Chapter#9

NATURE OF LIGHT
Prepared by Sir Ahsan Siraj

Chapter 9

NATURE OF LIGHT
Theories of Nature of light:
Newtons Corpuscular Theory:
According to Newtons theory:
Light composed of steam of particles called Corpuscles.
These particles are attracted by the molecules of denser medium which
increases its velocity. That is why light has higher velocity in denser medium
and lower velocity in rare medium.

Huygens Wave Theory:

According to Huygens theory:
Light is wave by its nature.
Light can reflect and refract as other waves.
Two contradiction that discourage Huygens theory were
Water waves and sound waves can bend through an obstacle where as light can
not as it cast sharp shadow of n object.
Water wave and sound waves requires a medium. If light is a wave how the light
reaches earth from sun as there is no medium between earth and the sun? Can
a wave propagate through vacuum?

Maxwells Electromagnetic Theory:

In 1865 James Clerk Maxwell with the help of mathematical analysis proved that light
is wave in nature but it is different from other waves.
According to Maxwell theory:
Light is an electromagnetic waves which travels by
the
changing
electric and magnetic field.
As electric field and magnetic field does not
required
any medium electro magnetic field can travel
through vacuum.
The strength of Electric field at the same location and time is
equal to the velocity of light times the strength of magnetic.
Velocity of light is dependent on the electric and magnetic properties of
medium. Velocity of light in vacuum can be expressed as
1
c=
o o

Quantum Theory:
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Chapter#9

NATURE OF LIGHT
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According to quantum theory of light:

Light has dual nature.
In some cases light behaves as wave (reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction and polarization).
In some cases light behaves as particles (Photoelectric effect and Comptons
effect).
Light particles are called photons. Energy of each photon is given by
E=hf
Where f is the frequency of light and h is called Planks Constant.

Huygens principle:
Huygens in 1678 gives the model of light propagation known as Huygens
Principle. Huygens Principle is a geometric construction for determining at some
instant the position of a new wave front from knowledge of the wave front that
preceded it.
A wave front is a surface passing through those points of a wave which have the
same phase and amplitude. For instance, a wave front could be a surface passing
through the crests of waves.

Principle:
According to Huygens,
All points on a given wave front are taken as point sources for the production of
spherical secondary waves called wavelets, which propagate in the forward
direction with speeds characteristic of waves in that medium.
After some time has elapsed, the new position of the Wave front is the surface
tangent to the wavelets.

Youngs double
Experiment:

slit

Introduction:
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NATURE OF LIGHT
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Thomas Young in 1801 perform this experiment to study the interference phenomena
light.

Significance:
Youngs Experiment was the first practical evidence of wave
nature of light. It also provided the first direct
measurement of wavelength light.

Apparatus:
The schematic diagram of apparatus used by Young
is shown in figure. Two narrow holes (slits) (S1, S2)
are made in an opaque material sheet, which are at
the distance if d from each other. Both slits are at the
perpendicular of L form a screen on which interference
pattern is observed.

Explanation:
Plane wave fronts of light waves of sunlight are allowed to fall
on slits (S1, S2). These plane wave fronts are split into two
sources of coherent light by slit S1 and S2 emitting spherical
wave fronts. These wave fronts interfere with each other
giving interference pattern on the screen placed at the
distance L.
Mathematical Expression:
Consider ray ra1 and r2 emerging from slit s1 and s2
respectively.
Path difference between two rays can be written as
pathdifference=r 2r 1
Consider

S 2 S1 A

sin =

perpendicular
hypoteneous

sin =

r 2r 1
d
d sin=r 2 r 1

. (1)

For constructive interference (bright fringe)

d sin=m .. (2)
Where m=0, 1, 2, 3

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NATURE OF LIGHT
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For destructive interference

( 12 )

d sin= m+

Where m=0, 1, 2, 3

Fringe position:
Consider

PQO

tan =

perpendicular
base

tan =

y
L

If is very small
sin =tan

sin =

y
L

For bright fringe equation (2) becomes

d

yB
=m
L

yB =

mL
d

For dark fringe equation (3) becomes

y
1
d D = m+
L
2

( )

( 12 ) Ld

y D = m+

The fringe spacing can be calculated as

For m=n
Position of bright fringe will become

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Chapter#9

NATURE OF LIGHT
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y '=

nL
d

For m=n+1
Position of bright fringe will become
y ' '=
y''=

( n+1) L
d

nL L
+
d
d

Fringe spacing x can be written as

y ' ' y '=
x=

nL L nL
+
d
d
d

L
d

Wave length ca be calculated as

=

xd
L

Thin Film Interference:

Introduction:
When a layer of a medium with different refractive index is formed between the
layers of same refractive index that layer is called thin film. When light falls on a thin
film an interference pattern is observe due to the interference of light rays reflecting
from two plans of the thin film hence called thin film interference.

