LNG Industry March 2014

LNGINDUSTRY | March 2014
March 2014
www.lngindustry.com
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ISSN 1747-1826
CONTENTS
MARCH 2014
03 Comment
43 Building alliances
Michael A. Tarala, RegO Compressed Gas and Cryogenics,

USA, recommends strategies for global LNG product supply.
05 LNG news
46 Stop the domino effect
12 East Africa: the newest LNG frontier
Wayne Jacobson, Compressor Controls Corp., USA, presents a

solution to prevent cascading trips at LNG plants.
Nadja Kogdenko, Energy Delta Institute, the Netherlands,

discusses the emergence of East Africa on the global LNG
export stage.
49 King coals fading crown
Bernd von der Weppen, Siemens, China, looks at the

increasing demand for turbocompressor trains as China builds
more LNG terminals.
12
Nadja Kogdenko,
Energy Delta Institute,
the Netherlands, discusses
the emergence of East Africa on
the global LNG export stage.
East
Africa:
the newest LNG frontier
53 A guiding hand
Attilio Brighenti, Chiara Brighenti, and Riccardo Bressan,

S.A.T.E. Systems and Advanced Technologies Engineering
S.r.l., Italy, recommend effective pre-study of pulsation
dampeners.
n the last decade the global LNG industry has undergone remarkable changes. Next to technological development,
the industry witnessed the North American shale gas revolution that is still reshaping global LNG flows. Worldwide
demand for natural gas is growing, coupled with the rising concern about the environment and the need to enhance
energy security, especially in fast developing economies, such as China. New gas discoveries are also changing the face of the
LNG industry. Only a couple of years ago, any mention of the Rovuma Basin would not have attracted attention from energy
companies active in the LNG business. Now, East Africa, with its extraordinary discoveries of natural gas in the Rovuma Basin, is
emerging as a new LNG frontier.
This article gives a brief overview of the latest developments in East Africa, particularly focusing on the opportunities that
new gas discoveries offshore Mozambique and Tanzania will potentially create.
Africa and LNG
The opening of the worlds first commercial LNG plant in Algeria in 1964 symbolised the beginning of the LNG era, the moment
from which the LNG industry began its development and transformation.
59 Simulation application
Timothy Park, Transas, USA, discusses the progression of

customised simulation training within the LNG industry.
12 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
MARCH 2014
LNG_March_2014_12-15.indd 12
03/03/2014 12:52 LNG_March_2014_12-15.indd 13
LNGINDUSTRY
61 Prevention is better than cure
13
05/03/2014 14:07
Gill Grady, GSE Systems, Inc., introduces high fidelity

simulators for LNG plant verification and validation.
16 Beating the bunkering challenge
Joerg Redlin, Marine Service GmbH, Germany, looks at

containerised LNG fuel supply.
21 Methane methods
25 Propelling the fuel of the future

28 Developing a generation
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LNGINDUSTRY | March 2014
Oscar Kallerdahl, Rolls-Royce, Norway, reflects on the dawn

of a new era in escort tug propulsion.
March 2014
Hayato Suga, ClassNK, Japan, reviews recent developments

in LNG vessels and the use of LNG as a ship fuel, as well
as efforts to expand the frontiers of FLNG production and
transportation.
33 Break the mould
Kevin Jackson, MOGAS Industries, Inc., looks at new valve

technology for FLNG operations.
37 Helium: taking off!
Pascal Erni, WEKA AG, Switzerland, looks at cryogenic valves

in operation at the Ras Laffan helium refinery in Qatar.
Wiebke Breit and Stefan Frnkle, Air Liquide Global E&C
Solutions, Germany, examines proven gas treatment capabilities.
Copyright Palladian Publications Ltd 2014. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. All views expressed in this journal are
those of the respective contributors and are not necessarily the opinions of the publisher, neither do the publishers
endorse any of the claims made in the articles or the advertisements. Printed in the UK.
www.lngindustry.com
39 Innovate to extricate
LNG_March_2014_OFC.indd 1
05/03/2014 09:29
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An audit certificate is available on request from our sales department.
ON THIS MONTHS COVER
Dominique Ingrain, GDF Suez LNG, analyses the correlation

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CALLUM OREILLY EDITOR
COMMENT
T
hroughout the Winter Olympic Games in Sochi, I found

myself unexpectedly glued to the curling, fascinated by
all the shouting, sliding and sweeping.
Dating back to 16th Century Scotland, curling is played in
teams of four on a rectangular sheet of ice. Players slide granite
stones towards a target (called the house) and points are scored
for the stones resting closest to the centre of the house at the
conclusion of an end.
Simple? Not quite. Often referred to as chess on ice, curling
is actually a very complex sport. Conditions on the ice change
throughout the game, and players must sweep the ice in front
of a stone to influence the direction of a shot. It is also important
to think carefully about future shots when throwing a stone. The
teams skip (its captain) is responsible for directing the shots, and
must choose whether to simply place a stone near the house (this
type of shot is called a draw), throw a guard to protect another
stone close to the target, or attempt to take out an opposition
stone with a direct hit.
Towards the end of last year, Russias President Vladimir
Putin threw the equivalent of a hit by signing into law a new
amendment to liberalise Russias LNG exports. In doing so, he
dislodged Gazproms giant stone that had been sitting on its
own in the centre of Russias gas export industry, and opened
the door for rival companies to sell LNG for export. However,
the move was also a tactical shot, which sent a strong message
worldwide that Russia is well and truly in the LNG game.
Although it has been slow to the party, with just Gazprom
and Shells Sakhalin-2 LNG plant currently in operation, Russia
has ambitious plans to double its share of the global LNG market
to 10% by 2020. Rosneft is preparing a 5 million tpy facility with
ExxonMobil in the Far East of the country, while Gazprom is also
planning its second LNG plant in Vladivostok, with a capacity of
up to 15 million tpy.
james.little@lngindustry.com
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Website Manager
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Website Editor
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Managing Editor
James Little
However, Novatek is currently in pole position to take

advantage of Russias decision to end Gazproms monopoly
on LNG exports. Together with Total, the company has been
building its Yamal LNG plant since 2007. The project, which is
due to ship its first LNG by 2017 a year ahead of both Rosneft
and Gazproms new projects has reportedly already secured
customers for up to 78% of its 16.5 million tpy capacity. In
January, Chinas CNPC purchased a 20% stake in Yamal LNG,
a move that will allow Novatek to successfully and timely
complete the project, according to Leonid Mikhelson, Chairman
of the Management Committee of Novatek.
However, in an interview with Russias Kommersant
in October 2013, one of Novateks main shareholders,
Gennady Timchenko, was quick to dismiss the companys rivalry
with Gazprom and Rosneft, while emphasising the important
role that Novatek will play to peg out a place for Russia in the
global LNG industry: Neither Rosneft nor Gazprom can compete
with our project yet. We will be up and running much earlier
than they will [] And we are really running the risk of losing the
competition with Australia, Qatar and the US, among others.
Novatek is a Russian company too, so what difference does it
make who supplies LNG?
Returning to the curling analogy, it would seem that
Timchenko views Novateks Yamal LNG plant as one of Team
Russias valuable stones in its game of chess with other
would-be exporters around the world. However, it is certain that
Novatek will look to position its stone very carefully as it battles
with its domestic rivals to remain skip of the Russian LNG team.
Just as Russia left it late before eventually topping the
medal table at this years Winter Olympics, Putin will be hoping
that increased competition in the countrys gas export market
will produce a similar late surge in the battle for LNG exports to
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LNGNEWS
USA
Canada
DOE approves Delfin LNG export request
Committee advances Alaska LNG project
he US Department of Energy (DOE) has approved Delfin

LNGs application to export 657.5 billion ft3 of LNG
annually over a 20-year period to free trade agreement (FTA)
countries.
Delfin LNG filed an application in October last year to
export LNG from a proposed floating LNG (FLNG) terminal
located in the West Cameron Block in the Gulf of Mexico,
30 miles offshore Cameron Parish, Louisiana. The facility
will be a deepwater port subject to the jurisdiction of the US
Maritime Administration (MARAD).
Liquefaction will utilise floating liquefaction and storage
vessels (FLNGVs). The FLNGVs will export LNG to off-taking
LNG carriers via the ship-to-ship side transfer process.
The project will be constructed in four trains. Delfin has
entered into a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with
one of the worlds leading midstream LNG companies to
provide at least the first two FLNGVs. A spokesperson for
the company said that the focus of the MoU is to develop
fast track, modular, midscale liquefaction solutions of
approximately 2.5 million tpy per train based on existing
technology and using front-end engineering and designs.
he Senate Resources Committee has finally passed

the Alaska LNG project legislation, following weeks
of deliberation, expert and public testimony, and state
reviews.
Committee Chair, Cathy Giessel, commented: This
megaproject can offer decades of affordable energy for
our citizens. It offers a myriad of opportunities to expand
the reach of natural gas products throughout the state
and provides jobs during construction. These jobs are
a great and real opportunity for any Alaskan who is fit,
willing and prepared to help build this project.
The Senate Bill 138 will now move to the Senate
Finance Committee, who will consider the financials of
the proposed project in detail.
Giessel added: A number of items came up
through the public testimony process regarding
municipalities concern over the payment in lieu of
taxes language in the bill as well as the mechanics
of setting up a subsidiary to manage the project. I am
fully confident that the Finance Committee will dig into
these topics and more.
The Philippines
Philippines LNG receives project financing
he Energy World Corp. (EWC) has agreed a mandate and term sheet with the Development Bank of the Philippines
(DBP) for project financing of its Philippines LNG hub terminal and power station. The agreement was signed in Manila in
February 2014.
The value of the project debt is estimated to be approximately US$ 550 million. DBP will partially underwrite this financing
and arrange for syndication among local lenders.
EWC CEO and Chairman, Stewart Elliott, said: We are extremely pleased to announce this important financing milestone
for our Philippines Projects, which represents a strong statement of support for EWCs strategy to bring clean and green energy
to Asia by one of the Philippines leading financial institutions.
We look forward to working in close cooperation with the Development Bank of the Philippines and other local and
international lenders in finalising this project financing transaction in the coming months.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
LNGNEWS
Denmark
Finland
Gasum selects LNG import terminal site
RINA given Danish LNG fuel authority
asum has selected Tahkoluoto, Pori, as the location of its

first LNG import terminal. The facility, which will have a
capacity of 30 000 m3, will improve the availability of LNG in
Finland.
Gasum intends to build a LNG distribution logistics
chain based on truck transport around the Pori terminal. Gas
supply will be targeted to suit the needs of the industry, as
well as maritime and road traffic. Once complete, the LNG
import terminal will serve the entire western coast of Finland
from Hanko to Kokkola. The Tahkoluoto port has existing
infrastructure, active ship traffic and a number of significant
industrial clients who operate in the port vicinity.
The final investment decision (FID) regarding the Pori
import terminal has not yet been made. Gasum has applied
for investment funds for the LNG terminal from the Ministry of
Employment and the Economy.
Gasum expects to begin construction of the terminal
this year and it is expected to be complete in 2016. The
construction project will create approximately 250 jobs during
the construction phase. After its completion, the LNG terminal
will employ up to 50 people.
The LNG import terminal will diversify gas and fuel
markets in Finland. Additionally, the use of LNG will improve
energy competitiveness, as the price of LNG has been more
stable than other fuels in recent years.
Gasum is intending to build an additional import terminal
in Pansio, Turku.
nternational classification society RINA has been authorised by

the Danish Maritime Authority to act on its behalf to carry out plan
approval and surveillance during construction on board ships using
LNG as a marine fuel. The authorisation is valid for ships flying the
Danish flag.
Andrea Cogliolo, Head of Innovation at RINA Services, said that
the authorisation recognised RINAs expertise with gas and enabled
the society to assist in the newbuilding and conversion of ships to
LNG as fuel: We believe there will be a rapid and accelerating switch
to LNG as a fuel in north European waters, but the move to gas must
be done safely and with good management of all the risks involved.
That is where we can make a real difference, by helping owners and
yards to adopt new fuel solutions in a safe and timely manner.
RINA has established rules and regulations for the use of LNG or
compressed natural gas (CNG) on board carriers as an alternative to
traditional fuels. The rules ensure the safe and reliable arrangement
and installation of machinery on board ships and are equivalent to
those for conventional installations.
Cogliolo noted that owners and yards must work to class
requirements until the new IMO Code for Gas Fuelled Ships is
finalised. He said that the society was providing assistance in owners
move to gas and making sure they avoid the pitfalls as well as
gaining the benefits.
RINA is actively involved in a number of projects to convert
existing tonnage or build new vessels with gas fuel and is
also facilitating studies for the diffusion of LNG as a fuel in the
Mediterranean area.
NEWS HIGHLIGHTS
XXSovcomflot wins award for LNG carrier financing

XXESPO urges Europe to reach LNG fuel agreement
XXPrelude FLNG a gamechanger
To read more
about these
stories go to:
6 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
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Contact CB&I to learn how our innovative solutions can benefit your next LNG project.
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LNGNEWS
USA
Osaka and Chubu sign Freeport LNG equity

agreement
reeport LNG, Osaka Gas and Chubu Electric Power

have announced that they have entered into an
agreement to invest approximately US$ 1.2 billion of
equity funding for Freeport LNGs proposed natural gas
liquefaction and LNG loading facility on Quintana Island,
near Freeport, Texas. The facility involves the development
of three liquefaction trains.
The investment by Osaka Gas and Chubu Electric
will provide equity needed to develop Freeports first
train facility (Train One). Investment capital will be drawn
down over Train Ones 45-month construction period.
The balance of Train Ones capital needs will be sourced
from a group of lenders, including a Japanese government
financial agency and commercial banks. Financial close for
the transaction is expected to take place in H2 2014, upon
receipt of regulatory approvals.
Freeport LNG CEO, Michael Smith, said: We are
excited to announce our long-term equity partnership with
Osaka Gas and Chubu Electric, our Train One customers
and two of the largest Japanese utilities, which together
purchase almost 25% of all Japanese LNG purchases.
Combined with the previously announced equity
investment by IFM Investors in our second train facility, the
funding to be provided by Osaka Gas and Chubu Electric
satisfies all of the equity capital needs for construction of
the initial two trains of the liquefaction project.
Australia
SIAD Macchine Impianti holds bicycle race
n 20 October 2013, SIAD Macchine Impianti, the

engineering core of the SIAD Group, held the first edition
of its Test Your Compression event a bicycle race where
top sector professionals from the biggest EPC companies and
end users in the oil and gas industry came together on the
roads near Perth, Western Australia.
The race took place on a 50 km course in the countryside.
The competitors gave their all right up to the finishing line,
producing a breathtaking climax worthy of a professional
classic. The prize for the winners of the mens and womens
races was a holiday to Italy, including a visit to the
headquarters of SIAD Macchine Impianti in Bergamo.
The event marked the launch of new products into the
market that are suitable for offshore and LNG applications.
Founded in 1953, SIAD Macchine Impianti has made
inroads into the emergent Australian market by employing
innovative commercial strategies and a modern approach.
The companys manufacturing lines include API618 piston
compressors for compressing various gases; standard 40 bar
air compressors for blowing PET bottles for the food and
beverage sector; air separation units for producing high-purity
oxygen, nitrogen and argon; and automatic welding lines.
SIAD Macchine Impianti also runs an internal Global Service
division, which offers complete services for all of its products
via a worldwide network of assistance centres.
SIAD Macchine Impianti hopes to see you at its next Test
Your Compression event.
DIARY DATES
24 - 27 March 2014
28 - 30 April 2014
02 - 04 June 2014
Goyang City, South Korea

www.gastechkorea.com
Amsterdam, the Netherlands

www.lngconstructionsummit.com
Houston, Texas, USA

www.ilta.org
Gastech 2014
LNG Construction Summit
ILTA 2014
28 - 30 April 2014
05 - 08 May 2014
02 - 05 June 2014
Amsterdam, the Netherlands

www.smallmidlng.com
Houston, Texas, USA

www.otcnet.org/2014
San Antonio, Texas, USA

www.lngamericas.cwclng.com
Small-Mid Scale LNG Summit
8 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Offshore Technology Conference
World LNG Series: LNG Americas Summit
LNGNEWS
Russia
Sovcomflot takes delivery of LNG carrier
ussias largest shipping company Sovcomflot has taken

delivery of its latest LNG carrier, the Velikiy Novgorod,
from South Koreas STX Offshore & Shipbuilding.
The vessel is equipped with a dual-fuel, diesel-electric
propulsion system consisting of two MAN 8L51/60 DF and two
MAN 9L51/60 DF engines, with a combined power of 34 MW.
The engines were constructed at MAN Diesel & Turbos
Augsburg plant in Germany.
The propulsion facility provides the LNG carrier with a
highly efficient, low-emission propulsion system, particularly
when running on gas. It also features a high degree of
redundancy, while the MAN 51/60 DF engines provide multiple
fuelling options.
The delivery of the LNG carrier newbuilding orders mark a
milestone in MAN Diesel & Turbos strategy of expanding its
dual-fuel engine technology into the marine sector.
The Velikiy Novgorod vessel has been designed for
navigating through sea ice and has an Arctic ice classification.
The carrier has a total length of 300 m and a capacity of
170 200 m3. It is the first in a series of ships to be built by
STX Offshore & Shipbuilding in South Korea and is now the
fifth LNG carrier in Gazproms fleet of long-term charter tankers.
Kuwait
LNG regasification contract for Foster Wheeler
oster Wheeler has announced that a subsidiary of its Global

