Color codes for fixed resistors:

Color

Significant
Figures

Multiplier

Tolerance

Silver

10-2

+- 10%

Gold

10-1

+- 5%

Black

Brown

10

+- 1%

Red

102

+- 2%

Orange

103

Yellow

104

Green

105

+- 0.5%

Blue

106

+- 0.25%

Violet

107

+- 0.1%

Grey

108

White

109

None

+- 20%

Four Band Fixed Resistor

Two first bands (first band is the one nearest the end of the resistor) indicates the value, the
third indicates the multiplier and the fourth indicates tolerance.
Example - Value Four Band Fixed Resistor
A resistor with the four color bands

yellow - violet - orange - red

4 -

- 103 - +-2%

has a value of 47 k with tolerance +- 2%.

Four Band Resistor Calculator
Four Band Resistor
Band 1

Band 2

White

Multiplier

Violet

Orange

Tolerance

Red

47 k +-2%
Five Band Fixed Resistor
Three first bands (first band is the one nearest the end of the resistor) indicates the value,
the fourth indicates the multiplier and the fifth indicates tolerance.
Example - Value Five Band Fixed Resistor
A resistor with the five color band
red - yellow - white - orange - brown
2 -

- 9

- 103 -

+-1%

has a value of 249 k with tolerance +- 1%.

Five Band Resistor Calculator
Five Band Resistor
Band 1

Red

Band 2

Green

Band 3

White

Multiplier

Orange

Tolerance

Brow n

Five Band Resistor

249 k +-1%

. What is boiler?
Ans. According to Indian Boiler Act 1923, a boiler is a

closed pressure
vessel / steam generating unit with
minimum capacity of 22.70 liters, including all mountings
and accessories or we can say that the boiler is a steam
generator which convert chemical energy of fuel into heat
energy which is utilized for steam generation .The steam
can be generated as per desired pressure and
temperature.

Image of a Boiler

Types of boiler :-There are generally three types of boiler

used as.
i) Shell type of boiler - It is the most oldest technology
has a simple shell with a feed pipe and steam outlet
mounted on a brick setting called furnace.It has very low
steam generating capacity and low efficiency as compared
to other boiler.
ii) Fire/smoke tube boiler - This boiler was used as a
steam engine in 18th century.Here the fire/smoke passes
through the tube which is immersed in water and heat
transfer takes place water converted to steam , collected
through steam pipe.This boiler has the disadvantage that
gasses choke the tube path and restrict the gas flow.
iii) Water tube boiler - This boiler is considered as the
most efficient boiler and mostly used now days. Here the
water passes through the tube and flame on the
surrounding of the tube.Very large capacity of steam can
be generated in this type of boiler.

Q. What is circulation ratio of a boiler?

Ans.
It is the ratio of the quantity of water-steam mixture flowing
through the circuit to the quantity of steam produced in the
circuit , The circulation ratio of once through / super critical
boiler is one because all water Is converted to steam.More
circulation ratio means less efficient is the Boiler.
The circulation ratios of,
1. Natural circulation industrial boiler

10 to 25

2. Natural circulation utility boiler

7 to 9

3. Assisted circulation boilers

2 to 4

4. Forced circulation / once through boiler

Q What are the boiler mountings?

Ans. The boiler mountings are used for safe and efficient
operation of boiler, these are placed in out side of the
boiler.
1. Safety valve.
2.pressure gauge.

3.Water level gauge glass.. Pressure gauge.

4. Start-up vent.
5.Air vent.
5.Manhole.
Q. What are boiler accessories?
Ans. These are the integral part of boiler which help to
run the boiler most efficiently These are,
1. Super heater.
2. Economizer.
3.Air pre- heater.
4.ID and FD fans.
5. Ash handling system.
6.Dosing system.
7. Soot blower.

8.De super heating system.

Q. What is turn down ratio of boiler?

Ans. It is the operating range of boiler from maximum
capacity to minimum capacity in which the boiler can run
efficiently without any external fuel support . The higher
turn down ratio greater the efficiency of boiler. For
example if the boiler is designed 80mw and can operate
up to 20mw without any external fuel support and any
variations of parameter then the turn down ratio is
80/20=4.
Q. What is boiler efficiency?
Ans. It is the ratio of heat output to heat input of the
boiler.
Boiler efficiency= Heat output / heat input *100.
=steam flow (enthalpy of steam -enthalpy of feed water) /
coal flow * gcv.

For example if there is a 80mw boiler with 540 dig

centigrade of main steam temperature, feed water
temperature of 300 dig centigrade , coal flow 56 ton, gcv
4000 kcal/kg then the boiler efficiency will be =307(826.28242.58)/56*4000=80%.
Q. What Is turbine heat rate?
Ans. It the ratio of heat input to MW generated in
kcal/kWh.
= steam flow(enthalpy of steam-enthalpy of feed water)
/ MW.
Q. What is evaporation ratio?
Ans. It the ratio of quantity of steam generation in kg/hr
to quantity of fuel consumed in kg/hr. Evaporation ratio
= quantity of steam generation/quantity of fuel
consumed.For example quantity of steam Is 310 ton/hr
and fuel is 55 ton/hr then the evaporation ratio is 5.63.
Evaporation ratio is also known as steam fuel ratio.A drop
in evaporation ratio indicates drop in boiler
efficiency.Boiler evaporation ratio depends on fuel quality.
Higher calorific value of fuel having higher evaporation
ratio.
Value of evaporation ratio for different types of boiler is
listed as-

a) Coal fired boiler- 4.0-6.0.

b) Oil fired boiler- 13.0-14.5 .
c) Gas fired boiler- 11.0-13.

Q. What is stoichiometric combustion?

Ans. It is defined as the theoretical combustion in which
fuel is burnt completely. It is used to determine the actual
theoretical air required for a proper combustion.
Q. What is foaming of boiler?
Ans. It is the generation of foam In boiler due to high
concentration of solids, organic matter, bubbles are build
up on the surface of boiler water and passed out with the
steam. This is generally caused due to high concentration
of solids in boiler.
Q. What is priming of boiler ?
Ans. It Is the carrying amount of droplet water in the
steam, witch leads to carryover of Salt crystals on the
super heater and turbines. priming may be caused due to
sudden change of load and maintaining of high level of
water.

Prevention of priming and foaming :The best remedy for foaming and priming carryover is
the proper blow down of TDS. The continuous blow
down should be regulated to maintain the TDS at
3,000 to 4,000 ppm. More blow down means less TDS
but more blow down is the more loss of the boiler so the
blow down should be within control level

What are boiler losses?

A. Generally the boiler efficiency is considered as 85%,here are

the boiler losses considered as,
1. Heat loss in dry flue gas loss-10.7%.

2. Heat loss due to moisture in fuel - 2.2 %.

3. Heat loss due moisture in air - 0.38 %.
4. Heat loss due to formations of water from H2 in fuel - 4.4%
5. Heat loss due to conversion of C to CO- 0.53%
Q. what is critical point of steam?
Ans. It is the point at which all water vapor converts to steam
.The critical point occurs at a temperature of 374 deg & 224.6
kg/cm2 .The point is called critical point and the pressure,
temperature at this corresponding saturation temperature is
known as critical pressure and critical temperature.Here the
density of steam and water will remain same.

Q. what is acid due point in boiler ?

Ans.The temperature at which the formation of sulfuric acid in
the boiler is known as acid due point,It is generally in between
130-140 deg celsius. As fuel contain sulfur dioxide (SO2) & H2O
at certain temperature both are condense together and sulfuric
acid(H2SO2) is formed.
It will corrode the boiler tubes.To avoid acid due point we can
use,
1>FD fan re circulation system.
2> By using steam coil air pre-heater (SCAPH).
3> FD air bypass system.
Q. What is slagging or fouling in boiler ?
A. Slagging is the formation of molten or partially fused deposits
on the furnace surface or radiation zone . Fouling is the

deposition of fused particle on convection zone such as super

heater & re- heater.
Q. What is proximate analysis of coal ?
Ans. it is the analysis of coal in which we can find
moisture,volatile matter,fixed carbon & ash.we can found above
parameter as,
moisture-Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven at 105 deg
for 01 hr.
Moisture + volatile matter- Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a
woven at 950 deg for 07 minute.
Ash- Take 1gm of coal sample heat in a woven at 720 deg until
the coal is completely burnt.
What is steam turbine?
Ans.The turbine is a rotary machine which converts heat
energy of steam into mechanical energy. The steam
contain both pressure and temperature known as
enthalpy .
Working- When steam allowed in the turbine the kinetic
energy of steam at the expense of (enthalpy) is convert to
mechanical energy. As the steam moves over the blades
due to change of direction and centrifugal force of
isometric expansion causes to rotate the blade.

Type of steam turbine:- There are generally two types of

steam turbine.
1. Impulse turbine- Here the steam is expanding in the
fixed nozzle and the pressure drops at each stage. The
high velocity of steam entering in the nozzle does work in
the moving blades which causes shaft to rotate. The main
features of this turbine are maximum pressure drops in
the nozzle.
2. Reaction turbine- In this type of turbine the pressure is
dropped in both fixed and moving blades. The both fixed
and moving blades act like a nozzle. Work done is
obtained due to impulse effect (Reversal of direction of
high velocity steam) plus reaction effect of (Expansion of
steam) trough the moving blades. The velocity of steam is
proportional to the square root of heat drop in the nozzle.
Q.What are Classifications of steam turbine:Ans. The steam turbine are classified as under,
1. According to number of cylindera) Single cylinder.
b) Double cylinder.
c) Three cylinder.

