ME 242

Introduction, course details and evaluation policies

Ramsharan Rangarajan, rram@mecheng.iisc.ernet.in

Introduction

The field of continuum mechanics is concerned with modeling the behavior of continuous states of matter.
This includes studying the mechanics of solids as well as fluids. An interest in such modeling may stem from
an innate sense of curiosity, in trying to understand the physical world around us. There are not limits to
the questions we can ask. These can start from ones we may have first asked as a kid: why are there clouds
in the sky or why can we walk on ground but not on water? The need for models in mechanics is equally
evident in engineering applications. In such a context, we may ask why a steel rod breaks dierently when
twisted than when its ends are pulled apart, and what implications this has on the integrity of bridges.

1.1

The blurred boundary between solids and fluids

(a)

(b)

Figure 1: Whether a material behaves like a fluid or as a solid is a subjective question. The examples of
silly putty and pitch show that the answer depends on for instance, the time scale of the observation.
At the outset, we should recognize that the distinction between what we call solids and fluids is quite
subjective. What is considered a fluid depends on for instance, the loading conditions. For example, both
solids and liquids resist pressure loads, although to dierent extents. It is therefore not be possible to classify
an object as a solid or as a liquid by just inspecting a pressure-vs-volume chart. On the other hand, a solid
oers substantial resistance to shearing forces compared to a fluid. It requires little to no force to run your
hand over the surface of water in a pond; realizing similar deformations on the surface of a steel block
requires forces that are many orders of magnitude larger.
The behavior of an object depends on not just the nature of the load, but also the magnitude. When
small loads are imposed on a steel block, it deforms to a small extent and then recovers its original shape
when unloaded. But when the loads are sufficiently large, the material may start to flow like a fluid and
1

fails to recover its shape when unloaded. Similarly, the behavior of steel depends on temperature. Beyond
its melting point, steel begins to flow like a fluid.
Classifying material behavior as being solid-like or fluid-like depends on the time scale of the experiment
as well. Silly putty for example, flows like a fluid when left on a table top but bounces like a ball when
dropped on the ground. The key distinction between the two loading scenarios, which is essentially gravity,
is the rate at which the loads are imposed. You may have heard about the famous pitch drop experiment
seeking to demonstrate that some solids such as bitumen, are in fact fluids with extremely high viscosity. One
such experiment was started in 1927 in Australia. A hot sample of pitch was sealed in a funnel and allowed
to cool down for about three years following which the tip of the funnel was cut open. The experiment is
still active, and over a period of about eight decades, eight drops of pitch have fallen. The viscosity of pitch
is estimated to be larger than that of water by a factor of about 1011 .
The above discussion hopefully highlights the fact that the distinction between studies in solid and
fluid mechanics is blurred at best. Distinctions truly emerge when defining material models for specific
parameter ranges. The nature of these models and the type of tests required to infer/validate/calibrate
them are sufficiently dierent to warrant studying the mechanics of fluids and solids as separate subjects.
For example, a stress-strain relationship has been observed to serve as a good model for describing the
behavior of solids. Parameters in such models can be determined using uniaxial tension tests performed
with universal testing machines. On the other hand, an equation of state relating pressure, volume and
temperature is commonly required for modeling the behavior of gases. A relationship between stresses and
strain rates works well for describing fluid behavior.