Engineering and Construction Group has been awarded the
pre-front-end engineering design and the front-end engineering
design (FEED) contract by Kuwait National Petroleum Company
(KNPC) for a new onshore LNG import and regasification
terminal in Kuwait.
Foster Wheeler did not disclose the value of the contract,
however it was included in the companys Q4 2013 bookings.
Foster Wheeler has previously completed conceptual and
detailed feasibility studies for the proposed terminal in Kuwait
to assist in the selection of the most suitable technology and
location for the new terminal.
The terminal will have a design capacity of approximately
1500 million ft3/d of gas, with four LNG storage tanks, each with
a capacity of 180 000 m3. The design will also allow for future
expansions up to 3000 million ft3/d and the installation of a
further four LNG storage tanks of the same capacity as the initial
four tanks.
Foster Wheeler will work with a local partner in
executing this contract, which is scheduled to be complete in
October 2014. KNPC plans to start commercial operation of the
terminal in 2020.
Japan
MOL to charter LNG carrier
itsui O. S. K. Lines (MOL) has signed a head of agreement on joint ownership and 20-year charter contract for a new
LNG carrier with Tokyo LNG Tanker Company, a Tokyo Gas subsidiary.
MOL also signed a contract with Japan Marine United Corp. to build the new LNG vessel. The ship is due for completion
in 2017.
MOL will manage the new carrier, which will primarily transport LNG from the Cove Point LNG project in the US to
Tokyo Gas facilities.
The new LNG carrier will have a cargo capacity of 165 000 m3 and feature the self-supporting prismatic shape
IMO Type B (SPB) cargo tank, which was developed by IHI Corp. and Japan Marine United. The SPB tank is a cargo
containment system in which most of the cargo tank is covered by the hull. This environmentally-friendly tank reduces water
resistance, increasing fuel efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions.
10 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
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East
Africa:
the newest LNG frontier
12 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Nadja Kogdenko,
Energy Delta Institute,
the Netherlands, discusses
the emergence of East Africa on
the global LNG export stage.
n the last decade the global LNG industry has undergone remarkable changes. Next to technological development,
the industry witnessed the North American shale gas revolution that is still reshaping global LNG flows. Worldwide
demand for natural gas is growing, coupled with the rising concern about the environment and the need to enhance
energy security, especially in fast developing economies, such as China. New gas discoveries are also changing the face of the
LNG industry. Only a couple of years ago, any mention of the Rovuma Basin would not have attracted attention from energy
companies active in the LNG business. Now, East Africa, with its extraordinary discoveries of natural gas in the Rovuma Basin, is
emerging as a new LNG frontier.
This article gives a brief overview of the latest developments in East Africa, particularly focusing on the opportunities that
new gas discoveries offshore Mozambique and Tanzania will potentially create.
Africa and LNG
The opening of the worlds first commercial LNG plant in Algeria in 1964 symbolised the beginning of the LNG era, the moment
from which the LNG industry began its development and transformation.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
13
Africa has always been rich in natural resources, including a

variety of metals and minerals, as well as oil and gas. The
International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates that Africa holds
nearly 74 trillion m3 of technically recoverable natural gas
reserves, nearly 10% of the worlds total,1 and it is believed that
the majority of African natural resources are still undiscovered or
barely exploited.
African oil and gas production has historically taken place in
North Africa, notably in Egypt and Algeria. In recent decades,
however, it has mainly been driven by West Africa (e.g. Nigeria
and Angola), and, even more recently, the pace of development
has picked up offshore East Africa, in Mozambique and Tanzania.
In 2012, African natural gas production reached 213 billion m3
(nearly twice the volume of European gas production, and nearly
a third of natural gas production in the US in 2012) with an annual
growth of nearly 4% since 2000.2, 3 The IEA estimates that African
natural gas production will nearly double by 2035, reaching
400 billion m3. Even though consumption of natural gas is
expected to rise, reaching 170 billion m3 in 2035, there is still
substantial room for gas exports to other markets.4, 5 In 2012,
Africa accounted for 16.8% of the global LNG export volumes
(with Nigeria being the fourth largest LNG exporter in the world)6
and its position in the global LNG market can only be
strengthened by the recent gas discoveries.
Developments in Mozambique
and Tanzania
For several decades, African oil and gas reserves attracted

international investors due to its appealing leasing terms and
relatively open access. Nevertheless, the natural gas potential
of East Africa was always thought to be limited due to complex
geology and a chain of other factors, resulting in only a handful of
small scale coastal exploration activities. This situation changed
dramatically in 2010 when Anadarko made its immense gas
discovery offshore Mozambique (in Area 1 of the Rovuma Basin),
transforming East Africa into a new global gas supply region.
There were four subsequent discoveries in the area made by
Anadarko, along with large discoveries in the nearby Area 4 by
ENI (in the Mamba prospect), resulting in nearly 2.4 trillion m3
(85 trillion ft3) of new recoverable gas reserves. Next to
Mozambique, in the Tanzanian share of the Rovuma Basin,
BG Group, Ophir Energy, Statoil and its partner ExxonMobil have
also discovered major gas deposits, altogether accounting for a
further 425 billion m3 (15 trillion ft3) of recoverable reserves.2, 7 To
put this into perspective, the largest gas field in Europe, the
Groningen field (in the north of the Netherlands), held initial
recoverable reserves of 2.8 trillion m3.8 At the time of increasing
global demand for natural gas, these newly discovered resources
offshore Tanzania and Mozambique were quite substantial, and
have already prompted companies to develop new LNG export
terminals.
In the case of Mozambique, ENI and Anadarko have agreed
to unitise their new gas find and jointly develop a LNG export
project in order to reduce project development cost. The new
LNG facility is due to become operational in 2018 with two
5 million tpy liquefaction trains, as well as opportunity for
significant expansion in the future.7, 9 In its published Gas Master
Plan, the government of Mozambique states that it expects
10 liquefaction trains to be in operation by 2026, with an overall
capacity of 50 million tpy (69 billion m3/y). This will potentially
make Mozambique one of the worlds top LNG exporters.10
Meanwhile, offshore Tanzania, Statoil and BG Group are also
looking into a joint development of their new gas find and the
14 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
construction of another LNG facility. However, the Tanzanian

government has questioned whether the discovered reserves are
big enough to develop a large scale LNG export project on top of
meeting domestic demand for natural gas. In order to approve
the LNG export terminal construction plan, the government
indicated that more gas must eventually be found. In the
meantime, a final investment decision on the Tanzanian LNG
export terminal is expected to take place in 2016, with the first
potential LNG cargo in 2020.10
East Africas LNG export

potential
While representing a new source of abundant natural gas

reserves, East Africa is well located to supply multiple markets
with LNG. It is particularly well situated with respect to Indias
west coast and the emerging markets of Southeast Asia
(e.g. Singapore), and it will be able to serve the key markets of
Northeast Asia and Northeast Europe.11
Since 2000, global demand for LNG has doubled and it is
predicted to double again by 2025, with the main increase
coming from the Asia Pacific region, mainly Japan, China,
South Korea and India.7 In fact, the Asia Pacific region is already
a major player in the global LNG arena, accounting for nearly
70% of total global LNG imports in 2012.6 In Asian countries,
natural gas is increasingly viewed as an essential element in the
diversification of energy sources, securing rapidly growing
energy demand and limiting air pollution. Since the
opportunities for pipeline gas transportation in the region are
relatively restrained for geographical reasons, LNG is seen as
the most viable option for emerging energy demand. China is
expected to be the biggest source of additional LNG demand:
the IEA forecasts that Chinese gas consumption will double
from levels in 2010 by 2035.4 With such rapid growth in global
demand, the LNG industry will inevitably face a supply
challenge. BG Group estimates that this could result in a LNG
supply-demand gap of 170 million tpy in 2025 (equal to the
entire size of the LNG trade in 2008).11 This estimate is based on
projects currently in operation and projects under construction.
Therefore, there will be a strong demand for new LNG suppliers
such as Mozambique and Tanzania. However, while East African
LNG projects are still in their infancy, there are other major LNG
developments taking place elsewhere around the world.
Australia, currently the third largest LNG exporter after
Qatar and Malaysia, has been positioning itself to emerge as a
leading player in the global LNG industry by the end of this
decade.12 Even though there are currently three operational LNG
export plants with a total capacity of 24.3 million tpy, Australia
has more new LNG plants under construction (with additional
export capacity of 61.4 million tpy) than any other country.6 Next
to Australia, the US and Canada are steadily developing as new
LNG exporters thanks to domestic production of shale gas. In
the US, six LNG terminals have already received authorisation to
export domestically produced LNG to all countries, including
those that do not have a free trade agreement with the US (i.e.
Japan, China and India). This brings the total US LNG export
capacity to 62 million tpy.7 Over 20 similar applications for the
construction of LNG export terminals are pending at the US
Department of Energy. The first LNG terminal at Sabine Pass is
expected to be operational by 2016.13 Canada has nearly
45 million tpy of newly proposed LNG export capacity, with at
least one project waiting to take a final investment decision.11
In addition to Australia, the US and Canada, Russia
is also continuing to progress with its LNG export plans
(e.g. Vladivostok LNG and Yamal LNG), while a number of

existing LNG plants in other LNG exporting countries, such
as Nigeria, are planned for expansion. For this reason, the
newly planned LNG projects in East Africa will face strong
competition from other LNG exporters; particularly since
nearly all LNG export projects in development are focusing
on increasingly attractive Asian markets.
In December 2013, the price for LNG in Asian markets reached
US$ 17.9/million Btu, while Henry Hub natural gas was traded at
the price of US$ 3.90.7, 14 The gas price on Henry Hub has dropped
significantly from nearly US$ 8.9/million Btu since 2008. This is
mainly due to the commercial production of domestic shale gas.
To put the Asian LNG price into a broader perspective, in Europe
(on the TTF) natural gas was traded at US$ 11.2/million Btu in
December 2013.7 High natural gas prices in Asian markets,
combined with ever-rising demand for LNG in the region, makes
these markets the most attractive for LNG exporters around the
globe. This could lead to oversaturation of the Asian markets with
new gas supplies, which, in turn, could push prices down. That
would be welcome news for Asian gas consumers, but not so
good for the new LNG exporters, who are using the current global
LNG market conditions in their business models.
It is also important to consider that China has a considerable
ambition to develop its own shale reserves and that they are
estimated to be even larger than the shale reserves in the US.
Even though there are many challenges to overcome, it is difficult
to predict how the global gas (and LNG) picture might change if
China begins its own production of shale gas. Therefore, in order
to withstand growing competition and have a share in the Asian
market, East Africa needs to move fast and be creative in terms of
its LNG price.
Opportunities and challenges
Development of the new-found gas reserves in East Africa will

not only benefit the global gas industry, it will also bring various
opportunities to the region.
Since the end of civil war, Mozambique has made considerable
progress in economic development and political stability, and
currently has one of the worlds fastest-growing economies.
Nevertheless, the economy is still founded on agriculture and
poverty remains widespread over half of Mozambiques
population lives below a poverty line of 50 cents a day.7
Tanzania, similar to Mozambique, has a fast growing
population and widespread poverty, with economic growth
coming mainly from gold production, export and tourism. The
country is still suffering from high inflation, driven by rising fuel
and food prices, as well as long-lasting energy shortages.
Growth in the natural gas sector represents a major potential
benefit for both Tanzania and Mozambique. It can provide
revenues for persistent needs in education, health and
infrastructure, as well as help expand energy access.
With regard to Tanzania, BG estimates that the construction
phase of a LNG project could create employment for
3500 - 5000 people directly engaged in building the plant. In
order to ensure maximised use of national staff, pre-investment in
training and skills development is essential and will require strong
cooperation between the government and investor companies.11
The Mozambique Natural Gas Master Plan indicates that
Mozambique could potentially earn up to US$ 5.2 billion/year by
2026 from LNG exports, creating over 70 000 jobs in its gas
sector.10
Athough these opportunities have the potential to transform
the economy of both countries, they come with risks and
challenges that must be addressed. Insufficient infrastructure,

combined with unforeseeable economic and market conditions,
will undoubtedly impact the viability of the proposed LNG
projects. However, there is a broad spectrum of institutional,
regulatory, governmental and human-capacity issues that must
be addressed to ensure that the development of natural gas
resources will actually benefit the local population. The
governments of Mozambique and Tanzania have high levels of
corruption, bureaucracy and low business transparency. These are
the challenges both governments will need to address first on
their way to becoming competitive LNG players. There are
already several cases in Africa (such as Nigeria and Equatorial
Guinea) where significant oil and gas discoveries have not lead to
the expected economic growth, and where the local population
did not benefit from the energy export revenues.9 In the Gas
Master Plan, both governments specify that they intend to
responsibly manage the growth of their respective energy sectors
and economies in general. Therefore, it is important that they
carefully plan the envisioned LNG projects.10 Taking into account
the constraints, there are doubts about both LNG projects coming
on-stream according to the schedule.
Conclusion
East Africa is on the verge of becoming a large LNG exporter,

which would bring tremendous opportunities to both the region
and to natural gas importing countries. However, opportunities
always come with challenges and risks. There is still much work
to be done in Mozambique and Tanzania in order to support
large scale LNG exports and ensure that newfound natural gas
benefits local development and poverty alleviation. In addition,
with growing competition from the existing and emerging
LNG exporters such as Australia and the US, developments in
Mozambique and Tanzania must take place very soon if they
want to have a share in the attractive Asian gas markets. Let us
hope that East Africa will be able to keep up with the dynamic
LNG industry.
References
1. Golden Rules of a Golden Age of Gas, International Energy
Agency, 2012.
2. Natural gas in Africa: the frontiers of the Golden Age,
Ernst & Young, 2012.
3. Natural gas statistics, the US Energy Information
Administration.
4. World Energy Outlook 2012, International Energy Agency,
2012.
5. Global Energy Statistical Yearbook 2013, Enerdata.
Available at http://yearbook.enerdata.net
6. World LNG report, International Gas Union, 2013.
7. World energy news, Financial Times, 2013.
8. Groningen Gas Field, Shell, 2013. Available at http://wwwstatic.shell.com/content/dam/shell/static/nam-en/downloads/
pdf/flyer-namg50eng.pdf
9. Could East African gas impact U.S. LNG exports?,
Brookings, 2013. Available at http://www.brookings.edu
10. Ledesma, D., East Africa Gas Potential for Export, The
Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, March 2013.
11. Hudson, D., East Africa opportunities and challenges
for LNG in a new frontier region, BG Group, LNG17
proceedings, Houston, Texas, USA, 2013.
12. Tankers on the horizon: Australias coming LNG boom, The
Economist Intelligence Unit, 2012.
13. Kogdenko, N., Changing landscape, LNG Industry
September/October 2013, pp. 20 - 25.
14. Asian LNG prices rise sharply, The Wall Street Journal,
2013.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
15
Joerg Redlin,
Marine
Service GmbH,
Germany, looks
at containerised
LNG fuel supply.
BEATING
THE BUNKERING
challenge
n less than a year, the new

environmental requirements
for sulfur emission limitation in
exhaust gases will come into effect.
Various ways to cope with these
requirements are in discussion and
development. One possible solution
is to retrofit dry or wet scrubbers
used for exhaust gas treatment.
However, this is costly in investment
and even more so when taking the
consumables and their handling into
account. The alternative solution is to
use expensive high quality fuel oils
with 0.1% sulfur content
Another solution, the use of gas
as fuel in the form of LNG, has been
under discussion for quite some time,
particularly in regard to its use in
normal shipping. This has
particularly been the case with
vessels operating in ECA/SECA
zones, although it is increasingly
being implemented worldwide.
Some vessels, mainly in Norway, are
making use of LNG as a standard fuel
on a daily basis. For the majority of
cargo vessels, ferries and cruise liners,
this fuel is not yet available mainly
for supply reasons. The technical
set-up for use on board in a
reciprocating propulsion plant has
been proven in so called dual-fuel
(DF) engines. The missing link is the
easy transport of LNG onboard ships,
the safe storage in onboard fuel
tanks, as well as handling problems.
LNG bunkering
The lack of available bunker facilities

and stations is hampering the
introduction of LNG as a fuel for cargo
ships. At present, besides the actual
bunker supply, there are no bunker
boats available providing services
such as inerting, cooling down or gas
freeing.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
17
Further drawbacks for LNG bunkering in port include:
Safety concerns: the majority of LNG accidents in the

past have happened during LNG transfer. Therefore, LNG
bunkering activities during passenger and cargo operations
increase the risk of casualties.
Most ports do not allow LNG transfer in the normal port

area, particularly not whilst loading/unloading operations are
taking place.
An alternative to LNG transfer at bunkering stations or from

bunker boats is supplying LNG by LNG fuel tank containers such
as those developed by Marine Service GmbH and its venture
partner Ziemann International GmbH.
The LNG fuel tank containers are transported and handled
like any normal dangerous goods container. Once full, they are
transported as International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG)
containers by road, rail and/or sea to a container terminal where
they are stored in a dedicated area before being loaded onboard
the subject vessel running on LNG as fuel. The LNG fuel tank
container is then connected to the ships LNG fuel system by
means of a purpose designed quick coupling system, thus
becoming a LNG bunker tank. Using the LNG fuel tank containers,
gas-fuelled ships do not have to be moved to special LNG
bunkering terminals, nor do they need extended time for the
direct bunkering activity. The LNG fuel tanks are simply

exchanged by replacing empty containers with freshly filled ones.
Reducing the number of LNG transfer activities between the
storage tank in the main LNG import terminal and the LNG bunker
tanks onboard the gas consuming vessel greatly minimises the
risk of accidental LNG spillage and also lowers the amount of
boil-off gas (BOG) generated by pumping from one storage tank
to another in between a normal bunker chain. Inerting,
cool-down, gassing up and filling of the LNG fuel tank containers
is done in special container filling stations, which are already in
operation in a number of larger European LNG import terminals.
Design
The LNG fuel tank container had to comply with the regulations
for IMDG containers in transit. Therefore, the design and layout of
such containers had to comply with the respective IMO rules and
regulations for dangerous goods.
As soon as the containers are connected to the gas fuel
system onboard the ship, they must comply with the
classification rules and regulations for a ships fuel tank.
In order to meet the requirements of both sets of rules and
regulations, a dedicated container must be designed. The main
features of the LNG fuel tank containers are shown in Table 1.
The LNG fuel tank container is compliant with the following
codes and standards:
IMO International Code for the Constructions and Equipment
of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code).
Bureau Veritass NR 529 Safety Rules for Gas-Fuelled Engine

Installations in Ships.
IMDG Code 2011.
ADR 2011.
RID 2011.
AD 2000.
Figure 1. LNG fuel tank container.