2. According to steam flow :a) Axial flow turbine-Here the steam flows parallel to the
axis of turbine.
b) Radial flow turbine- Here the steam flows perpendicular
to the axis of the turbine.
3. According to the method of governing:a) Throttle governing-Steam enters trough the throttle
valves.
b)Nozzle governing- steam enters through two or more
nozzles.
c) Bypass governing- Here the steam is divided two or
more stages of turbine.
4. According to the principle of action:a) Impulse turbine.
b) Reaction turbine.
5. According to the heat balance arrangement:a) Condensing turbine-Here the steam is condensed
through a condenser .
b) Back pressure turbine- The exhaust steam is used in the
purpose of industrial or process heating purpose.
6. According to pressure used:a) Low pressure turbine.
b) Medium pressure turbine.
c) High pressure turbine.
7. According to shaft arrangement.
a) Tandem compound -Here the shaft are arranged in
single shaft.
b) Cross compound Here the shaft are arranged to drive
different

generators.
8. According to casing:a) Single shell casing.
b) Double shell casing.
Q. What are the turbine losses?
A. The turbine losses are mention here as,
a)Tip Leakage loss- This loss is happen due to the
clearance in between the fixed and moving blades.
b) Friction loss- This loss is due to the fluid friction in
nozzle and rotor blades.
c) Leaving loss- This loss is considered due to the leaving
of steam in last stage of blade without doing further useful
work.
Q. why maximum steam turbine double shell casing is
provided?
Ans.The double shell is preferred because,
. a) For quick start up of turbine.
b) Less stress developed in the casing due to double
casing.
Q. What are the types of condenser used in steam
turbine?
Ans. There are two type of condenser is general used in
steam turbine as,
a) Jet condenser: - In this type of condenser exhaust
steam and cooling water is directly mixing together. Here
very high quality of cooling water is needed. The quantity
of cooling water required is very less as compared to

surface condenser.
b) Surface condenser:- Here the cooling water is flowing
through tube shells and the exhaust steam is cooled
through the contact of cooling water tubes.
What is vacuum?
Ans. The vacuum can be defined as a state of very low
pressure or we can say that a space of no matter. It is
below the atmospheric pressure and measured in
(mmHg).
Q. What is the effect of high vacuum in Turbine?
Ans. We can't maintain very high vacuum in steam turbine
because,
a) Turbine last stage is designed with 12% wet steam ,very
high vacuum will lead to increase wetness in last stage so
it will reduce the mechanical strength of turbine last blade
as the volume of steam increase.
b) Due to high wetness corrosion of last blade will
increase.
c) The condensate water will goes to under cooling due to
low saturation pressure so more coal and sensible heat
required to rise the temperature of condensate.
d) Due to high vacuum condenser tube may be
compressed.
Q. What is the effect of low vacuum in a steam
turbine?
Ans. By maintaining vacuum in a turbine the work done of
turbine will be increase because vacuum will reduce the
back pressure of the turbine hence there is more pressure
difference in between the turbine and more work
done.Vacuum helps to convert of steam to water by

providing low saturation temperature.

Q. What is gauge pressure and absolute pressure?
Ans. Absolute pressure :- It is the pressure which is zeroreferenced against
vacuum.
The absolute pressure = gauge pressure +
atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure :- It is the pressure which is zero
reference to atmospheric
pressure.
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure atmospheric
pressure.
Q. What is Electro - Hydraulic governing control of
turbine?
Ans. Now a days most of the turbine speed is controlled
through this type of governing. It is the governing system
in which the turbine speed is controlled by electrical
sensing and hydraulic control. This type of governing
provides very faster speed response than the other
governing. The turbine speed is measured through a
electrical speed transducer mounted on the HP end of the
turbine rotor.
Q. What is eccentricity of steam turbine?
Ans. It is defined as the deviation between the center axis
of the shaft to outer diameter of the turbine rotor .This
happen due to uneven cooling of turbine after shutdown
condition. Due to this effect the shaft may be got
permanent damage and the fixed blade may touch to
moving blades. The eccentricity is measured when the
turbine speed is <240 rpm .

Q. What is the NAS value of oil ?

Ans. The NAS stands for National Aerospace Standard, is
used to find the contamination of oil. The NAS value is
maintained 6 for turbine oil servo-46.The water
concentration of oil should not exceed more than 300
ppm.
Methods of oil sampling:- The oil sample is always taken
from a upward pipe with continuous flow. The sample
taken between the pump and filter.
Q. What is diaphragm of a steam turbine?
Ans. The diaphragm is used in steam turbine to prevent
leakage steam passing through fixed and moving blades. It
is the partition in between the fixed blade and moving
blade of steam turbine. Generally labyrinth seals are used
for diaphragm. One half of diaphragm is fitted into the top
casing and another half is fitted into the bottom casing. It
works as a seal in between fixed and moving blade. It
increase the turbine efficiency.
Q. What is the ultimate analysis of coal ?
A. This is the most accurate method of coal analysis.In this
analysis we can found the components of the mass of
carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,nitrogen,sulfur,moisture,ash.
so (c+h+o+n+s+m+a)= 100% mass.
Q. What is gross calorific value and net calorific value of coal?
Ans.
1.calorific value:- It is the amount of heat liberated with a
unit mass of coal for 1g Kcal.
2.Gross calorific value:-It is the amount of heat liberated by
the complete combustion of unit weight of fuel with
subsequent cooling of product(moisture/water vapor) .

G.C.V is more than N.C.V.

3. Net calorific value :- It is the heat produced in complete
combustion when the product of combustion are allowed
to escaped.
N.C.V = G.C.V - Latent heat of water vapor.
N.C.V = (G.C.V-0.09x587)cal/gm.
What is vacuum?
Ans. The vacuum can be defined as a state of very low
pressure or we can say that a space of no matter. It is
below the atmospheric pressure and measured in
(mmHg).
Q. What is the effect of high vacuum in Turbine?
Ans. We can't maintain very high vacuum in steam turbine
because,
a) Turbine last stage is designed with 12% wet steam ,very
high vacuum will lead to increase wetness in last stage so
it will reduce the mechanical strength of turbine last blade
as the volume of steam increase.
b) Due to high wetness corrosion of last blade will
increase.
c) The condensate water will goes to under cooling due to
low saturation pressure so more coal and sensible heat
required to rise the temperature of condensate.
d) Due to high vacuum condenser tube may be
compressed.

Q. What is the effect of low vacuum in a steam

turbine?
Ans. By maintaining vacuum in a turbine the work done of
turbine will be increase because vacuum will reduce the
back pressure of the turbine hence there is more pressure
difference in between the turbine and more work
done.Vacuum helps to convert of steam to water by
providing low saturation temperature.
Q. What is gauge pressure and absolute pressure?
Ans. Absolute pressure :- It is the pressure which is zeroreferenced against
vacuum.
The absolute pressure = gauge pressure +
atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure :- It is the pressure which is zero
reference to atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure = absolute pressure atmospheric
pressure.
Q. What is Electro - Hydraulic governing control of
turbine?
Ans. Now a days most of the turbine speed is controlled
through this type of governing. It is the governing system
in which the turbine speed is controlled by electrical
sensing and hydraulic control. This type of governing
provides very faster speed response than the other

governing. The turbine speed is measured through a

electrical speed transducer mounted on the HP end of the
turbine rotor.
Q. What is eccentricity of steam turbine?
Ans. It is defined as the deviation between the center axis
of the shaft to outer diameter of the turbine rotor .This
happen due to uneven cooling of turbine after shutdown
condition. Due to this effect the shaft may be got
permanent damage and the fixed blade may touch to
moving blades. The eccentricity is measured when the
turbine speed is <240 rpm .
Q. What is the NAS value of oil ?
Ans. The NAS stands for National Aerospace Standard, is
used to find the contamination of oil. The NAS value is
maintained 6 for turbine oil servo-46.The water
concentration of oil should not exceed more than 300
ppm.
Methods of oil sampling:- The oil sample is always taken
from a upward pipe with continuous flow. The sample
taken between the pump and filter.
Q. What is diaphragm of a steam turbine?
Ans. The diaphragm is used in steam turbine to prevent
leakage steam passing through fixed and moving blades. It
is the partition in between the fixed blade and moving
blade of steam turbine. Generally labyrinth seals are used
for diaphragm. One half of diaphragm is fitted into the top
casing and another half is fitted into the bottom casing. It
works as a seal in between fixed and moving blade. It
increase the turbine efficiency.

What are the heat transfer mediums

Ans. There are generally three medium as,
a) Conduction:- Here the heat is transferred through
molecules. The molecules move from one part to another
part of the substance. Liquid are the good conductor
where as vapor and gaseous are poor conductor of
conduction medium.
b) Convection: - Here the heat is transferred through
movement of heated medium. The heated medium moves
from one place to another place due to density difference.
This medium is used in boiler furnace.
b) Radiation: - Here the heat is transferred through
gasses or vacuum. The heat transfer depends on the
fourth power of bodys absolute temperature.
Q. What is boiling?
Ans. There are two boiling process used in medium
heating.
a) Nucleate boiling: - Here the heat added in such a
manner that the heat received from the inner wall of the
container and the droplets are individually converted into
steam bubbles. As the bubbles grow the size they move to
upward due to lighter density. Other bubbles take their
space and the process continues till the container heated.
b) Film boiling: - This is called film boiling, because a
bubble film is created at the inner surface of the
container. If the heat flux added is greatly increase to a
certain value the bubbles are adjacent to each other
instead of detached and a film is formed at the inner wall
of the container. This bubble film act as a poor conductor

of heat. The bubbles get super heated and finally increase

the temperature of container and may lead to failure of
container / tube. The deviation of boiling process from
nucleate boiling to film boiling is known as departure from
nucleate boiling (DNB).
Q. What are the circulations are used in boiler?
Ans. There are three types of circulation is generally used
in boiler as,
a)Natural circulation:- This circulation happen due to
density difference of the two medium. In boiler the two
medium are water and steam, as steam is lighter than the
water it pushes to upwards flow of water steam mixture,
the steam is separated in drum and water comeback
through down comer to again water wall. This circulation
use thermo- siphon principle. This circulation limited to
operating pressure below 175 kg/cm.
b) Assist circulation:- In this circulation the medium
moves through a mechanical pump. The pump overcome
the frictional loses in the tube. This type of circulation
used pressure beyond 175 kg/cm .The pump is placed in
between the down comer and bottom ring header of
water wall.
c) Forced circulation / once through system:- This
system used in boiler above critical pressure. Here the
feed water is directly fed from the beginning of the circuit
to end of the circuit without circulation. No drum used in
this system. Super critical boilers are designed for once
through system.