Why study solid mechanics

For a large part of this course in fact, we will not have to distinguish between solids, liquids or gases.
We will instead focus on learning the tools (concepts) required to describe the motion of objects. We will
postulate certain conservation laws, again independently of the state of matter. We will finally arrive at a
bifurcation point, where it is necessary to introduce a constitutive relation. Here, we will choose models
specific to describing the behavior of solids. The qualitative nature of the resulting problems and their
solution methods are quite dierent than the problems that result from studying fluids. We will look at a
small but important collection of special problems and learn useful techniques through them.
Here is a sampling of some of the issues that can be addressed using solid mechanics concepts (from J.
Rices notes on Solid Mechanics):
Geological questions: How do flows develop in the earths mantle and cause continents to move and
ocean floors to slowly subduct beneath them? How do mountains form? What processes take place
along a fault during an earthquake, and how do the resulting disturbances propagate through the earth
as seismic waves, and shake, and perhaps collapse, buildings and bridges? How do landslides occur?
How does a structure on a clay soil settle with time, and what is the maximum bearing pressure which
the footing of a building can exert on a soil or rock foundation without rupturing it?
Structural engineering: What materials do we choose, and how do we proportion and shape them and
control their loading, to make safe, reliable, durable and economical structures, whether airframes,
bridges, ships, buildings, chairs, artificial heart valves, or computer chips, and to make machinery such
as jet engines, pumps, bicycles, and the like?
Automotive technologies: How do vehicles (cars, planes, ships) respond by vibration to the irregularity
of surfaces or media along which they move, and how are vibrations controlled for comfort, noise reduction and safety against fatigue failure? How rapidly does a crack grow in a cyclically loaded structure,
whether a bridge, engine, or airplane wing or fuselage, and when will it propagate catastrophically?
How do we control the deformability of structures during impact so as to design crash worthiness into
vehicles?
Manufacturing processes: How do we form the materials and products of our technological civilization,
e.g., by extruding metals or polymers through dies, rolling material into sheets, punching out complex
shapes, etc.?
2

 Material behavior: By what microscopic processes do plastic and creep strains occur in poly-crystals?
How can we fashion dierent materials together, like in fiber reinforced composites, to achieve combinations of stiness and strength needed in applications?
Biomechanics: How does the human skull respond to impact in an accident? How do heart muscles
control the pumping of blood in the human body, and what goes wrong when an aneurysm develops?
Each of the above mentioned areas is a research topic in itself; pursuing them is a full time endevor. The
goal of this course is to learn some of the basics required to

Some historical context

The ideas that we will be introduced to over the next couple of months is the result of centuries of eort. For
example, rifling through some of the active areas in solid mechanics will reveal armor design as a challenging
problem. This problem is hardly new it has been around ever since civilizations have been fighting wars.
The way blacksmiths designed weapons in the 15th century made no use of the concepts of forces, much less
stress-strain curves. Forging was an art. Today, it is engineering.
We mention a few significant contributions in the following list. This account should not be mistaken as
either historically accurate or exhaustive. It helps to comprehend the time scale over which this subject has
evolved.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is known to have worked on measuring the tensile strength of wires.
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) worked on understanding fractures in rods and is said to have concluded
that the breaking load was independent of the length of the rod and proportional to the area of the
cross section. This hints at the birth of the idea of stress.
Issac Newton (1642-1727) stated the laws of motion in the late 17th century.
Robert Hooke (1635-1703) discovered that for many materials, the displacement under a load was
proportion to the force exerted, thus establishing the notion of linear elasticity.
James Bernoulli (1654-1705) proposed describing deformations using forces per unit area as a function
of elongation per unit length. This relationship is what is traced by a stress-strain curve.
Leonard Euler (1707-1783) proposed a linear relationship between stress and strain; we call the coefficient of proportionality as the Youngs modulus. One of the most common beam theories we use today
is due to Euler and James Bernoulli.
The Coulomb model in plasticity is named after Charles Coulomb (1736-1806), who undertook studies
on stresses and failure in solids.
Augustin Cauchy (1789-1857) formalized the notion of stress as a tensor, that we will learn about soon.
Jumping ahead by a few decades, thin shell theories were developed and understood through contributions by A.E.Love (1863-1940), Horace Lamb (1849-1934), Warner Koiter (1914-1997), and Viktor
Novozholiv (1892-1970) to name a few.
Claude Navier (1785-1836) developed a theory of elasticity around the same time as Cauchy.
George Green (1793-1841) considered the question of the number of independent elastic modulii in
linear elasticity, a question that we will visit in a few weeks time.
William Thompson (1824-1907), also known as Lord Kelvin, introduced thermodynamic considerations
in elasticity.
A course on linear elasticity includes studying a number of special problems based on the work of
Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894, contact problems), Kelvin (solutions to problems with concentrated loads
in infinite media), Joseph Boussinesq (1842-1929) and Cerrutis solutions to problems with concentrated
loads on half-spaces.
3

