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Development, Learning and Cognition Essay

Introduction
The study of educational psychology significantly impacts on the way teaching and learning is
implemented and viewed within classroom settings. The basis of any assumptions or actions
however should be based on a commitment to improve educational practice. Some people might
suggest that educational psychology has no real-life applications within learning experiences and
is only useful for background knowledge for teachers. However, the role that cultural and social
factors play within a school context can be clearly seen and need to be considered if lesson plans
are to be eective for every student. The move away from traditional teaching practices to a more
face-to-face interaction (Daniels, 2001, p. 2) between teacher and student allows for more
meaningful learning experiences and student development.

Vygotskys sociocultural theory of cognitive development directly addresses the cultural and
social factors that inevitable exist in a learning environment. His basis for this theory is that
human activities take place in cultural settings and cannot be understood apart from these
settings (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 95). This means that humans are dependant on each
other, or outside influences, in order to develop and strengthen their learning abilities. This essay
will focus on two specific areas of Vygotskys theory - the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
and the closely linked idea of Scaolding. These two concepts look carefully at how teachers can
interact with students healthily to ensure future progress in learning. Similarly to Vygotsky,
Banduras social cognitive theory relies on the idea that learning occurs through observing the
actions and consequences of others (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 315). Again this theory is
situated within a cultural context where teachers need to provide experiences in which outside
influences on learning is encouraged. Furthermore, these outside influences ideally become
internalised to provide the retention of behaviours, previous learning etc. in order to eectively
develop students cognitive abilities. This essay will focus on two specific areas of Banduras
theory - Self-Ecacy and Observational Learning which both focus on the strategies needed to
develop a future commitment to good learning.

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In order to determine the specificities of this essay, it is important to define what is meant by the
specific concepts stated above. In terms of Vygotskys theory, the ZPD can be defined as the way
a student can perform at a developmentally more advanced stage in the presence of a teacher or
more advanced peer (Meira & Lerman, cited in Roth, 2011, p. 95). This zone might dier for
dierent types of students depending on their developmental capabilities. For example, one
student may feel that they can solve the equation 2a + b = 8. However, for another student this
might not seem possible and they may need a teacher or peer to demonstrate how to go about
solving the problem in order for them to feel like they can successfully attempt the problem. The
idea of Scaolding is closely linked to this idea of providing assistance to learning. More
specifically, it can be defined as giving information, prompts, reminders and encouragement at
the right time and in the right amounts (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 99) to a struggling student
in order to help them successfully complete a task at their perceived level of top ability.

In regards to Bandura, there are significant similarities between his theories and Vygotskys. Selfecacy within this essay is defined as the ability one has to judge their capabilities and how,
through their self-percepts of ecacy, they aect their motivation and behaviour (Bandura, 1982,
p. 122). For example, if a task seems challenging, someone with a high self-ecacy will try and
attempt this task. On the other hand, someone who has low self-ecacy might not feel they can
attempt the task because of the fear of failing (this fear might have come from a previous failed
attempt a dierent task). The second concept from Bandura that will be examined is
Observational Learning which is concerned with how to perform a behaviour but also what will
happen in specific situations if [it is] perform[ed] (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 318). This
concept is highly reliant on modelling behaviours or concepts in order for students to be engaged
in their learning and want to model the behaviour later on. A good example of this type of learning
is if a student was to watch a dance video and having never done the dance before, is able to
copy what happened in the video and successfully demonstrate the dance.