Q. What are the types of boiler?

Ans. There are two types of boiler is generally used,
a) Water tube boiler:- Here water is flowing through the
tube. The hot gasses pass through tube and heat transfer
takes place. Now a days most of boiler are water tube
boiler.
b) Fire tube boiler:- Here hot gas passes through the tube
and tube is immersed with water. Heat transfer takes
place from the hot flue gasses and steam is collected from
top of cell. This boiler used in for small steam demand.
The solid combustible hot gas settle inside the tube which
reduce heat transfer.
Q. What are the types of economizer is used in boiler?
A. There are two type of economizer used in boiler as,
a) Steaming economizer:- Here some of the water is
converted to steam and the steam-water mixture flows
through the economizer. This type of economizer used in
high percentage of feed water to avoid scaling inside the
tube.
b) Non-steaming economizer:- In this type of economizer
only water flows through the circuit.
Q. What is the draft and types of draft used in boiler?
Ans. The draft is defined as pressure difference in
between a system. There are generally three types of draft
used in boiler,
a) Forced draft: - Here force draft (FD) fan is used to
maintain the draft in boiler. Here the draft inside the

boiler would be always positive draft.

b) Induced drought: - Here induced drought (ID) fan is
used to maintain the draft in boiler. The pressure inside
the boiler would be always negative.
c) Balance drought:- Here both FD and ID fan is used to
maintain the drought inside the boiler. The drought at the
tip of the burner will be zero. This type of drought is used
in maximum boiler.
Q. What is super critical boiler?
A. The boiler which works the pressure above the critical
pressure is known as super-critical boiler. This boiler
works in the principle of once through system. There is no
drum only separator is used for separating steam from
water during partial load
What is (HGI) Hard Grove Index of coal?
Ans. It is the measuring unit through which the hardness of coal
can be determined. Higher value of HGI means coal can be easily
grinded. The HGI of lignite coal is up to 120 where as the HGI of
bituminous coal is 45 to 60 so lignite coal can be easily grinded
than bituminous coal. The HGI is inversely proportional to grinding
power.
Q. What are the factors affecting for a coal mill performance?
Ans. This depend on the no of factors such as,
a) Grindability index of coal.
b) Fineness of coal
c) Moisture content of the coal
d) Size of raw coal.
e) Mill component wear.
Q. What are the advantages of (PF) pulverized coal fired boiler
than the other boiler?
Ans. Here is the advantage of using pulverized coal fired boiler as,
a) Pulverized coal burners act like gas so the fire can be easily
controlled.
b) Cheaper low grade coal can be burnt easily.
c) High combustion efficiency.

d) Load can be varied quickly.

e) Quick and smooth light up of boiler.
f) Flexibility in firing to meet fluctuating load.
Q.What is soot blowers and their types?
Ans. The soot blower is a equipment through which the deposition
of soot in boiler is removed. There are two types of soot blower is
generally used,
a) Steam inject soot blower:- Here the steam is used as the
cleaning medium. The steam flow through a pipe and nozzle,
strikes at the surface of tube and removes the soot. Here three soot
blowers are generally used as i) long retractable soot blower ii) Wall
soot blower iii) Rotary soot blower.
b) Sonic soot blower: - This type of soot blower is used to remove
soot by using low energy and high frequency sounds. They produce
non-destructive sound waves which hit at the surface of tube wall
and remove the deposited soot. By using this type of soot blower
erosion and corrosion of tube can be avoided. Steam loss can also
be avoided. The frequency of sound in this type of soot blower is
ranging from 60 HZ to 350 HZ.

Q. what is the effect of soot deposits in a boiler?

Ans.
a) The deposited soot act as a poor conductor of heat which reduce
the heat transfer rate and increase flue gas temperature.
b) The deposits block the flue gas path which increase the drought
loss.
c) The deposit may lead to corrosion.
d) Due to falling of large size of soot it damage the tube in dry ash
conveying system.
Q. What are the methods are used for steam temperature
control in boiler.
A. We can control steam temperature by,

a) Using gas recirculation method-Hot flue gas is circulated for

maintain steam temperature.
b) By providing excess air- By providing excess air it reduce the
furnace temperature for some timing hence control temperature.
c) Burner tilting method- Here the tilting of burner are provided by a
pneumatic cylinder. The burner can be tilted 30 up and down for
control temperature.
d) Attemporation control-This is the best method for temperature
control in boiler. Here the attemporator are provided to spray water
in steam in steam pipe line. Ceramic thermal sleeves are provided
to avoid thermal shock due to temperature difference of steam and
spray water.
e) Elevation of fuel firing The temperature is controlled by
choosing upper or lower elevation of fuel burner.

Q. what are the Turbine losses?

A. Here are the turbine losses are defined as,
a) Tip leakage loss: - This loss is happen due to small amount of
steam passing in between the clearance of fixed blade and moving
blade. The labyrinths are provided for sealing of fixed and moving
blades. Some steam passes through this labyrinth clearance
without any work done.
b) Disc windage loss:- This is the friction loss due to the surface
friction created on the disc.
c)Secondary loss:- This loss is due to friction on the casing wall
and tip of the blade.
d) Wetness loss:- The turbine is designed for 12 % of exhaust
steam. If the wetness of steam increase id absorb the energy due to
water droplets and second thing is it make erosion at the last stage
of the blade.
E) Loss due to lancing wire:- As the lancing wire is provided at
the last stage of turbine blade to provide mechanical strength , the
production of losses in blade efficiency because of passage area
they block.
Q. What is the function of a condenser in turbine?
Ans.
:-It save the DM water as the steam is converted to water and

reuse.
:- It provide high vacuum so that heat rejection takes place from
steam to water.
:- It give space for storage of condensate.
Q. What is dummy / balancing piston in steam turbine?
A. It is one part of the turbine used to neutralizing the axial thrust of
turbine rotor.As the pressure drop at each stage of turbine blade it
produce axial thrust at the same direction of steam flow. So it is
necessary to balance the shaft. It is placed before the first stage of
turbine. This is fixed with the turbine shaft. The steam enter in
between the balance piston and first stage of turbine and give a
reaction force to the balancing piston opposite to the axial thrust
hence it counter balance the turbine shaft.The diameter of the
balancing disc is designed in a such manner is that it can oppose
the force acting on turbine shaft.
Q. What are the types thrust bearing are used in rotating
machine
A. There are generally four types of thrust bearings are used as,
a) Tapered bearing.
b) Babbitt faced bearing.
c) Tilting pad bearing.
d) Roller bearing.

Q. What is the critical speed of turbine.

A. It is the speed at which the natural frequency of turbine shaft is
close/near to the operating frequency of the shaft. The turbine shaft
material has its own natural frequency, when we rotate the turbine
rotor at some speed the both frequency are near equal so it
produce a high vibration and noise at this particular frequency. To
avoid critical speed we have to accelerate the turbine speed if the
turbine speed hold at this frequency then a high vibration occurs in
the shaft. The value of critical speed is defined by the designer of
turbine. For example we can say that critical speed of a 150 MW ,
3000 rpm steam turbine may be 1800 rpm , 2200 rpm and 2500
rpm.
Q. What are the couplings used in steam turbine.
A. There are three types of coupling are generally used as,

a) Flexible coupling:- This couplings are used where there is small

misalignment and axial movement of shaft .This coupling require
lubrication.
b) Semi flexible coupling:- These couplings are generally used in
between turbine and generator. No lubrication require for this
coupling.
c) Rigid coupling:- This couplings are provided in between the
cylinders such as in between HP- LP and between LP- IP
cylinders.
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Why turbine kept in turning gear after shutdown?

A.To avoid hogging (bending downwards) or sagging (bending
upwards) effect of turbine turning gear is used after shutdown .
There is a temperature difference in lower casing and upper
casing of turbine after shutdown if we kept turbine shaft
stationary then it will bent turbine rotor, to avoid this the
turbine should be rotate in slow speed. There are generally
three type of turning gear used ,
a) Electrical turning gear Electrical motor is used in this type
of turning gear to rotate the turbine less than 30 rpm . A
reduction gear is used to reduce the speed.
b) Hydraulic turning gear- In this system a hydraulic turbine
wheel is mounted on the shaft of the turbine. High velocity oil is
supplied from jacking oil pump which rotate the blade of
hydraulic turning gear hence the turbine rotor. This system will
start after the starting of JOP. Most of advanced turbine use this
system.
c) Hand barring system If the electric or hydraulic system fails
then hand barring is done with slow speed through a lever and
handle.
Q. What is turbine stress evaluator (TSE)?
A. It is the instrument used to online monitor of turbine
mechanical stress. It calculate the temperature difference of
turbine upper and lower casing. It is the algorithm system based
on the comparison of actual calculated stress.