 George Green, Gabrio Piola (1794-1850), Gustav Kirchho (1824-1887), Ronald Rivlin (1915-2005)
and other contributed to our understanding of finite elasticity.
In the field of wave propagation, George Stokes (1819-1903) and other demonstrated the existence of
body waves. Surface waves also exist, as shown by Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919) and Love. Such waves are
crucial in our understanding of seismic phenomena and are routinely used in nondestructive inspection
with ultrasound.
In the field of fracture mechanics, Gustav Kirsch (1841-1901) derived the stress distribution around a
circular hole. Charles Inglis (1875-1952) extended this to elliptical holes, allowing us to examine what
happens in the limiting case of a crack. Alan Griffith (1893-1963) introduced a simple yet elegant basis
for examining crack propagation using energetic arguments. George Irwin (1907-1998) established the
idea of stress intensity factors governing fracture.
Like fracture, dislocations represent an important class of defects in solids. Vita Volterra (18601940) analyzed the elastic problem in the presence of a dislocation. Georey Taylor (1886-1975) and
Egan Orowan (1902-1989) helped understand the role of dislocations in explaining ductile behavior in
crystalline materials. Frank Nabarro (1916-2006) analyzed the motion of dislocations.
We are familiar with Mises and Tresca yield criteria from studying strength of materials. These criteria
get their names from Henri Tresca (1814-1885) and Richard von Mises (1883-1953).
In the interest of time and space, we will not delve longer on the history of the subject. There are of
course many glaring omissions. We have not mentioned, for instance, Saint Venant, Wilhem Weber, Prandtl
Reuss, Daniel Drucker, William Prager, Rodney Hill, Cliord Truesdell, Walter Noll or Stephen Timoshenko.
Looking up some of these eminent researchers immediately reveals that their study unified the understanding in seeming disparate fields/subjects. Many of the names mentioned above feature prominently in
mathematics, fluid mechanics and physics. We will learn a small fraction of the ideas they have introduced,
at least in the context of solid mechanics. Nevertheless, we should realize that these concepts are applicable
in a much wider context.

Outline for the first half (Aug-Sep)

1. Tensors
(i) Indicial notation: Rules, operations on vectors, dot products, cross products, kronecker delta, permutation symbol, "
identities.
(ii) Tensors as linear transformations on vector spaces, representation in a basis.
(iii) Operations on second order tensors: equality, sum, multiplication by a scalar, product, transpose,
trace, symmetry.
(iv) Change of basis: vectors, second order tensors.
(v) Tensor algebra: dyadic product, contraction
(vi) Tensor calculus: directional derivatives, gradient of a vector field, gradient of a tensor field
2. Description of deformations
(i) The continuum hypothesis, one-dimensional continuum.
(ii) Deformation mappings: examples (stretching, shear, affine), admissible deformations, inverse mappings.
(iii) Description of motion: Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions, velocities and accelerations, material
time derivatives.
(iv) Finite rotations: geometric interpretation, representation, Hodge-star operator, the group SO(3),
composition of rotations, rigid body motions.
3. Analysis of local deformation
(i) Deformation gradient
(ii) Polar decomposition
(iii) Metric changes: Cauchy-Green tensor
(iv) Change on lengths
(v) Change in angles
(vi) Change in areas
(vii) Change in volumes
(viii) Strain tensors: Green-Lagrange, Left Cauchy-Green, Euler-Almansi tensors
4. More tensor calculus
(i) Divergence, divergence theorem for vectors and tensors, interpretation, integration by parts
(ii) Alternate coordinate systems (polar and spherical coordinates), dierential operators in generalized
coordinates.
(iii) Compatibility conditions
5. Stress tensor
(i) Traction vector
(ii) Existence of stress tensor
(iii) Cauchy tetrahedron theorem
(iv) Stress tensors: first and second Piola-Kirchho, Cauchy and Kirchho stresses.
6. Reynolds transport theorem: time derivative of the Jacobian, fluxes, densities and interpretation
7. Mass balance

