engineering)

10+2

B.E.(IT)

Bachelor of Engineering (Information Technology)

10+2

Diploma Courses
Apart from regular degree courses, now computer centers also provide short term courses (from 3 months to 1
year).
Online courses are also getting popularity.

Computer Basics

Programming Language Trainings

Hardware Trainings

Network Certifications

103

Introduction

Online Free Course in Mobile Repairing (Card

& Chip Level Training).
Taught and Trained by Experienced
Teachers.
Learn Mobile Repairing with Modern Tools
and Equipment and Latest Technology.
Students can Start Their Own Business after
Completing the Course.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Scope for Students

Students can Start Their Own Business in Mobile

Phone Repairing and Cell Phone Industry.

Students can Work as a Technician in a Cell Phone

Service Centre.

Students can Find Job in Cell Phone Industry.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Course Overview

Introduction & Identification of PCB (Printed Circuit Board).

Fault Finding of Mobile Phone Sections with Block Diagram.

Hardware of Mobile Phone.

Use of Tools and Equipment.

Mobile Phone Software.

Multimedia and Downloading.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Index
1.

Mobile Phone Dictionary:

Full Forms of Terms Used
in Mobile Phone.

2.

Mobile Phone Repairing

Tools and Equipment.

3.

4.
5.

6.

7.

About IC (Integrated
Circuit) and Counting
Techniques of Leg-Type
and Ball-Type IC.

8.

About Current.

9.

Circuit (CKT) Symbol.

10.

Sections of a Mobile Phone.

11.

Identification of Big Parts in

a Mobile Phone.

Software Tools.

12.

Software Problems and

Solutions.

Identification of Small Parts

in a Mobile Phone.

13.

Multimedia and
Downloading.

Identification of Card Level

Parts.
Identification of PCB.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Mobile Phone Dictionary

1.

1G: 1St Generation in Mobile Telephony.

2.

2G: 2Nd Generation in Mobile Telephony.

3.

3G: 3Rd Generation in Mobile Telephony.

4.

4G: 4Th Generation in Mobile Telephony.

5.

AC: Alternate Current.

6.

BGA: Ball Grid Array.

7.

BSI: Battery Status Indicator.

8.

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access.

9.

CPU: Central Processing Unit.

10.

DCT: Digital Core Technology.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Mobile Phone Dictionary

11.

DC: Direct Current.

12.

GSM: Global System for Mobile Communications.

13.

IMEI: International Mobile Equipment Identity.

14.

IC: Integrated Circuit.

15.

LED: Light Emitting Diode.

16.

PDA: Personal Digital Assistant.

17.

PFO: Power Frequency Oscillator.

18.

PCB: Printed Circuit Board.

19.

RAM: Random Access Memory.

20.

RF: Radio Frequency.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Mobile Phone Dictionary

21.

ROM: Read Only Memory.

22.

RTC: Real Time Clock.

23.

RX: Receive / Receiver (Receiving Section).

24.

SMD: Surface Mount Device.

25.

TX: Transmit (Transmitting Section).

26.

UEM: Universal Energy Manager.

27.

VCO: Voltage-Controlled Oscillator.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

1.

Soldering Iron or Soldering Station: Used to Solder.

Soldering Iron

Soldering Station

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

P.C.B Stand: Used to Hold

PCB.

Solder Wire (Ranga): Used

to Solder.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Thinner: Used to Clean

PCB.

Jumper Wire: Used to

Connect One Point to
Another Point on a PCB.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

10

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Blade Cutter: Used to Cut

and Remove Lamination.

Point Cutter: Used to Cut

Wire.

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11

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Nose Cutter: Used to Cut

Wire.

Screwdriver (T6,T5,T4,+,-):
Used to Remove and
Tighten Screws from Mobile
Phone.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

12

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Tweezers: To Hold Wire

and Components.

Brush: For Cleaning.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

13

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Multimeter: To Check PCB

Track and Electronic
Components.