Q. Why gland steam system is provided in steam turbine?

A.The main function of gland sealing system is , it prevent the
escape/leakage of steam at the HP side of turbine and prevent
the ingress of air at the LP side of turbine. It is provided at the
turbine shaft. Labyrinth seals are generally used for sealing
purpose. It is generally made of aluminum, bronze and mild
steel. Radial and axial clearance is provided in between the seal.
Steam throttled in every stage and gain kinetic energy at the
expense its pressure energy. So pressure dropped in every
stage and it provide sealing of shaft. By providing the labyrinth
clearance very small the loss can be minimized. Collecting
pockets are provided at other end of sealing in which the steam
can be collected and can be used in gland steam blower.
Q. What is the differential expansion of steam turbine?
A. It is the difference of expansion in between the turbine shaft
and turbine casing. The thermal emanation of rotor is happen
because of mass of casing is more than the mass of rotor. This is
happen due to sudden loading of turbine or rate of steam inlet
in turbine is very high. If the rotor expansion is more than casing
then it is known as positive explanation and if the casing
expansion is more than rotor is known as negative expansion
.The expansion value for turbine tripping is generally provided
as +- 6 mm. It is measured by LVDT ( linear variable differential
transducer).
The differential expansion = Change in shaft length into change
in turbine casing length.
Q. What is axial shift of turbine?
A. The axial shift of turbine can be defined as the physical
shifting of turbine rotor from the center point. This shifting is
happen due to thrust on blade of rotor. Thrust tapered bearing
is provided to prevent the axial shift of rotor. The tripping value
for turbine axial shift is generally provided with +- 0.6 mm. The
possible causes of axial shift is due to,
a)Sudden drop in vacuum

b) Sudden drop in steam temperature

c) Sudden change in load
d) Sudden closer of extraction NRV.
e) Lube oil failure in thrust bearing.
f) Scaling in turbine blades.
Q. What is TSE (turbine supervising panel)?
A.This is the integrated combine logic provided to observe the
safe operation of turbine. This supervisory panel observes,
a) Turbine casing explanation during roiling.
b) Turbine differential expansion.
c) Turbine rotor eccentricity.
d) Turbine vibration.
e) Rate of loading of turbine.

Q. What is over speed of turbine?

A. It is the increased speed of turbine due to grid failure or
islanding condition. Over speed happen due to sudden
unloading of turbine. The over speed of turbine tripping is
generally provided with speed > 110 % of rated speed. The
machine should not be allowed to cross that limit. The over
speed tripping can be provided by a over speed governor or
mechanical governor.
Q. What is turbine tripping condition?
A. A turbine may be tripped due to this reasons,

a) Boiler trip/generator trip

a) Due to over speed- >110 %
b) High axial shift - +- 0.6 mm.
c) High differential expansion - +- 6 mm.
d) Condenser vacuum very low - < 0.6 kg/ cm
e) Main steam temperature low - <485 deg c.
f) Main steam temperature high - > 565 deg c.
g) Press of emergency push button.
h) Main steam pressure and temperature low low and high high.
i) Turbine bearing temperature high- >120 deg c.
g) Turbine vibration high - > 165 micron.
h) Turbine lube oil temperature high - >65 deg c.
i) Mot oil level low - < 30 %.
j) Malfunction of sensing device.
What is steam trap and it's function?
Ans. function of steam trap- It is a device is used in steam pipe line
to discharge condensate and gasses, prevent to escape of steam
through the line. It ensures that steam is not wasted. This is a self
contained valve which automatically drains the condensate from a
steam containing device. This is generally provided in steam drains
or before steam drain valve.

You tube video of mechanical steam trap

Types of steam trap:1> Mechanical trap Works in the principle of difference in density
between steam and condensate. This type of trap operate
according the condensate level in the port if the condensate level
increase the float operates and allow to condensate pass through
the pipe ,when condensate level decrease is close the valve and
doesnt allow the condensate. Types of mechanical trap i) Float
type, ii)Float with lever type, iii)Inverted bucket type, iv)Open bucket
type.
2> Thermodynamic type steam trap - Works in the principle of
difference in between thermodynamic property of steam and
condensate.This types of traps operate due to velocity change in
flow of compressible and non compressible fluids.As the steam
starts condensate there is a temperature difference which allow the
trap to operate. Types of Thermodynamic type steam trap i) Disc
type ii) orifice type.
3> Thermostatic type steam trap- This trap works in the principle of
difference of temperature in between steam and condensate.
Types of Thermostatic type steam trap i) Bimetallic type,
ii)
Metallic expansion type.
Q. What is (NRV) Non Return Valve?
A. This is also known as one way valve which allow the fluid flow in
one direction only. As its name implies non return means there is
only one direction flow.All the assembly are provided with a valve
bonnet.This valves are generally used in pump discharges and
steam water pipe lines.This device ensures there is no back flow of
fluid from the source. It has two lines one is inlet line and other is
outlet line.There is a direction symbol provided on the valve which
show the direction of flow fluid.
Types of NRV:i> Tilting disc check valve-This is a disc type check valve.The disc
provided fixed with a hinge which swing up and down. As the fluid
flow in the line it lift by the fluid force and allow the fluid to flow in
the pipe . When there is no fluid flow in the circuit it closes due to
gravitational force.
ii> Ball check valve- Here a spherical ball is used to fervent the fluid

flow. The ball is spring loaded which close the valve when there is
no fluid flow in the line. The pressure of fluid lift the ball and let the
fluid to flow.
iii> Diaphragm type NRV This is consists of a rubber diaphragm
clapper ,Which works on the differential pressure When the
pressure in the upstream is more it open the diaphragm and allow
the fluid to flow and when the pressure is equalize is closes
diaphragm and prevent to fluid.
iv> Stop check valve- Its construction is same as the swing check
valve except that here is a external control mechanism of handle or
lever provided.
v> Lift check valve- Here a lift or disc is provided which operates on
the working pressure of the fluid.

Q. what is Pressure relief valve(PRV) ?

A.

Image of pressure relief valve.

The relief valve (PRV) is a type of valve used to control or limit the
pressure in a vessel or system during an overpressure of the
system. The primary purpose of a pressure Relief Valve is
protection of life and property by venting fluid from an over
pressurized vessel. Many electronic, pneumatic and hydraulic
systems exist today to control fluid system variables, such as
pressure, temperature and flow. Each of these systems requires a
power source of some type, such as electricity or compressed air in
order to operate. A pressure Relief Valve must be capable of
operating at all times, especially during a period of power failure

when system controls are nonfunctional. The PRV is provided on

the on the main steam line to control the line pressure. The PRV is
generally operated through pneumatic pressure.The PRV operated
according to the set pressure of rhe controller. The valve set down
when the pressure reach to normal value.

Q. What is the difference between safety valve and pressure

relief valve?
A. Difference between safety valve and relief valve
Relief Valve The relief valve is used on a filled vessel. For such a
valve the opening is proportional to increase in the vessel pressure.
Hence the opening of valve is not sudden, but gradual if the
pressure is increased gradually. A relief valve is meant to relieve
pressure to prevent an over pressure condition. A relief valve may
have an operator on it to assist in opening the valve in response to
a control signal. The capacity of PRV are generally small.
Safety Valve This device is used to relief on a compressible filled
vessel. For such a valve the opening is sudden. When the set
pressure of the valve is reached, the valve opens almost fully. A
safety valve is meant to relieve pressure without operator
assistance and a safety valve, or combination of safety valves, must
be have a capacity to relieve more than the energy input to the
volume being protected.

What is the cold startup procedure of

boiler?
Pre check up for cold start up of boiler :1) Check all maintenance work are completed
and all permit are returned.
2) Check all foreign materials has been removed
vfrom the pressure parts
3) Check all access doors are closed.
4) Check all equipments are trial run successfully.
5) Check all interlock test and prior test to

startup are completed.

6) Check no jamming in rotary equipment ,
lubrication oil , cooling water system is normal.
7) Check all the oil level meter are in operation.
8) Check all the position of valve is normal.
9) Check HFO & LDO pump are running in re
circulation.
10) Fill the deaeretor with initial filling line.
Conform the position of the following
valves:1) All blow down and drain valves on boiler and
water wall should be closed condition.
2) All boiler and super heater filling valves are
closed condition.
3) Soot blower master steam valve should be
closed condition.
4) Main steam line stop valve should be closed
condition.
5) De-super heater spray valve should be closed
condition.
6) Drum vents should be open condition.
7) Super heater header drains should be open
condition.
8) Fill the boiler with initial filling line and observe
the water coming from the vent of economizer,
drum vents, and super heater vents sequentially.
9) CBD and IBD drains should be closed
condition.

Start Boiler light up:1) Start the (ACW) industrial cooling water
system.
2) Start the instrument air compressor.
3) Start the APH motor it that is rotary APH.
4) Put the auxiliary steam system (PRDS) in
operation for oil heating.
5) Start the ID and FD fan.
6) Start the scanner air fan.
7) Start the HFO/LDO pump with recirculation.
8) Adjust the fan speed and opening of dampers ,
increase the air flow up to 30% of total air flow.
9) Maintain the furnace draft of approximately -4
mm.
10) Start boiler feed water pump and keep drum
level as per purge permissive.
11) Make sure all purge permissive are satisfying
and start purge for 5 minutes.
12) Start the oil burners by maintaining furnace
draft.
13) Visually check the flame of the oil burner is
that healthy or not.
14) When prepare for heavy fuel firing, be sure
that atomizing steam is in service and oil
temperature reach to permissive value.
15) Change the position of oil guns on each
elevation for uniform heating of furnace.
16) Increase the furnace temperature by 5 deg c
per minute.
17) The firing should be continued nearly 08
hours.
18)Start the HP dosing pump with minimum

stroke.
19) Observe the drum upper and lower metal
temperature increase uniformly.
20) Close the drum vents when drum pressure
reaches to 2 kg/cm2.
21) Observe the expansion reading of boiler
within limit.
22) Close the main steam line vent when the
pressure reaches to 5 kg/cm2.
23) Charge the auxiliary steam line and connect
to common header if available.
24) Check all drains of the boiler should be closed
condition.
25) Slowly open the main steam line bypass
valve.
26) Observe all condensate removed from line
and open slowly main steam valve to turbine and
observe hammering of steam line.
27)Charge the sample cooler line and ask D.M
plant operator to check all the parameter of
water and steam.

Procedure of turbine cold startup?

