Research and Applications of Shear Thickening Fluids

Jie Dinga*, Weihua Lib and Shirley Z. Shenc

a

Human Protection & Performance Division, Defence Science & Technology

Organisation, VIC 3207, Australia

School of Mechanical, Materials & Mechatronic Engineering, University of

Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
c

Materials Science and Engineering, CSIRO, VIC 3190, Australia

Abstract:
Shear thickening fluids (STFs) have been studied extensively and generated enormous
amount of patent filings due to their huge potential for commercial applications since
their discovery. STFs draw more and more attentions as they have been considered as
suitable materials for liquid body armour, sports and personal protection because of
their unique properties. This paper presents a review of the state of the art in STF
technology. The ingredient materials, fabrication methods and basic models to
describe STF behaviors are discussed briefly. An outline of the patenting activities in
the field of STF materials, including effects of the different particles and their volume
fraction in the suspensions on the critical shear rate of shear thickening is presented.
Most of the specific patent applications, particularly in body armor, as well as other
industrial applications, such as smart structures, and devices with adaptive stiffness
and damping, are also summarized. Recent advances, including the effects of particle
surface properties, relationship to carrier fluids, electric or magnetic fields applied on
the transition of STFs are included in the review. The possibilities of wider
applications or designs depend upon a deeper understanding of the STFs, and the
potential of novel STFs to protection applications provide an impetus for future
research.

Keywords: body armour, damping, field activated, nanoparticles, Newtonian fluid,

shear thickening fluids, smart structure, viscosity.
1

1. INTRODUCTION
A shear thickening fluid (STF) is a material whose viscosity increases dramatically
when the shear rate is above a critical value. It is an example of a non-Newtonian
fluid and also termed a dilatant fluid. At low shear rates, the liquid has low viscosity
and acts as a lubricant, and it flows easily; however, at higher shear rates, the
hydrodynamic forces overcome repulsive interparticle forces and hydroclusters form.
The liquid is then unable to fill the gaps created between particles, and friction greatly
increases, causing an increase in viscosity. In addition, this increased viscosity is seen
as being both field activated, due to the dependency on shearing rate, as well as
reversible [1]. This can readily be seen with a mixture of cornstarch and water, which
acts in counterintuitive ways when struck or thrown against a surface.
It has been demonstrated that reversible shear thickening results from hydrodynamic
lubrication forces between particles, often denoted by the term hydroclusters. The
particles repel each other slightly, so they float easily throughout the liquid without
clumping together or settling to the bottom. But the energy of a sudden impact
overwhelms the repulsive forces between the particles, and they stick together to form
hydroclusters. When the energy from the impact dissipates, the particles begin to repel
one another again and the hydroclusters fall apart, so the apparently solid substance
reverts to a liquid. Support for the hydrocluster mechanism has been demonstrated
experimentally through rheological, rheo-optical and neutron experiments [2], as well
as computer simulations [3].
Many earlier studies focused on determining this field activated viscosity and other
rheological properties of STF under a steady shear and/or an oscillatory shear flow.
Steady shear research indicated the common feature of the STF materials rheograms
is a sharp increase in viscosity that decays at higher shear rates, often referred to as a
discontinuity [4-8]. This increase occurs at a critical shear rate. In addition, the
suspension behaves as a Newtonian fluid during a large spectrum of shear rates,
except for the transition shear rate period that causes the fluids specific critical shear
rate transition. These types of fluids have been characterized as Newtonian fluids with
a low viscosity before the critical shear rate transition, and as quasi-Newtonian fluids,
2

but with a higher viscosity, after the transition [9]. There has been some research into
the dynamic properties of STFs. Laun et al. [9] reported the critical strain amplitude
for dynamic shear thickening at a fixed angular frequency of a polymer latex
dispersion. Raghavan et al. [10] investigated the shear thickening response of fumed
silica suspensions under steady and oscillatory shear. Fischer et al. [1] investigated the
dynamic properties of STF based on a vibrating sandwiched beam.
STFs have certain industrial uses due to the shear thickening behavior. The highly
nonlinear behavior can provide a self-limiting maximum rate of flow that can be
exploited in the design of damping and control devices. And various corporate and
government entities are researching the application of shear thickening fluids for their
uses in body armour. Such a system could allow the wearer flexibility for a normal
range of movement, yet provide rigidity to resist piercing by bullets, stabbing knife
blows, and similar attacks.
2.