(i) Concept of mass density

(ii) Density in reference and deformed configurations
(iii) Principle of conservation of mass
(iv) Integral forms in Lagrangian/Eulerian representations, interpretation.
(v) Local forms in Lagrangian/Eulerian representations, interpretation.
8. Linear momentum balance
(i) Definition of linear momentum
(ii) Principle of balance of linear momentum
(iii) Integral and local forms
9. Angular momentum balance
(i) Why an independent principle?
(ii) Integral and local forms
(iii) Symmetry of the stress tensor
10. Formulation of a boundary value problem in elasticity
(i) Constitutive relationships, strain energy density
(ii) Boundary value problems
11. Linearization of kinematic quantities
(i) Motivation: linearization of functions
(ii) Definition of linearization of tensors
(iii) Linearization of kinematic quantities: deformation gradient, right Cauchy-Green tensor, GreenLagrange strain, Jacobian
(iv) Infinitesimal metric changes
(v) Geometric interpretation of linearization of functions
(vi) If time permits: rates of deformations/metric changes, relationship with linearization
12. Linear elasticity
(i) Strain energy density
(ii) Linear elastic constitutive laws
(iii) Material symmetries, isotropic linear elasticity
(iv) Linearized elasticity: boundary value problems
(v) Uniqueness of solutions

Outline for the second half (Oct-Nov)

The following topics will be covered by Prof. R. Narasimhan:
1. 2D Plane elasticity problems in rectangular coordinates
(i) Plane strain and plane stress conditions
(ii) Compatibility equations for plane problems
(iii) Airys stress function in Cartesian coordinates
(iv) Solution of beam problems
(v) Fourier series methods for elastic half-space problems
6

2. 2D elasticity problems in polar coordinates

(i) Governing equations in polar coordinates
(ii) Airys stress functions in polar coordinates
(iii) Stress distributions symmetric about an axis
(iv) Application: thick cylinder subjected to an internal pressure
(v) Application: curved bars
(vi) Application: Stress concentration at a hole
(vii) Application: Point load on a half-space
3. Energy methods
(i) Clapeyrons theorem
(ii) Strain energy of elastic bodies
(iii) Betti-Rayleigh Reciprocal theorem
(iv) Introduction to calculus of variations
(v) Principle of virtual work
(vi) Theorem of minimum potential energy
(vii) Rayleigh-Ritz method