Blower (S.M.D Rework

Station): To Remove and
Solder SMD / Chip
Components.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

14

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Battery Booster: To Boost

Voltage of Battery.

Ultrasonic Cleaner: To
Clean PCB and Electronic
Components.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

15

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

BGA Kit: To Reball and

Repair Ball-Type IC.

Magnifying Lamp: To Get

Magnified View of PCB and
Components.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

16

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Case and Screen Opener:

To Open the Screen and
Case of a Mobile Phone.

Regulated DC Power
Supply: To Supply DC
Electricity.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

17

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Liquid Flux: To Clean PCB

Track and Legs of
Electronic Components
While Soldering.

Paste Flux: Used While

Soldering.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

18

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Solder Paste: Solder in

Semi-Solid Form. Used to
Solder.

File / Reti / Cleaning

Sponge: To Clean Tip of
Soldering Iron

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

19

Mobile Phone Repairing Tools and Equipment

Desoldering Wire: To Desolder

Electronic Components and To
Remove Excess Solder from
PCB Track.

Screwdriver Kit: To
Disassemble and Assemble
Mobile Phone.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

20

Identification of Card Level Parts.

1.

Fascia

2.

Back Facia

Facia

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

Back Facia

21

Identification of Card Level Parts.

3.

Haddi / Internal Fascia

4.

Ringer / Loudspeaker

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

22

Identification of Card Level Parts.

5.

Speaker / Earpiece

6.

Mic / Microphone

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

23

Identification of Card Level Parts.

7.

Vibrator / Motor

8.

LED

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24

Identification of Card Level Parts.

9.

Charging Connector

10.

Headphone / Earphone
Connector

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25

Identification of Card Level Parts.

11.

Data Cable Connector

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

26

Identification of Card Level Parts.

12.

Battery

13.

Battery Connector

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

27

Identification of Card Level Parts.

14.

SIM Card

15.

SIM Card Connector

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28

Identification of Card Level Parts.

16.

Memory Card

17.

Memory Card Connector

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

29

Identification of Card Level Parts.

18.

Camera

19.

Camera Connector

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

30

Identification of Card Level Parts.

20.

Keypad Button

21.

Keypad Carbon / Tickly

Keypad Carbon
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31

Identification of Card Level Parts.

22.

Keypad Connector

23.

ON / OFF Switch

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32

Identification of Card Level Parts.

24.

Display

25.

Display Connector

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33

Identification of Card Level Parts.

26.

Antenna

27.

PCB

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

34

Identification of Card Level Parts.

28.

PDA

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35

Nokia 3310 Mobile Phone PCB Diagram

Antenna Point
PFO / PA
BSI

Network
Section

On / OFF Switch
Antenna Switch

NOTES:

RX Filter

1.

UEM =
Logic IC
+ Charging IC
+ Audio IC
+ Power IC

2.

PFO =
Antenna
Switch
+ PFO

3.

Flash IC =
RAM + Flash
IC

Network IC
VCO

Power IC

Audio IC

RTC
Charging IC

Power
Section

CPU
R22
MIC Interface

Flash IC
RAM
UI Module / Logic IC
Buzzer Interface

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

36

Identification of PCB
1.

Antenna Point: The point where anteena is connected

is called anteena point.

2.

Network Section: The section below anteena point and

above power section is called network section.

3.

Anteena Switch: It is found in the network section. It is

made from metal and non-metal. It has 16 points or
legs.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

37

Identification of PCB
4.

In some mobile phones, the anteena switch is merged

with PFO.

5.

PFO: It is present beside the antenna switch.

6.

Network IC: It is below or beside the anteena switch

and PFO.

7.

In some mobile phones, the Network IC is merged with

the CPU. E.g.: Nokia 1200, 1650, 1208, 1209 etc.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

38

Identification of PCB
8.

Power Section: This section is below the Network Section.

9.

Power IC: In the Power Section, the IC around which there are
several brown-coloured capacitors, is called Power IC. In some
mobile phones there are 2 Power IC.

10.