MATERIALS

A STF is composed of a carrier liquid and rigid, colloidal particles. A typical kind of
particles is Colloidal silica and the most commonly used carrier liquid is polyethylene
glycol. The tiny particles suspended in the liquid in a very high concentration
(maximum 55-65 vol%) can be utilized for the shear thickening purpose. The actual
nature of the shear thickening depends on physical parameters of the suspended phase:
phase volume, particle size (distribution) and particle shape, as well as those of the
suspending phase: viscosity, details of deformation (including shear or extensional
flow, steady or transient, time and rate of deformation) [4]. For the last two decades,
intensive research has been focused on the effects of the volume fraction of the
particles in the suspension and particle dimension on the critical shear rate.
Extensive amounts of patenting activity have documented the effect of different
particles and their volume fractions on the critical shear rate. The particles are
generally selected from a number of the groups consisting of titanium oxide, calcium
carbonate, cornstarch, polyvinyl alcohol-sodium borate mixtures, aqueous solutions of
polymethacrylates and poly (alkyl methacrylates), gum arabic and borate ions, and
3

guar gum and borate ions, synthetically occurring minerals, naturally occurring
minerals, polymers and a mixture. Some of these shear thickening fluids are discussed
in the patents [11-13] issued to Savins and Wagner et al. The concentration of the
thickening compounds utilized should be sufficient to impart the desired shear
thickening qualities and effect. The concentrations of polyvinyl alcohol and borate
ions which can be used were discussed in one patent [11], while the concentrations of
polymethacrylates and poly (alkyl methacrylates) were discussed in another patent
[12]. Other useful shear thickening materials, and their concentrations can be found in
the literature in which materials also include the category of dilatent materials and
sometimes gels[14].
Many carrier fluids have been used, including water, ethylene glycol (EG) and
polyethylene glycol (PEG). However, EG or PEG is the most widely used carrier fluid
in STF due to its high stability, high boiling point and non-flammable properties. A
typical STF was made of silica nanoparticles suspended in polyethylene glycol [15],
so many reports describe this fluid as a form of nanotechnology. The carrier fluid was
typically added to the powder, and a blender used to mechanically mix the two
components. The concentration of the nanoparticles ranged from 40% to 60% [15].
The shear thickening effect is due to general mechanisms such as hydrodynamics [16,
17] or dilation [18, 19] and thus all suspensions are expected to show shear thickening
under certain conditions [4].
Despite the longstanding expectation that shear thickening is a generic type of
suspension behaviour [4, 16], very recently, apparent contradiction is found that shear
thickening can be masked by a yield stress and can be recovered when the yield stress
is decreased below a threshold [20]. In typical suspensions, attractions are often due
to particle-fluid surface tension. An example is the common observation that
cornstarch (a hydrophilic particle) shear thickens in water but not in hydrophobic
liquids [21]. Apart from the surface properties (e.g. hydrophilic or hydrophobic), the
surface roughness, the particle shape and the measuring conditions plays a role in
being observed shear-thickening effect. It is found that a variety of suspensions
consisting of particles including cornstarch, glass and polyethylene glycol (PEG), in a
4

variety of fluids with different density matching, modified surface properties,

roughness, shapes and measuring conditions, discontinuous shear thickening was
always observed. Inductively, the discontinuous shearing thickening is general to all
hard-particle suspension at near-sedimentation packing fractions provided that the
shearing-thinning stresses are below a threshold [20].