Course policies

1. Instructors: Dr. Ramsharan Rangarajan and Prof. R. Narasimhan. Each instructor will roughly teach
one half of the course content.
2. Class location and timing: M-W-F from 12:00-1:00pm unless announced otherwise
3. Office hours: To be decided.
4. Communication: The course is hosted at https://piazza.com/iisc.ernet.in/fall2016/me242. Please create a login as a student on piazza.com as soon as possible. Once you are logged in, you will have to
register for ME 242 Solid Mechanics. We will use this portal for all course related materials, including
lecture notes, homework sets, homework solutions, discussions on course content (questions and answers).
In this way, any question you may have will benefit the entire class and any answer you post will be
visible to everyone.
Ramsharan has an open door policy, please stop by, preferably during office hours, if you have any
questions regarding the course materials or if you find a homework problem difficult. You are encouraged
to post your questions on piazza so that either me, Kunal, or one of your classmates will be able to help.
You are also strongly encouraged to answer questions that your classmates have raised.
5. Prerequisites: Basic linear algebra, calculus and strength of materials.
6. Textbook: There is no official textbook for the class. However, you are encouraged to follow the course
content in the following texts:
(i) Lai, Rubin and Krempl, Introduction to continuum mechanics. Excellent introductory text, with
lots of examples and exercises.
(ii) Gurtin, Fried, Anand, The mechanics and thermodynamics of continua. This book is divided into
multiple parts, and gets progressively more advanced. We will roughly cover parts 1-4. The notation
used is slightly dierent from what we will adopt. Rigorous definitions/derivations and short bitesized topics make this very readable.
(iii) L.S. Srinath. Advanced solid mechanics.
(iv) Shames and Dym, Solid Mechanics: A variational approach. An excellent text introducing energy
methods in solid mechanics. Especially recommended for the later half of the class.
(v) Y.C. Fung. Foundations of solid mechanics.
(vi) I.S. Sokolniko. Mathematical theory of elasticity.
(vii) Some classics:
Timoshenko and Goodier, Theory of elasticity.
Malvern, Introduction to the mechanics of a continuous medium.
Marsden and Hughes, Mathematical elasticity.
7. Class notes: Lecture notes for each class will be available under the resources section on the course
portal. These notes are work in progress; please report any errors/typos to help improve them.
8. Announcements: Only through piazza for the Aug-Sep session.
9. Homework assignments: Unless explicitly mentioned otherwise, always due on Fridays at the beginning
of class. There will be no credit for late turn-ins unless explicit permission is sought beforehand.
Collaboration in assignments between students is permitted only towards discussing the statement and
the solution of a problem. The solution of each homework problem is an individual task and should be
written independently by each student. Failure to honor this rule will result in the homework assignment
receiving a zero score.
Please turn in neat and legible assignments on clean sheets of paper. Please be as concise as possible, so
that your clarity in solving the problem is reflected in your solution. Unnecessarily tedious/long answers
are discouraged; I cannot emphasize this point enough.
8

In completing a homework assignment, make sure to clearly outline your thought process through the
solution. This will enable us to assign you partial credit for an otherwise incorrect solution.
10. Homework grading policy: Each item of a problem in the assignment will be graded as follows:
100%: perfect

75%: no conceptual mistakes, only algebraic ones

50%: some conceptual mistakes, but a reasonable attempt to solve the problem
25%: you honestly tried, but your solution is completely incorrect.
0%: did not attempt.

11. Assessment: The homeworks set for the first half of the course (Aug-Sep) will contribute to 10% of your
grade.
There will be one in-class mid-term exam towards the middle of the semster. The exact date and time
will be announced soon. The mid-term will contribute to 25% of your final grade.
There will be two in-class quizzes, one each for the first and second half of the class. The first quiz will
contribute to 5%, and second quiz to 10% of your final grade. The dates for quizzes will be announced.
The quizzes will be based on homework problems.
The end semester exam will contribute to 50% of your grade. The date and time of the exam is fixed by
the institute.
Please ensure that you are present all quizzes, the mid-term and the final exam. In case of a conflict with
an alternate course, please approach the instructor as soon as possible. The date of the final exam cannot
be changed as it is set by the institute.
Homeworks + Quiz 1(Aug-Sep): 10%. There will be roughly 8 homeworks. The 10% contribution
will be computed as the mean of 10 points for HWs and 10 points for quiz 1.
Mid term: 20%
Quiz 2: 10%

End term: 50%

12. Academic integrity: We will strictly adhere to the rules listed under the section in academic integrity in
the student handbook. These rules can be found under the general resources section of the course webpage.
Please do not compel us to report you for plagiarism. This issue is taken very seriously at an academic
institution such as ours. If you are having trouble with any of the course content, seek help from the
instructors, the TA or your classmates.
13. Miscellaneous: Please turn o cell phones, laptops, etc. during class. If you are late to class, quietly
find a seat without distracting your classmates. If you expect to be late by more than ten minutes or
have to leave earlier then ten minutes before the class concludes, please skip the lecture.