The startup condition of the turbine is considered as per inner
casing temperature of the turbine such as,
a) Cold start up If the casing temperature is < 200C.
b) Warm start up - If the casing temperature in between 200300C.
c) Hot start up- If the casing temperature is > 450C.
Pre checklist for cold start up:1) Check all work completed and all permit is returned.
2) Confirm all interlock test of turbine is completed.
3) Check all level gauges and pressure gauges in operation.

4) Check cooling tower sump level should be normal level.

5) Check the oil level of MOT tank and control oil tank should be
normal.
6) Check the generator cooling water and lube oil cooling system is
normalized.
7) Check the compressor is system in running .
8) Check the ACW pump in running.
9) Check the circulating water pump(CW) in running.
10)Check the turbine lube oil pump is running and turbine is in
barring gear.
11) Check the generator air cooling system is in operation.

Procedure for turbine rolling:1) Start the CEP with minimum re circulation.
2) Start the gland steam system with auxiliary PRDS.
3) Start the gland steam blower and normalize Gland steam drain
system.
4) Maintain the gland steam temperature in between 121 to 177 deg
c.
5) Start the vacuum pump or ejector for vacuum pulling.
6) Ensure the boiler develop rated pressure above 15 kg/cm2 &
temperature >360deg c
7) Put the HP and LP bypass system in operation for line warm-up.
8) Ensure all turbine drains are open condition.
9) Check the turbine lube oil temperature is in-between 38-42 deg

c.
10) Check the differential expansion and eccentricity is normal.
11) Reset the turbine from governor panel.
12) Press the latching or start bottom to open the ESV.
13) Give command for rolling of turbine.
14) Check the turning gear and JOP automatically stopped when
speed reaches >300 rpm.
15) Press the hold button of turbine and hold the speed in 500rpm
to check the eccentricity < 0.076 mm, axial shift +- 1 mm and
differential expansion +- 6mm of turbine.
16) Continue the speed of the turbine with 40 rpm/min and speedup
the turbine speed during critical speed of 1850,2000 and 2200
respectively (as per designer).
17) Check the main oil pump comes in service and AOP is stopped
condition.
18) After turbine reached to full speed hold for some time and
ensure upper and lower casing temperature difference is within
limit.
19) Ask the electrical people for synchronization.
20) Close all turbine drains after synchronization.
21) Increase load by follow of turbine cold startup load curve.
22) When the load is increase to 20% of full load charge the
Extraction line gradually.
23) Finally check all parameter of turbine is ok and increase turbine
load to full.
What is the function of ejector in condenser and its working
principle ?
Ans. Function of ejector:- The main function of the ejector is to
extract air and no condensate gasses from a closed system . It
removes air from the condenser and provide vacuum. The amount
of air extracted at the time of starting is more as compared to
running unit.
Parts of ejector:- It generally consists of converging nozzle ,
diverging nozzle , diffuser throat , inlet and outlet pipes, Rota meter
for measurement of air flow , cells with tube for regeneration heat
transfer , Steam traps for drip control .

parts of a steam ejector

Working principle of ejector :- When a high pressure motive fluid(

steam/liquid) enters the steam nozzle , this result in a decreasing
pressure and increasing velocity of the fluid again the fluid enters in
the diffuser which result in a increasing pressure and decreasing
velocity of the fluid so due to pressure difference vacuum is created
in between the nozzle and diffuser we can say venture throat . So
due to pressure difference or vacuum it sucks no condensable air
and fluid from the system. The mixture then enters to an inter
condenser where the steam is condensate. The inter condenser are
designed with a special inter condenser baffles of tubes where heat
transfer takes place . The second stage ejector handles the non
condensate gasses of first stage ejector and through a vent opening
to the atmosphere. The air flow can be measured by the rota-meter.
The condensate water of steam send back to re use through steam
traps.
Types of ejector :There are generally two types of ejector generally used as ,
i > Hogger ejector :- This ejector is known as the starting ejector
which is used to pull the gasses at the time of starting of system. It
has high capacity of air extraction. This ejector operates with
parallel with the running ejector till the vacuum reaches 500-600
mm of HG column , then the hogger ejector is switched off and
main ejector will remain in service. The main disadvantages of this
ejector is the steam escaped to atmosphere and can't reuse.

Image of a main ejector

ii> Main ejector :- This is also known as the running ejector which
evacuate the air continuously at the system running condition. This
is a multi stage type ejector . The high velocity air -water mixture
enters to the shell and cooled in the first stage of the shell by
condensate. Steam is thus condensate and the steam air mixture
volume reduced and allowed to second stage of the nozzle . In the
second stage the mixture is completely condensate and the air is
vented to the atmosphere. The drains are provided with loops or
siphoned to prevent ingress of air from the atmosphere.Here the
condensate seam is again recovered in condenser and reuse.
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What is Vacuum pump or liquid ring air pump used in

condenser and it's working principle ?
As the steam ejector use steam for air evacuation this is a loss
for the plant as the pressure and temperature of the steam is
reduced to the rated parameter of the ejector , so now a days in
modern power plants rotary air pumps are used for air extraction
purpoes.The rotary air pump is more flexible as it doesnt depend
steam and water circuit for air extraction.
Construction: - Its construction is same like a centrifugal pump with
multiple impellers. It consists of impeller, suction pipe , discharge
pipe. Diffuser, divergent cone, fixed guide nozzle . The impeller with
a blade is attached to a center hub located in a cylindrical body. The

pump require liquid to create vacuum. A tapping is provided at the

top of the pump for air line connection.

Image of rotary liquid ring air pump

Working principle:- The liquid if fed to the pump through suction
pipe , due to rotary motion of the pump impeller a centrifugal force
is created in the impeller of the pump. It consists of a multi-bladed,
rotating element (impeller), eccentricity positioned within a
cylindrical casing. The compression of the gas occurs in one or two
impeller stages depending on the ultimate vacuum required,
although for this service two/multi stage pumps are generally
required. Water or some other in-compressible fluid, called service
liquid, is introduced to the LRVP. As the impeller rotates, a ring of
liquid is formed inside the pump casing from centrifugal force. This
action draws the gaseous stream into the pump through the inlet
port. The gas is compressed by the liquid ring, exiting the first stage

through a smaller area discharge port and into the second stage of
the pump. The second stage is volumetrically smaller doing the final
compression of the gas. The gas then exits the pump usually at
atmospheric pressure, along with the service liquid.Only small
amount of water makeup required due to water leakage or
evaporation.

uses of liquid ring pump:1) Power generation equipment (produce vacuum).

2) Petrochemical.
3) Seawater deae-ration.
4) Pharmaceutical.
5) Ground water remediation/vapor extraction.
6) Food production.
Advantages of liquid ring pump:These pumps can easily take care of condensable vapors and can
even handle fluids of various kinds without affecting the
performance of the pump. Based on liquid ring technology, pumps
have only one rotating or prime functioning part and therefore are
economical and much easier to maintain than the other pumps. The
repairing or rebuilding of these pumps is very easy in comparison to
other complicatedly designed pumping units. Liquid ring vacuum
pumps can efficiently be employed as vacuum jobs and also for the
compression tasks as well which usually is not possible with
ordinary pump sets.Quick starting also another advantage of this
pump.

What is Burner Management System (BMS) and

its function?

The main function of Burner Management System (BMS) is to

protect boiler from explosion as it ensures a safe, orderly
operating sequence in the start-up and shutdown of fuel firing

equipment and to reduce possible errors by following the

sequential and safe operating procedure.It is a digital logic
system, which provides status information and monitoring of
the firing equipment ensuring a safe orderly operating sequence
during the start-up, continuous operation and shutdown of the
fuel firing equipment, and prevents any errors of commission or
omission as a result of the various permissive and safety
interlocks of satisfied operation.The system also protects
against malfunction of fuel firing equipment and
associated systems .BMS provides permissive interlocks only to
ensure safe startup of equipment. Once the equipment is in
service, the operator must follow acceptable safe operating
practices.The BMS supervises, controls and monitors the
preparation, distribution and admission of fuel and air into the
furnace.The primary function of the BMS components is to
prevent the formation of an explosive mixture of fuel and air
from accumulating within any portion of the boiler.Major
furnace explosions can result from the ignition of un-burned
fuel accumulated within the furnace in only one to two seconds.
Operator reaction time is inadequate to respond quickly enough
to prevent dangerous situations from occurring. The safety
systems incorporate many permissive and interlocks which
allow the operation of equipment only after certain conditions
have been satisfied. Much of the logic has been derived from
established operating procedures which have been proven safe
over the years in fossil fuel fired plants.
The Burner Management system is a constant monitor of many
points of operation and reacts almost instantly to malfunctions
of equipment or potential problems. It provides the operator
with a certain degree of security and alerts the operator to
problems by sounding an alarm in time for the operator to
check the problem and, in most cases, correct it before damage
to the unit or a trip occurs.

BMS logic configuration.

CAUSES FOR FURNACE EXPLOSIONS:Here are the main causes of furnace explosion:a) Ignition of an accumulation of combustible gas in a boiler out
of service.
b) Operating for a long period of time with a deficiency of air
and then
suddenly bringing about proper air fuel ratio.

c) Improper sequence of operation of firing system components

d) Insufficient ignition energy supplied relative to actual
requirements
e) Firing with improper air fuel ratio and insufficient furnace
temperature.
Function of BMS :a) Prevent firing unless a satisfactory furnace purge has first
been completed.
b)Prohibit start-up of the equipment unless certain permissive
interlocks have first been completed.
c) Monitor and control the correct component sequencing
during start-up and shutdown of the equipment.
d) Conditionally allow the continued operation of the equipment
only while certain safety interlocks remaining satisfied.
e) Provide component condition feedback to the operator and to
the plant control systems and/or data loggers.
f) Provide automatic supervision when the equipment is in
service and provide means to make a Master Fuel Trip (MFT)
should certain unacceptable firing conditions occur.
g) Execute a MFT upon certain adverse unit operating conditions

Major Equipments Included in the BMS system:a) Pulverizes and Coal Feeders.
b) Induced Draft Fans (ID Fans )
c) Forced Draft Fans (FD Fans)
d) Fuel Oil Trip Valves.
e) Oil Burners system.
f) Scanner Cooling Air Fans.
g) Primary Air Fans (PA Fans )
h) Seal Air Fans (SA fans)

What is Boiler Master Fuel trip relay

(MFT) ?