Analysis
Vygotsky
Zone of Proximal Development

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Vygotskys zone of proximal development (ZPD) leans heavily on the sociocultural notion that
higher mental processes appear first beyond people as they are co-constructed during shared
activities (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 95). At the point when children are on the verge of being
able to solvecertain problems (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p.98) they need a more able partner
to provide appropriately challenging activities and the right quantity and quality of
assistance (Luckin, 2008, p. 450) in order to transcend their perceived boundaries and solve the
problem. Although the ZPD functions at this social level, any demonstration of higher cognitive
processing or function does not necessarily have to depend on whether the teacher[or able
partner] is present (Roth, 2011, p.96) but rather on the students ability to objectify inner
psychological processes (Vygotsky, 1980, p. 74). It is through this objectification that students are
able to progress in their cognitive abilities and processing when problem solving. Within this
lesson plan (Appendix 1), it can be seen that although the teacher is not present as an able
partner (Luckin, 2008, p. 450) or fellow learner, students are encouraged to function at an highly
independent level where the base activity (create your dream bedroom) is extended on multiple
times. For example, students are firstly encouraged to draw a birds-eye view of their bedroom,
then include the measurements on [their] drawing and then draw it to scale. This type of
extension on the base activity not only demonstrates the role adult guidance (Fani & Ghaemi,
2011, p. 1550) plays in helping children develop but also gives children the opportunity to choose
to move toward their perceived boundaries in their learning through a step-by-step approach. The
role that technology plays within this lesson - such as when children are encouraged to use
Google sketch up to design their dream bedroom - oers the same type of appropriate
assistance to a less able learner (Luckin, 2008, p. 451). This program encourages students to
solidify their learning by creating a replica model of their dream bedroom which is another step up
from their previous learning. This lesson plan also caters for the possibility that students ZPD
might be dierent in phrases such as if you cant do this dont worry and if you can. Here,
students are given the opportunity to determine what their limits might be and whether or not they
can take on the challenge of moving to the next step - eg. work out the perimeter. Overall, this
lesson eectively uses Vygotskys theory of the ZPD to develop students learning.

Scaolding

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The ZPD points to Wood, Bruner & Rosss idea of scaolding (1976) or assisted learning. Although
Vygotsky never came up with this term himself, the ZPD reflects the need for the social and
participatory nature of teaching and learning (Verenikina, 2008, p. 163) in order for students to
display progressive cognitive development. Further, Mercer and Fisher suggest that in order for
scaolding to be eective in teaching it should support three key stages -

1. enable the learners to carry out the task which they would not have been able to

manage on their own

2. intend to bring the learner to a state of competence which will enable them to

eventually complete a task on their own and

3. be followed by evidence of the learners having achieved some greater level of

independent competence as a result of the scaolding experience

(cited in Wells 1999, p. 221)

Using this helpful framework, it is clear to see that this lesson plan exhibits many examples of
eective scaolding. As seen when examining the ZPD, the teacher has planned for a step by
step approach to the teaching and learning event. This technique helps to slowly ease students
into learning that may be too challenging for them at first. The specific general capabilities
criteria of the lesson which states students [can] recognise the interconnected nature of
mathematical knowledge, learning areas and the wider world seems to imply that students will
recognise the inherent value in the activity they are given. This can work as a scaolding
technique as students and teachers are involved in the co-construction of knowledge and
skill (Verenikina, 2008, p. 163) in a meaningful and purposeful way. Furthermore, this lesson
includes many opportunities for face-to-face interaction (Daniels, 2001, p. 2) within the context
of scaolding as the teacher encourages the students to ask for help if needed. Here students are
able to progress at a level comfortable for themmean[ing] that theyre learning little bits at a
time in order to develop understanding (Verenikina, 2008, p. 172) through this collaborative
learning experience.

Although this lesson successfully implements various scaolding techniques, it fails to provide
enough evidence [that] the learners have achieved some greater level of independent
competence (Mercer & Fisher, cited in Wells, 1999, p. 221). The assessment of students

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progression throughout this lesson is through observations, anecdotal notes and work
samples (as stated in the Formal/Informal Assessment section in the lesson plan) - which points
to some means of being able to evaluate student independence. However, the conclusion of this
lesson does not state whether or not further concrete assessment will be implemented as a
means of understanding students progression in their learning. There is indication that students
are required to make formal recordings of their dream bedroom and their budget spendings glue it in your book, record all purchases on an Excel spreadsheet - but the purpose of these
recordings is not made explicitly clear in terms of assessment or expected outcomes. To
implement more eective scaolding in this lesson plan, students could be made more aware of
the purpose of recording their results. This would allow students to feel more comfortable in their
learning and feel able to breach their perceived learning boundaries in a more purposeful way.