Electrorheoloical (ER) or magnetorheological (MR) fluid are well known as kinds of

smart materials respectively because their structural and rheological changes caused
by an electric [22] or magnetic field [23] are typically reversible. Commonly, ER fluids
are composed of insulating fluids and polarizable particles. ER fluids exhibit a tremendous
increase in their shear viscosity, from a liquid-like to a solid-like state, when they are exposed to a
relatively high electric field. It is caused by the formation of chain-like structures of the

dispersed particles aligned along the electric field [24], which occurs within a few
milliseconds [25]. Typical MR fluids are formulated by dispersion of magnetic
particles in an inert (no magnetic) carrier liquid. This material shows a dramatic but
reversible increase in shear viscosity in the presence of an external magnetic field.
The dramatic change in shear yield stress is due to the magnetic polarization induced
in particles, resulting in the dipole-dipole interaction forces between particles, which,
in turn, lead to the formation of particle chains along the direction of magnetic field.
ER fluids have been applied in various areas such as shock absorbers, engine mounts
and clutches [26], while MR fluids show potential in applications of the design of
dampers, brakes, polishing machines or torque transducers [27]. The recent research
on the combination of ER or MR effects with shear thickening [20] has opened up
possibilities for the designs of field-responsive shear-thickening fluids [28-30]. The
applied fields would control the critical shear rate [30] only for weaker
shear-thickening ( > 0), where both the critical stress and shear rate vary with field.
The critical shear rate is controlled by the particle packing fraction [31], whereas the
critical stress can be tuned either passively with particle-fluid chemistry or actively
with field [20].

3.

APPLICATIONS

The STF has held promises in many industrial applications. Some patents protected
certain applications while others invented certain shear thickening fluids with
potentials of various applications. For example, one patent [32] described a shear
thickening fluid used in conjunction with fabrics utilized in an expandable spacecraft.
The combination of the fluid and the fabric allowed the fabric to resist penetration by
hypervelocity particles in space. On the other hand, the other patent [33] studied the
rheology of a colloidal PEG-based shear thickening fluid emulsified with silicone oil
and found that a shear thickening response was observed in the viscosity-shear rate
curves for volume fraction as low as 10% of STF in the silicone emulsion. Potential
applications for such STF covered in the patent incorporated into pads for sport
equipments: such as a mouthguard for improved energy dissipation, reducing the like
hood of concussion or dental damage; gloves for reducing vibration or protecting the
hands from jarring impact; directly into sports shoe designs for energy dissipative
construction. The comfortable composites comprised of discrete droplets or
co-continuous networks of STF could also be used in seat cushioning and neck
supports in automobiles, airplanes and trains to provide more protection during
accidents. Smart components could be fabricated where the stiffness or hardness of a
flexible component can change as a result of deformation, such as from elongation,
bending, torque, twisting, or compression. The materials could be used as a medium
to control mechanical actuation of one object relative to another, etc [33].
The three main application streams, however, including devices with adaptive
stiffness and damping, smart structure and body armor, will be reviewed in more
details below.

3.1 Devices with adaptive stiffness and damping

The basic idea here is to use STF in a viscoelastic damper and to obtain adaptive
stiffness and damping. A device filled with functional fluids, one of which was a shear
thickening fluid to provide variable dampings[30]. When subjected to a
predetermined shear rate, the shear thickening composition would undergo a dramatic
6

and substantial increase in viscosity and shear stress. A viscoelastic damper, filled
with a STF, was invented [34] to control the vibration of a structural member, a tank,
a pipe, etc. The vibration might be caused by an earthquake or wind. The damper
would produce minimum reaction force when the structural member and so on was
slowly displaced as a result of the thermal deformation of the member itself or another
member connected thereto. STF could present relatively small resistance when the
speed of the motion is small and produces progressively resistance as the speed of the
motion increases.