Table 1. Main features of LNG fuel tank containers
40 ft ISO LNG tank container with Class approval

LNG capacity of 33.4 m3 at a filling rate of 82%
Maximum gross weight of 30.5 t
All valves, connections and instruments are located at front end

Super vacuum insulated stainless steel on the inner and outer tanks
Design pressure of 12 bar
Normal safety valve setting of 10.5 bar
Suitable for stacking up to 6 layers
Equipped with dry quick couplings for liquid, vapour and safety valves
Suitable for storage on open deck
Compliant with IGC Code requirements for Type-C tanks
No electric installation on the container (fully Ex-proof)
Pneumatic emergency shut down (ESD) valves for liquid and vapour
Local level gauge
Integrated pipe coil for cooling of LNG by liquid nitrogen
18 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
ISO 1496-3: 2995, Series 1 freight containers Specification

and testing, Part 3: Tank containers for liquids, gases and
pressurized dry bulk DIN EN 13530-1 to -3: 2003, Cryogenic
vessels-Large transportable vacuum-insulated vessels.
Tank layout and insulation
The inner and outer tanks of the LNG fuel tank container are made
of stainless steel. The ordinary container framework is made of
mild steel.
The insulation is of high vacuum type. On the back-side of the
container a vacuum maintenance connection allows for checking
and controlling the vacuum by a pump unit, if necessary.
A multi-layer reflector foil on the inner tank surface is used to
reduce the heat ingress. This material is qualified for use in high
vacuum and low temperature range. The foil radiates heat back
to the external tank and prevents the heat ingress to the inner
tank.
The pipe connections and the supports of the inner tanks are
designed for frequent and fast cool-down and filling cycles.
Tank container connections
All connections on the LNG fuel tank container necessary for

operation on board a ship are arranged at one end. The liquid
and vapour pipelines with their emergency shut down (ESD)
valves are fitted with dry quick couplings including an integrated
dry safety release. The vent lines from the safety valves on the
individual LNG fuel tank container are piped to one common vent
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line when using the containers in a package. When the containers

are placed on board, these vents are also connected by means of
a dry quick coupling to the ships venting system.
Holding time and tank operating

pressure
When stored and not connected, the filled LNG fuel tank
container has a holding time of at least 60 days before the tank
pressure reaches the set point of the safety valves on the tank
(10 bar).
Once the container is connected and in service on board a
ship, the container service pressure will be maintained at 6.5 bar
by the tank pressure control system provided in a gas handling
container (see Figure 3), thus allowing the fuel gas supply system
to run without any pump.
The ships common safety valve is set to a pressure well
below the set point of the container safety valves, ensuring that it
will open well before these safety valves.
If no gas is consumed, and the LNG fuel tank containers have
already reached the service pressure, it will take a minimum of
six days before the system pressure reaches the ships safety
valve set point.
Gas handling system
Figure 3 shows the principle arrangement of the gas handling

system. One gas handling container is located in the first layer
of the fuel container stack. All auxiliary systems required for the
regasification of the LNG fuel and for tank pressure control are
located inside this container.
The gas handling system comprises of the following:
LNG pumps.
LNG vaporiser.
Fuel gas heater.
LNG fuel tank container pressure controller.
Gas valve unit(s) for each DF diesel engine (usually provided

by the engine manufacturer).
Ventilation.
Fire detection and fighting system.
Nitrogen bottles for purging and inerting.
The common vent system collects the exhaust from all safety
valves and venting connections. The exhaust is ducted to a vent
mast in a gas free area on the ship.
Application cases
The entire system has received approval in principle by

Bureau Veritas for marine transport and application, and by the
German Technical Survey (TV) regarding road and rail transport.
Other classification approvals are under progress.
Based on the LNG fuel tank container, various projects have
been started up and individual system layouts have been
performed in relation to the specific set-up and requirements of
the individual vessel. The range of vessels incorporate container
feeder (including newbuilds), Ro-Pax and Ro-Ro vessels, cruise
liners and ferries, as well as tankers and normal dry cargo vessels.
However, not all of these vessels are equipped for the use of
this containerised solution. Some vessels require the onboard
installation of fixed tanks with all their pros and cons. Ships such
as smaller container vessels, Ro-Pax and Ro-Ro vessels and
ferries would require the installation of the containerised LNG fuel
supply for different reasons, either due to design and space or
because of safe and quick refuelling purposes.
Conclusion
Figure 2. LNG dry quick coupling including emergency
coupling.
Figure 3. LNG fuel gas system arrangement.
20 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
The LNG fuel tank container solution is an easy and safe way to
equip a specific type of vessel with gas as fuel. The system is
ready for installation on board and the logistics for bringing LNG
as fuel to ships are existing and proven.
The system design is ideal for retrofits and
avoids the arrangement of any dangerous gas
zones within the engine room. Moreover, it
allows the major gas components to be taken
off the vessel, freeing the ship of gas in a short
period of time if it is not allowed on board, (e.g.
during dry docking) or in case the vessel is
operating in waters where such clean fuel is
not required.
This application is undoubtedly not the
only solution. There will be a range of technical
and commercially feasible solutions. The
question is: when will these other bunkering
systems be available in a safe and reliable
set-up, offering all technical features that
should be provided when handling LNG and
gas during bunker transfer operations?
Methane
METHODS
Dominique Ingrain, GDF Suez LNG, analyses the

correlation between methane numbers and LNG/natural
gas densities for LNG used as a fuel gas for engines.
evelopments in the use of LNG as a clean fuel as opposed to more polluting

petroleum in the field of sustainable transport is a major talking point today and
contributes to the objectives of European guidelines. The transition from diesel
fuel to LNG minimises greenhouse gases (CO2 emissions), sulfur compound emissions,
nitrogen oxide emissions and particulate content. The use of LNG as a fuel gas for
truck engines requires knowledge of the methane number for optimum operation. This
involves calculating the methane number in relation to properties such as LNG density
and natural gas density.
The composition of vaporised LNG varies depending on the liquefaction plant it
comes from. It can also change over time. The methane concentration in LNG supplied in
Europe ranges from about 80 - 98 mol%. When the natural gas is used to run an internal
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
21
Currently, there is no standardised method for

determining the methane number, although a large
number of methods are based on the octane number
regarding the composition or the ratio of hydrogen:carbon.
Three methods examined in this article are the CARB,
AVL and ISO. Methane numbers are calculated for 12 LNG
compositions and are compared to LNG densities, natural
gas densities and methane concentration.
combustion engine, these variations can induce knock

occurrences, leading to both increasing and decreasing
engine efficiency.
An indicator customarily used for the changing
composition, as a key parameter, is the methane number,
which characterises the tendency of the performance of
the gas spark ignition engine and the knock resistance.
Pure methane is used as the knock resistant reference fuel
(the methane number of pure methane is 100) and pure
hydrogen is used as the knock sensitive reference fuel (the
methane number of pure hydrogen is 0).1
Several manufacturers of heavy duty natural gas
engines use the methane number for specification of gas
quality requirements. The minimum value specified to
avoid knocking depends on the calculation method and
needs to be outlined in the purchase and sales contracts.
Representative LNG
compositions
GDF Suezs portfolio includes 12 LNG compositions of

differing origins (see Table 1).
The minimum and maximum values are:
88.2 < methane (mol%) < 97.1
2.2 < ethane (mol%) < 8.3
Table 1. LNG composition in mol%

Methane
Ethane
Propane
I Butane N Butane I Pentane
N Pentane
N Hexane
Nitrogen
92.073
5.553
1.234
0.105
0.294
0.017
0.003
0.721
90.884
7.643
0.765
0.003
0.001
0.704
88.215
8.298
1.888
0.263
0.371
0.965
92.661
6.283
0.905
0.052
0.069
0.030
94.652
3.778
0.950
0.301
0.207
0.086
0.019
0.007
91.335
5.927
2.087
0.325
0.287
0.006
0.033
97.129
2.192
0.586
0.032
0.021
0.003
0.001
0.036
92.776
7.130
0.041
0.001
0.052
93.124
6.651
0.026
0.199
10
93.100
6.764
0.036
0.001
0.002
0.097
11
95.895
2.750
0.870
0.210
0.200
0.050
0.015
0.010
12
89.961
6.802
2.430
0.398
0.377
0032
Table 2. LNG methane number and some LNG characteristic calculations

Methane Propane PCS
MN - AVL MN - CARB MN - ISO LNG density at Natural gas
(mol %) (mol%) volume
method method
method -160C (Kg/m3) density at 0C 3
(kWh/m3)
1.01325 bar (kg/m )
1
78.7
87.1
81.2
447.956
0.78
92.073
1.234
11.791
79.9
87.3
80.9
448.278
0.7792
90.884
0.765
11.786
73.1
79.5
74.1
460.816
0.8109
88.215
1.888
12.156
80.6
88.8
83.3
444.169
0.7710
92.661
0.905
11.799
80.5
90.6
84.9
441.160
0.7656
94.652
0.950
11.729
74.8
82.7
79
452.663
0.7932
91.335
2.087
12.090
88.5
99.2
90.6
430.524
0.7400
97.129
0.586
11.385
82.9
91.2
84.4
441.345
0.7633
92.776
0.041
11.694
83.7
92.2
84.9
440.324
0.7609
93.124
0.026
11.634
10 83.4
91.9
84.9
440.433
0.7612
93.100
0.036
11.657
11
83.6
93.8
87.3
436.820
0.7553
95.895
0.870
11.593
12 72.4
79.6
76.1
457.797
0.8060
89.961
2.430
12.259
22 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Propane (mol%) < 2.4
430.5 < LNG density at

-160C (kg/m3) < 460.8
0.740 < natural gas density

at 0C/1.01325 bar (kg/m3)
< 0.811
11.39 < LNG gross heating
value (kWh/m3) < 12.2
Main methane
number
calculations
Three different methods
for calculating the methane
number are based on a
motor octane number
(MON) calculated from the
fuel gas composition.
ISO method
This method is based on a

linear coefficient relation
with the LNG composition
in accordance with
informative annex of the
ISO 15403 part 1 2006,
developed by the American
Gas Research Institute
(GRI). It is based on the
ASTM octane number
evaluation method to
determine the MON of
natural gas fuel:
MON = (137.78 Xmethane)
+ (29.948 Xethane) +
(-18.193 Xpropane) +
(-167.062 Xbutane) +
(181.233 Xcarbon dioxide) +
(26 994 Xnitrogen)
Where X is the mole fraction
corresponding components
methane, ethane, propane, butanes, carbon dioxide and

nitrogen with methane number = 1.445 MON - 103.42.
CARB method
The CARB method is based on the hydrogen:carbon ratio

in compliance with the following equation:
MON = -406.14 + 508.04 x fH/C 137.55 x f2H/C + 20.17 x f3H/C
Where f H/C is the ratio of hydrogen atoms to carbon atoms
in hydrocarbon compounds with methane number =
1.624 MON - 119.1.
AVL method
The AVL method is based on an experimental work from

a test engine used for octane number determination. 2 A
commercial software developed by AVL in the 1970s gives
the methane number, but the method itself cannot be
accessed.
LNG physical properties and

methane number calculations
Some physical properties of LNG are calculated below:
For each LNG composition, the density is determined

at -160C from the Klosek-McKinley method (NBS
technical note 1030, December 1980).
Natural gas density (at Tvolume 0C

Pvolume 1.01325 bar) and gross heating value
(Tcombustion 0C and Tvolume 0C at P = 1.01325 bar)
in accordance with ISO standard 6976.
Methane numbers can be calculated from the three
methods. The results of these calculations are given in
Table 2.
Relationship between LNG

physical properties and
methane number
For each methane number calculation method, a

proportional trend exists between the methane number
and the molar content of methane.
The best correlation between methane mol% and
methane number is for the ISO method with R 2 = 0.93
(see Figure 1).
The three methods for methane number calculation
enjoy a good relationship with the LNG density; maximum
values are for the CARB method and minimum values are
for the AVL method. GDF Suez notes an inverse trend
between the methane number and the LNG density.
The best correlation between LNG density and
methane number is for the ISO method with R 2 = 0.9977
(see Figure 2).
Liquid Cargo Handling

Simulator LCHS 5000
Liquid Cargo Handling Simulator LCHS 5000 LNG: Meeting the STCW10 and Beyond
LCHS 5000 is a full-mission simulator which includes replicas of cargo operation workplaces and related control systems.
The simulator is designed for:
Special training of the tanker personnel (officers and ratings) responsible for LNG cargo operations on membrane type
LNG Tankers and LNG Regasification Terminal
Joint operations training on LNG Tanker and Regasification Terminal
General training of officers of any type of vessel in control of the ships ballast system, control of ship stability and
stress occurring in the ships hull; and protection of environment against cargo leakage pollution
The models are based on real prototypes and provide the utmost level of training realism.
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If a LNG density calculation is not obtained at

-160C, an alternative is the calculation of natural gas
density from the composition.
The best correlation between natural gas density
and the methane number is for the CARB and ISO
methods with R2 to be very close or even equal to 0.99
(see Figure 3).
Conclusion
The three methods tested for methane number

calculation enjoy a good relationship with LNG density
and natural gas density; in this sense, they converge
with a good correlation. However, they are very
different levels, and, in case of a commercial contract
based on the value of the methane number, it is
important to clearly specify which method of calculation
is used.
For methane number calculations, the minimum and
maximum values are shown in Table 3. For the LNG
characteristic studies, each figure follows the trend
outlined below:
Methane number CARB > methane number ISO >
methane number AVL.
For a methane number calculated from the three
methods that exceeds 80, the 12 LNG compositions
tested (see Table 1) should be observed:
Methane content > 92.5 mol%.
Liquid natural gas density at -160C < 445 kg/m 3.
Figure 1. Relationship between methane number calculations

and molar content of methane (%).
Natural gas density at 0C under 1.01325 bar

<0.775 kg/m 3.
References
1. Rahmouni, C., Brecq, G., Tazerout, M., and
Le Corre, O., Knock rating of gaseous fuels in
a single cylinder spark ignition engine, Fuel 83
(2004), pp. 327 - 336.
2. Leiker, M., Christoph, K., Rankl, M., Cantellieri W,
and Pfeifer, U., (AVL, Graz, Austria), Evaluation of
anti-knocking property of gaseous fuels by means
of methane number and its practical application to
gas engines, ASME-72-DGP-4: 1972.
Table 3. Minimum and maximum methane number values

and LNG density.

and natural gas density.
24 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Minimum value
Maximum value
AVL method
72.4
88.5
ISO method
74.1
90.6
CARB method
79.5
99.2
Figure 4. LNG bunkering barge.
Figure 1. Following successful

sea trials, Borgy has completed
the lengthy journey from Turkey to
its home port on the west coast of
Norway.
Propelling the fuel of the
FUTURE
I
n mid-October 2013, the pioneering project to design and build the worlds first LNG-fuelled
escort tugs reached completion when the Borgy was handed over for sea trials by builder
Sanmar in the waters of Tuzla Bay near Istanbul, Turkey.
Representatives from the Turkish shipyard were joined by executives from Norwegian tug
operator Buksr og Berging AS and from Rolls-Royce for the ceremony.
Delivery of the Borgy and Bokn, each with 65 t bollard pull and a transit speed of 13.5 knots,
will mark a significant step in tug propulsion. Rolls-Royce is actively working with European and
North American ferry operators as well as port authorities, inland waterway firms, and Norwegian
customers who are already operating LNG-fuelled ferries and offshore support vessels.
As LNG propulsion is a completely new
technology, its development has required
unprecedented cooperation between Rolls-Royce,
Buksr og Berging and the Sanmar Shipyard.
Training for operators in the new gas technology
is vital. As such, a training programme is sold as part
of the package for a gas propulsion system. This can
be extended by attending other specialist courses at
the Rolls-Royce training centre in lesund, Norway.
Oscar Kallerdahl,
Rolls-Royce,
Norway, reflects on
the dawn of a new
era in escort tug
propulsion.
Long-term charters
Following sea trials, Buksr og Berging will sail the

vessels to the Krst Terminal in western Norway
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
25
from the bow. Although rated at 65 t bollard pull, the tugs can
use their hull shape to exert up to 100 t of steering force. The
tugs are the first to be powered by two Bergen C26:33L6PG
lean-burn gas engines and have a combined output of
3410 kW.
Benefits
Figure 2. The Borgy is the first of two vessels being built at

the Sanmar Shipyard in Istanbuls Tuzla Bay.
(just north of Stavanger) where gas from some 30 offshore

fields is landed and processed. There the craft will commence
long-term charters with Norwegian state energy firm
StatoilASA and Gassco, the operator of the gas transportation
network, in early 2014.
As Europes largest export facility of natural gas liquids
(NGLs) and the third largest in the world, the Krst Terminal
will depend on escort tugs, together with others, for the
consistent safe handling and manoeuvring of LNG tankers, LPG
carriers and chemical tankers.
The events in Istanbul were the culmination of many
thousands of engineering hours in which Rolls-Royce gas
propulsion specialists have worked hand-in-hand with staff at
the Norwegian tug owner, naval architects and marine
engineers at Sanmar. Their goal was to deliver a commercial
design suitable for Statoil whilst meeting DNVs class rules on
gas craft construction, operation and safety systems.
A global first
The Borgy and Bokn, each with fire-fighting and oil recovery
capabilities as well as escort notation, are now the worlds most
environmentally friendly tugs.
They are each powered by a pair of Bergen C26:33L6PG
lean-burn gas engines that have a combined output of
3410 kW at 1000 RPM and are directly coupled to Rolls-Royce
US35 azimuth thrusters, each fitted with a 3 m dia. CP propeller
in a nozzle.
The propulsion package also includes a vertically-mounted
gas tank to save space. The single cryogenic fuel tank has a
capacity of 80 m3. Buksr og Berging plans to bunker the vessels
every two weeks and they can be bunkered in approximately
45 minutes. The rest of the fuel system is duplicated into two
separate gas supply lines and power trains. Each is monitored by
the Rolls-Royce Acon safety, alarm and control system with gas
detection in all areas. The two parallel propulsion trains and
ACON safety and control systems provide full redundancy.
Unlike conventional diesels, which require fuel pumps, filters
and injectors, gas is fed to the engines by pressure in the LNG
storage tank. This means significantly less maintenance for the
fuel supply system over time.
The tugs are 35 m long with a beam of 15.4 m. In order to
perform vessel escort assistance, they are designed with a huge
foil-shaped keel running 75% of the length of the vessel aft
26 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
There are many benefits of gas as a marine fuel, particularly for