Bandura
Self-ecacy

Banduras concept of self-ecacy lies within the realm of reconceptualisation of human learning
and motivation in terms of cognitive processes (Bandura, 1977, p. 193). Put more simply, this
concept is based on someones conviction to continue to pursue in challenging learning tasks. In
contrast to Vygotskys theory of the ZPD which is primarily influenced by outside sources, selfecacy is developed as a result of external and internal perceptions about the self (Woolfolk &
Margetts, 2013, p.366) and personal beliefs about competency. This lesson plan provides space
for students to develop their self-ecacy through the step-by-step approach to learning. As each
step is taught, students who are able to master that part of the activity feel more competent to
move on to the next part of the activity. The risk presented by this step-by-step approach
however, is that the class expectation is that students keep up and stay on task in order to
complete the activity successfully. Students who are unable to master each step may run the risk
of failure which lowersmastery expectations (Bandura, 1977, p. 195) and impacts negatively
on ones self-ecacy. In order to combat this risk, this lesson could include a variety of learning
goals and opportunities for demonstrating what [students] know and can do (Woolfolk &
Margetts, 2013, p.70) rather than just one goal. It is clear that this lesson plan incorporates many
links to other content areas (eg. Number and place value, patterns and algebra etc. - see Content

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Strands and Sub-Strands for extensive list), however this does not solve the problem of having
specific goals that transcend a broad collection of students perceived competencies.

Another area in which this lesson plan falls short of being able to positively encourage good selfecacy, is in its constant suggestions that students might not be able to complete a task. For
example, a common phrase that this plan uses is if you cant do this, don't worry. Although this
phrase is intended to encourage weaker students, this attitude to learning in fact allows students
to surrender control to intermediaries in activities over which they can command direct
influence (Bandura, 2001, p. 13). Rather than excusing these students, teachers [could] teach
them how to learn and then hold them accountable (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p.70) for their
learning as a way to support students self-ecacy. By providing students with the opportunity to
set their own goals and take charge of their learning, teachers are encouraging childrens
cognitive development.

Observational learning

Observational learning demonstrates the continuous interaction between cognitive, behavioural

and environmental influences (Groenendijk, Janssen, Rijlaarsdam & van den Bergh, 2011, p. 2)
within learning experiences. There are four essential elements of this concept which need to be
considered when analysing their use. These are - Attention, Retention, Reproduction and
Motivation and Reinforcement. In order to engage eectively with learning experiences, students
need to be able to focus their attention eectively to enhance their memory processes and
learning (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 318). This lesson plan allows for high engagement in the
topic as it is personally applicable and contains real life comparisons. Although this does not
demonstrate the typical idea of modelling to ensure students attention, Van Dijk, Van Oers and
Terwel suggest that design models which have been created rather than ready-made
models (2003, p. 54) are more eective in establishing collaborative learning environments. In this
lesson plan, the dream bedroom acts as a model by which students can personally strive to
create for themselves. Further, this lesson plan encourages the idea of mentally representing the
models actions in some way (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 318) by telling students to cut out
relevant pictures for their dream bedroom, create tables, draw diagrams etc. The next step in
observational learning is the idea that students should now have the ability to translate mental

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conceptions into actions (Groenendijk et al. 2011, p. 2). This is implemented in this lesson plan to
a certain degree by the constant extension tasks assigned to develop students dream bedrooms.
For example, students begin by establishing the measurements of their bedroom, they then
include the furniture and other items in their bedroom, then they calculate the paint, the carpet
and finally have to deal with the money issue. This encourages a developmental understanding of
a potential real world scenario where students do have to implement creative thinking in order to
support their decided actions.

The only area that this lesson plan does not strongly represent within an observational learning
framework is motivation and reinforcement. It is implied at the end of the lesson that students
should continue to think about how their learning extends to other situations - eg. how can we
become more resourceful? - however, the link to this value thinking is not clearly established
throughout the lesson or in any lesson outcomes/expectations. The risk here is that a new
behaviour is unlikely to persist without reinforcement (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2013, p. 318) and in
this case, it is even hard to define what the new behaviour is. It could be assumed that students
might be able to comprehend that the moral application of this lesson is that - your established
plans dont always work out (evidenced in the way that the bank just calls out of the blue with a
problem) - however, because this is not made explicit, it is hard to expect students to implement
behaviour outside of this class. Overall, this lesson successfully includes many aspects of
Banduras theory of observation learning in order to develop students cognitive ability.