3.2 Smart structures

Based on the STF and STF devices, the smart structures used for industrial
applications were also investigated. The patent [35] presented a method for
minimizing damage to the downhole equipments. They used shear thickening fluid as
a tamp in controlled pulse fracturing (CPF). The fluid would become more viscous
and more resistant to flow up the production string or tubing when fluid velocities
increased under the force generated by the ignited propellant. It would slow or even
stop the upward movement of structures and the damage to the equipments would be
lessened. The invention [36] presented a method to process composite structures with
tailored stiffness and damping performance incorporating STF, preferably at the
interface between two elements belonging to the same structure and moving to each
other. The composite structure incorporating STFs according to this invention may
advantageously be used in applications such as sports equipment, aeronautics,
aerospace, consumer goods or in any other suitable field where the dynamic
properties of the said structure need to be tailored.
Laun et al. [7] and Helber et al. [37] investigated the STFs application in mounting
systems for industrial machinery. Some medical equipments can also use STF and
STF devices to obtain special mechanical behaviors. The patent [38] invented a body
limb movement limiter. The device was designed to use a shear thickening
non-Newtonian fluid disposed within it for limiting movement. It could help limit
movement of a persons joint such as shoulder, knee, elbow, ankle, hip, etc., so as to
7

prevent the patient from subjecting the joint to sudden rapid acceleration and
consequent force on the affected area. Such devices would help to prevent the
attendant damage that could result from such rapid acceleration and work with
varying degrees of efficiency.

3.3 Body Armor

Up to now, the widest application of the STFs has been for liquid body armors in
military applications. Throughout the history, personal armour systems have been
practical only when they have been able to provide significant protection against the
prevailing threats whilst not impairing the wearers ability to perform the tasks
required to them. The materials which were used for current body armour applications
were not capable to provide whole body protection due to their stiffness and bulky
properties. The key issue is that if we provide the same level of protection as the torso
with current body armour materials, they would be far too stiff and bulky to allow the
wearers to carry out the normal movements of their arms and legs. Novel liquid body
armour based on the STFs has shown promising prospects including towards
improved protection and flexibility. Most liquid body armours in recent patents were
formed by immersing a fibrous substrate or a porous media in a STF.
In contrast, in earlier years patents, dry powders exhibiting dilatant property were
used to increase volume and viscosity under ballistic impact or similar kinds. For
example, the patent [39] used KEVLAR fibers coated with a dry powder that
exhibits dilatant properties. Dilatant properties refer to increases in both volume and
viscosity under flow. In their work, the fibers demonstrated an improved ability to
distribute energy during ballistic impact due to the enhanced inter-fiber friction. The
patent [40] impregnated a low glass transition, viscous polymer fluid, as a liquid
adhesive additive, acted as a friction modifier, into a fibre structure such as a
polyaramid fabrics, and the patent [41] found the viscous polymers were effective in
many different types of fibrous structures with a result of an optimal ballistic
resistance and protection against blunt trauma in a body armor. The patent [42]
reported a dimethyl-siloxane-hydro-terminated polymer, such as Dow Corning 3179
8

material, being a dilatent compound or a lightweight version, incorporating Duolite

spheres or a derivative. The dilatent material remained soft and flexible until it was
subjected to the impact when its characteristics changed rendering it temporarily rigid.
The carrier could be coated or impregnated with the dilatent compound in various
ways. The patent [43] also described the use of dry dilatant agents in a fabric carrier to
improve ballistic protection. In their approach, the dilatant agent is a polymeric
powder which is applied to the fabric while suspended in a carrier fluid, and
subsequently dried to leave behind the dilatant solid.
With emerging of the STFs, more and more patents have been filed to protect liquid
body armors or sport protections using STF. Lee et al. [6] and Decker et al. [44]
investigated the ballistic properties of woven aramid fabrics impregnated with a
colloidal, discontinuous STF. The patents [45] and