ME 242
Indicial notation
Ramsharan Rangarajan, rram@mecheng.iisc.ernet.in
Vectors and tensors are everywhere in mechanics. For example, displacements and forces are vectors
while strains and stresses are tensors. We are familiar with vectors from linear algebra; soon we will learn
about related entities called tensors. We will then exercise basic algebraic and dierential operations using
tensors so that we can start using these in describing the motion of continuous bodies. For this, we will start
with an overview of indicial notation.

Need for indicial notation

All balance principles in mechanics should be stated in coordinate-free form, so that it is evident that these
principles do not rely on the choice of a specific coordinate system. For example, stating the principle of
conservation of momentum should not rely on a Cartesian or Polar coordinate system. For example, the
statement of linear momentum balance for a body at quasistatic equilibrium reads as
div( ) + f = 0

(1)

where is a measure of stress and f represents the distrbution of body forces per unit mass. Notice that we
have not chosen a Cartesian or polar coordinate system in the statement. Restating the balance in either
coordinate system provides no more or no less information than eq. (1).
For solving problems however, we will inevitably choose a coordinate system to write down balance and
constitutive principles. To evaluate equilibrium of a rectangular block for example, we may choose a Caretsian
coordinate system while for a spherical body, we may choose a spherical coordinate system. We will then deal
with components of the stresses and forces in the respective coordinate systems, namely ( xx , xy , . . .) and
(fx , fy , fz ) in Cartesian coordinates and ( rr , r , . . .) and (fr , f , f ) in spherical coordinates. It is evident
therefore, that we will always have reason to deal with components of displacement/strain/stress/force fields
and that we will have to perform algebraic and dierential operations over them. Indicial notation will
greatly simplify such manipulations.
For the purpose of introducing index manipulations, it suffices to think about matrices. In the following,
we will understand lists of the form (a1 , a2 , . . .) to be a row/column matrix. Similarly, we will consider lists
of the form (T11 , T12 , . . .) to be components of a matrix. Hence T23 represents the entry in the 2nd row and
3rd column of a matrix T . Later on, we will reconcile the relationship between such matrices and components
of vectors/tensors in a basis.
Our motivation is the fact that will frequently have to compute sums of the form
a1 x1 + + an xn =

n
X

ai xi

i=1

to evaluate the dot product of two vectors for instance, or use properties of the form
n X
n
X
i=1 j=1

a i b i c j d j = a 1 b 1 c 1 d 1 + a 1 b1 c 2 d 2 + + a n b n c n d n
=

n X
n
X

a i bi c j d j

j=1 i=1

n
X
i=1

a i bi

!0
@
1

n
X
j=1

Commutativity
1

c j dj A

Distributivity.

Such properties are often difficult to use when writing down long and tedious expansions with many components and indices floating around. The goal of indicial notation is to come upP
with a set of rules that help
in simplifying expressions. In particular, these rules help up get rid of the without introducing any
ambiguity in the notation.

1.1

Rules

1. Dummy indices: An index appearing exactly twice in a term is called a dummy index, and indicates
summation over the index. Usually, the range of the index is evident from the context, for instance
i = 1, 2, 3 when evaluating dot products of vectors in Euclidean space.
Examples:
(a) ai xi stands for the

Pn

i=1

ai xi = a1 x1 + + an xn .

(b) x = xi ei stands for x = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 , where x and ei are vectors.

Pn Pn
(c) ai bi cj dj stands for i=1 j=1 ai bi cj dj . Notice that since there are two dummy indices, there are two
sums.
2. A dummy index can be replaced by another index.
Pn
Pn
For example, i=1 ai xi = ai xi = aj xj = j=1 aj xj . The dummy index is then set to be contracted.