CPU: In the power section, the largest IC is the CPU. In some

sets there are 2 CPU.

11.

Flash IC: This IC is found beside the CPU.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

39

Identification of PCB
12.

Logic IC: The IC with 20 legs is the Logic IC.

13.

Charging IC: In the Power Section, the IC beside R22 is the

Charging IC.

14.

Audio IC: The IC parallel to Power IC is the Audio IC.

15.

UEM = Logic IC + Charging IC + Audio IC + Power IC

16.

PFO = Antenna Switch + PFO

17.

Flash IC = RAM + Flash IC

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

40

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

41

Definition of Big Parts

1.

Antenna Switch: It is found in the Network Section of a Mobile Phone

and is made up of metal and non-metal. In GSM sets it is found in white
colour and in CDMA sets it is found in golden metal.

Work: It searches network and passes forward after tuning.

Faults: If the Anteena Switch is faulty then there will be no network in
the mobile phone.

www.mobilecellphonerepairing.com

42

Definition of Big Parts

2.

P.F.O: It is found near the Anteena Switch in the Network Section of a

Mobile Phone. It is also called P.A (Power Amplifier) and Band Pass
Filter.

Work: It filters and amplifies network frequency and selects the home
network.

Faults: If the PFO is faulty then there will be no network in the mobile
phone. If it gets short then the mobile phone will get dead.

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43

Definition of Big Parts

3.

RF IC / Hager / Network IC: It is found near the PFO in the Network

Section of a Mobile Phone. It is also called RF signal processor.

Work: It works as transmitter and receiver of audio and radio waves

according to the instruction from the CPU.

Faults: If the RF IC is faulty then there will be problem with network in

the mobile phone. Sometimes mobile phone can even get dead.

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44

Definition of Big Parts

4.

26 MHz Crystal Oscillator: It is found near the PFO in the Network

Section of a Mobile Phone. It is also called Network Crystal. It is made
up of metal.

Work: It creates frequency during outgoing calls.

Faults: If this crystal is faulty then there will be no outgoing call and no
network in the mobile phone.

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45

Definition of Big Parts

5.

VCO: It is found near the Network IC in the Network Section of a Mobile

Phone.

Work: It sends time, date and voltage to the RF IC / Hager and the CPU.
It also creates frequency after taking command from the CPU.

Faults: If it is faulty then there will be no network in the mobile phone

and it will display Call End or Call Failed.

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46

Definition of Big Parts

6.

RX Filter: It is found in the Network Section of a Mobile Phone.

Work: It filters frequency during incoming calls.
Faults: If it is faulty then there will network problem during incoming
calls.

7.

TX Filter: It is found in the Network Section of a Mobile Phone.

Work: It filters frequency during outgoing calls.
Faults: If it is faulty then there will network problem during outgoing
calls.

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47

Definition of Big Parts

8.

ROM: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone.

Work: It loads current operating program in a Mobile Phone.
Faults: If ROM is faulty then there will software problem in the mobile
phone and the set will get dead.

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48

Definition of Big Parts

9.

RAM: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone.

Work: It sends and receives commands of the operating program in a
mobile phone.

Faults: If RAM is faulty then there will be software problem in the

mobile phone and it will get frequently get hanged and the set can even
get dead.

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49

Definition of Big Parts

10.

Flash IC: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone.

It is also called EEPROM IC, Memory IC, RAM IC and ROM IC.

Work: Software of the mobile phone is installed in the Flash IC.

Faults: If Flash IC is faulty then the mobile phone will not work
properly and it can even get dead.

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50

Definition of Big Parts

11.

Power IC: It is found in the Power Section of a Mobile Phone. There

are many small components mainly capacitor around this IC.
RTC is near the Power IC

Work: It takes power from the battery and supplies to all other parts of
a mobile phone.

Faults: If Power IC is faulty then the set will get dead.

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51

Definition of Big Parts

12.

Charging IC: It is found in the Power Section near R22.