inshore harbour craft, which often operate in pre-defined areas
where access to bunkering facilities does not present the same
challenge as for deep-sea operators.
The fuels emissions profile a 25% and 80 - 90%
reduction in CO2 and NOx emissions respectively, and the
virtual elimination of SOx emissions and particulates means
that Rolls-Royce gas-fuelled Bergen engines meet IMO Tier II
and Tier III regulations as well as US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) rules on NOx.
Aside from compliance with future regulations, there are
also day-to-day benefits for tug operators such as
Buksr og Berging. These include improved fuel consumption
(gas engines are more efficient than diesel engines), lower
maintenance costs, reduced lube oil consumption and a
much-improved working environment for the ships crews.
LNG also has a calorific value approximately 15% higher
than marine diesel, which conventional tugs of the same
specification would normally use. This means that less fuel is
required for a given unit of power output. Furthermore, LNG is
currently cheaper than diesel.
Tackling the issues
It is important to tackle some of the potentially negative

arguments on gas power that could be advanced by sceptics
(e.g. methane slip).
Rolls-Royce has invested heavily to reduce this to a
minimum. This is essential as methane is some 25 times more
aggressive as a greenhouse gas than CO2. An independent
study conducted by the Norwegian Maritime Research Institute
(Marintek) found that the Bergen C26:33L gas engine emitted
around 5 g/kWh of methane across its entire load range, a
fraction of the level emitted by competing dual-fuel units.
On the gas-only vs. dual-fuel argument, for craft with a
steady supply of gas bunkers, gas-only engines are preferable
as they are less expensive, more efficient, safer and easier to
operate.
Of course, all eyes will be on the two new tugs as they
start operating for Statoil in Norway. However, as more
LNG-fuelled vessels are now entering service, this could well
be the start of a sea change, as operators have a greater
opportunity to see the benefits of LNG for themselves.
Conclusion
The industry is embarking on a green movement, where

distinctly smarter propulsion solutions for reducing greenhouse
gases exist.
The Borgy is a pioneering vessel built by a forward
thinking owner using robust and well proven equipment in a
balanced propulsion system. On top of excellent performance,
this technology is leading the way for a greener future and it is
certain that many more gas powered tugs will follow.
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Developing
A GENERATION
Hayato Suga, ClassNK, Japan, reviews recent developments
in LNG vessels and the use of LNG as a ship fuel, as
well as efforts to expand the frontiers of
FLNG production and transportation.
28 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Figure 1. The Sayaendo concept

has established itself as a force in LNG
transportation, due not least to eco
credentials that stem from MHIs latest ultra
steam turbine plant which achieves higher
thermal efficiency than conventional steam
turbines by recirculating waste heat.
his article will examine long-term approaches and R&D activities in

the LNG sector, as well as highlight recent industry technologies and
trends, with a specific focus on the development of LNG vessels, LNG
as a ship fuel, and floating LNG (FLNG) systems.
LNG vessels
R&D and rule development
ClassNK regularly revises and issues rules and guidelines for LNG vessels to
reflect amendments to the IGC Code and other regulations in order to ensure
vessel safety. For example, in response to concerns from LNG vessel owners,
operators and shipyards on the effect of sloshing on membrane tanks and
the need for membrane system strength evaluation, the Society released
Guidelines for Strength Assessment of Membrane-type LNG Containment
Systems under Sloshing Loads in 2011.1
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
29
Figure 2. LiBro FLNG uses an alternative cooling process
making use of waste heat from gas turbine exhausts instead of

using flammable substances. This allows for more conventional
and smaller vessels to be used for FLNG.
The current IGC Code has played an essential role in the

design of gas carriers and safe operation of LNG vessels since
its entry into force in 1986. However, in order to respond to
the recent advancement in technology and environmental
changes surrounding gas carriers, significant amendments to
the code are currently being considered.
The development of these amendments is being carried
out by industry group SIGTTO, with work on the amendments
themselves being handled by SIGTTOs working groups,
which are comprised of experts from throughout the maritime
industry. The amended IGC Code is expected to be adopted
by the IMO at MSC93 in mid-2014 and enter into effect
18 months later, possibly on 1 January 2016.
ClassNKs rule development work, both independently
and as part of International Association of Classification
Societies (IACS), is based on its R&D activities. The Society is
actively involved in a number of both independent and joint
research projects to improve LNG carrier safety. For example,
research on the sloshing phenomena of membrane LNG
carriers has recently been carried out through sloshing
analysis via the use of computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
dry-drop testing of the insulation structure of membrane
containment systems and participation into joint industry
projects such as the Sloshel project.
New concepts and trends in LNG vessel

development
In addition to developments in LNG related rules and

regulations, the past several years have seen a number of
dramatic technological advancements in the LNG industry,
including the development of new containment systems and
LNG vessel designs.
Acting as a third party verification organisation, ClassNK
has worked to verify the safety, feasibility and structural
soundness of a variety of new containment designs, and has
issued Approval in Principle (AIP) certification for a number of
designs.
In recent years there has been an increased interest in
non-membrane type LNG vessels, including both Moss and
Self-supporting Prismatic shape IMO Type B (SPB) type LNG
vessels.
For Moss vessels in particular, several new vessel designs
have recently entered the market. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries
(MHI), for example, has developed its new Sayaendo Design,
which places a continuous cover over the traditional Moss
tanks. This light-weight, compact and unified structure,
combined with MHIs new ultra steam turbine (UST) plant
30 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
technology, is expected to greatly increase fuel efficiency

compared to past designs. MHI is also developing the largest
size of Sayaendo design that can navigate the Panama Canal.
Kawasaki Heavy Industries (KHI), another major builder of
Moss type LNG vessels, is also innovating new Moss designs.
KHI is particularly focused on developing larger Moss designs
and has completed the development of new Panamax size
vessels. At 164 700 m3, these are currently the largest size of
Moss type LNG vessels that can navigate the Panama Canal
and the lowest BOR of 0.08%/d currently under construction.
KHI is also developing the larger size of Moss type LNG
vessels that can navigate the Panama Canal.
ClassNK has been actively involved in these development
projects from the design stage, contributing to design
optimisation through advanced engineering analyses, among
other activities.
Another containment system that is increasingly being
given consideration from the wider LNG industry is IHIs SPB
system. The system was originally developed in the 1980s
and ClassNK provided plan approval and surveys during
construction for the first SPB concept vessel Kayoh Maru. Due
to the SPB designs use of structural components to prevent
sloshing, as well as the fact that the design allows a flat,
unobstructed upper deck, it is increasingly being considered
for use, particularly in FLNG designs.
ClassNK has also worked with a variety of new designs
for membrane systems and has issued AIP certification for a
number of designs including GTT Mark III Flex and
GTT NO96 L03. It has also issued General Approval for
Samsung Heavy Industries Smart Containment system
Advanced (SCA).
LNG-fuelled vessels
As regulations curbing atmospheric pollution and greenhouse

gas emissions grow ever stricter, the industry is now looking
towards LNG as an environmentally friendly fuel source.
In Europe, there are already approximately 40 small size
vessels, including ferries, offshore support vessels and
others that run on LNG fuel. Research is also being carried
out in other countries into the development of ocean-going
LNG-fuelled vessels, as well as LNG supply infrastructure.
ClassNK is working both domestically within Japan and
internationally to support these efforts.
In 2013, the Japanese government established a research
committee aiming for the early commercialisation of
LNG-fuelled vessels. The committee carries out various
activities including evaluations of safety measures for fuel
provision, physical safety inspections of vessels, the creation
of guidelines for LNG bunkering and safety requirements for
high pressure gas supply systems, among others. ClassNKs
staff are actively involved in all of the committees activities.
At the same time, discussions are ongoing at the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) to finalise the
International Code of Safety for Ships Using Gases or Other
Low-Flash Point Fuels (IGF Code). ClassNK serves as the chair
of the research committee responsible for reviewing and
developing policy related to the new code.
In order to help shipyards and designers understand the
requirements proposed as part of the IGF Code, ClassNK
published its New Guidelines for Gas Fuelled Ships early in
2012.2 These guidelines are based on the IGF Code currently
being discussed at the IMO (and are updated at regular
Blue Skies Made Possible with LNG

Using RegO Valves & Regulators
www.regoproducts.com
CEM 2014
14th-16th May 2014, Istanbul, Turkey
11TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE AND

EXHIBITION ON EMISSIONS MONITORING
Are you responsible for Emission Monitoring from your Plant?
The International emissions monitoring community will come to the historic city of Istanbul to network, trade ideas and discuss
technology, methods, applications, legislation and standardisation relevant to all atmospheric pollutants which include particulates,
SO2, NOx VOC, trace elements and greenhouse gases.
CEM 2014 will be ideal for delegates to attend from the Cement, Power, Petrochemical, Waste, Metals and Process Industries.
Delegates will be able to network with regulators, fellow CEM users, manufacturers and suppliers of CEMs equipment and services.
Located at the Eurasian crossroads between Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean, Black Sea and Caspian Sea regions, Turkey has had
geographical, political and economic ties with Europe for many centuries.
CEM 2014 CONFERENCE TOPICS:

1. Analytical methods for particulates and gases
2. Emission trading schemes and implementation
3. Regulation and standards
4. Diffuse emissions: Modelling and measurements
5. Instruments certification and equivalency
Registration
Now Open
6. Personnel certification
7. Quality assurances and validation
8. Industrial applications and case studies
www.cem.uk.com
intervals to reflect these discussions) and the development of

new technologies. The second edition of the guidelines based
on the newest proposal of the IGF Code was released in
December 2013.
R&D
While small LNG-fuelled vessels are already being built for

use in regional and short range shipping, there are numerous
technical challenges that must still be addressed in order
to expand the use of LNG to a wider variety of vessels and
operating conditions. For example, LNG fuel systems require
much more space than traditional fuel systems, as they
require many alterations in both the fuel system and overall
ship design.
In order to concretely address each of these challenges,
ClassNK is working both independently and with industry
partners to carry out research on a large variety of topics
including the commercial viability of ocean-going LNG
vessels, development of LNG-fuelled tug vessels, safety
assessment of high pressure fuel gas supply systems for
low-speed dual-fuel (DF) engines, installation of Type-B LNG
fuel tanks on deck, feasibility studies of LNG fuel tank
materials, and the development of trial designs of
ocean-going LNG-fuelled vessels and LNG bunkering vessels.
FLNG and offshore LNG

facilities
FLNG development
With the growing demand for LNG around the world,

exploration and development of offshore gas resources is
increasing. In order to practically and cost effectively carry
out offshore development, operators are increasingly turning
to FLNG technology. The worlds first FLNG systems are now
under construction, with many new technologies currently
under development.
As independent third party regulators, classification
societies play an important part in the development of rules
for such structures, and the development and evaluation of
new technologies in line with the requirements of class rules,
flag and other administration regulations, as well as the
requirements of the owner and operator.
In order to meet the growing needs of FLNG designers
and developers, ClassNK published its Guidelines for Floating
Offshore Facilities for LNG/LPG Production, Storage and
Offloading in 2011.3 These guidelines include the Societys
independent rules for floating, production, storage and
offloading (FPSO) facilities, with further requirements based
on rules in the IMO IGC Code, structural design guide and
standards created by the American Petroleum Institute (API),
among others.
In addition to rule development and maintenance,
ClassNK provides services for every aspect of the FLNG
development and life cycle, including granting AIP and
participating in the FEED and risk evaluation process; carrying
out plan approval and evaluations based on various rules and
standards; and conducting surveys of the hull structures,
mooring system, other marine systems and topside
machinery and process plants based on class rules and other
standards.
32 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
These activities are carried out based on ClassNKs

research towards the development of practical FLNG and
offshore LNG facilities. The Society has examined the
development of new small scale FLNG systems, the
commercial viability of small to mid-scale gas-to-liquid (GTL)
plants, and supplementary and emergency LNG provision via
floating units, as well as risk analysis of extremely low
temperature liquid leakage and the use of arrest design to
limit damage to floating structures. This research provides
concrete support for the development of new FLNG
technologies.
New developments in FLNG and offshore

gas facilities
ClassNK has provided research support and assurance of

AIP to three key new offshore gas technologies: LiBro FLNG,
GTL-FPSO, and multi-purpose LNG floating storage units.
Such technologies have great potential to benefit the
maritime industry.
LiBro FLNG is a new small scale FLNG design developed
by MODEC and Toyo Engineering, which reduces production
costs compared to large systems. The system makes use of
MODECs lithium-bromide water solution absorption
refrigeration technology known as the LiBro System and
Air Products N2 AP-N LNG Process to improve the efficiency
of LNG production by using the cold water produced by the
LiBro system to cool both the natural gas and nitrogen
refrigerant, increasing overall system efficiency.
The GTL-FPSO system is a new approach to floating
production storage and offloading (FPSO) systems developed
by MODEC and Toyo Engineering that combines new
micro-GTL technology with traditional FPSO production
facilities. The concept makes it possible for FPSO facilities to
process and liquefy gas reserves that would previously have
been flared-off during the oil production process.
The multi-purpose floating LNG storage unit is a new
concept developed by Japan Marine United with support from
ClassNK that combines electric generators and regasification
units with IHI-SPB containment and storage systems. The
system would allow the storage unit to provide electricity and
natural gas to onshore facilities and users. In addition, it is
designed to be able to rapidly switch from a fixed mooring to
a towable condition, allowing it to be transported to provide
energy in the event of a disaster or for large events.
Conclusion
Supporting the concrete development of a variety of new

technologies related to the maritime transport and offshore
production of LNG, as well as the use of LNG as a marine fuel,
is crucial at a time when the industry is growing faster than
ever.
References
1. Guidelines for Strength Assessment of Membrane-type
LNG Containment Systems under Sloshing Loads,
Technical Bulletin 29, December 2011.
2. ClassNK press release, New Guidelines for Gas Fuelled
Ships, 20 February 2012.
3. ClassNK press release, Guidelines for Floating Offshore
Facilities for LNG/LPG Production, Storage and
Offloading, 28 April 2011.
MOGAS supplied a number

of these 24-inch ASME 1500
Class control valves with
FlexStream technology in a
LNG facility in the Caribbean
and in Australasia, operating
from 14 Cv (startup)
up to 11 730 Cv.
Break
the mould
Kevin Jackson, MOGAS

Industries, Inc., looks
at new valve technology
for FLNG operations.
ver the last several years, significant advancements

have been made in relocating land-based LNG
facilities to offshore floating vessels. These
improvements have been beneficial to capital budgets, but
have sometimes resulted in difficult equipment decisions. The
move from land to floating offshore facilities is an innovation
in itself. These new facilities should utilise equipment that
reduces the processing designs physical footprint while
increasing the efficiency of the process. This is the essence of
the concept of floating LNG (FLNG).
With this main principle in mind, MOGAS has developed
control technologies that will significantly reduce the size of
operating space while providing dependable performance. Over
the last decade, the company installed its originally patented
FlexStream tortuous path rotary control technology in severe
service valves throughout the world. These are critical applications
that protect reciprocating compressors, as well as the integrity of
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
33
the plants processes and personnel. By safely

depressurising the flow streams, LNG plant operators can
accurately start-up and regulate feed gas. This has been
successfully exhibited at major LNG facilities in Australasia
and the Caribbean.
Breaking tradition
Figure 1. The high rangeability of FlexStream technology

compared to typical linear globe style control valves.
Figure 2. The smaller dimensional envelope of FlexStream
technology compared to a typical globe style control valve.