The boiler Master Fuel Relay Trip (MFT) provided to protect the
boiler from any unsafe operation condition in the boiler. Once
MFT is initiated, The BMS will stop all fuel supplied to the
furnace. The All Fuel oil (LDO and HFO) trip valves will be closed,
All Pulverizes and Coal Feeder will be tripped along with Primary
air and seal air fans.

The Boiler MFT will be initiated in following abnormal

conditions:-

1) By Pressing Boiler Emergency push buttons together from the

control desk.
2) Turbine trips after turbine reset.
3) Drum Level Hi Hi.
4) Drum Level Lo Lo.
5) Drum Press Hi Hi.
5) Main Steam Temperature Hi Hi At 555 deg. C.
6) Air flow less than 30% of total Secondary Air flow.
7) 2/3 Furnace Pressure Hi Hi.
8) Both ID Fans off.
9) Both FD Fans off.
10)Unit flame failure.
11) Loss of fuel.

Unit flame failure-

Operating boiler with unstable flame is lead to boiler explosion

as accumulation of unburnt carbon and gasses will be more. The
unit flame failure happen due to sudden reduction of fuel to
minimum value,Malfunctioning of flame scanner,Air flow less
than 30% of total air flow,loss of ignition energy,sudden closer
of fuel air dampers.
Loss of all fuelNormally loss of fuel is activated after the boiler is lighted up
or tried to light up (i.e. any local fuel oil has opened once). After
that if all burner fuel valves get closed, and all feeders are off it
will generate loss of all fuel OR All feeders are off, any burner oil
valve is open and main trip HFO/LDO not opened.

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Q)Working

principle of pulverizing
Bowl mill ?
Bowl mill is a vertical spindle medium speed mill. In a bowl mill
the coal is pulverized between a disc called bowl rotated by the
drive assembly called rollers .The rollers kept above the disc
loaded by springs or pneumatic or hydraulic loading devices.
Parts of bowl coal mill:Mill base and body.
Gear box assembly.
Separator body.
Lubrication system.
Scrapper assembly.
Roller and bowl assembly.
Mil discharge pipes.
Pirate discharge assembly.
Measuring instruments.

Image of a coal mill

Construction of Bowl mill:The vertical drive shaft is accommodated in the mill base with a
worm wheel keyed to it and coupled by a motor.The speed
reduction is provided by gear box assembly. One thrust bearing
below the worm wheel and two radial bearings one above and
one below worm wheel support the vertical shaft. The work
wheel, worm shaft, worm shaft bearing, vertical shaft thrust
bearing and lower radial bearing, all housed in the mill base, are
flood lubricated by the oil filled in the mill base up to the worm
wheel. The
upper radial bearing is lubricated by the oil pumped by a gear
pump attached to the vertical shaft through the bore drilled in
the vertical shaft. This oil from the bearing drains back to the
sump through the oil cooler placed in the mill base. A view port
with a sight glass is provided on the oil
return line to monitor the oil flow. A blow assembly with
scrappers is mounted on the top of the vertical shaft. The
surface of the bowl is lined with bullring segments made of wear
resistant material such as BIHARD, HICHROME etc. As the mill

works under pressure, to prevent the entry of dust laden air to

the gearbox a sealing arrangement is provided. When the bowl
rotates, the seal runner moves over the bronze seal making a
metal to metal contact. The air seal housing is admitted with
clean, cold seal air at a pressure higher than mill pressure. With
such an arrangement through the interface clearance between
rotating and stationary parts only the seal air can pass. Hot highpressure air called primary air is admitted to the mill sided
assembly the bowl. The mill side consists of insulation to
prevent excessive conducting of heat from mill side to mill base.
It also has bottom liners to provide an enclosure for the
scrappers of the bowl assembly. The scrappers scrap the pyrites
and rejects falling from the bowl on this zone into the pyrite
hopper through the tramp iron spout opening in mill base.There
are two pirate gate in hopper, The outlet gate will be opened
only for emptying the pyrite hopper after closing the inlet gate.
The mill has three grinding roll assemblies, in each assembly a
grinding roll is suspended on a journal shaft which is fixed to the
journal head. Tapered roller bearing are provided inside the
housing of journal shaft. Oil is filled in the housings to lubricate
the bearings. The rollers are centrifugally casted with the outer
surface made of material same as that of bull ring segments
such as NIHARD, HICHROME ETC. A turnion shaft is inserted
through the journal head for placing the roller journal assembly
can swing over the turnions shaft. The roller journal assemblies
are mounted in such a manner that the roll face
is approximately parallel to and is in close proximity with the
inside surface of the grinding bowl. Stop bolts are provided to
supports the journal head at the bottom. Through these stop
bolt the clearance between roller and bowl can adjusted.
Pressure for grinding is applied through compression springs
mounted from above the roller journal assembly. The tip of the
spring will
be just in contact with the journal head. The separator body

encloses the roller journal assemblies and springs. The

separator body has liners at the bottom, which deflect the
primary air entering the mill from the mill side. An internal
multivaned classifier connected to the mill outlet is located at
the bottom of the separator body top. The classifier vanes are
externally adjustable. A venturi is provided at the classifier
outlet and classifier can be adjusted manually as per
requirement of coal size.

Working of bowl mill:Coal from the raw coal feeder is fed at the centre of the bowl
through a raw coal inlet chute inserted at the center of
separator body top. Due to centrifugal force the coal
moves towards the periphery. The three rolls exerts the
required grinding pressure through the springs. The primary air
supplied to the mill side moves up through the vanes around
the bowl. B the
deflector liners the air is directed towards the center of the mill
which cause the reciruculation of the coal through the grinding
area. The air moving upwards picks the fine coal and
enters classifier through the vanes. The vanes introduce spin
and as a result course particles get separated from the stream

and return through the annulus between the centre feed pipe
and
classifier cone to the bowl further grinding. Fine coal moves out
with air through the multi-port assembly at the outlet of the
classifier. Any hard foreign material (Pyrites) entering the mill
with coal cannot be pulverized. Such particles when move on
the bowl lift the roller journal assembly compressing the spring
and increasing the gap between roller and the bowl. Once such
particles clear the bowl the spring brings back the roller journal
assembly to the initial position. The Pyrites fall down from the
bowl into the mill side assembly where they are sweeped by the
scrappers and discharged into the pyrite hopper through the
tramp iron spout. Periodically the rejects are removed from the
pyrite hopper by first closing the inlet gate and then opening
gate.

The major advantages of this mill are:low power consumption.

Reliability.
Minimum maintenance.
Wide Capacity.
Quiet and vibration less operation.
Ability to handle a wide range of coal.
FACTORS AFFECTING MILL PERFORMANCE:-

Grind ability index of coal

Fineness of milled product
Moisture content
Size of raw coal
Mill wear

HOME

What is furnace
necessary?

purge

and

its

Necessary
of
furnace
purgeThe furnace purge is one of the parts of Furnace safe guard and
supervisory system (FSSS) and is provided to remove
incombustible gasses and un-burnt particles from boiler before
boiler light up. During boiler sudden trip there is accumulation
of un-burnt gasses in furnace , At the time of starting of boiler
this gasses may cause of explosion to avoid that furnace purge
is
provided.
30-40 %ge of air flow is provided in boiler by starting ID,FD fan
and
purging
continue
for
five
minutes.
Cndition

of
furnace
purge1)
Boiler
shall
be
in
trip
condition
2) Drum level within operating range (not high, not low)
3) Either of the ID and FD Fans are in service
4) Purge airflow should be 30-40% of the full load airflow.
5)
LDO
Header
trip
Valve
closed.
6)
HFO
Header
Trip
Valve
Closed
7)
All
Pulverizer
OFF.
8)
ALL
PA
Fans
OFF.
9) All Pulverizer
fuel oil valves Closed.
10) All Coal Flame Scanner sense no flame.
11)All Oil scanner senses no flame.

Procedure
of
boiler
purge:When the above purge permissive conditions are satisfied a
"PURGE
READY",
Indication will appear in DCS. By pressing the "PURGE START"
button, furnace purge will start which will be indicated by
"PURGE IN PROGRESS. The furnace purging will continue for
300 Seconds, after that "PURGE COMPLETE" indication shows
that purge has completed. Press "MFRRESET" Button which will
reset master fuel trip relay giving indication MFR RESET".
After MFT reset condition boiler is ready for light up

Q)What is the function of condenser in

steam turbine & its type?
The main function of condenser is to convert gaseous form of
exhaust steam into liquid form at a pressure of below
atmosphere or we can say that It is a heat sink in the thermal
cycle in which rejection of heat energy takes place on
condensation of exhaust steam of turbine. Cooling mediums are
used such as water/air to convert steam into water. By
converting steam into water the back pressure of the turbine
exhaust can be reduced and due to pressure difference
between inlet and outlet of turbine , there is more enthalpy
drop and more work done in the turbine. Back pressure of
turbine is defined as pressure at the exhaust nozzle of the
turbine.
The main function of condenser:i)saving on steam require per unit of electricity
ii) To convert exhaust steam to water for reuse thus saving on
deed water
requirement.
iii) Deaeration of make-up water introduced in the condenser.
iv) To form a convenient point for introducing make up water.