Work: It takes current from the charger and charge the battery.
Faults: If Charging IC is faulty then the set will not get charged. If the
Charging IC is short then the set will get dead.

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52

Definition of Big Parts

13.

RTC (Simple Silicon Crystal): It is found in the Power Section near

Power IC. It is made up of either metal or non-metal. It is of long shape.

Work: It helps to run the date and time in a mobile phone.

Faults: If RTC is faulty then there will be no date or time in the mobile
phone and the set can even get dead.

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53

Definition of Big Parts

14.

CPU: It is found in the Power Section. It is also called MAD IC, RAP IC
and UPP. It is the largest IC on the PCB of a Mobile Phone and it looks
different from all other ICs.

Work: It controls all sections of a mobile phone.

Faults: If CPU is faulty then the mobile phone will get dead.

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54

Definition of Big Parts

15.

Logic IC / UI IC: It is found in any section of a mobile phone. It has 20

pins or legs. It is also called UI IC and Interface IC.

Work: It controls Ringer, Vibrator and LED of a mobile phone.

Faults: If Logic IC / UI IC is faulty then Ringer, Vibrator and LED of
mobile phone will nor work properly.

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55

Definition of Big Parts

16.

Audio IC: It is found in Power Section of a mobile phone. It is also

called Cobba IC and Melody IC.

Work: It controls Speaker and Microphone of a mobile phone.

Faults: If Audio IC is faulty then Speaker and Microphone of a mobile
phone will not work and the set can even get dead.

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56

Identification of Small Parts

1.

Crystal: There are 2 types of crystal in a mobile phone:

i) Network Crystal: This crystal is found in the Network Section
of a Mobile Phone. It is made up of metal.

Work: It filters network.

Network Crystal
/ 26 MHz Crystal Oscillator

Faults: If the Network Crystal is faulty then there will be no

network in the mobile phone.

ii) Simple Silicon Crystal (RTC): This crystal is found in the

Power Section of a mobile phone. It is made up of either metal or
non-metal and is of long shape.

Work: It runs the clock of a mobile phone.

Simple Silicon Crystal / RTC

Faults: If this crystal is faulty then the clock of the mobile phone

will not work and the set can get dead.

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57

Identification of Small Parts

2.

Coupler

Coupler: This electronic component is found in the

Network Section of a mobile phone. It is of either
black or white colour and has 6 pins bent inside.

Work: It filters network.

Faults: If the coupler is faulty then there will be no
network in the mobile phone.

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58

Identification of Small Parts

3.

Diode: Diodes are of 4 types:i) Rectifier Diode: It is found in black colour and converts AC
Current to DC Current. It passes current in one direction. It
does not pass current in reverse direction.
ii) LED: It is found in white or light yellow colour and emits
light.
iii) Zener Diode: It is found in charging section. It filters and
minimize current and passes forward. It acts as voltage
regulator. Zenor diode has fixed capacity like 4V, 6V, 8V etc.
iv) Photo Diode: It is used for Infrared. It captures Infrared
Rays.

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Identification of Small Parts

4.

Transistor: This electronic component is found in any

section of a mobile phone. It is of black colour and it
has 3 legs. It does the work of switching.

5.

Regulator: This electronic component is found in any

section of a mobile phone. It is of black colour and has
5 or 6 legs. It filters current and regulates voltage.

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Identification of Small Parts

6.

Resistance: There are 2 types of resistance on a the PCB of a mobile

phone:
a) Chip Resistance: It can be found in any section of a mobile phone.
It is of black colour. In some sets it is also found in blue and green
colour. It is the smallest electronic components on the PCB of a mobile
phone. It decreases current and passes forward.
b) Network Resistance: It can be found in any section of a mobile
phone. It is made from 2 or more Chip Resistance.

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Identification of Small Parts

7.