Explanation:
Consider light rays falling on a layer of medium of higher
refractive index (n2) from the medium of lower refractive index
Portion of light will be reflected from the surface A of the
thin film and remaining portion will be refracted and than
will reflected by the surface B plane of the thin film as
shown in figure.

(n1).

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NATURE OF LIGHT
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Conditions for constructive and destructive interference:

To determine whether the reflected rays interfere constructively or destructively, we
first note the following facts:
1. An electromagnetic wave traveling from a medium of index of refraction n 1
toward a medium of index of refraction n 2 undergoes a 180 phase change on
reflection when n2>n1. There is no phase change in the reflected wave if n 2 <
n1 .
2. The wavelength of light in a medium with index of refraction n is given by

n =
n
If the thickness of the thin film is t the ray r2 will cover distance of 2t before emerging
from the surface A
Now to interfere constructively

( 12 )

2t= m+

1
m+ )
(
2
2t =
n

( 12 )

2 nt= m+

Similarly for destructive interference

2t =m

2t =

m n
n

2 nt=m

Newtons Rings:
Introduction:
Rings are fringes of equal thickness. They are observed when light is reflected
from a Plano-convex lens of a long focal length placed in contact with a plane glass
plate. A thin air film is formed between the plate and the lens. The thickness of the
air film varies from zero at the point of contact to some value t. If the lens plate
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NATURE OF LIGHT
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system is illuminated with monochromatic light falling on

it normally, concentric bright and dark interference rings
are observed in reflected light. These circular fringes
were discovered by Newton and are called Newtons
rings.

Derivation for the Radius of Ring:

Radius of the ring can be found out by using the laws of
chord
By laws of chord
r r=|OA|| AB|
2

r =|OA|| AB|
Since
| AB|=2 Rt

|OA|=t
r 2=( 2 Rt ) ( t )
2

r =2 Rtt

Since t is very small quantity neglecting t2 we get

2
r =2 Rt
r= 2 Rt
Now for constructive interference
1
2 nt= m+
2

( )

For air n=1

( 12 )

2t= m+

For first bright ring

( 12 ) = 2

2t 1= 0+

For second bright ring

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( 12 ) = 32

2t 2= 1+

For third bright ring

( 12 ) = 52

2t 1= 2+

Similarly following the same pattern we get for we have if N is the ring number
N=m+1

m=N 1
So

2t N = N1+

2t N = N

Now radius of the ring can be written as

r= R N

Michelson Interferometer:
Introduction:

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Chapter#9

NATURE OF LIGHT
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The Michelson interferometer is an optical instrument having

great scientific importance. Invented by the American physicist
Michelson (1852 1931), it is an ingenious device that splits a
beam into two parts and then recombines them to form an
pattern.

A. A.
light
interference

Construction:
It consist of
1. two highly polished mirrors M1 and M2
2. A partially silvered mirror M.
3. M2 is movable where as M1 is fixed.
4. A thick glass plat P
As shown in figure.

Working:

A beam of light provided by a monochromatic source is split

into
two
rays by a partially silvered mirror M inclined at an angle of 45 relative to the
incident light beam.
One ray is reflected vertically upward to mirror M 1, and the other ray is
transmitted horizontally through mirror M to mirror M2.
The two rays travel separate paths, L1 and L2.
After reflecting from mirrors M1 and M2, the two rays eventually recombine to
produce an interference pattern, which can be viewed through a telescope.
The glass plate P, equal in thickness to mirror M, is placed in the path of the
horizontal ray to ensure that the two rays travel the same distance through
glass

Calculation for Wave length of light:

If we initially have a bright fringe and we move the mirror M2 bright ring will be
disappear and than appear again if the distance x by which mirror is moved is integral
multiple of quarter .Wave length of the light source used can be used as
x=

m
4

4x
m

Where m is number of fringe pass by the reference point during movement of mirror

Diffraction:
Definition:
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Chapter#9

NATURE OF LIGHT
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The bending of light rays around an obstacle is called Diffraction.