3. Free indices: An index appearing exactly once in each term in an expression is called a free index. The
expression is then assumed to be valid for each value of the free index.
Examples:
(a) In bi = Mij aj , j is a dummy index while i is a free index. Hence the index i has to appear exactly once
in each term of the equation. We understand implicitly that the equation holds for each permissible
value of the index i, namely, i = 1, 2 and 3. Each value of i yields an equation.
(b) In bi = fi aj bj + ei c` r` , ` and j are dummy indices while i is a free index.
(c) In bi = 0, i is the free index and the equation is assumed to mean b1 = b2 = b3 = 0.
More examples:
1. ai bi + ci di = a1 b1 + c1 d1 + a2 b2 + c2 d2 a3 b3 + c3 d3 .
2. ai bj cj = ai bk ck = ai (b1 c1 + b2 c2 + b3 c3 ), which is valid for each i = 1, 2, 3.
3. ai = bj is incorrect because the free index i does not appear on the right while the free index j does
not appear on the left.
4. ai bi cj dj = cj dj ai bi = ai bi (ck dk ) = (aj bj )(ci di ) = (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a2 b2 )(c1 d1 + c2 d2 + c3 d3 ). Observe that
by dropping the summation signs, the commutativity and distributivity properties are much easier to
identify.
5. Substitution: Suppose that ai = Sij bj and bi = Tij cj , then
ai = Sij bj = Sij (Tjk ck ) = Sij Tjk ck .
6. Multiplication: If p = ai bi and q = ci di , then pq = ai bi cj dj . In particular, pq 6= ai bi ci di , where the
righthand side is also syntactically incorrect since the index i is repeated four times.
It takes some practice for indicial notation to become more familiar, but it is a very useful tool. When
in doubt about whether an operation can be performed in indicial notation, always resort back to writing
down the sums explicitly to check.

1.2

Operations on vectors

We can now review how standard operations on vectors are performed using indicial notation.
2

1.2.1

The Kronecker-Delta

The Kronecker-delta symbol is definded as

ij

1
0

if i = j,
otherwise,

or in matrix notation as
2

Clearly, the matrix representation of

in manipulations of the form

(i)

ii

11

22

(ii)

im Tmj

ij .

(iii)

im mj

ij .

(iv)

im mn nj

ij

33

0
1
0

1j a1

2j a2

3
0
05 .
1

is simply the identity matrix. The Kronecker-delta is mainly useful

ij ai

since the only value of

Examples:

1
= 40
0

3j a3

= aj ,

that is dierent than zero is when j = 1.

= 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.

ij .

(v) Factoring: Consider Tij nj

ni = 0 in which i is the free index. We can factor it using

as
(2)

1.2.2

Dot product

Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } denote an orthonormal basis. Then we have

ei ej =

ij .

For a pair of vectors x = xi ei and y = yi ei , we have

x y = (xi ei )(yj ej )

= (xi yj ) (ei ej )
= x i yj

ij

= x i yi ,
and we have recovered the familar formula for the scalar product in terms of components in an orthonormal
basis.
1.2.3

The permutation symbol

The permutation symbol is represented by ijk as is defined as

8
>
<+1 if (i, j, k) is an even permutation of (1, 2, 3),
ijk =
1 if (i, j, k) is an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3), .
>
:
0
otherwise
3

(3)

First, let us recall that an even permutation of (1, 2, 3) is a rearrangement of entries in cyclic order. Hence
(1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 2), (2, 3, 1) are even permutation of (1, 2, 3). In particular, observe that the triple (2, 3, 1) can
be converted into (1, 2, 3) with an even number of element swaps:
(2, 3, 1)

swap 3 and 1

7!

(2, 1, 3)

swap 2 and 1

7!

(1, 2, 3).

Hence the qualifying adjective even in the name. On the other hand, an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3) is an
arrangement of entries that requires an odd number of element swaps to recover the triplet (1, 2, 3). Hence
(2, 1, 3), (3, 2, 1) and (1, 3, 2) are odd permutations of (1, 2, 3).
Based on the definition of the permutation symbol, we have
123 = 312 = 231 = 1,
and 213 = 321 = 132 =

1.