Conclusion
Through this essay it has been clear that this lesson plan successfully implements may
sociocultural and social cognitive ideas and activities. There are many instances where students
are given the opportunity to choose to continue with the challenging activity, or choose to step
back. This demonstrates a firm commitment to students discovery of their own abilities within the
learning experience and encourages a positive attitude towards achieving perceived goals. The
risk in this type of lesson however, is that students might have been given too much leeway and if
given a choice will not choose to shoulder responsibility (Bandura, 2001, p. 13) of progressing to
a higher level of psychological ability. This risk is present when considering the concepts of the
ZPD and self-ecacy. In terms of the learning process exhibited throughout this lesson plan,

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observational learning can be seen at each stage of the extensions of the bas activity. However,
the continuing eect this lesson will have on students and their ability to implement what they
have learnt is hard to see in the future. It does contain real world applications, but unless students
are able to gain a firm understanding of the purpose of the lesson in a broader context, learning
will be lost. The scaolding techniques in this lesson help to lessen this loss in some ways,
however, some of the questioning and ways of encouraging learning could be improved upon if
this lesson is to allow students to move up to a high cognitive ability.

Overall, analysing this lesson plan has demonstrated the importance of considering students as
complex beings within a complex context. It is clear that cultural and social functions play a
significant role in aecting students learning and development, especially the confidence that
students will and will not have as a direct eect of teaching. It is important to recognise the
impact appropriate and helpful scaolding techniques have on students perceived abilities and
their eventual attempts at a problem. At the end of the day, students need to be encouraged to
attempt problems in a supportive and safe learning environment to successfully develop their
cognitive abilities.

Resource List

- Bandura, A, 1977, Self-ecacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioural change,

Psychological Review, Vol. 84, No. 2, pp. 191-215

- Bandura, A, 2001, Social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective, Annual review of

psychology, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 1-26

- Daniels, H, 2001, Vygotsky and Pedagogy, Routledge/Falmer, New York.

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- Fani, T & Ghaemi, F, 2011, Implications of Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) in
Teacher Education: ZPTD and Self-scaolding, Procedia - Social and Behaviour Sciences, Vol.
29, No. 29, pp. 1549-1554

- Groenendijk, T, Janssen, T, Rijlaarsdam, G, & van den Bergh, H, 2013. Learning to be creative.
The eects of observational learning on students' design products and processes, Learning
and instruction, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 35-47.

- Luckin, R, 2008, The learner centric ecology of resources: A framework for using technology to
scaold learning, Computers & Education, Vol. 50, No. 2, pp. 449-462

- Roth, W, 2012, Cultural-historical activity theory: Vygotskys forgotten and suppressed legacy
and its implication for mathematics education, Mathematics Education Research Journal, Vol.
24, No. 1, pp. 87-104

- van Dijk, van Oers, B, & Terwel, J 2003, Providing or designing? Constructing models in
primary maths education, Learning and instruction, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 53-72

- Verenikina, I, 2008, Scaolding and learning: its role in nurturing new learners, in Kell, P, Vialle,
W, Konza, D, Vogl, G (eds), Learning and the learner: exploring learning for new times,
University of Wollongong, pp. 1-236.

- Vygotsky, L.S, 1980, Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes,
Harvard University Press, USA.

- Woolfolk, A & Margetts, K, 2013, Educational Psychology, 3rd ed, Pearson Australia, NSW.

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- Wells, G, 1999. Dialogic Inquiry: Towards a Sociocultural Practice and Theory of Education,
Cambridge University Press, New York.

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Appendix 1

Topic / Broad Outcome

Dream Bedroom

Year Level/s - 4/5

Proficiency Strands

Understanding, Fluency, Problem Solving and Reasoning.