Capacitor: 3 types of capacitor are found in a mobile

phone:
a) Non-Electrolytic Capacitor: It is found in any section
of a mobile phone. Its height is little more than chip
resistance. It can be of light black, yellow or brown in
colour. It has no Positive (+) or Negative (-) side. It filters
DC current.
b) Electrolytic Capacitor: It is found in any section of a
mobile phone. Its size is larger than non-electrolytic
capacitor. It is found in 2 colours (i) Orange with brown
strip: and (ii) Black with white strip. The side with the
strip is Positive(+) and the other side is Negative (-). It
filters and stores current.
c) Network Capacitor: It is found in any section of a
mobile phone. It is made from 2 or more Non-Electrolytic
Capacitors.
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Identification of Small Parts

8.

Coil: It is found in any section of a mobile phone. It is found in many

shapes and sizes. Coils are found in 2 colours: (i) Black and white;
and (ii) Blue and white. It has binding of copper coil inside. It filters
and decreases Current and Voltage.

Boost Coil: Its size is little bigger than coil. It is found in black
colour and look like button. It increases current. If this coil gets
damaged then it has to be changed.

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Identification of Small Parts

Electronic Components that Will Give Beep When

Tested with Multimeter on Buzzer Mode.
If Component is Good

If Component is Faulty

1. Speaker

1. Microphone

2. Coil

2. Capacitor

3. Resistance

3. Diode

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IC & Counting
IC (Integrated Circuit): IC is an electronic component that is made up of
many other small electronic components like resistance, capacitor, coil,
diode, transistor etc. There are 2 types of ICs (i) Leg-Type IC; and (ii) BallType IC.

Counting: Leg-Type IC: Counting of leg-type IC starts in Numerical Digit in

Anticlockwise Direction starting from the Nose Point or Cut Point.

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IC & Counting
Counting: Ball-Type IC: Counting of Ball-type IC is done in Both
Clockwise and Anti-Clockwise Direction. Rows are counted in Digit
Numbers (1,2,3,4) in Clockwise Direction. Columns are Counted
in Alphabet (A,B,C,D) in Anti-Clockwise Direction.

NOTE: When counting Columns, I and O are omitted because

they look like 1 and 0.

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Current

Unit of Current: Ampere or Amp (A).

Unit of Voltage: Volt (V).

Current: Flow of Electric Charge through a Conductive Medium.

Types of Current: (1) Alternate Current (AC) and (2) Direct

Current (DC).

Alternate Current (AC): The Movement of Electric Charge

Periodically Reverses Direction. E.g: Power Substation.

Direct Current (DC): The Movement of Electric Charge is in One

Direction. E.g: Power from Battery.

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Circuit (CKT) Symbol

1.

AC Current:

8.

Diode:

2.

DC Current:

9.

LED:

3.

Capacitor:
10.

Transistor:

11.

Crystal:

12.

Regulator:

4.

5.

6.

Coil:
Fuse:
Resistance:

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Ringer: Faults & Solution

Ringer: Type of component that rings or plays loud sound is called Ringer. It is also called

by several other names like I.H.F Speaker, Buzzer, Melody etc.

Faults:

4.

Ringer not working.

Less sound from the Ringer.
Sound coming from Ringer but with interruption.
Sound not clear.

Solution:

1.
2.
3.

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

Check Ringer Settings in Mobile Phone. Check Ringer Volume and Silent Mode. (See Video)
Open Mobile Phone and Clean Ringer Point and Ringer Connector. (See Video)
Check Ringer by Keeping the Multimeter in Buzzer Mode. Value must be 8 ~ 10 Ohm. If the
Value is not between 8~10 Ohm then change the Ringer. (See Video)
Check Track of Ringer Section. Do Jumper Wherever required. (See Video)
Check Ringer IC. Heat or Change if Required. (See Video)
UEM / Logic IC: Heat, Reball or Change. (See Video)
CPU: Heat, Reball or Change. (See Video)

NOTES:
1.
2.

If there is less sound from the Ringer then change the Ringer.
If the problem is not solved then heat or change the Ringer IC.

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Vibrator: Faults & Solution

Vibrator: Type of component that vibrates. It is also called Motor.

Vibrator is controlled by Logic IC or Power IC.

Faults:

1.