Table 1. Typical globe valve list angle pattern
By breaking from the typical linear motion control valve

traditionally used in LNG severe service applications,
the combination of proven isolation ball valve designs
and FlexStream control technology produces a high
rangeability rotary control valve (see Figure 1). Valves with
this technology can be engineered with a trim element
within the inner diameter of a ball valve to deliver pressure
reduction through velocity control with varying degrees
when required by the process.
The features of FlexStream have been developed from
a 40-year application-driven history of isolating the most
arduous duties in the hydrocarbon refining, power
generation and mineral mining industries. In the last two
decades, these features have been used in the oil and gas
industries to solve problems at mature well sites that
suffer from sand carry-over, and, more recently, from the
phenomenon of black powder. This term is used when
internal components become coated with a fine powder,
which leads to failures of traditional isolating valves not
designed to deal with solids or powder entrained in
multi-phase fluids. The sealing concepts and coatings of
FlexStream allow for metal-to-metal sealing and keep
sealing components protected from harmful media and
high cycling. The designs include stem bearings to anchor
the stem at its base, an upper stem bearing support to
ensure all dynamic torque is defused (regardless of the
pressure drop) and an actuator mounting flange secured
onto the valve body to increase rigidity. The mounting
flange also supports the actuator and eliminates down
force and side loads on the bonnet seals, preventing stem
leaks. With like materials in the ball and seats, thermal
expansion/contraction is managed without impeding the
sealing or control capabilities.
Size matters
FlexStream targets and delivers velocity control that

is equal to the linear globe valve, but only for the flow
Table 2. FlexStream list
Valve
size (in.)
Pressure class Estimated

(ASME)
weight (kg)
Quantity Total weight

(kg)
Valve
size (in.)
Pressure class Estimated

(ASME)
weight (kg)
Quantity Total weight

(kg)
300
161
483
300
80
240
150
231
693
150
203
609
600
254
254
600
116
116
10
300
1108
4432
10
300
659
2636
12
600
2015
8060
10
600
925
3700
14
300
2744
10 976
12
300
1034
4136
16
600
3583
3583
14
600
1631
1631
20
300
5600
11 200
18
300
2236
4472
Total
22
39 681
Total
22
17 540
34 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
CM
MY
CY
CMY
Worldwide
coverage
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condition where it is required (such as

flow conditions that require far less
restrictions), thus reducing valve size
(see Figure 2). This reduction in size
can result in substantial capital savings
in piping and overall design layout.
A typical compressor specification
would include an oversizing factor
1.8 - 2.2 to ensure that if the
compressor trips, the anti-surge
recycle valve will have the capacity to
recycle 100% of the gas around the
compressor, allowing it to be
shutdown in the programmed manner.
The anti-surge control valve becomes
quite critical to compressor safety and
protection as the compressors can
cost tens of millions of dollars.
A typical anti-surge recycle severe
service valve list for a LNG facility
consisting of regeneration, propane,
lean, mixed refrigerant (MR), flash and
fuel gas compressor anti-surge valves
would include approximately
22 valves, ranging from 4 - 20 in. with
pressure classes ranging from
150 - 600 and pipe sizes from 6 - 24 in.
Using angle pattern globe valves, the
overall weight would be
approximately 39 681 kg.
In contrast, FlexStream
technology reduces valve sizes so that
the overall weight would be
approximately 17 540 kg an overall
weight saving of 22 141 kg (43%). (See
Tables 1 and 2.)
By using Archimedes principle,
which states that the weight of the
object is reduced by its volume
multiplied by the density of the fluid,
if the weight of the object is less than
this displaced quantity, the object
floats; if more, it sinks. The amount
of fluid displaced is directly related
to its weight, so the additional
displacement of a boat equals the
weight of water, which is displaced
when afloat. This does not account
for any additional weight savings that
could be attributed to the associated
pipe work where it could be re-sized
downwards as well.
Standardise off-the-shelf designs

with proven technology and minimal
(re)engineering.
Maximise shop fabrication, resulting

in minimal field construction.
Improve flexibility to incorporate

additional modular LNG trains,
thereby adding capacity to a
LNG facility to suit the particular
characteristics of a given gas field.
Accommodate plant dismantling

and relocating when a gas field is
depleted.
Figure 3. The difference in space
and piping requirements between

a typical angle globe control valve
and a control valve with FlexStream
technology.
Exploit stranded gas fields that are

not considered commercially viable
for conventional baseload LNG
facilities.
Using conventional angle pattern
globe control valves can actually impair
the flexibility of these modules, as they
require additional space to fit the angle
globe control valves (see Figure 3).
Case study
MOGAS recently provided one of the

worlds largest recycle anti-surge valves
to a petrochemical plant in central Asia.
The OEM, licensor and client reviewed the
FlexStream technology and, after close
scrutiny, placed an order at the end of 2012
for the 40 in. (DN1000) valve, and a 24 in.
(DN600) anti-surge and hot-gas bypass
compressor control valve. The decision to
purchase FlexStream made economical
sense. It reduced the number of installed
valves that would have been mounted
in two 60 in. flow lines to a single 40 in.
valve. Similarly, two 36 in. valves in the
bypass flow lines were reduced to a single
24 in. FlexStream valve.
Conclusion
Size does make a difference. The

additional cost of retaining traditional
linear globe valves, which are outdated
Figure 4. Valves with FlexStream
in their concept when it comes to high
technology reduce the number and
rangeability applications, is costing the
size of valves required, as well as the
industry millions of dollars per project.
associated pipework.
FlexStream tackles such compromises
and has the features to make a significant
impact on the safety and cost of LNG facilities, both on
land and at sea.
Todays LNG facilities both at land and sea are being
As with many products and processes, there is a
built on a modular basis. This approach can:
reluctance to change. But when a proven technology is
developed, the industry would be wise to take advantage
Significantly lower capital cost requirement with faster
of this technological advancement.
construction and faster LNG to market.
A modular future
36 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Helium:
taking off!
Pascal Erni,
WEKA AG,
Switzerland, looks
at cryogenic valves
in operation at the
Ras Laffan helium
refinery in Qatar.
n July 2013, RasGas Company Ltd announced the

successful completion of its Helium 2 plant at the
Ras Laffan refinery, Qatar. This plant is expected
to produce approximately 37 million m3/year of helium
gas when fully operational. Together with the Helium 1
plant (operational since 2005), a combined production of
approximately 57 million m3/year of helium gas will be
produced. Together the two plants make up the worlds
biggest helium refining facility currently in service, and will
meet around 28% of the current total global liquid helium
demand.
Helium is used across the world in a number of
industries including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scanners, electronics for superconductors, and in welding,
retail and entertainment as a pressurising, lifting and
purging gas. In base research laboratories, helium is used
as a cryogen for cooling of superconducting devices.
Helium is also used for superconducting magnets that
guide atomic particles in circular or linear accelerators,
superconducting high frequency radiographic cavities that
accelerate electrons in free electron laser devices and for
large superconducting magnets that catch high
temperature plasma in fusion power research tokamaks or
stellerator devices.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
37
Future growth in consumption of helium is expected to be

driven by demand from electronics manufacturers in Japan, China,
the Republic of Korea and Taiwan, as well as increasing
worldwide research activities using superconducting devices.
Since 2000, world demand for helium has increased by around
20%. By 2020, the global demand for helium is expected to rise
by a further 30%.
as well as the distinct static gas bearing expansion turbines, were

built and integrated in in-house workshop facilities in order to
maintain overall project control.
Cryogenic valves
WEKA AG was commissioned to supply over 100 highly specific

helium and hydrogen cryogenic valves for the liquefier in
Helium plant 2.
Unique design features of these cryogenic valves make them
highly qualified for the demands of helium and hydrogen
liquefiers. The high temperature change of about 300 K from
Formed over billions of years, helium is often trapped in deposits
ambient pressurised gas to liquefied cryogenic gas, with its large
of natural gas, making it expensive to extract, purify and make
density change of the fluid by factors sometimes more than 500
available for commercial use. Qatar and Iran share the worlds
in the cryogenic liquefaction process, requires specific valve
biggest gas field, which is one of the planets main sources of
designs. Unique features of the valves include large control
helium. In the first phase, the non-condensable gases with the
variability, which allows straight process flow design
crude helium are separated within the LNG production
without additional bypass solutions. The high flow
plant. This feed gas is then compressed by the inlet
capacity of valves relative to their nominal size and
compressor. Impurities including nitrogen, hydrogen
double functions of control and shut-off reduces the
and methane are removed during the second phase.
number of valves required. This allows an even more
Within the upgrading plant designed by Air Liquide,
compact valve box design and low heat load, which
helium is purified to a 99.99% purity. After purification,
increases plant efficiency. The proven robust design
helium is fed to a single liquefier able to process the
with high mean time between failures (MTBF) has
entire helium production. The liquefier is equipped with
distinguished WEKA cryogenic valves in numerous
80 K and 20 K dual absorbers to remove remaining
references around the world under critical service
impurities and neon, which is not removed during the
conditions in helium and hydrogen cryogenic plants.
purification stage. Ultimately, the liquefied helium (now
The helium liquefier in the Ras Gas Helium 2 plant
at a cryogenic temperature of about 4.5 K, i.e. -269C) is
is a horizontal vacuum isolated drum box including
stored in superinsulated vacuum liquid storage tanks
absorbers, plate fine heat exchangers, static gas
and distributed to mobile containers through loading
bearing expansion turbines and most of WEKAs
bays. A vapour recovery system including gas bag
cryogenic valves for exact process control. The use of
capacities is also provided in order to handle vapours
highly sophisticated, very large capacity gas bearing
from the incoming trucks and optimise overall helium
turbines makes it possible to provide a single liquefier
inventory.
without LN2 pre-cooling. This liquefier, built in one
The design and construction of the helium refining
facility incorporates highly complex and advanced
single compact unit, will have the worlds largest
technology that captures, extracts and refines crude
helium liquefaction capacity. WEKA AG supplied all
helium from existing LNG processing trains. As
cryogenic shut-off and control valves in dimensions
described, in the final step, extracted pure helium is
DN15 (0.5 in.) to DN150 (6 in.), fully designed and
liquefied for storage and transportation in a so-called
tested in accordance with ASME and EN construction
Figure 1.
cryogenic Claude cycle. Air Liquide provided the helium
codes (see Figure 1). VonRohr Armaturen AG, WEKAs
WEKA cryogenic
liquefier and the loading bays for the Ras Laffan helium
sister company within the ARCA-Group, was involved
control valve size
plants. The critical components such as the liquefier
in the project by supplying the valves pneumatic
DN150/PN25.
cold box including piping, heat exchanger and valves,
diaphragm actuator in a special construction.
Valves were delivered to Air Liquide in France, who
integrated them on the liquefier cold box unit, on the
distribution lines and the filling facility. After the factory
acceptance test, the valves were disassembled in three separate
parts. The bodies were shipped separately and welded to the
piping. Afterwards, valve inner parts and actuators were
assembled and functionally tested, followed by initial function
tests on the full system. For transportation of the fully assembled
huge liquefier cold box, valve actuators were disassembled
again. On site in Ras Laffan, technicians then assembled the
actuators and tested the full functioning of the valve again. The
technicians worked to assemble, adjust and test the function of
valves in order to facilitate the future work of the helium plant
operators. After successful plant construction, Ras Laffan
Helium 2 plant has now been in service since July 2013. As of the
Figure 2. Top view of the horizontal vacuum isolated cold box
end of 2013, RasGas reported that the Helium 2 plant is now able
of Helium 2 liquefier. (Image courtesy of Air Liquide Advanced
to run at close to full capacity.
Technologies.)
Refining helium in LNG

applications
38 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Innovate
to extricate
Wiebke Breit
and Stefan
Frnkle, Air
Liquide Global
E&C Solutions,
Germany,
examines proven
gas treatment
capabilities.
atural gas is a source

of energy that is growing in
popularity and is far more abundant
than crude oil. LNG production is expected to increase
from 275 billion m3 in 2012 to 460 billion m3 in 2030. LNG
enables diversified usage of natural gas as a clean fuel for road
vehicles and marine vessels.
Many new sources of natural gas are sour, and require corresponding treatment and
processing. There are strict requirements for hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
nitrogen (N2), and these gases must therefore be removed.
Composition of natural gas varies widely, meaning treatment must be tailored to the needs of
the client and the mixture of impurities in the gas.
Acid gas removal
Choosing the best solution to remove acid gases from natural gas streams can be challenging,
especially when the natural gas stream contains compounds other than H2S or CO2. Acid gas
removal units (AGRUs) are able to remove H2S, CO2 and carbonyl sulfide (COS). An AGRU using
BASFs OASE purple solvent was designed to treat an especially complex raw gas stream
for the worlds largest LNG plant. An amine-based absorption unit can produce a sweet gas
suitable for further processing in a downstream liquefaction unit. The low energy demand
of the process and non-corrosive nature of the solvent reduce capital expenditure and
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
39
of CO2 is relatively low because of its low absorption velocity

in the solution. In addition, a low-temperature hydrogenation
catalyst is used in LTGT, improving the systems energy
efficiency.
Large gas fields
For large gas fields with high sulfur production capacity, the
company significantly reduces the Capex of the sulfur block.
The Lurgi OxyClaus technology reduces the total flow through
the sulfur recovery unit, avoiding unnecessary nitrogen flow (of
the kind present in air-operated SRUs). Even if a dedicated air
separation unit (ASU) has to be installed, the investment in an
OxyClaus and ASU is still low.
Figure 1. Air Liquide gas treatment possibilities.

minimise operating and maintenance costs. In addition, this
tailor-made design provides high product gas recovery and low
solvent loss.
Developing solutions for gas processing projects where high
levels of CO2 are the main concern is possible with the right
portfolio. MEDAL membranes are ideal for treating this type of
natural gas. Hydrocarbon losses are low in comparison with other
membrane systems, even after many years of operation. These
specially-designed polyamide hollow fibre membranes are
produced in an Air Liquide-owned manufacturing facility in
Newport, Delaware, USA. The membrane skids have been
designed to provide high operational flexibility at low operating
cost. They are a compact alternative to amine processing
technology, particularly if simple installation is a project
specification. Their low maintenance requirement makes the
membranes well-suited to challenging locations such as offshore
platforms or remote onshore areas. The membrane skids can
achieve pipeline specifications of 2 or 3% CO2 in the product gas
from various natural gases and unconventional gases such as coal
bed methane (CBM), which contain more than 15% CO2 in the raw
gas.
Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions combines the strengths of
membrane and amine units. Membrane skids can be installed
upstream of the amine unit, and remove CO2 in bulk e.g. from
30% down to 15%. This reduces the Capex and Opex of the
downstream amine unit, as less solvent circulation is required.
Membrane units typically have higher hydrocarbon losses. This
problem can be solved by recovery from the permeate stream in
the amine regeneration boiler.
Sulfur management
Air Liquide operates its own sulfur recovery units (SRUs) using the
in-house Lurgi Sulfur Management Solution. The portfolio offers
several products for removing H2S content in natural gas, e.g.
upstream liquefaction units.
Compliance with World Bank standards
An effective solution for achieving 150 mg/Nm3 SO2 emissions for

the required sulfur recovery is an amine-based tail gas treatment.
The Lurgi Tail Gas Treatment (LTGT) has been improved, with a
specially formulated solvent and structured packing in conjunction
with plate fin heat exchangers. This amine-based solvent is used
for selective removal of H2S to achieve high purity. Co-absorption
40 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Mercaptan removal
An adsorption system with specialised zeolite molecular sieves

can be used to remove residual mercaptans and water from
the AGRU. This molecular sieve, which is an integral part of the
OmniSulf concept, is custom-designed for the specific moisture
adsorption, H2S adsorption, and, in particular, the broad-spectrum
mercaptan removal requirements of the natural gas being treated.
The Lurgi OxyClaus and Claus burner completely destroy
mercaptans by means of the specially-designed combustion
chamber.
The Lurgi Purisol technology method recovers mercaptans
from the regeneration offgas from the mercaptan removal units,
with the aim of recovering its sulfur content. Organic sulfur
compounds are very weak acids, and therefore do not react with
most amines. However, they can be readily removed by physical
adsorption. In this context, this process is ideal for selective
desulfurisation.
Degassing
The DegaSulf process removes dissolved H2S in liquid sulfur

to below 10 ppm levels. It is a catalyst-free process that
complies with the latest environmental standards and product
specifications.
Complete chain
The OmniSulf scheme comprises the complete gas treatment

value chain, including acid gas removal and sulfur management in
a single design concept, generating added value for the customer.
The concept combines the key technologies required for
natural gas processing (Claus, AGE, LTGT, Incineration, Aquisulf,
OASE purple and Purisol). Customers benefit from a one-stop
solution from a single supplier. This guarantees both compliance
with end-product specifications and the reliability of the entire
process.
Nitrogen rejection units
Natural gas often contains large amounts of nitrogen, whether

from the source or through gas well management. This leads to
substandard quality. Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions reduces
nitrogen content to 1% via cryogenic separation. Natural gas
recovery is high up to 99% or more. The design of the cryogenic
system is geared to the specific requirements of each application
and treats wide ranges of nitrogen content in the feed gas. The
company combines Lurgi technologies and cryogenic cold box
expertise to offer tailor-made solutions for efficient nitrogen
removal from natural gas streams.
Helium recovery units and

turnkey liquefaction systems
During nitrogen removal, helium a scarce and highly

sought-after resource is often removed and recovered.
Raw helium is recovered from rejected nitrogen by
cryogenic separation in several partial condensation or
distillation steps. It is then purified by removing hydrogen,
methane and nitrogen in a dehydration unit and a
pressure swing adsorption (PSA) unit.
After purification, the helium must be liquefied at
temperatures in the range of ~270C to enable storage or
for filling containers and trailers.
Air Liquide offers a full liquefaction system from
gaseous helium to the end product required for customer
application. The solution includes a supervision station, gas
analysis system, liquefier, liquid helium storage, gas bags
for recovery of helium losses, and compression.
The helium liquefaction train is cooled by a
thermodynamic He cycle with compression technogy
featuring a turbine. Liquefied nitrogen is only used to cool
helium containers, minimising the overall consumption of
liquid nitrogen.
Case study
The worlds largest LNG plant in Qatar uses Lurgi gas

treatment technology. The latest train commenced
operation in 2011 with a gas treatment processing capacity
of 1577 million ft3/d of raw sour gas. The challenge was not
just removing CO2 and H2S, but also mercaptans and COS,
which were present in levels too high to be processed in
the downstream liquefaction unit.
The OmniSulf concept was provided for complete
sulfur management, including the acid gas removal and
sulfur recovery unit, allowing guaranteed sulfur recovery of
more than 99.25% for the whole plant complex. The
design has achieved less than 1ppm COS in the product
gas as well as 10 ppm CO2 and 2 ppm of H2S.
QatarGas Omnisulf comprises of the following:
Acid gas removal using OASE purple (activated