If (i, j, k) is neither an even nor an odd permutation of (1, 2, 3), observe that at least one pair of indices
should be equal. Hence
112 = = 121 = 211 = 131 = . . . = 0.
In general, the definition of implies that
ijk =
1.2.4

jik = kij

and

iik = 0.

Cross products

It is not immediately clear why we have manufactured a definition for the permutation symbol. The most
common usage for it is in computing cross products, following the property:
ei ej = ijk ek .
In fact, we could have as well defined ijk based on the relation above. Nevertheless, eq. (3) is more general
and applies to computations with vectors in higher dimensions.
Consider the pair of vectors x = xi ei and y = yi ei . We can now compute their cross product as
x y = (xi ei ) (yj ej )
= (xi yj )ei ej
= ijk xi yj ek .

Consder the case when x and y are parallel. Then we know x = y for some scalar constant . We expect
that x y = 0. Let us verify this to be the case. Noting that yi = xi , we have
x y = ijk xi yj ek

= ijk xi ( xj )ek
= ijk xi xj ek
= jik xj xi ek
=

ijk xj xi ek

swapping dummy indices i, j

property of ,

from where we conclude that ijk xi xj ek = 0 and in turn that x y = 0.

1.3

identity

The definitions of the kronecker and permutation symbols implies a very useful property:
ijk ipq =

jp kq

jq kp .

(4)

Notice that i is the dummy index while j, k, p and q are free indices. The order of the free and dummy
indices is important.
The easiest way to prove eq. (4) is by explicit expansion. This will be left as an exercise for you. Note
that this is not as tedious as it may seem at first, only a small number of non-zero terms have to be computed
thanks to the fact that any repeated indices in ijk makes its value zero.
Lets us exercise eq. (4) with an example. Let a = ai ei , b = bi ei and c = ci ei be given vectors. We are
interested in computing a b c. Note that it is not necessary to indicate the order of operations since the
cross product is associative. We have
a b c = a (b c)

= ijk ai (b c)j ek

= ijk jmn ai bm cn ek
= (jki jmn )(ai bm cn )ek
=(

km in

=(

km in ai bm cn

= (an bk cn

kn im )(ai bm cn )ek

a m b m c k ) ek

= (an cn )bk ek
= (a c)b

kn im ai bm cn ) ek

(am bm )ck ek

(a b)c.

ME 242: Homework 1
Due in class on Friday, August 12, 2016.
Ramsharan Rangarajan
1. Given

evaluate
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

1
S = 40
3

0
1
5

3
2
25
3

2 3
4
and a = 455 ,
6

Sii
Sij Sij
Tk` = Sjk Sk`
am am
Smn am an
ijk Sij
vj = ijk ai ak

2. Let u, v, w 2 R3 . Using indicial notation, demonstrate that

(u v)2 + |u v|2 = |u|2 |v|2 .

(1a)

u (v w) + v (w u) + w (u v) = 0.

(1b)

Interpret eq. (1a) either in general or using specific examples.

3. The relationship between the second Piola-Kirchho stress T and the Green-Lagrange strain E in the
Saint-Venant Kirchho model is given by
Tij = 2Eij + Ekk

ij .

This is perhaps the simplest constitutive relationship (i.e., a hypothesis relating stress and strain) for
finite elasticity. We will learn these models soon. For now, show that the strain
W ,

1
show
Tij Eij = Eij Eij + (Ekk )2 .
2
2

We will see that W is called the strain energy density. Also show that
show

P , Tij Tij = 42 Eij Eij + (Ekk )2 (4 + 3

).

4. Using the properties of the permutation symbol,

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Compute: ij ij
Compute: ijk ijk .
Compute: ijk ai ak .
If T is a 3 3 matrix, compute ( ip jq
iq jp )(Tpq + Tqp ).
Show: if T is a 3x3 matrix such that ijk Tjk = 0, then T is symmetric.
Compute: ij ijk .
Compute: i`m j`m