[46] invented an armor

composite material, which contained a ballistic fabric impregnated with shear

thickening fluid. The invented material offered a superior ballistic performance
compared to the conventional ballistic fabric-based materials of the equal thickness.
Furthermore, the STFs were enhanced and integrated into a flowable and deformable
composite structure, which included reinforcement by stiff materials, i.e., materials
with high compression strength and high bending modulus, such as, but not limited to,
short inert fibres less than 1 cm [47].
There are also many similar patents about liquid body armor, they almost have had
the same process: First diluting the fluid in ethanol; saturating the Kevlar with the
diluted fluid and placing in an oven to evaporate the ethanol; the STF then permeating
the Kevlar, and the Kevlar strands holding the particle-filled fluid in place at the end.
When an object strikes or stabs the Kevlar, the fluid immediately hardens, making the
Kevlar stronger. The hardening process happens in mere milliseconds, and the armor
becomes flexible again shortly afterward.
For such a novel liquid body armour based on STFs, the promising results have been
shown towards improved protection and flexibility. However, the applications of the
liquid body armor still suffer several drawbacks, which include evaporation,
leakage of carrier fluids and air and/or moisture permeability for the comfort clothing
9

purpose. Most liquid body armours have been formed by immersing a fibrous
substrate or a porous media in a STF. However, impregnated fibres or porous media
have a disadvantage in that when the STF is exposed to the elements, the fabric
performances suffer because of the STF evaporation and leakage. Therefore, the
evaporation of the carrier fluid is indeed a key issue in the current STF research. For
example, silicon nanoparticles suspending in an ethylene glycol fluid is a typical
composition of STF. The EG is still easy to evaporate into the air, though its boiling
point is as high as 197 centigrade. Considerable efforts have been made in recently
years to solve this problem. One of the efforts included filling a hollow fibre with a
STF [48]. However, a STF, by the nature, is not easily pumped into hollow fibres. In
order to pump the STF into the fibres, the viscosity of the STF has to be decreased,
but in this case the shear response of STF will be affected accordingly.
Another critical requirement for soft and comfort body armour is reasonably high
permeability to air and moisture. It is expected that a body armour is not only very
flexible but also permeable to air and moisture, so that they are comfort to wear, apart
from the strong enough protection from being hurt. Research on STF-based liquid
body armor is ongoing actively at the U.S. Army Research Laboratory, the University
of Delaware [49], and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) [50].

4.

CURRENT & FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

This paper presents a review of the state of the art in the STFs technology. There are
growing needs to understand all aspects of the STFs, to model their behaviors and to
improve applications by using optimal components and fabrication procedures or
methods. The potential applications of the STFs are introduced by reviewing patent
activities. The patent review indicates that researchers have been continually
developing new STFs with new materials, or optimized conditions or novel
manufactures to meet new and more demanding requirements. Perspectives on the
applications of STF will provide an impetus for continuing research in this area.
Very recently, Eric Brown et al. [20] found that shear thickening can be controlled via
changing surface properties of particles (e.g. hydrophilic or hydrophobic), roughness,
10

shapes and measuring conditions. The findings open up possibilities for new designs
of smart suspensions that could combine shear thickening with particle surface
properties, electro- or magnetorhelogic response, therefore, producing specific STFs
for different applications, and certainly widening STFs potentials.
STFs are used as key materials for liquid body armour and sport protections because
of their unique shear thickening property. Currently, research of STFs is being
actively conducted around the world due to the huge potentials for commercial
applications, particularly in the military area. A novel engineered material dee-three-oh
(d3o) which employ shear thickening fluid based on a special gel has been developed by UK
company d3o [51]. Such material is able to flow with you as you move but on shock lock

together to absorb the impact energy. New STFs materials, based on novel carrier
materials and fibre making techniques, will pave the way to the applications, not only
overcoming the evaporation and leakage problems in conventional STFs, but also
improving the wearing comforts because of the lightweight, and good permeability to
air and moisture in the near future. Many polymeric materials behave like a fluid, but
they have greater ability to retain physical shapes than a conventional fluid, and they
do not evaporate easily. Along this line, for example, the shear curing gels or shear
curing elastomeric materials with flexible behaviour would potentially be able to
work as a STF in a greater range of environments, such as a wider temperature range
from very cold to very hot, a broader humidity from very dry to very wet or at
extreme conditions. The excellent stability and non-evaporating feature of these
materials allow them to be used as alternatives to a fluid to host nanoparticles.

11

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