MDEA solvent by BASF).
Dehydration and mercaptan removal with molecular

sieves.
Sulfur recovery with Lurgi Claus and Tailgas

technologies.
The customer benefited from a one-stop solution with

performance guarantees for the entire gas treatment plant.
Other benefits include custom-designed process
configurations and improved Capex and Opex.
Conclusion
When it comes to selecting the best scheme to

match specific project requirements, a large variety
of potential technology bricks exists. Air Liquide
Global E&C Solutions has a wide portfolio of in-house
technologies and design expertise available to
optimise a scheme that will fit to specific project
challenges. This has been successfully demonstrated
in the QatarGas LNG project as described.
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ALLIANCES
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BUILDING
BUILDING
ALLIANCES
BUILDING
Michael A.
Tarala, RegO
Compressed Gas
and Cryogenics,
USA, recommends
strategies for
global LNG
product supply.
he proliferation of LNG as a long-term energy

solution has catalysed the deployment of major
industrial gas players to global frontiers. In support
of this growth phenomenon, especially in Asia, worldwide
producers of high quality LNG equipment have devised
several initiatives to keep pace with tank and cylinder
construction demand. Expansive build out in the vehicle
space is providing an infrastructure to support LNG
logistics from the wellhead to the fuel cylinder. In North
America the oil patch is served with several innovative
LNG-fuelled solutions for natural gas extraction, and
carries its own unique challenges for durable systems.
Essential in supporting the surging demand for gas
control equipment is the availability of product on the
ground, enabling rapid order fulfillment. For example,
vessel manufacturers have located manufacturing plants in
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
43
close proximity to end users providing cryogenic equipment

at the point of demand in order to reduce transportation
costs and speed product to market. Likewise, local
placement of equipment supply is essential to support the
manufacturing centres with cryogenic and gas control
equipment for vessels.
For manufacturers of high quality equipment, there are
several challenges to support this global model. Leveraging
strengths of a global disposition of assets is vitally
important to provide the best possible service level. With
trucks, buses and the associated dispensing network spread
over a large geographic region, the eventual wear of
equipment is inevitable. Repair and retrofit companies will,
over time, be required to manage preventive maintenance
and inspection over a wide area.
Risk and rewards
Manufacturers of industrial gas control equipment will

ideally look to maximise return on capital investment
by high run quantities of products. This build-to-order
scenario works against the needs of vessel and system
manufacturers who require punctual delivery to minimise
component parts, thereby optimising cash flow.
For a local distribution warehouse, maximum turnover of
products on hand optimises cash flows and controls storage
space. Logistically, an ideal scenario for the distributor is
short-term shelf storage with the maximum amount of turns
of inventory. Since transit distances are often lengthy,
inventory models require local product stockpiling
supported by ground or ocean shipments over costly
transportation by air.
Manufacturing model
Precise tolerances are mandated to ensure safety for

industries that transport, store and deliver hazardous liquids
and gases. RegO has a long tradition of capital investment
in machinery and manufacturing systems that provide
products that consistently adhere to specifications. In
addition, the proper selection and installation of gas control
equipment is essential to safe and reliable operation.
Excellence in representation is a key element to
manufacturers who place their trust in others who play an
important role in how end users view their offerings. Close
communication by the local entity ensures that information
back to the manufacturer is accurate. Structuring a distribution
programme for multiple locations requires an effective
playbook in order to obtain flexibility with local requirements.
In geographical zones where volumes and pricing
constraints dictate more of a direct relationship between the
manufacturer and end user, a local company division or
company owned distributor organisation may provide the
solution. As investments in facilities have a direct effect on
the bottom line, additional challenges and potential gains
over the traditional distribution model need to be examined
carefully. Cultural and language barriers can be handled
easily and effectively by having company associates on the
ground locally.
44 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
In exchange for capital, people and product investment,

this solution optimises local support. For original equipment
manufacturers, larger consistent volumes are most easily
handled and fluctuations in build schedules most easily
accommodated. In building direct relationships in the same
language and time zone, end users feel a connection with
their suppliers. Informational exchange from the factory and
the field provides opportunity for co-developed product that
suits the application in its entirety.
Desires of the distributor
The primary component of a profitable distributor company

is maximising the turns of inventory, minimising the quantity
of items on the shelf, and thereby increasing cash flow.
Close customer contact, field support, technical advice and
training are contributors to a healthy wholesale distribution
organisation.
Applied to other parts of the world, the distributor
function is more important to the manufacturer outside of
their local country. The distance, time zone, language,
customs, and culture may be specific to the region.
Oftentimes the volumes of one manufacturers products or
markets served will cause a distribution entity to service
several products or industries that may not be allied.
To maximise profitability, the distributor will obviously
focus on products that provide maximum profitability.
Associations with a wide variety of industries can interfere
with distributor focus and the level of support that can be
accomplished. For example, a distributor headlining
disparate market targets will have products competing for
warehouse space, customer attention and profitability.
Focusing on several directions across divergent markets
causes weakness in many areas such as technical ability and
support.
In addition, much consideration is given to what lines
open the most doors, distinguishing the company over its
competition and providing pull through business. The
manufacturer must ensure that its products receive the
highest attention and that the distributor fully understands
the value of its products.
Clear lines of communication between the end user,
original equipment manufacturer (OEM), distributor and
manufacturer are essential for a quality enterprise. Since all
entities often cannot directly communicate due to time zone
issues, it is very important to preserve accurate reporting of
conditions in the field. Several areas of concern to the
manufacturer are market conditions, competitive activities,
dynamics of the industries and potential to grow the market
either organically or by acquiring complimentary companies.
Market conditions are very often in flux as end users
compete for increased business. Elements of these activities
may introduce an opportunity to co-develop specialised
equipment that increases efficiency or safety. Competition
may drive marketers to acquire competitors that may
consolidate resources where close communication and
relationships may need to be established, reinforced or
adjusted.
A higher degree of public and regulatory scrutiny exists in

developing markets such as LNG fuelling and top echelon
products provide the most rapid route to local approvals.
Although lower-end equipment may, in some cases, provide
higher profitability with a lower price point, they often carry a
high degree of risk. Field malfunctions not only present
hazardous conditions but can easily tarnish the image of the
company as selling inferior products. Resistance to sacrificing
quality for price is essential to uphold the reputation of the
companies serving the worldwide LNG demand.
End user motivations
Operating safe plants, delivery methods and customer

installations are the primary elements to ensure integrity
and to limit the liability exposure of gas manufacturers and
purveyors. Efficiencies gained in the production and delivery
of gases and liquids enable a higher level of service and
increase the likelihood of capturing additional business.
Maintaining an alliance with major gas producers
mandates close support regardless of the region. Placement
of technical entities with geographic alignment enforces the
alliance with all parties within the equation including vehicle
manufacturers, fuel system delivery companies, cryogenic
liquid container manufacturers and engine builders.
Maintaining branch and plant locations across the globe
requires standardisation in operating procedures coupled with
a degree of customisation for specific environments where
local codes and regulations override global standards.
Managing the network from the home office administration and
local country operations to the field distribution point or plant
must be handled carefully by all in the process. All participants
in product support must follow the same protocols but also
assume various roles in understanding the needs of the
customer at the particular level of their involvement.
For the home office level, administrators are concerned
with organising the needs of the corporation and
disseminating concise operating procedures to each level of
the company. Primary to this operating detail are safe
operations of plants, rolling fleet and customer installations.
Primarily, the operating requirements must adhere to global,
national and local regulations and specifications. The
manufacturers role in the process is identifying the
requirements and designing equipment that fits the need. In
some cases this product must be customisable to the local
level but overall the strength of the manufacturer lies in
precise and accurate casting, forging, machining and
assembly to ensure zero defects.
As the gas producer stores and transports dangerous
liquids and high pressure gases, the safety of their
employees and all those who touch the product is the
highest concern. Gas control manufacturers build a level of
safety into their designs. Installation practices are leveraged
through consistent education by the manufacturer to ensure
that equipment is used and maintained according to a
simple, yet effective process. Maintenance procedures are
devised to not only suggest inspection timeframes but the
diagnosis of component wear and subsequent replacement.
Down time for equipment can present a high level of

concern when manufacture or delivery processes are
interrupted due to operational issues. The role of the
manufacturer and OEM is to partner together in devising
inspection and maintenance guidelines that can fit a variety
of supplier programmes.
Country and local support mandates, understanding the
environment and concisely communicating challenges
where manufacturers can contribute to those environments
may lead to the development of new or existing products.
The local partner of the manufacturer, whether it be a
company office or distributor, is vital to providing the key
links in this process. Crucial to the process that includes the
local operation, country division and home office, is to
understand the importance of accuracy and where each
player fits within the process.
Successful playbook
The needs of the customer lead the manufacturer to

optimise their capabilities and position in the industrial gas
and LNG industry worldwide. Strengthening the process
requires attention not only to the details but to the big
picture events. Understanding what is important at each
level, as well as the motivators linked to steps along the
way, is vital to success. Many of the relationships between
the manufacturer and distributor require modification in
order to develop the best possible solution to supply and
support. Overall, the shared goals of the manufacturer,
distributor and OEM, when consolidated, draw a clear
pathway for excellence in developing alliances.
With all key players actively communicating, the
evolving LNG market will continue to provide opportunities
for manufacturers and OEMs. For example, delivering
product to the expanding LNG dispensing station
infrastructure mandates a need to maximise efficiencies not
only by delivering the optimal drop to each station but doing
so quickly. Improving product flow characteristics during
product transfer can shorten cycle times and greatly improve
time per unit delivered.
Executing an effective game plan when operating in a
global environment may present many challenges to a gas
control manufacturer. As described, nuances in operating
environments may lead to a complicated and confusing
solution scheme that can often be misunderstood.
Inaccurate information from the field can lead to
inefficiencies that interfere with service levels mandated in
the LNG space.
The global LNG footprint continues to expand with a
robust build-out of infrastructure serving the transportation
market. Industry players maintaining flexibility and adapting
rapidly to a developing market will continue to obtain the
lions share of opportunities. Key alliances formed in
emerging markets will yield the maximum growth and
provide challenges in supporting the network on a local
level. Exploiting shared objectives is the solution to building
enduring alliances regardless of geographic or cultural
nuances.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
45
Wayne Jacobson,
Compressor Controls Corp.,
USA, presents a solution to
prevent cascading trips at
LNG plants.
hen a million dollar piece of turbomachinery

shuts down at a LNG plant as the result
of a cascading trip, it causes a domino
effect of problems that go well beyond machine or
process malfunction. Not only does a hard shutdown
of a machine under full load decrease the lifespan and
components of the machine due to the stress associated
with the shutdown, the extra length of time required to
get a LNG train back online causes considerable delays in
production and significant profit loss. Avoiding the scenario
altogether is, of course, the ideal solution.
Operational challenges
Compressor Controls Corp. (CCC) was recently tasked

with helping a LNG plant with interdependent compressor
strings create a control system modification in which the
compressors could operate with more independence,
avoiding unnecessary machine trips caused by surge and
excessive recycle that could overload the compressor
drivers. The clients LNG plant design included a four-stage
sidestream propane compressor and a three-stage mixed
refrigerant (MR) compressor, with the final-stage of the MR
train the high pressure (HP) stage located on the same
driver shaft as the propane compressor. Both compressor
strings operate at near constant speed with an underspeed
trip setting very close to normal operating speeds. This
split-shaft design was created to better balance power

between the two compressor strings. However, both
strings rely on the HP stage in order to operate properly
one by shared driver shaft arrangement and the other by
shared flow of the closed refrigeration process loop. The
interdependence created by this design meant that if one
compressor would trip it would cause a cascading trip,
shutting the other compressor down unnecessarily, thereby
causing additional losses in LNG production.
For example, when the propane circuit would trip, the
HP stage of the MR machine would also trip due to its
location on the same shaft. The tripping of the MR HP stage
resulted in a sudden loss of flow through the MR low
pressure (LP) and medium pressure (MP) stages, causing
both compressor stages to go into surge and eventually trip
on excessive surge.
Conversely, when the MR circuit would trip, the HP
stage had a sudden loss of flow and would surge due to
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
47
shut down without impacting the other. This was achieved by

allowing the anti-surge valves of one string to temporarily open
when the other unit shut down. For example, if the propane
compressor and subsequently the MR HP stage shut down,
the anti-surge valves on the string fully open in an effort to
protect the machine. The new CCC control command also
temporarily opens the anti-surge valves on the LP and MP stages
of the MR machine and holds for the disturbance to pass. The MR
would continue to run under full recycle and shutdown on surge
would be prevented.
Modification enhancements to address this challenge
included separate unload commands as well as three new
parameters for each anti-surge controller:
A ramp rate configurable up to 100% per second.
Figure 1. LNG main refrigeration compressors.
An unload clamp to position the valve at the desired opening.
A hold timer to keep the valve at the fixed position for a

configurable period.
Figure 2. LNG tanker ready for loading.

the MR LP and MP anti-surge and bypass valves
tripping open and the MP stage discharge check
valve closing. In addition, the drop in MR flow
through the propane chillers caused a loss of
propane vapour production, requiring the propane
compressor to counteract by quickly opening its
anti-surge valves. The propane string would reach
the gas turbine power limit and shutdown on
underspeed.
Solution
Each parameter is independent of one another and

adjustments can easily be made by the operations team on site.
Ramp rates for all three MR stages were set to, in effect, step
open the anti-surge valves with target opening positions 10 - 20%
above their full recycle positions. Since the effect on the propane
circuit was less severe, the ramp rates for opening the anti-surge
valves were more moderate and the opening positions were set
close to their corresponding full recycle positions.
Simulation was used to verify
the functionality, as well as to
come up with preliminary settings
for the new unload parameters. To
enhance the accuracy of the
simulation, an emulator of the
anti-surge control system was
interfaced with the simulation.
Since the emulator mimics the
exact functionality and settings of
the clients anti-surge control
system, testing on the actual
system was kept at a minimum and
only minor adjustments were made
Figure 3. Unload solution.
to settings.
The cascade trips can result from a variety of events including

planned shutdowns, emergency shutdowns (ESD), helper motor/
turbine trips, as well as process trips. Each type of event must
be considered when determining a preventive solution. Other
contributing factors to cascading trips include excessive piping
volumes, undersized or oversized anti-surge valves and slow
responding anti-surge valves, all of which require consideration.
Analysis of the events and other information led to the
understanding that the existing design concept based on the
operation of a closed loop control system may be inadequate to
prevent the described domino effect, and that the control system
operation would have to be supplemented by an additional open
loop, feed forward response. This response would, in essence,
put the system in a defensive posture once an extreme
disturbance was detected. Once the disturbance has passed, it
would return the operation to the closed loop control system.
To provide a solution that would avoid interdependent
tripping without over-aggressive tuning, CCC developed a
modification to the control system in which one machine could
48 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Conclusion
The desired end result was to avoid surging of compressor

stages, which can result in a shutdown of the compressor string
due to excessive surging or speed reduction caused by driver
power limitations. This was achieved by opening the anti-surge
valves fast and far enough to provide sufficient flow through the
compressor, preventing surge, but not so far as to reach the gas
turbine power limit reached during identified trip events.
With the modifications initiated by CCC and the client, the
interdependent compressor strings are now automatically
sequenced to maintain consistent and safe operation of the
online string when the other string trips. Similar modifications
have been implemented at other LNG sites utilising the split-shaft
compressor designs, as well as sites with traditional common
shaft designs that still have the interdependency due to the
process design. The results have been a reduction in compressor
surge and unnecessary shutdown of rotating equipment, as well
as quicker restarts of the process, leading to fewer losses in
production.
KING
COALS
FADING
CROWN
growing demand for LNG in

In the power sector, Chinas aim is
Bernd von der Weppen, to gradually
China has seen the award of
reduce the role of coal by
several contracts in recent
expanding
the
use of renewables,
Siemens, China, looks at
months for turbocompressor trains
nuclear and gas. According to the
for liquefying synthetic natural gas. It
IEAs World Energy Outlook (WEO)
the increasing demand
reflects a growing trend in the country
2013, over the 2011 - 2035 projection
for turbocompressor
that is likely to continue at least for the
period as a whole, gas use in the
short to mid-term.
power sector is projected to increase
trains as China builds
Driven by environmental concerns,
six-fold, to around 160 billion m3,
China has been making efforts to cut
driven by environmental policies.
more LNG terminals.
emissions from major polluting
In the transport sector, both public
sectors such as power generation and
and private vehicles will make greater
transport. China, the worlds top
use of LNG. WEO 2013 projects that
energy consumer, aims to raise the share of natural gas in its
gas consumption of around 10 billion m3 in 2011 is set to triple
energy mix to 8% by 2015 from 5%. The International Energy
by 2035, driven by air quality and energy security concerns.
Agency (IEA) forecasts that the country will be the fastest
growing gas market in the world in absolute terms. Gas
demand is forecast to grow from around 130 billion m3/year
Accordingly, in recent years there has been tremendous
in 2011 to approximately 530 billion m3 in 2035.
growth in Chinas gas liquefaction capacity.
Increasing liquefaction
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
49
Figure 1. Compressor train for small LNG applications.