3.

Vibrator not working.

Vibration with interruption.
Vibration Hangs.

Solution:

1.

Check Vibrator Settings in Mobile Phone. Check if Vibrator is ON or OFF.

Open Mobile Phone and Clean Vibrator Tips Connector.
Check Vibrator by Keeping the Multimeter in Buzzer Mode. Value must
be 8~16 Ohm. If the Value is not between 8~16 Ohm then change the
Vibrator / Motor.
Check Track of Vibrator Section. Do Jumper Wherever required.
UEM / Logic IC / Power IC: Heat, Reball or Change.
CPU: Heat, Reball or Change.

2.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

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Light: Faults & Solution

LED: Type of component that generates light in the Mobile Phone. These are

Faults:

1.

3.

No Light.
Light in only Keypad or Display.
Some lights not working.

Solution:

1.

Check Light Settings.

Resold all LED. There are 2 types of connection in the Light Section of a Mobile
Phone: (i) Series Connection; and (ii) Parallel Connection.
Change Display and Check.
Keep Multimeter in Buzzer Mode and Check LED. If LED is Good then it will Glow.
If LED is Faulty then it will Not Glow.
Change LED or Jumper.
Check Track and Jumper if Required.
Check Boosting Coil and Change if Required.
Light IC: Heat or Change.
Power IC: Hear, Reball of Change.

2.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

generally LED or Light Emitting Diode.

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Light: Faults & Solution

Note:

1.

In all Nokia Mobile Phones, there are 2 Types of Light IC:

(i) Ball-Type Light IC: Beside the Boosting Coil, There is a SmallSized Ball-Type IC. When this IC is Desoldered, There are 8 Ball
Underneath. This is the Light IC.

(ii) Leg-Type Light IC: Beside the Boosting Coil, There is a SmallSized, 4+4 = 8-Leg-Type IC. This is Light IC.

2.

Light IC = Back Light + Display Light

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Earpiece: Faults & Solution

Earpiece: Type of component that helps to listen to sound during phone call. It is

Faults:

also called Speaker or Ear Speaker. Earpiece is controlled by Audio IC or Power IC

(UEM).

3.

No sound during phone call.

Less sound during phone call.
Sound with interruption.

Solution:

1.
2.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Check Speaker Volume during Phone Call.

Check Earpiece / Speaker by Keeping the Multimeter in Buzzer Mode. Value must be
25~35 Ohm. If the Value is not between 25~35 Ohm then change the Earpiece / Speaker.
Check Track of Earpiece Section. Do Jumper Wherever required.
UEM / Audio IC: Heat, Reball or Change.
CPU: Heat, Reball or Change.

Note:
1.

If there is less sound or sound is not clear during phone call then change the speaker.

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Microphone: Faults & Solution

Microphone: Type of component that helps to transmit sound from one mobile phone
to another during phone call.

Faults:

2.

No sound or Less Sound during phone call.

Sound with interruption or Changed sound.

Solution:

1.

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.

Check Microphone settings.

Check and clean Microphone Tips and Connector.
Check Microphone by Keeping the Multimeter in Buzzer Mode. Value must be 600~1800
Ohm. If the Value is not between 600~1800 Ohm then change the Microphone. NOTE:
Only one side will give value. The other side will not give any value.
Check Track of Microphone Section. Do Jumper Wherever required.
Microphone IC: Heat or Change.
UEM / Audio IC / Power IC: Heat, Reball or Change.
CPU: Heat, Reball or Change.

Note:
1.

If there is less sound or sound is not clear during phone call then change the
Microphone.

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Headphone: Faults & Solution

Headphone: Type of component that does the job of Mic and Speaker separately.

When we insert Headphone, then Speaker and Microphone of the Mobile Phone Gets
Disconnected. Headphone is controlled by C.P.U.
Faults:

2.

No sound from Headphone or sound from only one side of the Headphone.
Sound does no go from the Mic of the Headphone.

Solution:

1.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Change the Headphone and Check.