Image of surface condenser

Type of condenser:There are generally two types of condenser as

a) Direct contact (jet) condenser- Here cooling water and
exhaust steam are mixed together. The requirement of cooling
water is very much less than surface condenser. This is the best
effective condenser but it has the disadvantage that cooling
water quality should be maintain properly.
b) Surface Condenser-This type of condenser is used in most
modern steam turbines. Cooling water flows through inside of
tube and Condensation of exhaust steam takes place on the
outer surface of the tubes. The condenser essentially consists of
a shell which encloses the steam space. Tubes carrying cooling
water pass through the steam space. The tubes are
supplied cooling water from inlet water box on one side and
discharged, after taking away heat from the steam, to the outlet
water box on the other side. Instead of one inlet and one outlet
water boxes, there may be two or more pair of separate inletoutlet water boxes, each supplying cooling water to a separate

bundle of tubes. This enables cleaning and maintenance of part

of the tubes while turbine can be kept running on a reduced
load. Manholes have been provided for routine maintenance
and visual inspection along with venting and draining
arrangement for individual water boxes. The tubes have been so
arranged that there is equal distribution of steam on the tube
nest with minimum resistance to steam flow. In order to allow
expansion along he height, the condenser is supported on
springs specially designed to take up load ,Springs are provided
at the bottom of condenser.

What is necessary of deaerator and its

working
principle?
Necessary
of
deaerator:The presence of oxygen, and other non-condensable gases, in
the feed water is a major cause of corrosion in the feed water
piping, boiler, and condensate piping line. The dissolved oxygen
content of the feed water is a major factor of corrosion in boiler.
Low pH levels in feed water cause severe acid attack throughout
the boiler system.The remove of desolved gasses and oxygen
process is known as deaeration. There are two types of
deaeration is generally happen as chemical deaeration and
mechanical deaeration. The main function of deaerator is 1)Removing the dissolved gases to prevent corrosion feed water
heated.
2)
Work
as
a
feed
water
storage
tank.
3)
Increase
thermal
efficiency.
4) Provide required Net positive suction head to feed water
pump.

Image of deaerator

Working
principle
of
deaerator:a) by Henrys Law- Accordind to William Henry in 1803 it state
,that gas solubility in a solution decreases as the gas partial
pressure above the solution decreases.In simple we can say that
The solubility of any gas dissolved in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. Solubility of
gases decrease with increase in solution temperature and or
decrease
in
pressure.
b) The second principle state that ,deaeration is the relationship
between gas solubility and temperature. Easily explained, gas
solubility in a solution decreases as the temperature of the
solution rises and approaches saturation temperature.

Types
of
deaerator:a) Tray-type deaerator- It consists of over several rows of trays.
Makeup water and pumped returns are sprayed into the
deaerator tray section through a stainless steel spray nozzle.
The spray nozzle provides a thin conical sheet of water that
condenses the vapors while permitting oxygen to exit through
the vent. The partially deaerated water then begins to cascade
through the trays. The combined makeup and pumped returns
are heated with steam that flows upward through the stainless
steel trays. The steam vigorously scrubs the dissolved oxygen
from the makeup and pumped returns. The trapped returns
enter the deaerator storage section. Steam from the returns
also flows upward through the deaerator trays, while the water
drops to the water level in the deaerator storage section. The
fully deaerated water remains in the deaerator storage section
for use by the boiler, while the excess steam flows into the
deaerator tray section. Non-condensable gases enter the vent
and pass to the atmosphere.

Image of plate type

deaerator

b) Spray type deaerator- The spray-type deaerators do not use

trays for dispersion of the water. In this case, spring loaded
nozzles located in the top of the unit spray water into a steam
atmosphere which is heated to within a few degrees of the
saturation temperature of the steam. Most of the noncondensable gases are released to the steam, and the heated
water falls to a water seal and drains to the lowest section of the
steam scrubber. The water is scrubbed by large quantities of
steam and heated to the saturation temperature prevailing at
this point. The intimate steam to water contact achieved in the
scrubber efficiently strips the water of dissolved gases. As the
steam-water mixture rises in the scrubber, a slight pressure loss
causes the deaerated water temperature to remain a few
degrees below the inlet steam saturation temperature. The
deaerated water overflows from the steam scrubber to the
storage section below. The steam, after flowing through the
scrubber, passes up into the spray heater section to heat the
incoming water. Most of the steam condenses in the spray
section to become part of the deaerated water. A small portion

of the steam, vented to atmosphere, removes non-condensable

gases from the system.
c) Vacuum type of deaerator- Here The oxygen-containing makeup water, preheated to 40-90 C, is led to the upper section of
the deaeration tank. In order to optimize the removal of oxygen,
the deaeration tank is equipped with fillers for division of the
water into fine particles. The vacuum pump creates the
necessary vacuum so that the make-up water boils. When the
water boils, the oxygen is liberated and removed by means of
the vacuum pump. The deaerated water is separated into two
streams, which are pumped partly into the district heating
network, partly recycled over the deaeration tank.
Chemical reaction in deaerator during Hydrazine doosingN2H4
+
O2
=
N2
+
2H2O
Gas
+Water
3N2H4
=
4NH3
+
N2
Additional
ammonia
reacts
with
2NH3
+
CO2
+
H2O
=
(NH4)2CO3
(acidic)
Ammonium Carbonate (Neutral)

How oil centrifuge works for oil purification

work?
Introduction :The main function of oil centrifuge is to purify oil, remove
moisture and non dissolved solids from oil. It is most necessary
to supply moisture free oil to Turbine shaft. In Power Stations,
Centrifuges are mainly used to separate moisture particles from
lubrication oil. They are connected with turbine main oil tanks.
Two separation processes viz. Purification and Clarification can

be done in centrifuge. Purification is the process of separation

of two immiscible liquids having different specific gravities and
is useful for the removal of the solid particles with specific
gravity higher than those of the liquids. Clarification is the
process of separation of solid particles from oil or any other
liquid.

Image of oil centrifuge

Construction of centrifuge:The centrifuge consists of a bowl which rotates on a vertical axis

in an outer
casing. A 415V, 3 phase induction motor, mounted on the side of
the casing drives the bowl through a centrifugal clutch and a
worm gear; a manually operated brake is included on the worm
shaft. The outer casing has a hinged lid which incorporates the
oil inlet and outlet connections, indications for flow and
temperature and a priming water supply. The base, which has
an oil sump in which the worm gear runs, is mounted on the
purifier. The bowl, rotated by a vertical shaft, consists of a body
and hood joined with a locking ring. The body contains a stack of
conical discs on a distributor, the top disc has
a level ring which bridges the hub of the distributor,
immediately above the level ring is fitted a paring disc. The dirty
oil inlet passes through the bowl hood gravity ring and paring
disc to the hollow distributor.

Working principle of centrifuge:The dirty oil from the main oil tank is supplied to the centrifuge
through an inlet pipe. This inlet line is provided with a manual
gate valve for adjusting the capacity of centrifuge, a Y type
strainer. The inlet line supplies the oil to the suction of a feed
pump. A view glass provided before the pump enables the visual
inspection of the oil flow. The feed pump is built in with the
centrifuge and is a gear pump. It is provided with an integral
pressure relief valve to prevent building up of excessive
pressure in the discharge side due to closure of any gate valve.
When the pressure exceeds a preset value, the relief valve. and
discharges the oil to the pump suction itself. The suction and
discharge pressure can be read from the pressure gauge
respectively and these gauges are mounted on the local panel.
The pump delivers oil to a heater tank through a check valve.
The oil is heated in this tank by means of hot water. The water is
in turn heated by electric heaters. The tank is provided with
connections for water inlet, overflow, and drain. A vent provided
on top of the tank is useful to let out water vapor and to fill up
the tank quickly with water. A sight glass is also provided for
checking the water level. Three sections of immersion type
electric heaters are used for heating the water. The required
number of heaters to be in service can be selected by means of
a selector switch provided in the control panel. In case of low
water levels in the tank, a level switch is useful to trip the heater.
In case of high water temperature at 90 deg. C, a temperature
switch RT will trip the heaters. Two numbers of thermostats RT
101 provided the outlet of heater tank maintain the oil
temperature by tripping the heaters through relay R2. The
heated oil is then fed to the centrifuge through a rotameter of
range 900 9000 liters per hour (lph).
The oil is purified in the centrifuge and the water gets separated.
The water is discharged to an antiflood tank and then drained
through the tank drain. In case of breakage of water seal inside

the bowl, a high level switch provided in the Anti flood tank gives
an audible alarm and shuts off the oil supply by closing the
solenoid valve in the inlet oil line. The water seal has to be
established on start-up by filling the bowl with hot water; this
can be supplied from the pump through the inlet connection on
the hood. The clean oil leaving the bowl rotates in the form of a
ring around the paring disc which is fitted with internal radial
scoops. These scoops dip into the liquid ring converting its
kinetic energy into pressure to pump the oil through the annular
space, between the oil inlet tube and the housing, to the outlet
connection.
Ensure before operation of centrifuge:1. Adequate water level in the heater tank is to be ensured. If
the water level is insufficient, the tank can be filled up by
opening the make up valve.
2. The heater section is to be started half an hour earlier to
the starting of the centrifuge. This is for preheating the water.
3. The oil level in the centrifuge worm wheel housing is to be
checked.
4. The frame hood of centrifuge has to be kept tight.
5. The main oil tank level is to be checked. The oil level and
temperature of oil at inlet to oil cooler are to be recorded.
6. All the bypass valves, drain valves and the sampling valves in
the oil circuit are to be kept in closed condition.
7. The inlet and outlet valves of the heater, PALL filter and the
rotameter should be kept open.
8. The gate valve in the inlet oil line is to be kept fully closed.
9. The gate valves in the oil line from the main oil tank to dirty
oil header should be fully closed. These valves should never be
opened.
10. The gate valve in the inlet oil line to centrifuge from the
clean oil chamber of the main oil tank has to be kept closed and

the gate valve from the drain oil chamber of the main oil tank
has to be kept OPEN.