The China National Offshore Oil Corp (CNOOC), parent of
CNOOC Ltd, won final government approval in August 2013
to build the countrys first floating LNG (FLNG) terminal in the
northern port of Tianjin. The project, costing 3.3 billion yuan
(US$ 539 million), is designed to have a receiving capacity of
2.2 million tpy or 3 billion m3. The second phase of the project
will involve the construction of a conventional onshore
LNG terminal, with a receiving capacity of no less than
6 million tpy.
Chinas natural gas liquefaction capacity has now reached
approximately 40 - 50 million m3/d and the utilisation rate is
around 60%. Just five years ago, the daily production rate was
only around 10% of this. Typically, China does not operate the
huge liquefaction plants that are seen in Canada or Indonesia.
The tendency is towards small to mid-sized units, financed by
private or state-owned companies, which have capacities of
between 300 000 and 1.8 million Nm3/d.
Accordingly, in the last few years Siemens has delivered a
number of compressors for LNG applications for a variety of
customers including engineering, procurement and
construction (EPC) contractors and end users.
Notably, three orders were secured in August 2013 for
mixed refrigerant compressor trains for three LNG plants in
China. The order for EPC contractor Hangzhou Zhongtai
Cryogenic Technology Corp. is the fifth that Siemens has
received from the company. The Houma Tongsheng Yitong
Natural Gas Company will operate one of the plants, each
with a capacity of 500 000 Nm3/d.
Targeted designs
A major challenge in delivering these compressor trains is

the short lead-time. Huge time savings can be achieved by
developing a range of compressors specifically aimed at
small and mid-sized LNG facilities, and manufacturing them
in China. A significant amount of time can be saved by the
resulting repeat effect as a result of the considerably shorter
overall engineering time compared to a new design.
Like all machines, LNG compressors use engineered
components. This means that repeat orders, following a
limited amount of upfront engineering, can be quickly placed
with sub-contractors. Repeat orders also enable companies
50 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
to enter framework agreements with sub-suppliers, which

results in better component reliability, delivery and price.
From the customers viewpoint, repeat orders give them the
comfort of knowing the compressor has already been proven
and they can therefore expect the same level of reliability
achieved at other installations.
The challenge during the project acquisition phase,
however, is showing the customer the benefits of adjusting
the process data to suit the proposed compressor design
data.
While some compressor design data can be adjusted
slightly, the choice of compressor largely depends on the size
of the liquefaction unit. The smallest compressor would be
matched to a 300 000 Nm3/d plant, while the largest would
be proposed for a liquefaction unit of 1.2 million m3/d.
The compressor trains in the three plants ordered by
Hangzhou Zhongtai Cryogenic each consists of a six-stage
barrel type compressor STC-SV with a volume flow of
21 000 m3/h driven by a constant speed electric motor
operating at 3000 RPM with a power output of 7.4 MW. The
motor measures 13 x 4 x 5 m and weighs 60 t.
The STC-SV is a six-stage, single shaft, vertically-split
compressor. It has up to four process stages per casing, up to
10 impellers per casing and features intercooling and side
streams. It has a barrel-type design that allows full
maintenance without disconnecting process gas lines.
The STC-SV is designed to compress gases of any
molecular weight and is optimised for those with low
molecular weight. It is well-suited for high pressure services,
covering a discharge pressure range up to 1000 bar.
All compressor internals assembled into a bundle allow
easy axial removal from the casing shell without the need to
remove process gas piping. A wide variety of sealing systems
(labyrinth seals, carbon ring seals and mechanical dry gas
seals) completes the reliable compressor design. Mechanical
dry gas seals, in combination with active magnetic bearings
for the compressor and driver, yield the special economic and
environmental benefits of dry-dry equipment operation.
The barrel type turbocompressor uses technology that
allows the reliable avoidance of sub-synchronous rotor
vibration caused by gas forces in labyrinth seals and diffusers,
which is key to the high-pressure compressor design. Within
sustainable research and development, Siemens provides a
series STC-SV compressor supplying over 900 bar discharge
pressure with nitrogen. The company can also reliably predict
rotor-dynamic behaviour in ultra-high pressure environments,
with results verified in PTC 10 class 1 tests.
Wider operating window
The STC-SV compressor uses an adjustable inlet guide vane

(IGV) in front of the first impeller, which provides efficient
operation. This IGV system is unique in LNG compressors in
China and was a big factor in Hangzhou Cryogenic choosing
the technology.
The use of adjustable IGVs not only allowed the same
design to be used for the three different units operated by
Hangzhou Cryogenic, it also improves the efficiency of the
compressors over a wider operating window.
Turbocompressors are designed to operate at a specific
point, i.e. the point at which the compressor is most efficient.
This point has two dimensions: the effective volume flow and
the head. During operation, however, the plant owner may
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have several operating points as opposed to a single point.

Inclusion of an IGV enables the compressor to be operated at
points outside of the design point, while maintaining good
efficiency.
A variable speed drive system (VSDS) is a motor fitted
with a variable frequency converter, transformer and other
devices, making the system complex and more difficult to
control than an IGV system.
The STC-SVs protection and control system results in
safe and flexible operation of the compressors. The machines
feature anti-surge protection, and fully or semi-automatic
start-up and shutdown sequences are possible to exactly
match process demands. There is also a load-sharing
controller for parallel trains.
STC-SV compressors can be controlled by speed variation
suction/discharge throttling or even by bypass operation.
However, LNG operators benefit from a wide performance
range using Siemens variable IGVs, completely in stainless
steel.
The use of a synchronous induction motor is the standard
practice for these smaller compressors, although
asynchronous motors and even steam turbines can be the
driver. In another installation in China, where coke oven gas is
compressed instead of natural gas, Siemens has provided a
compressor that is driven by a steam turbine. This was
possible since steam was available from a nearby site.
Local manufacture
Essentially, the technology, expertise and ability to build

and commission these turbocompressors have been fully
transferred to China. Having a local team of experts to ensure

smooth erection and commissioning of the compressors
is equally as important as order execution during the
manufacturing and engineering phase.
Eliminating the need to transport units from Europe to
China can save as much as eight weeks. This, combined with
the effect of repeat orders, will save as much as 4 - 5 months
on the project delivery.
Compressors for the Hangzhou order are currently being
manufactured, and, at the time of writing, the first machine was
scheduled for testing in the workshop in February/March 2014,
with handover scheduled for June 2014.
Continuing demand
The demand for turbocompressors will continue as China

builds more LNG terminals an activity that does not appear
to be slowing down. The first FLNG import terminal was
originally expected to start operation in December 2013, in
time to help ease a looming winter supply crunch.
In October 2013, CNOOC received its first cargo of LNG
from Qatar at its new 3.5 million tpy terminal at Zhuhai in the
southern province of Guangdong. The Zhuhai terminal,
CNOOCs fifth, brings the companys total receiving capacity
to 21.3 million tpy. Meanwhile, Chinas top two gas producers,
PetroChina and Sinopec, also plan to boost domestic gas
supplies over the next few months.
Such developments will see the strong demand for
turbocompressors continue for at least another 2 - 3 years as
China strives to lower emissions by cutting coal use and using
cleaner fuel for road transport.
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Attilio Brighenti, Chiara

Brighenti, and Riccardo
Bressan, S.A.T.E. Systems
and Advanced Technologies
Engineering S.r.l., Italy,
recommend effective pre-study
of pulsation dampeners.
A guiding
hand
critical issue in the design of reciprocating compressor

installations is the limitation of flow induced vibrations
(FIVs) generated by these machines.
The API 618 standard1 and the API 688 recommended
practice2 provide guidelines and various levels of detail and
approach to perform design and verification analyses of
acoustic pulsations and FIVs. Three approaches are listed whose
application depends on the discharge pressure and power per
cylinder. Approaches two and three foresee dynamic
simulations for the evaluation of pressure pulsations and
shaking forces and their compliance with recommended limits.
The main practical problem for engineers is that the
pulsation dampeners must be ordered before the plant piping
design is complete, yet the piping topology and size, combined
with the compressor and the dampeners, determine the
pulsation response of the whole system. The replication of
dampeners to a new plant from previous installations of the
same machine is not straightforward, even if process data and
operating speed are similar.
Although it is clear that the definitive verification must be
done with the complete and final piping design, a good practice,
also recommended by the standard, is to make a pre-study after
the preliminary sizing of the pulsation dampeners with the best
available data set.
The API standard defines goal parameters for these
pre-studies; in particular, the Helmholtz frequency of an
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
53
This article, which follows others published by the authors

acoustic filter (Annex O.2.1 )a should be lower than N/85 [Hz],
on acoustic pulsation topics, shows the practical case of a real
where N is the compressor revolution speed (RPM). In critical
industrial project, in which, unexpectedly, the fourth harmonic of
cases the limit is raised to N/45. This goal, however, can be
the compressor flow rate causes excessive pressure pulsations
impractical despite the fact that it is compatible with virtually
due to high input impedance. 3-8
infinite combinations of dampeners and choke pipe dimensions.
No further indications are provided other than the ratios
between the dampeners and the inlet and outlet lines diameters
and the length to diameter ratio of the dampener vessel. The
diameter of the dampener choke pipeb is considered only in the
The plant examined consists of a single compressor with two
calculations of the filter acoustic frequency and pressure drop.
single stage cylinders (see Figure 1, as well as Tables 1 and 2).
One aspect that the standard does not sufficiently address is
The suction side has a single volume symmetric dampener
that the many possible size variants influence not only the
common to the two cylinders, while the discharge side is fitted
response or attenuation of the filter, but
with two identical independent single volume
also the signal amplitude generated by
dampeners, one for each cylinder with no
the compressor. In fact, to simplify,
internals (see Table 3).
around a certain process condition, each
They are series type filters, i.e. with the
piston is a flow rate generator that forces
generated flow passing throughout the chamber
the piping system, which reacts to the
and marginal dead volumes. In this case, the
forced flow rate by a dynamic
choke pipe connects the compressors cylinder
backpressure. This latter effect depends
flanges to the nozzle. Quick calculations of
on the input acoustic impedancec of the
the dampener/choke pipe systems yield
the values of the Helmholtz frequencies,
piping system.
respectively 10.7 and 20.1 Hz, i.e. below the
Although acoustic simulation is
recommended limit (22 Hz) calculated in the
recommended by these standards as the
API 618(Annex O.2.1) standard.
key action for verifying the dampener
The choke pipe has a diameter sufficient to
design, there are neither a-priori
grant pressure losses lower than 40% of the
indications on the importance of this
recommended limit (section 7.9.4.2.5.3.1).
frequency dependent quantity nor
The volumes of the dampeners are more
guidelines to limit it, concurrently with
Figure 1. Schematics of the
than twice the minimum recommended value,
good attenuation performance.
compressor-dampeners configuration.
according to the pre-sizing formulae of API 618
(section. 7.9.3.2). The diameters of the
Table 1. Main data of the compression system
dampeners also match the minimum ratios with respect to the
incoming and outgoing lines (Annex O.2.2). Only the suction
Description
Value
dampener is slightly slimmer than recommended, in terms of
Nominal speed
990 RPM
length-to-diameter (L/D) ratio (max 4:1), and a little below the
suggested ratio with the plant side line (min 3:1). Given these
Cylinder bore diameter
165.1 mm
premises, the dampener should be adequate.
Cylinder stroke
152.4 mm
At the current stage of plant design, no information was
available about the lines routing, nor about side branches,
Rod diameter
50.8 mm
obstructions and other details that could generate acoustic
Cylinder swept volume (headside)
3.26 dm3
reflections. Only information regarding the diameter of the line
Number of cylinders
2
beyond the dampeners was available.
Nevertheless, the client requested to make the pre-study to
Effects per cylinder
2
verify the dampener by means of advanced acoustic pulsation
analysis tools that are available and qualified having had many
years of effective use.3-8
Table 2. Main process data
Description of compressor and

dampeners
Description
Suction
Discharge
Operating fluid
Natural gas
Pressure
7.7 bar
Temperature
32.8C
Density
6.6 kg/m
119.2C
3
Molar mass
18.2 kg/m3
21.3 kg/kmol
Speed of sound
381.5 m/s
Mass flow rate (both cylinders)

Isentropic exponent
(specific heat ratio)
54 LNGINDUSTRY
27 bar
MARCH 2014
432 m/s
0.81 kg/s
1.22
Pre-study dynamic simulation
The dynamic simulation to check the dampeners design was

performed in two steps. The first was a time domain simulation
(by ACUSCOMP) of the whole system consisting of the
following:
Infinite suction line.
Suction dampener.
Compressor (including valves mechanical and

fluid-dynamics, cylinder thermodynamics).
Discharge dampeners.
Infinite discharge lines.
The second step consisted of a frequency analysis

(by ACUSYS) of the stand alone suction and discharge pipe
subsystems including:
Plenum.
Pipe between compressor flange and dampener (choke

pipe).
Infinite long line.
The former allows calculation of the forcing signals acting on

the pipe subsystems, which cannot be known a-priori as they
depend on the cylinders and crank geometry, the pressure ratio,
the clearance volumes and on the valves characteristics (flow
coefficient, mass and stiffness, area subject to opening pressure,
etc.). These data are generally available when the compressor
type is known. Should some be missing they can be estimated
by geometrical or kinematic similarity with other similar
compressors. This is more reliable than guessing the forcing flow
rate or pressure harmonics by analogy with previous installations
or defining them as standard test signals (triangular or square
wave) with fundamental frequency equal to N/60.
The second step has the purpose of verifying the pressure
responses and their compliance with the limits set forth by the
API 618 (section 7.9.4.2.5). In addition, it allows a thorough
exploration of the input impedance and transfer functions of the
piping in order to understand the root causes of excessive
pulsations.
The use and the modelling approach of the two software
packages used for the acoustic simulation was discussed in
Brighenti and Pavans article ACUSCOMP and ACUSYS A
powerful hybrid linear/non linear simulation suite to analyze
pressure pulsations in piping.6 It is worth highlighting that the
piping is simulated by a fine mesh of discrete elements defined
according to the electro-acoustic analogy dynamically interacting
with the non linear thermodynamics and fluid dynamics in the
cylinder and valves.
The analysis was completed by varying the speed within a
5% range to ensure detecting resonances despite possible
uncertainty in some parameters. Should the compressor be
actually operated at various speeds, the variable speed
simulation procedure identifies the most critical speeds, around
which improvements should be focused.
Results
The thermodynamic cycle inside one of the cylinders is shown

in Figure 2. The cycle shows an overpressure in the cylinder, due
to the pulsation backpressure on the discharge side. The flow
rate signals entering the suction and discharge plena are shown
in Figure 3 (the time interval corresponds to the revolution
period of 60.6 ms) and Figure 4 (harmonics after average
removal). Two pulses are present in the cycle from/to each
side of the compressor cylinder, corresponding to the head end
(HE) and crank end (CE) effects. The two pulses differ (albeit
only slightly) because of the different volume swept by the
two sides of the piston.d From the harmonics distribution, it is
Figure 2. P-V diagram of the head side (red) and crank side
(blue) cylinders (pressure in bar a; volume in litres).
Figure 3. Mass flow rate through the compressor valves
from suction (blue) and to the discharge (red) plena, during one
revolution.
Table 3. Main data of the dampeners base design

Description
Suction
Discharge
Bottle diameter
409.5 mm
409.5 mm
Bottle length
3900 mm
1000 mm
Bottle volume
514 dm
132 dm3
Choke pipe diameter
97.2 mm
97.2 mm
Choke pipe length
400 mm
600 mm
Number of cylinders to serve
Line diameter (beyond the dampener) 146.4 mm
97.2 mm
Figure 4. Harmonics of the mass flow rate through the
compressor valves from suction (blue) and to the discharge (red)

plena.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
55
clear that the dominant forcing harmonic is the second one,

followed by the fourth and other low order even harmonics.
The first and third harmonics are small as in this case the
compressor runs at full load, i.e. with no suction valve unloader.
The pressure pulsation response at the compressor suction
flange, namely in its plenum, is shown in Figure 5 (solid red line).
Figure 5. Suction dampener, base design vs. modified design

pressure pulsation at the compressor cylinder flange (solid
lines) and line side (dashed red and blue lines).
According to API 618, the pressure signal should remain within

the two dashed black lines limiting the maximum peak to peak
excursion (section 7.9.4.2.5.2.1). Although specific harmonic
limitations are not required in this section, it is clear (and
confirmed by the harmonic distribution) that the fourth harmonic
(66 Hz) dominates the pressure response in this point. Figure 5
also shows the pressure pulsations on the plant side of the
dampener (dashed red line), in this case at the end of an infinite
anechoic line from which the gas ideally flows. This section is
subject to other limits in terms of individual harmonics instead of
compounded peak-to-peak values. Due to the pre-study nature
of this work, the normal limit must be reduced to 80% of the
standard limit in order to leave a margin to later adverse
interactions with the full plant (section 7.9.4.2.3.4). The frequency
dependent limit in Figure 6 showing the signal harmonics
accounts for this reduction. It is evident that the dampener is
effective in reducing the pressure pulsations coming from the
compressor cylinder flange and propagating towards the line side
(pink bars). The fourth harmonic still prevails, yet to a lesser
extent. Its amplitude is reduced from 0.35 - 0.045 bar, or by 87%,
while the second harmonic is reduced by 69%, both within the
limit.
Despite this, the dampener must be modified in order to
meet the compounded peak-to-peak limit at the cylinder flange.
Possible remedies
Figure 6. Suction dampener, base design vs. modified design
pressure pulsation harmonics at the compressor cylinder flange

(dark colours) and the line side (light colours) compared with API
limit (dashed line).
Figure 7. Suction dampener input impedance (cylinder 1

port) from the cylinder valve section (red: base design; blue:
modified design).
56 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Examining the input impedance (see Figure 7) and the response

transfer function, in particular from the forcing flow rate input
to the output on the line side (see Figure 8), it can be seen
that the excess pulsations do not derive from resonances or
anti-resonances. Resonances occur at 9.9, 49.5 and 74.3 Hz,
while anti-resonances occur at 46, 71 and 77 Hz, all sufficiently far
from the forcing harmonics. The first anti-resonance corresponds
to a standing wave with a wave length equal to twice the
dampener length (see Figure 9), while the second corresponds
to the Helmholtz pattern oscillation of each plenum through the
choke pipe, the dampener acting as a nearly infinite buffer for this
mode (see Figure 10). The third anti-resonance mode, at 77 Hz,
is a variant of the previous one, deriving from a slightly different
mode of pulsation of the two dead caps.
It is clear from Figure 7 (red line for the base design) that the
impedance increases with the frequency after each resonance (i.e.
after each minimum of the input impedance), and, in particular,
around the main forcing harmonics (33 and 66 Hz). Therefore, the
Figure 8. Suction dampener transfer function from the
cylinder valve section to the dampener nozzle on the line side