Clean Headphone Jack and Connector.
Resolder or Change the Headphone Connector.
Check Track of Headphone Section. Do Jumper Wherever required.
Headphone IC: Heat or Change.
UEM / Audio IC / Power IC: Heat, Reball or Change.
CPU: Heat, Reball or Change.

Note:
1.

If there is symbol of Headphone without inserting the Headphone then there is problem
with the CPU. To solve the problem, clean or change the Headphone Connector OR
Short the Headphone Connector.

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Keypad: Faults & Solution

Keypad: Type of component that helps to operate a mobile phone. Some mobile phones are
screen touch and are operated by PDA.

Faults:

1.

No Key Working or only Some Key Working.

Keys need more pressure to work. Or when pressed a key works continuously.
One key is pressed and some other key works OR when one key is pressed, some other key
works simultaneously.

2.
3.

Solution:

1.

Check Facial of the Keypad.

Clean Keypad Tikli and Keypad Points.
Keep Multimeter in Buzzer Mode and Check Row and Column of the Keypad. If there is Beep
Sound then Pad is OK.
Keypad IC / Interface IC: Heat or Change.
CPU: Heat, Reball or Change.

2.
3.

4.
5.

Note:
1.

2.

3.

In a Mobile Phone, when we press a Key and it works very slow then Reload Software to Solve
the Problem.
In all Nokia Mobile Phones, if only some key works or non of the keys are working then change
the Keypad IC to solve the Problem.
If Keypad problem is not solved by Hardware, then Reload Software in the Mobile Phone to
Solve the Problem.

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Screen Touch: Faults & Solution

Screen Touch: Type of component that helps to operate a mobile phone by

touching the screen. Touch Screen is available in different sizes. It normally has 4
Points Namely: - (+), (-), (RX), (TX). Screen Touch is also called PDA. It is
controlled by the CPU. In some Mobile Phones there is an Interface IC called PDA
IC or Screen Touch IC.

Faults:

1.

3.

Screen Touch not Working.

Only Half Screen Touch Works.
One key is pressed and some other key works.

Solution:

1.

Check Settings if the Mobile Phone has Both Keypad and Touch Screen.
Clean and Resold PDA Tips and PDA Connector.
Change PDA.
Check Track of the PDA Section and Jumper if Required.
PDA IC: Heat or Change.
CPU: Heat, Reball or Change.

2.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Note:
1.

If the PDA Problem is not solved by Hardware Then Reload Software to Solve the
Problem.
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Screen Touch: Faults & Solution

Note:
2.

Construction of PDA:

3.

Any PDA of SAME Size will Fit any Mobile Phone. Any One of the Following 5
Jumper Settings will Work:

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Display: Faults & Solution

Display: The Display Section of a Mobile Phone is controlled by the CPU. In some
Mobile Phones, there is an Interface IC called Display IC between the Display and
the CPU.

Faults:

1.

Nothing shows on the Display or Display is Blank.

2.

5.

Only Half Display Working.

Display Broken or Crack.
Sometimes Display Works and Sometimes it doesnt work.
There is only light in the Display and nothing else.

Solution:

1.

Clean Display Tips and Display Connector and Reset the Display.
Resold the Display Connector.
Change the Display.
Check Display Track.
Resold or Change Display IC.
C.P.U: Heat, Reball or Change.

3.
4.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

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Display: Faults & Solution

Note:

If the Display is Up-Side Down or only Half Display is

Working or if the Display is Broken then Change the
Display.
If the Display is White and the Display is changed but the
problem is not solved then Reload Software in the Mobile
Phone.
In some Mobile Phone Sets, like Nokia 6600, N72, when the
set is Switched ON, the Nokia Logo Appears and then it
Disappears. This is problem of the BOOT IC. Change the
Boot IC.
In slider mobile phone handsets, if there is display
problem then it is mainly because of Display Track (Patta)
that connects the Display with the Mobile Phone PCB. This
will create White Display or Display will not work properly.
Change the Display Track to solve the problem.

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