Content Strands and Sub-Strands

Number and Algebra
Number and place value
Fractions and decimals
Money and financial
mathematics
Patterns and algebra

General Capabilities:
Numeracy
Literacy

Measurement and Geometry

Using units of
measurement
Shape
Location and
transformation
Geometric reasoning

Statistics and Probability

Chance
Data representation and
interpretation

General Capabilities Focus:

Students recognise the interconnected nature of
mathematical knowledge, learning areas and the
wider world.

Information and Communication Technology Students select and apply numerical, measurement,
(ICT) Competence
concepts and skills to real-world situations.
Critical and Creative Thinking
Ethical Behaviour

Create with ICT: Using ICT to generate ideas, plans,

processes and products to create solutions to
challenges or learning tasks.

Personal and Social Competence

Intercultural Understanding

Cross Curriculum Priorities:

Curriculum Links:

Formal / Informal
Assesment:

Aboriginal and Torres Strait

Islander histories and cultures

Technology

Observations
Anecdotal notes
Work samples

Asia and Australias engagement

with Asia
Sustainability

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Resources:

Content Descriptors
Use scaled instruments
to measure and compare
lengths.
Compare objects using
familiar metric units of
area and volume.
Solve problems involving
purchases and the
calculation of change to
the nearest five cents
with and without digital
technologies.
Choose appropriate units
of measurement for
length and area.
Calculate the perimeter
and area of rectangles
using familiar metric
units.
Create simple financial

Lesson Ideas
Measure your bedroom and draw a birds-eye view. Include the measurements on your
drawing. Try to do it to scale if you can. For example make 1 metre equal 5 centimetres. So if
one of your walls equalled 5 metres, on your diagram it would be 25 centimetres long. If you
cant do this dont worry just draw your bedroom as accurately as possible.
If you can, work out the perimeter and the area of the bedroom. If you can perimeter in
millimetres, centimetres and metres please do so. Finally if you can convert square metres to
square centimetres and square millimetres have a go at that too.
Copy the drawing you did on the last page and include the furniture you have in the room
now. Include your measurements. So measure the wardrobe and bedside tables etc. Try to
keep it as accurate as possible so if your wardrobe takes up half the wall you need to make it
take up half the wall in your drawing.
Work out the area of your bedroom. If you can, put the area of your bedroom into metres and
centimetres. Please show all your working.
Buy 10 items for your dream bedroom. To purchase an item you need to cut out a picture of it
and glue it into your book. You also need to keep a table of how much money you have spent.
You have an unlimited budget so spend as much as you want. After you have bought your
items you need to put them into the scale drawing of your bedroom. Be as accurate as you
can, for example you cannot put a queen-sized bed into your bedroom if it would not fit.
Record all purchases on an Excel spreadsheet.

It is time to paint your bedroom. This is quite difficult so you will need to follow the step by
step instructions.

First find out the area of each of the walls and the ceiling.
Then you need to work out the total area of the walls and ceiling.
Then you need to double this number because you need to apply two coats of
paint.
Then work out how much paint you need. One litre of paint will paint
approximately 14 square metres.
The paint you will be using is a Premium Maxi Wash, 4 litres will cost you
$55.95. So how much will it cost you to paint the bedroom?

Your dream bedroom requires new carpet. To work out how much it will cost to carpet your
bedroom you need to work out the area of your bedroom in metres squared. Then you need to
work out which carpet you would like. I have chosen four carpets from a Carpet Choice
brochure.
Antrium
Kildare
Marble falls
Chamonix

$36.90 per square metre

$43.40 per square metre
$37.95 per square metre
$53.30 per square metre

The cost of laying the carpet is an additional $250. Have a try at working out the cost of
carpeting your bedroom by yourself. If you need help just ask. Please show all working and
you will need to use a calculator.
`Your bank has called, they are very sorry but you didnt have that much money after all. In
fact they want you to pay back all the money you spent. But there is another problem. You
will only receive
50 % of the amount you paid when you sell the products back (not including carpet and
paint). However you will get 75 % of the money you paid for TVs, DVD players and game
consoles. How much money can you raise in the sell off? How much money do you still owe?
Use Google sketch-up to design your dream bedroom.
Look at how so many modern appliances are dumped even though they work. How can we
become more resourceful?

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