Types of Diffraction:
There are two type of diffraction
I.
II.

Fresnel diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction

Fresnel Diffraction:
In Fresnel diffraction both the point source and screen are at kept at the finite
distance from the diffracting obstacle.
In Fresnel Diffraction the wave fronts falling on the obstacle are not plan. On the
other hand the wave fronts leaving the obstacle are also not plan.

Fraunhofer diffraction:
In Fraunhofer diffraction source and screen are at kept at the finite distance
from the diffracting obstacle.
In Fraunhofer diffraction the wave fronts falling on the obstacle are plan. On the
other hand the wave fronts leaving the obstacle are not plan.

Single slit Diffraction:

When light is passed through a slit a interference pattern is
observed at the screen placed behind the slit this is due to the
fact that
each portion of the slit acts as a source of waves.
Hence, light from one portion of the slit can interfere with light
from another portion, and the resultant intensity on the screen
depends on the direction.
For dark fringe
a sin =m

For bright fringe

( 12 )

a sin = m+

Where m=1, 2, 3

Diffraction Grating:
Introduction:
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NATURE OF LIGHT
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The diffraction grating, a useful device for analyzing light sources, consists of a large
number of equally spaced parallel slits. A transmission grating can be made by cutting
parallel lines on a glass plate with a precision ruling machine. The spaces between the
lines are transparent to the light and hence act as separate slits.

Explanation:
A schematic diagram of plane diffraction grating is
shown in figure. The slit separation is given by d.
parallel beams of light are falling on each slit
emerges out of each slit at certain angle. Convex
lens is placed between slits and screen to bring the
wave together along certain direction. The waves
coming out of adjacent slits are in phase and reinforce
each other.
The waves will interfere constructively if the path difference between each slit is
integral multiple of wavelength
First order maximum will appear if path difference is zero
d sin=0
Second order maximum will occur if path difference is
d sin=
Similarly for mth order maximum
d sin=m
Where m=1, 2, 3

Diffraction of X-rays by Crystals (Braggs Law):

Introduction:
When X-rays (high frequency electromagnetic radiation)
are diffracted by Crystal plane the diffraction pattern
obtained can be used to determine the spacing
between crystal planes.

Explanation:
Consider two X-rays falling on a crystal lattice at a
certain angle. One them is reflected by the upper most
layer and other is reflected by one of the deeper layer
when these rays combines with each other the gives
interference pattern.
Now if the d is the spacing between the two crystal planes the distance covered by
the ray reflecting from the deeper layer will the excess distance X covered by the ray
will be
2 d sin =X
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For constructive interference

2 d sin =m

Above equation is called Braggs law. If the incidence angle and wavelength of light
is known d can be calculated

Polarization:
Definition:
Alignment of electric field vector of light wave in one direction is called polarization of
light.

Explanation:
An ordinary beam of light consists of a large number of
electromagnetic waves emitted by the atoms or molecules of
the light source. The vibrating charges associated with the atoms
act as tiny antennas. Each atom produces a wave with its own
orientation as shown in Figure, corresponding to the direction of atomic
vibration. However, because all directions of vibration are possible, the
resultant electromagnetic wave is a superposition of waves produced by the individual
atomic sources. The result is a unpolarized light wave.
If light is passed through a type of material medium, this absorbs electric field vector
in all directions except one. The light comes out of the medium with electric field
vector vibrating in only one direction. This type of light is called polarized light.

Polarization by Tourmaline Crystals:

Introduction:
When unpolarized light is allowed to tourmaline crystals it absorbs the component of
the electric field vectors which are parallel to the molecular chains of crystal an allow
the component of electric field vector which are perpendicular to the molecular
chains,
hence polarizes the light.

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Chapter#9

NATURE OF LIGHT
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Explanation:
When two tourmaline crystals are placed parallel to each other light is passes by the
first crystal and then transmitted by the second crystal. When second crystal is
rotated through 90O no light gets through. The observed effect is due to selective
absorption by the tourmaline crystal of all light vibrating in one particular plane. The
first crystal is called polarizer and the second one is called analyzer.

Application of Polarization:

To determine the concentration of optically active substance such as Sugar.

In photography to enhance the sky and cloud effect.
In sunglasses to protect eyes by minimizing the exposure of ultraviolet radiation
from sunlight.
In microwave and radio wave communication by the means of polarized antenna
to increase the signal strength in one direction.

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