What is voith/Hydraulic coupling and its

working
principle?
The main function of Hydraulic coupling is of controlling variable
speed of equipment by keeping the drive speed constant. Here
the drive/motor speed is kept constant and pump speed is
varied as per requirement of discharge pressure and flow. This
reduces the power consumption particularly at part load/full
load operation. The speed of pump is varied by varying position
of scoop.

IMAGE

OF

FLUID

COUPLING

The

essential
parts
to
a
fluid
coupling:1)
Pump
impeller.
2)
Aux.
Lube
oil
pump.
3)
Main
lube
oil
pump.
4)
Lube
oil
cooler.
5)
Duplex
filter.
6)
Oil
reservoir.
7)
Scoop
chamber.
8)
Turbine
wheel.
9)
Working
oil
pump.
10) Scoop
tube
(adjustable).
11)
Scoop
tube
control.
12) Working oil cooler.
You tube video of voith
coupling

13)
Oil
circulation
control
Types
of
fluid
a)
Fixed
speedconstant
fill
b) Variable speed- Scoop controlled.

valve.
and

coupling:Delay
fill

Working
principle
of
voith
coupling:The rotating coupled with the motor and operating fluid. The
resultant centrifugal force causes the fluid to flow outwards due
to centrifugal force, where by the velocity of fluid is increased.
The flow of fluid into the runner takes place at the outer
diameter, where the energy is transmitted from the fluid to the
runner. The fluid in the runner blade chamber then flow inwards
to the center & back into the impeller blade chamber. This
circuit is maintained by the centrifugal force difference resulting
from the speed difference between the runner & impeller. The
time required to reach the full speed is dependent on the
inertia of the driven load, resistive torque, and the torque
transmitted by the coupling. The speed of the coupling is varied
by varying the position of scoop. Here the scoop is a cylindrical
pipe with no of holes and act for draining oil from scoop
chamber. The scoop chamber is charged by a continuously
running pump which delivers oil from the integral sump below
the coupling to the working compartment. The working
compartment is the chamber between the primary (impeller) &
secondary (runner) wheels. The oil level inside the working
compartment determines the speed of the output side of the
coupling & depends upon the radial position of the scoop tube
located
in
the
scoop
chamber.
The output torque is equal to the input torque,defined asSLIP
(%)
= let
n1=input
speed
n2=output speed
n1 n2
slip(%)= ---------------- X 100
n1

All fluid couplings are normally designed to have a slip of 2%

to
4%.
Advantage
of
voith
coupling:1) The main advantage of fluid coupling is motor starts with
minimum
load.
2) No need of mechanical connection between the input and
output
elements.
3) Steeples speed variation in wide range obtained in scoop type
fluid
couplings.
4) Simple control of minimum to maximum load.
5) Effective for shocks, load fluctuations and torsional
vibrations.
6)
Economy
for
machine
and
drive
design.

What is governing system of turbine and

its working?
The main function of governor is to maintain constant speed of
turbine during fluctuations of load by varying steam input to
the turbine. It has following functioni) The run up of the turbine from rest t rated speed and
synchronizing with the grid.
ii) Meeting the system load variations in a predetermined
manner, when running in parallel with other machines.
iii) Protecting the machine by reducing the load or shutting off
completely in abnormal and emergency situations. The
governing system also includes other devices to protect the
turbine from abnormal conditions that may arise during
operation.
iv) To assist in matching the power generated to that demanded

by responding to the network frequency changes.

Types of governing system:a) Throttle Governing- Here the supply of steam is controlled
by single valves or two or more valves operating in parallel .The
flow of steam is controlled by throttling position of valve. For
increase of load the valve opening is increased and vice versa.
Most of governing system used now a days is throttle governing
due to its reliable operation.
b) Nozzle Governing In this type of governing the first stage is
divided in no of groups. The steam supply to each group of
nozzles is controlled by a valve and the number of valves
opened is varied according to the load on the turbine. The no of
nozzles opened as per increase demand of load.
c) By-pass Governing- Here a bypass valve is provided in main
stream line when demand of load is less than original steam
flow steam flow.

Types of governors:Here are the types of governor mentioned asElectro-hydraulic governor,Hydraulic, Mechanical governor,
Electrical governor. Here we discuss about electro-hydraulic
governor,

Electro hydraulic governor- As it name indicate it has

electrical sensing and hydraulic controlling. In electro hydraulic
governing all transducers are electrical/electronic components.
The acquired signals (of control valve lift, speed ,load & initial

pressure etc..) are processed electronically and processed signal

is introduced at a suitable point in the hydraulic circuit through
a electro-hydraulic converter which is used as a connecting link
between the electronic modules and valve actuators. Hydraulic
signal before application to control valves servomotors is
suitably amplified. EHG consists of three control loops for speed,
load and pressure. EHG optimizes the turbine life by
conservative operation with the aid of TSE. Actual speed of the
turbine is measured by using hall probes. Speed regulation
(Droop) can be changed from 2.5% to 8% in a step of 0.5% even
when the machine runs on load. The usual setting of droop in
EHG is 5%.Speed regulation (Droop) can be changed from 2.5%
to 8% in a step of 0.5% even when the machine runs on load.
The usual setting of droop in EHG is 5%.

Image of electro-hydraulic governor

Components of electro-hydraulic governing:a) electro-hydraulic controller-The parameter is to be

controlled i.e load, speed, pressure are measured and converted
into electrical signal by means of transducer. The signal are then

fed to electro-hydraulic converter where it is converted into

hydraulic signal for actuating the hydraulic operated control
element/control valves. The control loops are generally speed,
loop and boiler pressure.
b) speed controller-The speed controller is used to starting the
turbine up to synchronization and full loading. It can also
operate over the full load range during emergency such as
turbine tripping from full load to house load operation. The
speed controller is always kept in readiness for operation.
c) Speed control loop-The turbine speed is sensed by digital
speed pick-up probes mounted on the turbine shaft in the front
bearing pedestal and fed to the speed controller as the actual
speed signal(N act).The speed reference value is indicated on
two instruments, one with rating 0-3000 & 2700-3300 rpm for
finer adjustment. The incoming speed reference signal is fed
into high gain DC voltage amplifier. The signal is then passes to
an integrator which generates the LIMITED SPEED reference.NR
limit is transmitted to the controller module where it is
compared to the actual speed N act and generate final output
signal of the speed controller.
d) Load controller- The load controller is used for controlling
turbine output during load operation. For selecting load
controller a push button on/off load controller switch is
provided. The load controller must be switched ON if it has
come to action. It takes several signal like load limiter set point,
load reference etc. Load controller is provided on the turbine
control panel which glows and gives signal that load controller is
in service.
e) Turbine stress evaluator (TSE) - The main function of stress
evaluator is to safe run of turbine by evaluating turbine
calculated metal temperature and safe load gradient(load
increase/decrease).This evaluate turbine stress by using
parameters like turbine cylinder metal temperature, steam
temperature, speed and load. It provides operation margin

within which turbine can be operated safely under the particular

set of parameter.
f) Coordinated master control(CMC)- CMC works in
coordination with the turbine generator and boiler. It also takes
care of TSE influence and run back system.
e) Pressure controller- While operating under the limit
pressure mode depend load reference value pressure drop is
proportional action to the pressure coordinator. It compares the
set pressure and actual pressure of the turbine.

What are the Condenser tube cleaning

methods used in power plant
It is necessary to removes scale formation of the condenser
tubes for proper heat rejection.Most of tube cleaning is
offline/mechanical method. Great care must be taken to avoid
damaging any tube sheet or tube coatings which may be
present; otherwise the successful removal of fouling deposits
may become associated with new
tube leak or increase tube sheet corrosion.There are generally
two types of tube cleaning done as online and offline tube
cleaning.
Online Tube Cleaning System (OLTCS):This type system is used large size of condenser now a
days. Here the cleaning is done online or without isolate
condenser. Over sized balls are continuously pressed through
the tubes to keep them clean. Balls are pass on one end of tube
and collected at the other end.
A system consists of a ball vessel into which the balls are
introduced. Ball recalculating pumps inject these balls into the
inlet water pipe of condenser. These balls are carried by the

circulating water to the condenser tubes. Since we are using

oversized balls, the balls are pressed through the tubes and
thus wiping and carrying the deposits . After passing through
the first pass of the condenser, the balls are accumulated in the
Reverse Chamber. Then the balls pass through the second pass
of the condenser tubes and reach the outlet water pipe and
collected through screens for re-circulation. In online ball
cleaning system following factors are taken care as
a)Top up balls periodically
b)Cleaning the ball collector screen.
c)Ball circulation pump overhauls

Off load cleaning of condenser:Jet cleaning:- This is the one of the most effective offline
cleaning method, here the condenser is isolated for cleaning
purpose. A high pressure water jet with discharge pr of 600 to
1000 bar through flexible or rigid hoses with nozzle (Lancers) is
used. The lancers with water jet will be inserted through out the
entire length of the tube so that the scales are completely
removed.
Acid cleaning:- This method is restricted to condensers suffering
from scaling problem like calcium carbonate and phosphate.
Variety of acids, including Hydrochloric, uric acetic and EDTA are
used. Inhibiters like Rhodine-213 are added to the acid to
prevent the acid from attacking the metal of the tubes .After the
acid cleaning the acid traces in the condenser is neutralized with

circulating the alkali caustic soda , Lime ie NAOH .Then scales

dislodged were removed by water and air jet.
Grit cleaning: An alternate to bulleting, this method is known
as sinusoidal grit blasting, it involves blasting graded silica free
mineral grit through the consenser tubes.
Water washing:- Tube can be cleaned with a jet of high
pressure (around 70 bar). However before adapting this
method, trial must be carried out for successful result.
Thermal method: -This is used to control mussel growth in sea
water stations, CW culverts, and to clean the condenser tubes by
drying internal deposits prior to flushing with water. Heating is
achieved by introducing auxiliary steam through the CW tubes
and by reversing the cooling water flow through tubes.
ss