(red: base design; blue: modified design).
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remedy direction should be towards resizing the dampener and

its choke pipe to reduce the impedance module with the goal of
decreasing the dynamic backpressure consequent to the
pulsating mass flow rate. In doing this, care should be taken not
to compromise (or reduce) the filtering action of the dampener,
which would occur if the transfer function from the input to the
output increases. The most effective solution is then reducing the
acoustic inductance of the choke pipe by increasing its diameter
while maintaining its length. The dampener buffer volume is left
unchanged.
Comparing the plots of the input impedance and the transfer
function of the base design against the suggested modification, it
is evident that the input impedance at 66 Hz was reduced from
1.15 to 0.33 bar/(kg/s), i.e. by 71% (see Figure 7); likewise, the
response transfer function at the dampener outlet was reduced
from 0.10 to 0.04 bar/(kg/s), i.e. by 60% (see Figure 8).
The effectiveness of the change is confirmed by the plots of
the pressure pulsations (see Figure 5: dashed red and blue lines;
and Figure 6: blue and light blue bars) showing that the
compounded peak-to-peak pulsations at the compressor cylinder
flange is now within the limits, while the pulsation harmonics at
the dampener line side were further reduced.
This solution was further analysed by a variable speed
simulation, showing that the pulsations cope with the API limits in
a sufficient speed range around the nominal value.
Conclusion
Quick but accurate acoustic pulsation studies allow a timely

correction of dampener designs and can prevent major problems
in the design and installation of compression systems.
Such preliminary acoustic studies should first be made in the
early stages of a project, i.e. as soon as the machines and the
dampeners are defined, even with the simplification of infinitely
long pipelines beyond the dampeners. Later, the complete
analysis with the full piping should be repeated for confirmation
or further detuning by modifications of lower impact than would
occur without the prestudy.
These goals can be effectively reached with qualified
software tools such as ACUSYS and ACUSCOMP.
Guidelines to make engineers (not only specialists) more
aware of the impact that the different dampener elements have
on the forcing action by the compressor and not only on their
filtering capability must be effected. Both these aspects concur to
Figure 9. Suction dampener transfer function at 46 Hz.
58 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
the overall response of the plant-compressor system in terms of

pressure pulsations and shaking forces and should be considered
to prevent excessive flow induced vibrations.
References
1. API Standard 618: Reciprocating Compressors for
Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry Services,
5th Edition., December 2007 (section 7.9).
2. API RP 688: Pulsation and Vibration Control in Positive
Displacement Machinery Systems for the Petroleum,
Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industry Services,
1st Edition., April 2012.
3. Brighenti A., and Brighenti C., A finger on the pulse
Hydrocarbon Engineering, July 2012, pp. 33 - 39.
4. Brighenti A., Bittante F., and Parrozzani R.,
Advanced simulation techniques - detail advanced
simulation techniques for reciprocating compressors,
Hydrocarbon Engineering, November 2009, pp. 103 - 106.
5. Brighenti A., Maffeis M., and Pavan A., Investigation on the
influence of pressure pulsations on multistage reciprocating
compressors Comparison between test and simulation
results, European Forum for Reciprocating Compressors,
3rd EFRC Conference, Vienna, Austria, 27 - 28 March, 2003.
6. Brighenti A., and Pavan A., ACUSCOMP and ACUSYS
A powerful hybrid linear/non linear simulation suite
to analyze pressure pulsations in piping, ISMA 2002
International Conference on Noise and Vibration
Engineering, Leuven, Belgium, 16 - 18 September, 2002.
7. Brighenti A., Analysis of the propagation of internal
acoustic pulsations in fluid systems by advanced simulation
techniques, G.I.S.I., Workshop on Noise of Fluid-dynamic
Equipment in Industrial Processes, Cinisello Balsamo,
Milan, Italy, 6 May, 1997.
8. Brighenti A., and Osti P., ACUSYS - Application of
MATLAB-SIMULINK for the simulation of acoustic
pulsation in plants, 1st Italian MATLAB Conference,
Bologna, Italy, 14 October, 1994.
Notes
a. This refers to the API 618 standard sections and
annexes.
b. i.e. the relatively short pipe between the compressor
cylinder flange and a single volume dampener and/or that
inside two-volume dampeners (Annex O).
c. The physical meaning of this quantity is identical to that
used in electrical circuits, whereas the analogy relates
eletrical currents with mass flow rates and voltages with
pressures. So the acoustic impedance is in pressure units/
mass flow rate units, bar/(kg/s) in this article.
d. With real asymetric piping some differences also arise from
phase shifted reflections.
Figure 10. Suction dampener transfer function at 71 Hz.
Simulation
application
Timothy Park, Transas, USA, discusses

the progression of customised simulation
training within the LNG industry.
istorically, simulation training in any facet of the maritime industry has

involved utilising a simulation vendors commercial, off-the-shelf software to
satisfy a particular training need unless an organisation has had the financial
wherewithal to order and develop a customised training application. As development
of software for a one-off application tends to be expensive, many companies have been
forced to adapt existing training systems to their needs for budgetary reasons, rather
than completely satisfying the unique needs of their customers.
With the preponderance of LNG facilities currently being planned and constructed,
along with the exponential growth of the LNG shipping fleet (including the substantial
interest surrounding traditional vessels powered by LNG), an interesting and predictable
trend has emerged that simulation training systems must be prepared to meet. The
industry is no longer content to simply receive training on existing, generic LNG cargo
simulators. There is an increased demand to not only continue providing standard
training for ships crews, but to extend training to office staff, terminal operations
personnel and local regulatory officials, and to utilise a simulator that is realistically
indicative of the physical terminal/vessel of interest. Reasons for this are
becoming increasingly clear as the growth of the industry has surpassed the
ability of traditional labour pools to fulfill the need for qualified and
experienced operators. Team training, especially at the terminal/vessel
interface, is becoming progressively more common, creating another
unique need that simulation vendors are being called on to meet.
It is hard to argue that integrated training amongst the entire
terminal/vessel is a bad thing, although the logistics involved are
potentially troublesome, especially if the entire team is expected to
travel to a dedicated training site. However, it can also be argued
that due to the use of commercial, off-the-shelf computers,
simulation training, once relegated to the most affluent
schools and institutions, has now been given the ability to
travel to the customer, rather than the other way around,
providing schools with a significant amount of flexibility in
adapting the training they offer to more cost effectively
meet the needs of their clients.
Type specific
With the flexibility surrounding todays simulation

training, both in location and scope, the impetus
to provide tailored training to the needs of the
customer has been firmly thrown into the lap of
simulation manufacturers. The airline industry
might refer to this as type specific training and
historically that dedicated resource has come
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
59
at a price that typical maritime industry training providers are not

accustomed to paying. Type specific implies that a simulated
cargo control room should look and operate in a remarkably similar
manner to that found on the real vessel. This of course reduces
the flexibility of the simulator for any other professional purpose
other than what it was originally designed for, but it provides an
extremely high fidelity training programme.
Programming applications
Transas, a simulation provider, has responded to the paradoxical

challenge of customisation vs. cost by developing a set of tools
that can conceivably be placed in the hands of its customers,
allowing those with the necessary resources to easily create a
ship/terminal specific simulation model project. These tools the
Techsim 5000 Panel Editor and Visual Modeling Studio were
designed to provide a standard, object-oriented programming
capability that can be quickly used to create the custom simulation
screens that accurately replicate the typical control screens found
in modern LNG installations and other process based applications.
Techsim 5000 Panel Editor, in conjunction with a rapidly growing
library of typical control objects, allows the user to quickly
develop these control screens in a logical and easily managed
format. Screen captures from the real installation can be used as
a template guide, or screens can be developed to satisfy training
objectives in a more generic way. Typical Microsoft Windows
functionality used in many other programming applications is
Figure 1. Transas Panel Editor object sample screen.
Figure 2. Transas system and graphical user screen.
60 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
carried over, thereby shortening the programme usage learning

curve.
As the visual display screens to be presented to the user begin
to take form in accordance with the expected screens available
within the real control rooms, Visual Modeling Studio is then used
to assign the mathematical modelling and functionality to the
implemented controls. All parameters typically assigned to each
control, pipeline or other objects, are assigned here, including
process medium, size and hotkey actions in addition to the normal
mathematical modelling attributes typical in a simulation system.
Once a typical control or process item has been created, the
program saves it within a library and with standard drag and drop
functionality, it is added to another, separate model. The benefit of
this is that once the effort has been expended to create and
validate such an item, it can be reused as necessary with only
minor adjustments specific to the application required. As many
vessels and plants today are being built in a series type production
system using standard marine industry components, the benefit of
create once, use often is obvious.
While a specific company involved in LNG vessel or terminal
operations might not necessarily have the suitable personnel to
implement such a customised application, many of the established
training schools do. Traditionally, these training schools have
employed modellers to create exercise areas and model databases
for navigational simulators, and the experience with this
application can be leveraged to expand the potential offerings.
Training schools have experienced teams of graphic designers
and mathematical modellers on staff that enable a partnership to
be established between the training facility and the operator to
allow economical creation of simulation capabilities in a timeframe
that was unheard of prior to the introduction of such tools. Existing
models within the vendors library (liquid cargo, engine room
and/or crane simulation) can be loaded and modified as necessary.
In the event that personnel do not have the required skill set,
the component level abilities of Panel Editor and Visual Model
Studio can be split between the simulation vendor, training
provider and facility operator as necessary, taking advantage of the
strengths of each. Other companies who might possess these
qualifications but are not involved with either the operational or
training aspects might also see a marketable need for such
services, and implement a mutually beneficial partnership with
those who are.
Conclusion
As with other, more mature forms of simulation training, it is

expected that the demand for specialised and type specific
training will continue to grow. The LNG industry is experiencing
unprecedented growth with many new significant projects on
the drawing board, all utilising the latest technologies. A definite
need for a training methodology that encompasses these new
technologies exists today and will only continue to grow. As an
example, Transas is currently working with a large operator of
highly complex and specialised vessels that employ proprietary
technology in their operations. As the fleet continues to expand,
the expected need for highly trained operators to work aboard
these vessels will grow exponentially as well. With this in mind,
a customised training solution, specific to the needs of the
operator/owner, is currently under development. The solution
will not only fulfill immediate training needs, but will provide
the operator with a significant amount of flexibility in adapting
the developed simulation to the inevitable future expansion of
additional technology incorporated on board the vessels.
Figure 1. Engineers using the simulator to validate plant

operating procedures.
rivate sector employment in the US increased by

more than 1 million jobs between 2007 and 2012
(approximately 1%). Oil and natural gas industry
jobs increased 40% during that same period according to
the US Energy Information Agency (EIA).1 During that time,
LNG production increased by 25% and the EIA forecasts
that demand and production will continue to increase until
at least 2035. With this kind of projected growth, LNG plant
owners/operators must find ways to shorten design and
build times for new plants and plant expansions without
sacrificing safety. Dynamic, real-time simulation can play a
significant role in meeting these challenges.
Traditionally, dynamic simulators have been used for
control room operator training. These simulators replicate
the control room environment and distributed control
systems (DCS) user interface. The benefits of simulation
training are well known and well documented across the
energy industry. But beyond operator training, todays
high-fidelity simulators can also serve plant owners with
their growth strategies.
The use of dynamic, real-time simulation for verification
and validation (V&V) is a process that has been proven as
effective in the nuclear energy industry and it transfers well
to LNG facilities. Using an approach similar to that of the
nuclear industry, LNG companies can evaluate the feasibility
of the design and engineering for a new plant or plant
Prevention
is better
than
cure
Gill Grady,
GSE Systems Inc., USA,
introduces high fidelity
simulators for LNG plant
verification and validation.
MARCH 2014
LNGINDUSTRY
61
expansion before it is built. In addition, verification of plant

modifications helps ensure the expected operating results.
This ultimately saves money throughout the design and
construction process.
When used for V&V, simulators reduce design cost and
project risk for:
Validation of plant system process designs.
Design and validation of digital instrumentation and

control (I&C) strategy.
Design and validation of human-machine interface.
Use as a platform for human factor engineering (control

room design).
Validation of plant operation procedures.
Understanding simulation
V&V
The US Army began using software V&V in the 1970s as

part of its Anti-Ballistic Missile System programme. V&V
standards were subsequently developed by the Institute of
Electronics Engineers in 1986 and 1993,2 and by the American
Nuclear Society in 1987.3 The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers V&V standard is in review.4 V&V is now widely
used by government organisations such as NASA and the
Department of Defense.
Figure 2. GSE Systems JPro high-fidelity simulation

software modelling LNG production.
As coding and simulation technology have developed

over the years, so has V&V. Today, high definition (HD)
simulators, also called high fidelity simulators, create a V&V
platform to help identify design errors before they are
incorporated into plant construction and speed
commissioning.
For clarification, the AIAA Guide for Verification and
Validation of Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations
defines V&V as:
Verification the process of determining that a model
implementation accurately represents the developers
conceptual description of the model and the solution to
the model.
Validation the process of determining the degree to

which a model is an accurate representation of the real
world from the perspective of the intended uses of the
model.5
For years the oil and gas industry has relied on steady
state simulation to design individual systems around overall
plant production objectives. While suitable for individual
system design, there is a trade-off between engineering
analysis, real-time performance and continuous operation.
These systems lack the feedback from integrated plant
operations. Even with the latest advances in computer
technology, the computational fidelity of steady state models
cannot faithfully duplicate real-time performance across the
entire range of plant operations. Real-time models must
return accurate results through the full range of system
operations. However, steady state codes generally are not
numerically robust under all operating conditions to be able
to do this.
Dynamic, high fidelity simulation gives owners/operators
the ability to holistically view a plants operations in real-time.
This modelling shows the integration and interaction between
the plants piping, equipment and control system, and it
reproduces the integrated plant dynamic performance for a
wide range of start-up, steady state and shut-down
operations.
Having the model work as an integrated system allows
engineers and operators to see primary, secondary and
tertiary effects. These model developments have been
spurred by users need to defend the validity of simulators
responses to local, state and federal regulators, and to the
control system vendors that use the simulators to validate
their products.
When built in conjunction with design data, this type of
simulator helps validate the interface design between
systems. The following questions can be answered:
Has the controls vendor faithfully implemented the
strategy and coded the system correctly?
Will the control strategy provide the desired results?

Table 1. Sample savings for a typical refinery/olefins plant
with revenue of US$ 200 million/year
Figure 3. GSE Systems JPro high-fidelity simulation

software modelling LNG gasification.
62 LNGINDUSTRY
MARCH 2014
Reduced start-up time (5 days)
US$ 2.7 million
Less downtime (3 days/year)
US$ 1.6 million
Increased operating efficiency (0.5%)
US$ 1 million
Will the operating procedures work in practical

application?
Will the plant behave as expected, especially the

secondary and tertiary effects that may arise from a plant
upset?
Are there better ways of displaying information to make

the plant operator controlling this particular process
more effective?
A different development
process
Using the simulator for V&V requires a different approach

than a conventional training simulator. Traditionally, all plant
design data is collected and used to build the simulator
models. V&V simulators require an iterative process of
building models where interim deliveries help the engineers
validate and adjust their design concept and the plant
model grows over time along with the design process. This
approach provides value early in the design/build process of
the plant.
Newer code developments have the computational
capability to allow simulators to preserve the simulation
fidelity and accuracy while running in real time. These tools
can run synchronised real-time simulation models for
full-scope balance-of-plant systems. Engineering grade
simulators solve systems of differential equations and
exchange results as feedback between the networks of the
multi-physics interactions. The codes are synchronised so
the exchange of calculation results and the code execution

happen according to the same timing as in the operating
plant.
The simulator must match the performance of the real
plant within certain tolerances, and that performance must
be repeatable. In real-time simulation the model must run
transients from real plant data and they must represent the
realistic performance at any given time.
Linking the dynamic real-time simulation models to the
plants DCS provides the best way to validate performance.
Traditional loop-back testing platforms used by many DCS
vendors do not provide a suitable level of integrated plant
performance data to yield accurate, integrated plant
response to an operators action or a plant malfunction.
Dynamic, high fidelity simulators are capable of predicting a
plants behavior in both normal and abnormal operating
conditions. In contrast, older training simulators were
designed by building code around the transmitters to
produce a desired response that the operator could see.
They relied heavily on plant performance data. When the
plant is still under construction, no data exists and the
simulator must reliably predict plant performance based
upon solid first principles modelling.
Human factors engineering
Design based on how humans naturally interact with

technology is called human factors engineering (HFE). It
is a more developed process of what is commonly called
ergonomics.
7th international Conference
Small Scale LNG, Norway

11 and 12 June 2014, Stavanger
This was the first global conference addressing the opportunities of the Small Scale LNG market.
Participate with more than 120 delegates from 15 nations.
The conference goal is to gather the players within the gas industry to discuss technology
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The conference 2014 will cover both commercial and technical topics, ensuring that all aspects
of this growing market will be addressed.
The conference is developed for companies who already operate in the small scale industry
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Tekna Teknisk-naturvitenskapelig forening
The simulator allows HFE to accurately test the

effectiveness of the user interface for the plant control
system. With the advent of DCS, more information about the
plant is available to the operator than ever before. How that
information is displayed, how various colours relate to plant
status, what information is always available to the operator
or shift supervisor are all critical to safe and efficient plant
performance. As operators respond to abnormal and
emergency events in real-time on the simulator, HFE can test
the effectiveness of the following:
The goal of the simulation-based V&V is to find problems

when they are least expensive to fix. Having a commissioning
team wait while a permissive or set-point problem prohibits
plant start-up is not only frustrating, but also extremely
expensive. Thus, the financial benefit of simulation is clear.
The complexity of modern LNG facilities dictates the
need for simulation for operator training. Purchasing the
simulator early in the plant design process and using it to
validate plant performance can shave days off plant start-up,
paying for the simulator that will also be used as the life
cycle training device.
Density of information.
References
Problem diagnosis and resolution.
1. Oil and gas industry employment rising fast, available

at http://www.energyglobal.com/news/exploration/articles/
Oil_and_gas_industry_employment_rising_quickly542.
aspx#.Us6FXWRdX88
Electronic procedures.
2. IEEE Standard for Software Verification and Validation

Plans, IEEE 1012-1986 and IEEE Guide for Software
Verification and Validation Plans, IEEE 1059-1993.
Location of information.
Information overload.
Alarm management.
Regulator comfort.
Employing HFE can reduce operator fatigue and the

chances of human error, thus reducing the risk of plant
upsets.
Looking forward
For today, simulation-based V&V presents an opportunity

for LNG companies to build or expand their facilities to meet
growing demand and maximise profitability through more
efficient designing, building and commissioning.
3. Guidelines for the Verification and Validation of Scientific

and Engineering Computer Programs for the Nuclear
Industry, ANSI/ANS-10.4-1987.
4. ASME Code and Standard V&V 30, Verification and
Validation in Computational Simulation of Nuclear
System Thermal Fluids Behavior, Footnotes 2 - 4 from
Stoots, C. M., et. al., Verification and Validation Strategy
for LWRS Tools, INL/EXT-12-27066, September 2012.
5. AIAA Guide for the Verification of and Validation of
Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations, AIAA
Standards G-077-1998e, from Stoots, C. M., et. al.,
Verification and Validation Strategy for LWRS Tools,
INL/EXT-12-27066, September 2012.
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64 LNGINDUSTRY
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